ISSN 1738-5997 (Print) • ISSN 2092-9935 (Online)

Review Electrolyte Blood Press 12:1-6, 2014

http://dx.doi.org/10.5049/EBP.2014.12.1.1

Uric Acid Puzzle: Dual Role as Anti-oxidantand

Pro-oxidant

Duk-Hee Kang, M.D.1,2 and Hyperuricemia is known to be associated with the presence of cardiovascular
and metabolic syndrome and with the development of incipient kidney disease
Sung-Kyu Ha, M.D.3
1 and an accelerated renal progression. However, an elevated uric acid level was
Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal not generally regarded as a true etiology or mediator, but an indicator of these
Medicine, 2Ewha Medical Research Center, diseases. Uric acid has recently regained the clinical interest and popularity
Ewha Womans University School of Medicine, based on emerging data suggesting the causative role of hyperuricemia in car-
3
Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal diovascular and renal disease. Experimental data demonstrates oxidative stress
Medicine, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Seoul, is one of the earliest phenomena observed in vascular, renal, liver cells and
Korea adipocytes exposed to uric acid. Since uric acid is one of the major antioxidants
of plasma acting as a free radical scavenger and a chelator of transitional metal
ion, uric acid-induced oxidative stress seems paradoxical. Data regarding the
Received: June 16, 2014 clinical implication of hyperuricemia is even more confusing, which defines hy-
Accepted: June 22, 2014 peruricemia as a useless parameter to be eliminated from routine follow-up or
Corresponding Author: Duk-Hee Kang, M.D., Ph.D. a major risk factor to be therapeutic target. With a review of experimental and
Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal epidemiologic data, the presence of molecular switch to regulate the role of
Medicine, Ewha Womans University School of uric acid as anti- or pro-oxidant in different compartment of our body is sug-
Medicine, 911 Mok-dong Yangcheon-Ku, Seoul gested, which may shed light on understanding the paradoxical role of uric acid
158-710, Korea and solving the “uric acid debate”.
Tel: +82-2-2650-2870, Fax: +82-2-2655-2076
E-mail: dhkang@ewha.ac.kr Key Words: Uric acid, Oxidative stress, Anti-oxidant

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/)
which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

glomerular filtration rate in diverse spectrum of pop-

Introduction ulation from healthy participants with normal kidney
3-8)
function to normoalbuminuric diabetics . Higher uric
An association of elevated serum uric acid with hyper- acid levels were associated with subsequent worsening of
tension, cardiovascular, renal and metabolic disease has kidney function after adjustment for theorized confounders
th
been reported throughout the 20 century after the first such as body mass index, blood pressure and urine albu-
6,7,9)
description regarding high prevalence of hypertension in min-creatinine ratio . Many epidemiologic studies de-
1)
gout patients in the 1870’s . A recent meta-analysis re- monstrated uric acid level as a major predictor for the
3-8)
veals that a 1 mg/dL increase in serum uric acid level is development of incident kidney disease .
associated with a significant increase of incident hyper- Since a simple association based on epidemiologic or
tension (relative risk 1.13, 95% confidence interval 1.06 observational studies did not support the role of hyper-
2)
to 1.20) after adjusting for confounding risk factors . uricemia as a predictor or causative factor in the develop-
Indeed, an elevated serum uric acid is currently the most ment of cardiovascular and renal disease, the “uric acid
reliable predictor for the development of hypertension. debate” has been going on for decades. This debate is
There is also a solid data supporting the role of serum generated by two major concerns, an absence of random-
uric acid as a determinant of the change in estimated ized controlled study using uric acid-lowering therapy in

Copyright © 2014 The Korean Society of Electrolyte Metabolism

2 Duk-Hee Kang and Sung-Kyu Ha • Uric Acid Puzzle: Dual Role as Anti-oxidantand Pro-oxidant

a large population and a lack of mechanisms by which

uric acid imposes a detrimental effect on individual organ
system. Randomized controlled studies to examine the
etiologic role of hyperuricemia on the progression of car-
diovascular, renal and metabolic diseases are now on-going
or recruiting the participants, which will provide the an-
swer to clinical implication of hyperuricemia in near future.
In this review, potential mechanism of uric acid-related
complications in cardiovascular, renal and metabolic dis-
eases will be discussed with a special emphasis on uric
acid-induced oxidative stress. According to a hypothesis
Fig. 1. Production & Metabolism of Uric Acid. XO; xanthine oxi-
by Ames et al, the silencing of uricase gene with an in- dase, XDH; xanthine dehydrogenase, NAD; nicotinamice-adenine
crease in serum uric acid level in humans provided an dinucleotide, O2; superoxide.
10)
evolutionary advantage for our ancestors . This hypoth-
esis is based on the results ofin-vitro experiment demon- thine dehydrogenase generates the reduced form of nic-
strating uric acid as a powerful scavenger of free radical. otinamide-adenine dinucleotide (Fig. 1). Both exogenous
On the other hand, many epidemiologic studies clearly (present in fatty meat, organ meats, and seafood) and
show an association of hyperuricemia and clinical con- endogenous purines are major sources of uric acid in
ditions described above. The dual role of uric acid as humans. Approximately two thirds of total body urate
an anti-oxidant and pro-oxidant which can be determined is produced endogenously while the remaining one third
by specific factors and the interrelation among factors, is originated from dietary purines.
may explain the controversy regarding the role of uric The primary site of excretion of uric acid is the kidney.
acid, however there is no clear explanation for this uric The normal urinary urate excretion is in the range of
acid paradox. 250 to 750 mg per day, approximately 70% of the daily
13)
urate production . Although urate (the form of uric acid
What makesserum uric acid elevated ? at blood pH of 7.4) is freely filtered in the glomerulus,
there is evidence that both reabsorption and secretion
Uric acid is produced from metabolic conversion of occur in the proximal tubule, and as a consequence the
either dietary or endogenous purines, primarily in the fractional urate excretion is only 8% to 10% in the nor-
liver, muscle, and intestine. The immediate precursor of mal adult. Some adaptation occurs with renal disease, in
uric acid is xanthine, which is degraded into uric acid by which the fractional excretion of urate will increase to
xanthine oxidoreductase. Xanthine oxidoreductase may the 10% to 20%. The remainder of uric acid excretion
attain two inter-convertible forms, xanthine dehydrogen- occurs through the gut, where uric acid is degraded by
11)
ase or xanthine oxidase . Most xanthine oxidoreductase uricolytic bacteria. Ideas of the handling of uric acid by
is in the xanthine dehydrogenase form in vivo, which the kidney have changed greatly over the past few deca-
is transformed into xanthine oxidase by irreversible pro- des, with the identification, characterization, and iso-
teolytic cleavage or reversible oxidation in specific envi- lation of transporters and channels mainly or exclusively
12) 14,15)
ronment including hypoxia . Xanthine oxidase uses mo- restricted to urate transport .
lecular oxygen as electron acceptor and generates super- The serum urate concentration reflects the balance be-
oxide anion and other reactive oxygen species as by-prod- tween urate production and elimination. Hyperuricemia
ucts in the process of uric acid degradation whereas xan- has been arbitrarily defined as >7.0 mg/dL in men and

Copyright © 2014 The Korean Society of Electrolyte Metabolism

 Electrolyte Blood Press 12:1-6, 2014 • Http://Dx.Doi.Org/10.5049/Ebp.2014.12.1.1 3

>6.5 mg/dL in women. “Normal” serum uric acid levels oxynitrite-induced protein nitrosylation, lipid and pro-
in the population appear to be rising throughout the last tein peroxidation and an inactivation of tetrahydrobiop-
century, likely as a consequence of changes in diet, and terin, which results in scavenging free radical and chelat-
mean levels in men in the United States are now in the ing transitional metal ions. Consistent with an intrinsic
16)
6.0 to 6.5 mg/dL range . Hyperuricemia may also result anti-oxidant activity, uric acid administration in healthy
29)
from diets high in purines, from ethanol, and from fruc- volunteers and athletes reduced ROS production . None-
tose. The effect of alcohol is in part related to increased theless, many experimental and human studies demon-
urate synthesis, which is due to enhanced turnover of strated the role of uric acid as pro-oxidants. Animals with
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during the conversion of hyperuricemia was reported to develop hypertension as-
acetate to acetyl-CoA as part of the metabolism of etha- sociated with an evidence for oxidative stress, and the
17) 26)
nol . In addition, acute alcohol consumption causes lac- hypertension was blocked by anti-oxidant treatment .
tate production, and because lactate is an antiuricosuric Experimental studies demonstrated an activation of ox-
agent, it will reduce renal urate excretion and exacerbate idative stress by uric acid in various cells.
hyperuricemia. Fructose (a simple sugar present in su-
crose, table sugar, high fructose corn syrup, honey, and 1. Vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells
fruits) can also induce a rapid rise in serum uric acid,
due in part to its rapid phosphorylation in hepatocytes Uric acid is already known to activate critical proin-
with the stimulation of adenosine monophosphate (AMP) flammatory pathways and stimulate cell proliferation in
18)
deaminase and ATP consumption . Chronic fructose vascular smooth muscle cells. In endothelial cells, uric
consumption also stimulates uric acid synthesis. It has acid decreases NO bioavailability and inhibits cell migra-
been proposed that the marked increase in fructose intake tion and proliferation, which are mediated in part by the
21,22)
may have a role in the rising levels of serum uric acid expression of C-reactive protein and oxidative stress .
and obesity worldwide
19-20)
. Uric acid may also be af- Uric acid significantly increased production of ROS begin-
fected by exercise, with moderate exercise reducing urate ning at 5 min, and uric acid-induced senescence and apop-
levels (probably by increasing renal blood flow) and severe tosis of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)
exercise causing a rise in uric acid (probably due to ATP were ameliorated by anti-oxidants, N-acetylcysteine or
consumption with adenosine and xanthine formation). tempol. Uric acid also decreased mitochondrial deoxy-
ribonucleic acid (DNA) contents and intracellular ATP as-
What happens first when cells are sociated with ROS production in human aortic endothe-
30)
exposed to uric acid ? lial cells . Anti-oxidant, apocynin, blocked uric acid-in-
duced alteration in ROS generation and mitochondrial
One of the earliest phenomena observed in uric acid- DNA content. Furthermore, the serum uric acid level cor-
21-26)
exposed cells is the generation of oxidative stress . related with the markers of oxidative stress in animal
30)
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is known to be associated model of hyperuricemia .
with local inflammation, an impairment of nitric oxide
(NO) generation, an activation of the renin-angiotensin 2. Renal tubular cells
system, insulin resistance and fat accumulation. Uric
acid-induced ROS production seems paradoxical since In cultured renal tubular cells, uric acid induced epi-
uric acid has generally been considered to be one of the thelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) which was blo-
important anti-oxidants that protect the cardiovascular cked by probenecid, an inhibitor of organic anion trans-
27,28) 24)
system from oxidative stress . Uric acid prevents per- porter . Anti-oxidants ameliorated uric acid-induced

Copyright © 2014 The Korean Society of Electrolyte Metabolism

4 Duk-Hee Kang and Sung-Kyu Ha • Uric Acid Puzzle: Dual Role as Anti-oxidantand Pro-oxidant

EMT and apoptosis of renal tubules. N-acetylcysteine in-

hibited E-cadherin degradation and the expression of What are the lessons from
24)
Snail , suggesting EMT by uric acid was mediated by epidemiologic studies ?
oxidative stress-driven inhibition of E-cadherin synthesis
as well as E-cadherin degradation. Many epidemiologic studies suggest that serum uric
acid is at best a very weak predictor of cardiovascular
3. Adipocytes disease after an adjustment of other risk factors in the
34,35)
general population . This is mainly due to a strong
Sautin et al. reported soluble uric acidper se stimulated correlation between serum uric acid level and other car-
an increase in NADPH oxidase activity and ROS pro- diovascular risk factors including blood pressure, body
23)
duction in mature adipocytes as early as 30 minutes . mass index, creatinine, glucose, insulin, and lipid profiles.
An interesting phenotype of these differentiated adipo- In contrast, uric acid appears to be a significant indepen-
cytes is a substantial uptake rate for uric acid with an dent predictor of vascular and renal disease in hyper-
expression of urate transporters (URAT1 and OAT4) and tensive patients and in subjects with high risk factors,
high basal level of ROS production. Uric acid stimulated such as diabetes, patients with chronic kidney disease or
36-39)
NADPH oxidase-dependent ROS production, an activa- congestive heart failure . This discrepancy regarding
tion of MAP kinases p38 and ERK 1/2, a decrease in the effect of uric acid in relatively healthy populations
NO bioavailability, and an increase in protein nitrosyla- and those in high-risk individuals raises two questions
tion and lipid oxidation. A recent study demonstrated about clinical implication of hyperuricemia. First, if a cer-
uric acid-induced ROS production in adipocytes was tain factor is strongly related with other risk factors, it
mediated by an activation of the local renin-angiotensin can never be interpreted as an independent risk factor
31)
system . by conventional statistics. Second, what is the molecular
Oxidative stress in the adipose tissue has recently been switch that convertsuric acid from anti-oxidant to pro-
recognized as a major cause of insulin resistance and car- oxidant. It is particularly interesting since a mild elevation
32)
diovascular disease , and therefore hyperuricemia-in- of uric acid, often observed in patients with uncomplicated
duced alterations in oxidative homeostasis in the adipose obesity or hypertension, seems to impose no major effect
34,35)
tissue suggested the potential role of uric acid as a cause on cardiovascular and renal complication . It is neces-
of insulin resistance. sary to explore the molecular environment in which uric
acid induces oxidative stress and an inflammatory reaction
4. Hepatocytes in hypertensive and/or diabetic subjects with high car-
diovascular risk factors.
We demonstrated uric acid-induced oxidative stress as
a major mechanism of fat accumulation in cultured hep- Conclusion
25)
atocytes, HepG2 cells . Uric acid (>6 mg/dL) increased
H2O2 production and NOX activity in HepG2 cells from Based upon the data from experimental and clinical
30 minutes, and antioxidants including diphenylene iodo- research, uric acid seems to play a dual role as pro- and
nium and rotenone blocked uric acid-inducedtriglyceride anti-oxidants. Interestingly, intracellular uric acid gen-
accumulation, suggesting both NADPH oxidase-depend- erally imposes the detrimental effects as a pro-oxidant
ent and mitochondria-mediated oxidative stress gen- in cultured cells and animal model of hyperuricemia,
erated by uric acid were responsible for hepatic fat accu- which is supported by the protective effects of an in-
33)
mulation . hibitor of organic anion transporter via blocking the en-
try of uric acid into the cells and amelioration of oxida-

Copyright © 2014 The Korean Society of Electrolyte Metabolism

 Electrolyte Blood Press 12:1-6, 2014 • Http://Dx.Doi.Org/10.5049/Ebp.2014.12.1.1 5

tive stress. On the other hand, uric acid acts as anti-oxi- trakul W, Krittaphol V, Lolekha P, et al.: Risk factors
dant only in the hydrophilic environment. The differ- for developing decreased kidney function in a Southeast
ential role of hyperuricemia in a healthy population and Asian population: a 12-year cohort study. J Am Soc
Nephrol 16:791-799, 2005
subjects with other risk factors for cardiovascular and
8. Hsu CY, Iribarren C, McCulloch CE, Darbinian J, Go
metabolic disease suggests the presence of a molecular AS: Risk factors for end-stage renal disease: 25-year fol-
switch which controls the role of uric acid as anti-oxidant low-up. Arch Intern Med 169:342-350, 2009
versus pro-oxidant. Regulation of this switch could be 9. Kim SJ, Kim JH, Gil HW, Yang JO, Lee EY, Hong SY:
determined by the microenvironment in different com- Hyperuricemia as a marker for progression of immuno-
partment of human organism. Further studies will be nec- globulin A nephropathy. Kidney Res Clin Pract 31:
186-191, 2012
essary to understand the Janus face of uric acid or yin
10. Ames BN, Cathcart R, Schwiers E, Hochstein P: Uric
and yang of hyperuricemia with a definition of molecular
acid provides an antioxidant defense in humans against
mechanism by which uric acid activates membranous and oxidant- and radical-caused aging and cancer: a hypo-
intracellular oxidative stress which is incompletely under- thesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78:6858-6862, 1981
stood. Controlled clinical studies to investigate the effect 11. Stirpe F, Della Corte E: The regulation of rat liver xan-
of uric acid-lowering therapy while monitoring the mark- thine oxidase - conversion in vitro of the enzyme activity
ers of oxidative stress in subjects with different clinical from dehydrogenase (type D) to oxidase (type O). J Biol
Chem 244:3855-3863, 1969.
characteristics, will provide valuable information regard-
12. Berry CE and Hare JM: Xanthine oxidoreductase and
ing the clinical implication of hyperuricemia.
cardiovascular disease: molecular mechanisms and path-
ophysiological implications. J Physiol 555:589-606, 2004
References 13. Maesaka JK, Fishbane S: Regulation of renal urate ex-
cretion: A critical review. Am J Kidney Dis 32:917-933,
1. Davis N: The cardio-vascular and renal relations and 1998
manifestations of gout. JAMA 29:261-262, 1897 14. Enomoto A, Kimura H, Chairoungdua A, Shigeta Y, Ju-
2. Grayson PC, Kim SY, Lavalley M, Choi HK: Hyperurice- tabha P, Cha SH et al: Molecular identification of a renal
mia and incident hypertension: A systematic review and urate-anion exchanger that regulates blood urate levels.
meta-analysis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 63:102-10, Nature 417:447-452, 2002
2010 15. Anzai N, Kanai Y, Endou H: New insight into renal trans-
3. Bellomo G, Venanzi S, Verdura C, Saronio P, Esposito port of urate. Curr Opin Rheumatol 19:151-157, 2007
A, Timio M: Association of uric acid with change in kid- 16. Johnson RJ, Titte S, Cade JR, Rideout BA, Oliver WJ:
ney function in healthy normotensive individuals. Am J Uric acid, evolution and primitive cultures. Semin Ne-
Kidney Dis 56:264-272, 2010 phrol 25:3-8, 2005
4. Obermayr RP, Temml C, Gutjahr G, Knechtelsdorfer M, 17. Faller J, Fox IH: Ethanol-induced hyperuricemia: Evide-
Oberbauer R, Klauser-Braun R: Elevated uric acid in- nce for increased urate production by activation of adenine
creases the risk for kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol nucleotide turnover. N Engl J Med 307:1598-1602, 1982
19:2407-2413, 2008 18. Emmerson BT: Effect of oral fructose on urate produc-
5. Weiner DE, Tighiouart H, Elsayed EF, Griffith JL, Salem tion. Ann Rheum Dis 33:276-280, 1974
DN, Levey AS: Uric acid and incident kidney disease in 19. Nakagawa T, Hu H, Zharikov S, Tuttle KR, Short RA,
the community. J Am Soc Nephrol 19:1204-11, 2008 Glushakova O, et al: A causal role for uric acid in fruc-
6. Rosolowski ET, Ficociello LH, Maselli NJ, Niewczas tose-induced metabolic syndrome. Am J Physiol Renal
MA, Binns AL, Roshan B, et al.: High-normal serum uric Physiol 290:F625-631, 2006
acid is associated with impaired glomerular filtration rate 20. Johnson RJ, Segal MS, Sautin Y, Nakagawa T, Feig DI,
in nonproteinuric patients with type 1 diabetes. Clin J Kang DH, et al: Potential role of sugar (fructose) in the
Am Soc Nephrol 3:706-713, 2008 epidemic of hypertension, obesity and the metabolic syn-
7. Domrongkitchaiporn S, Sritara P, Kitiyakara C, Stitchan- drome, diabetes, kidney disease, and cardiovascular dis-

Copyright © 2014 The Korean Society of Electrolyte Metabolism

6 Duk-Hee Kang and Sung-Kyu Ha • Uric Acid Puzzle: Dual Role as Anti-oxidantand Pro-oxidant

ease. Am J Clin Nutr 86:899-906, 2007 2001

21. Kang DH, Park SK, Lee IK, et al: Uric acid-induced C-re- 30. Sanchez-Lozada LG, Soto V, Tapia E, Avila-Casado C,
active protein expression: implication on cell proliferation Sautin YY, Nakagawa T, et al.: Role of oxidative stress
and nitric oxide production of human vascular cells. J in the renal abnormalities induced by experimental hyper-
Am Soc Nephrol 6(12):3553-62, 2005 uricemia. Am J Physiol 295:F1134-41, 2008
22. Yu MA, Sanchez-Lozada LG, Johnson RJ, Kang DH: 31. Zhang JX, Zhang YP, Wu QN, Chen B: Uric acid induces
Oxidative stress with an activation of the renin-angio- oxidative stress via an activation of the renin-angiotensin
tensin system in human vascular endothelial cells as a system in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Endocrine 2014, accepted
novel mechanism of uric acid-induced endothelial dys- 32. Berg AH, Scherer PE: Adipose tissue, inflammation, and
function. J Hypertens 28:1234-42, 2010 cardiovascular disease. Circ Res 96:939-949, 2005
23. Sautin YY, Nakagawa T, Zharikov S, Johnson RJ: Adverse 33. Choi YJ, Shin HS, Choi HS, Park JW, Jo I, Oh E-S,
effects of the classic antioxidant uric acid in adipocytes: et al.: Uric acid induced fat accumulation via an in-
NADPH oxidase-mediated oxidative/nitrosative stress. duction of endoplasmic reticulum stress and SREBP-1c
Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 293(2):C584-96, 2007 activation in hepatocyte. Lab Invest 2014, accepted
24. Yu ES, Kim MJ, Shin HS, Jang YH, Choi HS, Jo I, et 34. Baker JK, Krishnan E, Chen L, Schumacher HR: Serum
al.: Uric acid-induced phenotypic transition of renal tub- uric acid and cardiovascular disease: recent develop-
ular cells as a novel mechanism of chronic kidney disease. ments, where do they leave us? Am J Med, 118:816-826,
Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 304:F471-80, 2013 2005
25. Lanaspa MA, Sanchez-Lozada LG, Choi YJ, Cicerchi C, 35. Wannamethee SG: Serum uric acid and risk of coronary
Kanbay M, Roncal-Jimenez CA, et al.: Uric acid induces heart disease. Curr Pharm Des 11:4125-4132, 2005
Hepatic Steatosis by Generation of Mitochondrial Oxida- 36. Wong KYK, MacWalter RS, Fraser HW, Crombie I,
tive Stress: Potential Role in Fructose-Dependent and- Ogsten SA, Struthers AD: Urate predicts subsequent car-
Independent Fatty Liver. J Bio Chem 287(48):40732-44, diac death in stroke survivors. Eur Heart J 23:788-793,
2012 2001
26. Sánchez-Lozada LG, Lanaspa-García M, Cristóbal-García 37. Weir CJ, Muir SW, Walters MR, Lees KR: Serum urate
M, García-Arroyo F, Soto V, David Cruz-Robles, et al.: as an independent predictor of poor outcome and future
Uric acid-induced endothelial dysfunction is associated vascular events after acute stroke. Stroke 34:1951-1957,
with mitochondrial changes and reduced intracellular 2003
ATP concentrations. Nephron Exp Nephrol 121(3-4): 38. Anker SD, Doehener W, Rauchhaus M, Sharma R, Francis
e71-8, 2012 D, Knosalla C, et al.: Uric acid and survival in chronic
27. Glantzounis GK, Tsimoyiannis EC, Kappas AM, Galaris heart failure: validation and application in metabolic,
DA: Uric acid and oxidative stress. Curr Pharm Des 11: functional and haemodynamic staging. Circulation 107:
4145-4151, 2005 1991-1997, 2003
28. Stocker R, Keaney J: Role of oxidative modifications in 39. Bickel C, Ruppreeht HJ, Blankerberg S, Rippin G, Hafner
atherosclerosis. Physiol Rev 84:1381-1478, 2004 G, Daunhauer A, et al.: Serum uric acid as an independent
29. Waring WC, Webb DJ, Maxwell SR: Systemic uric acid predictor of mortality in patients with angiographically
administration increases serum antioxidant capacity in proven coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 89:12-17,
healthy volunteers. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 38:365-371, 2002

Copyright © 2014 The Korean Society of Electrolyte Metabolism