Chapter 8 Antenna Theory

8-1 Calculation of EM Fields of Antennas

L. J. Chu (朱蘭成): 朱蘭成院士生於民國 2 年，民國 62 年逝世。民國 47 年 4 月

當選第二屆中研院院士，是電磁波及雷達研究方面的三大國際權威之一。

Y. T. Lo (羅遠梓): Yuen Tze Lo (MSEE’49, PhD’52) died in 2002.

He was 82. Lo invented the broadband television receiving antenna,
and he developed the cavity model theory for microstrip patch
antennas now used in global positioning systems (GPS). In 1986,
Lo was elected to the National Academy of Engineering for
inventions and innovative ideas that significantly advanced the
theory and design of antennas and arrays.

J. A. Kong(孔金甌): 孔教授 1942 年出生於中國江蘇，2007 年去世，享年 65 歲。

孔教授是孔子第七十四代孫，為臺大電機學士，交大碩士，美國 Syracuse 大學
博士，他自 1969 年任教麻省理工學院電機系，為電磁波泰斗，曾出版 30 本電
磁學著作和 700 篇研究論文。

  µ Je − jkR  1   1 
Case 1 Given J ( x, y, z , t ) , A = ∫∫∫
4π v ' R
dv' , H = ∇ × A , E =
µ jωε
∇× H


1 ρe − jkR  ∂ρ  ∂A 1 
4πe ∫∫∫
Case 2 Given ρ ( x, y, z , t ) , V = dv ' , ∇ ⋅ J = − , E = −∇ V − = ∇ × H
V'
R ∂t ∂t jωε

Eg. (a) Assume the spatial distribution of the current on a very thin center-fed
half-wave dipole lying along the z-axis to be I 0 cos(βz), where β=2π/λ. Find the
charge distribution on the dipole.
 j dI ( z ) β
(Sol.) ∇ ⋅ J = − jωρ ⇒ ρ = = − j I 0 sin βz
ω dz ω

Stratton-Chu formulas for calculating EM Fields of antennas: (by L. J. Chu)

d d d r d d d d
E (r ) = ∫∫∫[− jωmGJ + ∇' G − J m × ∇' G ]dV '+ ∫∫ [− jωmG (aˆ n × H ) + (aˆ n ⋅ E )∇' G + (aˆ n × E ) × ∇' G ]dS '
V'
ε S'

d d d r d d d d
H (r ) = ∫∫∫[− jωεGJ m + m ∇' G + J × ∇' G ]dV '+ ∫∫ [ jωεG (aˆ n × E ) + (aˆ n ⋅ H )∇' G + (aˆ n × H ) × ∇' G ]dS '
V'
m S'

e − jkr
where G = is Green’s function in the free space.
4πr
Elemental electrical dipole (Hertzian dipole):


p = zˆQd
dQ I
I =± = ± jω Q , Q = ±
dt jω
 µ 0 Id e − jβR µ 0 Id e − jβR
⇒ A = zˆ ⋅ = (aˆ R cos θ − aˆθ sin θ ) ⋅ = aˆ R AR + aˆθ Aθ + aˆφ Aφ
4π R 4π R
 µ 0 Id e − jβR
 R
A = A cos θ = ( ) cos θ  1
z
4 π R 1 ∂ ∂A
 H = ∇ × A = aˆ φ [ ( RAφ ) − R ]
 µ Id e − jβ R
µ0 µ 0 R ∂R ∂θ
⇒  Aθ = − Az sin θ = − 0 ( ) sin θ ⇒
 4π R Id 2 1 1
= −aˆ φ β sin θ ⋅ [ + ]e − jβR
 φ
A = 0 4π jβ R ( j β R ) 2



 1  1 1 ∂ 1 ∂
E= ∇× H = [aˆ R ( H φ sin θ ) − aˆθ ( RH φ )]
jωε 0 jωε 0 R sin θ ∂θ R ∂R
 Id 1 1 − jβ R
 E R = − 4π η 0 β 2 cos θ [ ( jβR) 2 + ( jβR) 3 ]ε
2


 Id 1 1 1
⇒  Eθ = − η 0 β 2 sin θ [ + + ]ε − jβR
 4π jβ R ( jβ R ) 2
( jβ R ) 3

 E = 0, whεrε η = µ / ε ≅ 120π (Ω)

 φ 0 0 0

Far field of a Hertzian dipole: if βR=2πR/λ>>1
Id e − jβR Id e − jβR
Hφ = j ( ) β sin θ , Eθ = j ( )η 0 β sin θ
4π R 4π R


Elemental magnetic dipoles: m = zˆIS = zˆm
  µ 0 I e − jβR1 
4π ∫ R1
m = zˆIπb = zˆm ⇒ A =
2
 '

e − jβR1 = e − jβR e − jβ ( R1 − R ) ≅ e − jβR [1 − jβ ( R1 − R)]


 µ 0 I − jβ R  ' 
A= e [(1 + jβR ) ∫ − jβ ∫  ']
4π R1
 µ µ
⇒ A = aˆφ 0 2 (1 + jβR)e − jβR sin θ
4πR
 1   1 
H= ∇ × A and E = ∇× H
µ0 jωε 0
  jωm 0 m 2 1 1
 Eφ = β sin θ [ + ]e − jβR
 4 π j β R ( jβ R ) 2

 jωm 0 m 2 1 1
⇒ H R = − β 2 cos θ [ + ]e − jβR
 4πη 0 ( j β R ) 2
( j β R ) 3

 jωm 0 m 2 1 1 1
H θ = − β sin θ [ + + ]e − jβR
 4πη 0 jβ R ( jβ R ) 2
( jβ R ) 3

Far field of an elemental magnetic dipoles:

ωµ 0 µ e − jβR ωµ µ e − jβR
Eφ = ( ) β sin θ , H θ = − 0 ( ) β sin θ
4π R 4πη 0 R

Eg. A small filamentary rectangular loop of dimensions L x and L y lies in the

xy-plane with its center at the origin and sides parallel to the x- and y-axes. The
loop carries a current i(t)=I 0 cos(ωt). Assuming L x and L y to be much less than
the wavelength, find the expressions for the following quantities at a point in the
far zone: (a) vector magnetic potential, (b) electric field intensity, (c) magnetic
field intensity.
  µ 0 I 0 cos ωtL x L y
(Sol.) (a) m = zˆI 0 cos ωtL x L y , A = aˆφ (1 + jβR)e − jβR ⋅ sin θ
4πR
ωµ 0 I 0 cos ωtL x L y e − jβ R
(b) Eφ = ( ) β sin θ
4π R
ωµ 0 I 0 cos ωtL x L y e − jβR
(c) H θ = − ( ) β sin θ
4πη 0 R

Eg. A composite antenna consists of an elemental Hertzian electric dipole of

length L along the z-axis and an elemental magnetic dipole of area S lying in the
xy-plane. Equal time-harmonic currents of amplitude I 0 and angular frequency
ω flow in the dipoles. (a) Verify that the far field of the composite antenna is
elliptically polarized. (b) Determine the condition for circular polarization.
η jI L e − jβ R ωµ 0 I 0 S e − jβ R
(Sol.) (a) E = aˆθ 0 η 0 β sin θ + aˆφ β sin θ = aˆθ Eθ + aˆφ Eφ
4π R 4πη 0 R
ωµ 0 S
(b) Eθ = Eφ ⇒ η 0 L =
η0

Duality between elemental electric and magnetic dipoles: (E e , H e ) due to electric

dipole and (E m , H m ) due to magnetic dipole
E
E e ↔ η 0 H m , H e ↔ − m , Id ↔ jβm = jβIS , d ↔ βS
η0
8-2 Radiation Patterns of Antennas
Half-power beam width: Angular width of main
beam between the half-power (-3dB) points

Sidelobe level: (|E max | in one sidelobe)/( |E max | in

main beam)

Null positions: Directions which have no radiations

in the far-field zone.

d 2
4πU max 4π E max 2
Directivity: D= = 2π π d 2
, where U=R2
P av ∝ R 2
E
Pr
∫ ∫
0 0
E (θ , φ ) sin θdθdφ

2π π d2
and P r = ∫ Pav dS = ∫ UdΩ ∝ R 2 ∫ ∫ E sin θdθdφ is the time-average radiated power
0 0

d 2
4πU (θ , φ ) 4π E (θ , φ )
Directivity gain: G D (θ, φ )= = 2π π d 2
, ∴ D=(G D ) max
Pr
∫0 ∫ E (θ , φ ) sin θdθdφ
0

4πU max
Power gain: G P = , where P i = P r +P l , P i : total input power, P l : loss
Pi
Radiation efficiency: η r = G P /D=P r /P i

Eg. Find the directive gain and the directivity of a Hertzian dipole.
1 1 ( Id) 2
(Sol.) Pav = Re E × H * = Eθ H φ , U = η 0 β 2 sin 2 θ .
2 2 32π 2

4π sin 2 θ 3 2 π
G D (θ , φ ) = 2π π
= sin θ , D = G D ( , φ ) =1.5=1.76 (dB).
∫ ∫
0 0
(sin 2 θ ) sin θdθdφ 2 2

Eg. Find the radiation resistance of a Hertzian dipole.

1 2π π

2 ∫0 ∫
(Sol.) Pr = Eθ H φ* R 2 sin θdθdφ
0

I 2 (d) 2 2π π I 2 (d) 2 I2 d I2
= η0 β 2 ∫ ∫ sin 3 θdθdφ = η 0 β 2 = [80π 2 ( ) 2 ] = Rr
32π 2 0 0 12π 2 λ 2
d
∴ Rr = 80π 2 ( )2
λ
Eg. Find the radiation efficiency of an isolated Hertzian dipole made of a metal
wire of radius a, length d, and conductivity σ.
1 2 1
(Sol.) The ohmic power loss is P = I R . The radiated power is Pr = I 2 Rr
2 2
Pr 1 d
ηr = = , R = R s ( ),
Pr + P 1 + ( R / Rr ) 2πa
πfµ 0 1
where Rσ = ⇒ ηr =
σ Rs λ λ
1+ ( )( )
160π a d
3

Assume that a=1.8mm, d = 2m , f = 1.5MHz , and σ = 5.80 × 10 7 ( S / m)

c
λ = = 200(m) , Rs = 3.20 × 10 −4 (Ω) , R = 0.057(Ω) , Rr = 0.079(Ω) ,
f
and η r = 58%

Eg. A 1MHz uniform current flows in a vertical antenna of the length 15m. The
antenna is a center-fed copper rod having a radius of 2cm. Find (a) the radiation
resistance, (b) the radiation efficiency, (c) the maximum electric field intensity at
a distance of 20km, the radiated power of the antenna is 1.6kW.
3 × 10 8
(Sol.) λ = 6
= 300m >> 15m = d , a=0.02m, σ copper =5.8×107,
10

πfµ c
Rs = =2.6×10-4
sc

Rs
(a) Rr = 80π 2 (15 / 300) 2 = 1.97Ω , (b) η r = 1 /(1 + ) = 98%
160π (λ / a )(λ / d)
3

I 2 (d) 2 Id η 0 β
(c) Pr = η 0 β 2 =1600 ⇒ Eθ =( ) ≈ 1.9 × 10 − 2 V / m
12π max
4π R

Eg. A time-harmonic uniform current I 0 cos(ωt) flows in a small circular loop of

radius b(<<λ) lying in the xy-plane. (a) Find the radiation resistance R r of the
magnetic dipole. (b) Obtain an expression for its radiation efficiency η r if the
loop is made of radius a.
βπβ 2 2 β
(Sol.) (a) Duality ⇒ d ↔ βπβ 2 ⇒ Rr = 80π 2 ( ) = 320π 6 ( ) 4
λ λ
1
(b) η r =
Rs λ λ
1+ ( )( )
160π a bπb 2
3
8-3 Linear Dipole Antennas and Effective Lengths

 I m sin β (h − z ), z > 0
Assume I(z)=I m sinβ(h-|z|)= 
 I m sin β (h + z ), z < 0

I ( z )dz e − jβR '

h
E θ =η 0 H φ =h 0 ∫ β sin θ
−h 4π R'

( R >> h, R' = ( R 2 + z 2 − 2 Rz cosθ )1 / 2 ≈ R − z cosθ )

I mη 0 β sin θ − jβR h j 60 I m − jβR

⇒ Eθ ≈ j
4πR
e ∫−h
sin β (h − z )e jβz cos θ dz =
R
⋅e ⋅ F (θ )

cos( βh cos θ ) − cos βh

where F(θ)=
sin θ
Half-wave dipole: 2h=λ/2, βh=π/2
 j 60 I m − jβR  cos[(π / 2) cos θ ] 
 Eθ = R e 
sin θ
 2  cos[(π / 2) cos θ ]  2
   ⇒ P = 1 E H * = 15 I m
 θ φ  
πR 2 sin θ
av
 H = jI m e − jβR  cos[(π / 2) cos θ ]  2  
 φ 2πR  
 sin θ 

Half-power beam width of a half-wave dipole: ∆θ = θ1 − θ 2 ≈ 78° , where θ 1 and

cos((π / 2) cos θ ) 1
θ 2 are two roots of = .
sin θ 2
2π π cos 2 [(π / 2) cos θ ]
π I m2
P r = ∫ ∫ Pav R sin θdθdφ = 30 I ∫
2 2
dθ = 36.54 I m ( w) =
2
Rr
sin θ
m
0 0 0 2
15 4πU max
⇒ R r =73.1Ω and U max =R2P av (θ=π/2)= I m2 ⇒ D = =1.64>1.5
π Pr

Radiation patterns of linear dipoles:

E-plane radiation patterns for center-fed dipole antennas

Effective length of a transmitting linear dipole antenna, l e (θ):

Eθ = h 0 H φ = j
I mh 0 β sin θ − jβR h
4πR
e ∫ sin β (h − z )e jβz cos θ dz =
−h
j 30 − jβR
R
βe { h
sin θ ∫ I ( z )e jβz cos θ dz
−h
}
j30 I (0) − jβR sin θ h
=
R
βe   (θ ) , where l e (θ)=
I ( 0) ∫− h
I ( z )e jβz cos θ dz is the effective length.

1 h
I (0) ∫− h
Maximum of l e (θ) occurs when θ=π/2 ⇒ l e (θ=π/2)= I ( z )dz

Note: l e =-V oc /E i is the effective length of a receiving linear dipole antenna = that of
transmitting one.
Eg. Assume a sinusoidal current distribution on a center-fed, thin, straight
half-wave dipole. Find its effective length. What is its maximum value?
(Sol.) I(0)=I m , h=λ/4,
π
cos( cosθ ) π 2 λ
sin θ λ/4 λ 2
 e (θ ) = ∫ I sin β ( − z ) e jβz cos θ
dz = [ 2 ], e ( ) = =
I (0) −λ / 4
m
4 β sin θ 2 β π

Eg. A 1.5MHz uniform plane wave having a peak electric field intensity E 0 is
incident on a half-wave dipole at an angle θ. (a) Find the expression for the
open-circuit voltage Voc at the terminals of the dipole. (b) If the dipole is
connected to a matched load, what is the maximum power PL delivered to the
load?
π
λE0 cos( 2 cos θ )
(Sol.) (a) Voc = − E0  e = − [ ] , λ = 200m
π sin θ
2
1 V0 c V2
(b) PL = R L = oc
2 Rr + R L 8 Rr

Monopole antenna: P r =18.27I m 2W, and

R r =2P r /I m 2=36.54Ω is exactly one-half of the
radiation resistance of a half-wave antenna in
the free space. D=2πU max /P r =1.64 is the same
as the directivity of a half-wave antenna.
8-4 Traveling–wave Antenna
− jβ z Idz e − jβR
I ( z) = I 0 e , dE 0 = j ( )η 0 β sin θ for a small dipole Idz
4π R
jη 0 β sin θ − jβR L j 60 I 0 − jβ [ R + ( L / 2 )(1−cos θ )]
Eθ =
4πr
e ∫0
I ( z )e jβz cos θ dz =
R
e F (θ ) , where

sin θ sin[ βL(1 − cos θ ) / 2]

F (θ ) =
1 − cos θ

Some examples of coplanar antennas (by H. –C. Chen and Dr. I-Fong Chen):

X-Y Plane X-Z Plane Y-Z Plane

Test Result

Freq. X-Y Plane X-Z Plane Y-Z Plane

(MHz) Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal
2400 1.87 1.71 -10.04 -0.42 -12.74 2.26
2450 1.66 1.14 -10.00 -0.80 -13.37 1.55
2500 1.47 0.88 -10.42 -0.09 -13.68 1.93
Unit：dBi

2.4G~2.5GHz 的量測結果表
The Impedance of the Tab Monopole in the Smith Chart

The S 11 parameter of the Tab Monopole

The VSWR of Tab Monopole
Test Result
X-Y Plane X-Z Plane Y-Z Plane
Freq.
(MHz) Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal

2400 1.57 1.30 -13.78 -0.76 -13.11 1.81

2450 1.24 0.84 -12.96 -0.87 -10.89 1.41

2500 1.10 1.31 -11.09 -0.43 -11.79 0.86

Unit：dBi

2.4G~2.5GHz 的量測結果表
The Impedance of the Semi-Circular Tab Monopole in the Smith Chart
The S 11 parameter of the Semi-Circular Tab Monopole

The VSWR of the Semi-Circular Tab Monopole

8-5 Helical Antenna

Normal mode (s, 2b <<λ): Its behavior is like an electric dipole

Axial mode (s, 2b ≈ λ): Its mainbeam placed in the endfire direction.
 Nωµ 0 I e − jβR
E = aˆθ Eθ + aˆφ Eφ = ( )(aˆθ js + aˆφ βπβ 2 ) sin θ : Elliptically-polarized.
4π R
1 sλ
If s =βπb2 or b= , it becomes circularly-polarized.
π 2

Eg. A helical antenna operating in the normal mode has N turns with diameter
2b and interturn spacing s. Both 2b and s are very small in comparison to λ / N
and are adjusted to radiate circularly polarized waves. Find (a) its directive gain
and directivity, (b) its radiation resistance.
 Nωµ0 I e − ϕβR η 1 η NβI e − jβR
(Sol.) (a) E= ( )[aˆθ ϕs + aˆϕ βπβ 2 ] sin θ , H = aˆ R × E = ( )[aˆφ js − aˆθ βπβ 2 ] sin θ
4π R η0 4π R

Circularly polarized: s =βπb2,

1 η η β 2η 0
U = R 2 aˆ R ⋅ Pav = R 2 aˆ R Re[ E × H ] = ( NIs ) 2 sin 2 θ
2 16π 2
2π π b 2η 0 4πU 3 2 π
Pr = ∫ ∫ U sin θdθdφ = ( NIs ) 2 ⇒ G D = = sin θ , D = G D ( ) = 1.5
0 0 bπ Pr 2 2
2 Pr η 0 ( NIs ) 2
(b) Rr = = = 40( Nb 2πb 2 ) 2
I2 3π

Note: Receiving antenna’s pattern is identical with transmitting one’s.

8-6 Antenna Arrays
Two-element antenna array: (In case of no coupling between antennas)
R1 ≅ R0 − d sin θ cos φ
e − jβR0 e jξ e − jβR1
E = E 0 + E1 = E m F (θ , φ )[ + ]
R0 R1
F (θ , φ ) − jβR0
= Em e [1 + e jβd sin θ cos φ e jξ ]
R0
F (θ , φ ) − jβR0 jψ / 2 ψ
= Em e e (2 cos ) , where Ψ=βdsinθcosφ+ξ
R0 2
2Em ψ
⇒ E = F (θ , φ ) ⋅ cos =Element Factor×Array Factor
R.0 2

Eg. Plot the H-plane radiation patterns of two parallel dipoles for the following
two cases: (a) d = λ / 2, ξ = 0 , (b) d = λ / 4, ξ = −π / 2 .
(Sol.) Let the dipole is z-directed
ψ 1
In the H-plane (θ = π / 2) : A(φ ) = cos = cos ( βd cos φ + ξ )
2 2
π π
(a) A(φ ) = cos( cos φ ) , (b) A(φ ) = cos (cos φ − 1)
2 4

General Uniform Linear Arrays:

Normalized array factor in the xy-plane (θ=π/2):

1
A(Ψ ) = 1 + e jΨ + e j 2 Ψ + ... + e j ( N −1) Ψ
N

1 1 − e jNΨ 1 sin( NΨ / 2)
= = , where Ψ=βdsin(θ)cosφ+ξ=βdcosφ+ξ if θ=π/2
N 1 − e jΨ N sin( Ψ / 2)

−ξ
Mainbeam direction, φ 0 : ∵ Max at Ψ=0, ∴ βdcosφ 0 +ξ=0 ⇒ cos φ 0 =
βd
Nψ
Null locations: = ± kπ , k=1,2,3,…
2
NΨ π
Sidelobe locations: = ±(2m + 1) , m=1, 2, 3, …
2 2
 NΨ 3π 1 1
The first sidelobe level: =± , A(Ψ ) = = 0.212 (as N → ∞)
2 2 N sin(2π / 3N )
π
Broadside array (φ 0 = ± , ξ = 0) : |E max | occurs at a direction ⊥ the line of
2
arrays.
Endfire array (φ 0 = 0, ξ = − βd ) : |E max | occurs at a direction // the line of arrays.
NΨ1 NΨ2 4π
Beamwidth between two first nulls: = π, = −π ⇒ Ψ1 − Ψ2 =
2 2 N
4π
2 ∆φ ⇒ ( βd cos φ1 + ξ ) − ( βd cos φ 2 + ξ ) = βd (cos φ1 − cos φ 2 ) =
N

Let φ1 = φ 0 + ∆φ , φ 2 = φ 0 − ∆φ

π λ
(φ 0 = ) ⇒ ∆φ = sin −1 ( ) for a broadside array.
2 Nd
2λ
(φ 0 = 0) ⇒ ∆φ ≈ for an endfire array.
Nd
Eg. For a uniform linear array of 12 elements spaced λ/2 apart. Sketch the

normalized array pattern A(Ψ ) .

λ 1 sin( NΨ / 2) 1 sin(6Ψ )
(Sol.) d = , βd = π , A(Ψ ) = =
2 N sin( Ψ / 2) 12 sin( Ψ / 2)
Endfire ⇒ ξ = −π , Ψ = βd cos φ + ξ = π cos φ − π = π (cos φ − 1)
Broadside ⇒ ξ = 0, Ψ = βd cos φ + ξ = π cos φ

sin(6Ψ ) 1 9.55(λ / d ) deg ree for endfire array

Half-power point: = ⇒ 2∆φ = 
12 sin(Ψ / 2) 2 46.78 λ / d deg ree for broadside array

Eg. Consider a five-element broadside binomial array. (a) Determine the relative
excitation amplitudes in the array elements. (b) Plot the array factor for d=λ/2. (c)
Determine the half-power beamwidth and compare it with that of a five-element
uniform array having the same element spacings.
(Sol.) 1:4:6:4:1, broadside ⇒ ξ = 0
1 1
(a) A(Ψ ) = 1 + 4e j Ψ + 6e j 2 Ψ + 4e j 3 Ψ + e j 4 Ψ = 6 + 8 cos Ψ + 2 cos 2Ψ , where
16 16
Ψ = βd cos φ + ξ
λ 1
(b) d = , β d = π , and ξ = 0 ⇒ A(Ψ ) = [1 + cos(π cos φ )]2
2 4
1 1
(c) [1 + cos(π cos φ )]2 = , φ = 74.86° , ∴ 2∆φ = 2(90° − 74.86°) = 30.28°
4 2
 −ξ
Phased Array: ∵ cos φ 0 = , ∴Vary ξ electrically ⇒ Vary φ 0 (the direction of the
βd
main beam). It can be utilized as a military radar system to scan and track a target.

Eg. Draw the far-field pattern of a phased array of dipoles with N=5, d=λ/2.

(Sol.) The effective scan range is about from φ 0 = 60  to φ 0 = 120  as follows.

π π π π 2π
ξ= ⇒ φ0 = ξ = 0 ⇒ φ0 = ξ =− ⇒ φ0 =
2 3 2 2 3

Eg. Obtain the pattern function of a uniformly excited rectangular array of

N 1 ×N 2 parallel half-wave dipoles. Assume that the dipoles are parallel to the
z-axis and their centers are spaced d 1 and d 2 apart in the x- and y-directions,
respectively.
π NΨ
cos( cos θ ) sin( 1 x )
2 1 2
(Sol.) F (θ , φ ) = ⋅ Ax (Ψx ) ⋅ Ay (Ψ y ) , where Ax ( Ψx ) = ,
sin θ N1 Ψx
sin( )
2

N 2 Ψy
sin( )
1 2 βd1
Ay ( Ψy ) = , Ψx = sin θ cos φ + x x , and
N2 Ψy 2
sin( )
2
βd 2
Ψy = sin θ cos φ + ξ y
2
An example of microstrip linear antenna array (by Dr. I-Fong Chen):

Characteristics:
An example of smart 4-beam phased antenna array: (by W. –R. Li and Dr. K. –H.
Lin)

Design of n×m Butler matrix:

Patterns:
Yagi-Uda Antenna: A kind of endfire array.

Two types:
8-7 Effective Areas of Antennas and Gains
Effective area: A e =P L /P av or P L = A e P av
Relation between the gain and the effective area:
P P A G G G
Pav = t 2 G DA ⇒ L = eB 2DA , and DA = DB for all antennas
4πr Pt 4πr AeA AeB

Eg. Determine the effective area, A e (θ), of an elemental electric dipole of a length
dl (<<λ) used to receive an incident plane electromagnetic wave of wavelength.
P η 3 3
(Sol.) Ae (θ ) = L = 0 (d) 2 sin 2 θ = (λ sin θ ) 2 . ∵ G D (θ , φ ) = sin 2 θ ,
Pav 4 Rr 8π 2
(3 / 2) sin 2 θ G (θ , φ ) 4π 4π
∴ = D = 2 ⇒ G D (θ , φ ) = 2 Ae (θ , φ )
(3 / 8π )(λ sin θ ) 2
Ae (θ , φ ) λ λ
Voc2 ( − e E i ) 2 Ei2
Under matched condition: PL = = and Pav =
8 Rr 8 Rr 2η 0
30π 2
⇒ Ae (θ ) =  e (θ )
Rr

Eg. Assume that a linearly polarized plane electromagnetic wave is incident on a

half-wave dipole, (a) obtain an expression for the effective area A e (θ). (b)
Calculate the maximum value of A e for 100MHz.
2 cos[(π / 2) cos θ ]
(Sol.) (a) For a half-wave dipole,  e (θ ) = [ ]
β sin θ
30π 2 30π 2 cos[(π / 2) cos θ ] 2
⇒ Ae (θ ) =  e (θ ) =  e = 1.28 2e (θ ) = 0.129λ2 [ ]
Rr 73.1 sin θ
2π × 100 × 10 6 2π 2 3 dAe (θ ) π π
(b) β = = , = , = 0 ⇒ θ max = , Ae (θ = ) = 1.17cm 2
3 × 10 8
3 β π dθ 2 2
8-8 Friis Transmission Formula and Radar Equation
Friis transmission formula:
Define σ bs = radar cross section of target,
PL A A 4πA A A G G λ2
= ( e 22 )G D1 = e 22 ⋅ 2 e1 = e21 2e 2 = D1 D 22
Pt 4πr 4πr λ r λ (4πr )
Eg. Communication is to be established between two stations 1.5km apart that
operate at 300MHz. Each is equipped with a half-wave dipole. (a) If 100W is
transmitted from one station, how much power is received by a matched load at
the other station? (b) Repeat (a) assuming that both antennas are Hertzian
dipoles.
(Sol.) (a) PL = G D1G D 2 λ . Half-wave dipole: G D =1.64, f=300×106 ⇒ λ=1m
2

Pt 16π r
2 2

1.64 2 ⋅ 12
P t =100W, PL = Pt ⋅ = 7.6 × 10 −7 W = 0.76 µW
16π 2 ⋅ (1500) 2
(b) G D =1.5 ⇒ PL = 6.33 × 10 −7 W = 0.633µW

Radar equation: Radar is a transmit–receive system.

∵ Usually, a radar has an antenna to transmit or receive waves, ∴ G D1 =G D2 =G D .

Pt G D s bs PT
Define P T = as power density at a distance r, as power density
4πr 2 4πr 2
PT σ bσ Pt
reflected by the target ⇒ PL = Ae ⋅ = Aeσ bσ ( )G D (θ , φ )
4πr 2
(4πr 2 ) 2
λ2 PL s bs λ2 s A
∵ Ae = G D (θ , φ ) , ∴ = G D2 (θ , φ ) = bs ( e2 ) 2
4π Pt (4π ) r3 4
4π λr

Eg. Assuming that 50kW is fed into the antenna of a radar system operating at
3GHz. The antenna has an effective area of 4m2 and a radiation efficiency of 90%.
The minimum detectable signal power (over noise inherent in the receiving
system and from the environment) is 1.5pW, and the power reflection coefficient
for the antenna on receiving is 0.05. Determine the maximum usable range of the
radar for detecting a target with a backscatter cross section of 1m2.
(Sol.) f=3×109Hz, σ bs =1m2, λ=0.1m, A e =4m2, P t =0.9×5×104=4.5×104W,
−12 1 −12 s bs Ae2 Pt
PL = 1.5 × 10 ( ) = 1.58 × 10 W , ∵ r = 4
( ) , ∴ r=4.2×104 m
1 − 0.05 4πλ PL
2
Eg. The antenna at the earth station of a satellite communication link having a
gain of 55dB at 14GHz is aimed at a geostationary satellite 36500km away.
Assume that the antenna on the satellite has a gain of 35dB in transmitting the
signal back toward the earth station at 12GHz. The minimum usable signal is
8pW. (a) Neglecting antenna ohmic and mismatch losses, find the minimum
satellite transmitting power required. (b) Find the peak transmitting pulse power
needed at the earth station in order to detect the satellite as a passive object,
assuming the backscatter cross section of the satellite including its solar panels as
25m2 and the minimum detectable return pulse power to be 0.5pW.

(4πr ) 2
(Sol.) (a) Pt = PL , λ e =2.14×10-2, λ s =2.5×10-2, r=3.65×107m, P L =8×10-12W,
Ge G s λ s
2

G e =1055/10=3.16×105, G s =1035/10=3.16×103 ⇒ P t =2.7W

4π λe r 2 2 λ2
(b) Pt = ( ) PL , Ae = e Ge =15.7m2 ⇒ P t =1.13×109 W
s bs Ae 4π

Radar Cross Section (RCS):

Define P i as the time-average incident power density at the object, P s : time-average
scattered power density at the receiver site, σ bs : backscatter cross section, and r:
P s P
distance between scatter and receiver. σ bs = 4πr 2 s or P s = bs 2i . Note: P s is
Pi 4πr
inversely proportional to r2 for large r, so that σ bs does not change with r.
Different airplanes have distinct radar cross sections. A radar system can utilize this
characteristic to identify the target.

中華民國空軍軍歌
凌雲御風去，報國把志伸，遨遊崑崙上空，俯瞰太平洋濱，看五嶽三江雄關要塞，
美麗的錦繡河山，輝映著無敵機群，
緬懷先烈莫辜負創業艱辛，發揚光大尤賴我空軍人，同志們努力，努力矢勇矢勤，
國祚皇皇萬世榮。

盡瘁為空軍，報國把志伸，哪怕風霜雪露，只信雙手萬能，看鐵翼蔽空馬達齊鳴，
美麗的錦繡河山，輝映著無敵機群，
我們要使技術發明日日新， 我們要用血汗永固中華魂，同志們努力，努力同德
同心，國祚皇皇萬世榮。
Eg. A comparison among Mig-19, Mig-21, Mig-23, Mig-25, Su-27, 中共殲十戰鬥
機 (above in PRC), IDF, F-16, Mirage-2000, and new IDF (above in ROC).
Mig-19 Mig-21

Mig-23 Mig-25

Su-27 中共殲十(J-10)戰鬥機

IDF F-16

Mirage-2000 new IDF

Stealth airplanes/vessels: (1) Specific shape to reduce RCS. (2) Coating can be
utilized to absorb EM waves radiated by enemy’s radar systems.
Eg. USA F-117 stealth bomber (airborne) and a comparison between F16, F22,
and F35 fighters.
F-117 F22

Eg. 中共可匿蹤之殲二十(J-20)戰鬥機與傳統式殲十戰鬥機。
J-20 J-10

Eg. A comparison between Lafeya vessel and a common vessel.

Eg. 雷達未發明之前的空戰情況：我國 814 空戰英雄/空軍第 4 航空大隊大隊長
高志航的電影─「筧橋英烈傳」與美國支援對日抗戰飛虎隊陳納德將軍的紀錄片。
8-9 Wave Propagation near Earth’s Surface
    e − jβ R  e − jβ R '
E = Eθ 1 + Eθ 2 , where Eθ 1 = k ( ) sin θ , Eθ 2 = Γ11 (θ )k ( ) sin θ ' , and
R R'
jIdη 0 β
k=
4π
(h2 + h1 ) 2
and R' = AC + BC = A' B = [d + (h2 + h1 ) ] ≈d+
2 2 2 2 1/ 2
,
2d
(h2 − h1 ) 2 2h h
R = [d + (h2 − h1 ) ]
2 2 1/ 2
≈d+ , ∴ R'− R = 1 2
2d d
 e − jβ R
⇒ Eθ ≈ aˆθ k ( )(sin θ )[1 + Γ11 (θ )e − jβ ( R '− R ) ]
R
e − jβ R − jβ ( h1h2 / d ) e jβ R
= aˆθ k ( )(sin θ )[1 + Γ11 (θ )e ] = aˆθ k ( )(sin θ ) ⋅ F
R R
2πh1 h2
If the earth is perfect conducting, Γ11 (θ ) = 1 ⇒ F = 1 − e − j 2 β ( h1h2 / d ) = 2 sin( ).
λd

Eg. A transmitting vertical half-wave dipole 60m above the ground radiated
400W at 100MHz. Assume the ground to be perfectly conducting. (a) Calculate
the power available at a vertical half-wave receiving antenna 50km away at
height 30m above the ground. (b) At a distance 50km from the transmitting
antenna, where (at what altitudes) would there be a null field?
2
λ 2  2πh1 h2 
(Sol.) (a) PL = G ( ) Pt ' , Pt ' = F Pt = 2 sin(
2 2
)  Pt
4πr  λd 

Pt = 400W , h1 = 60m , h2 = 30m , λ = 3m, d = 50000m ⇒ P't = 0.0225Pt ≈ 9W ,

G=1.64 ⇒ PL = 5.5 × 10 −10 W

2πh1 h2
(b) Nulls: = nπ , h1 = 60 (m), h2 = 1.25n (m), n=1, 2, 3, ……
λd
8-10 Broadband Antennas
Frequency-independent Antenna: The pattern and impedance characteristics are
independent of frequency, because it is described entirely by angles, not dimension.
1 r
r = r0 e a (φ −δ ) , φ − δ = ln( )
a r0

Log-Periodic Antenna: The antenna is operated in the discrete

rn +1 r0 e a (φ −θ )
frequency. = a (φ + 2π −θ )
= e − 2πa = τ , where f n = τf n +1 or
rn r0 e
1
ln( f n +1 ) = ln( f n ) + ln( )
τ

 n +1 rn +1
Log-periodic Dipole Antenna: = =τ ,
n rn
d n +1
d n = rn − rn −1 = rn (1 − τ ) (or =τ )
dn
α n  (1 − τ ) 1 − τ
ταn = = n =
2 2rn 2d n 4π

Azimuth pattern Elevation pattern

8-11 Waveguide Antennas
8-12 Reflector Antennas

d − jωµ 0 e − jkR d d
∫∫ − ( J ⋅ aˆ R )aˆ R )e R dS (θ ' , φ ' ) ,
jkρ '⋅ aˆ
Far-field formula: E ( R, θ , φ ) = ( J
4πR suρφace

  
where J = 2(aˆ n × H inc ) , H inc is the incident magnetic field which is radiated by the

feed, â n is the unit normal vector on the point of the reflector’s surface, ρ’ is the
distance between the origin and the point of the reflector’s surface.
In case of a circular parabolic reflector, of which focal length is f, the diameter of the
aperture is D , focus is located at the origin, and the tip is at (x,y,z)=(0,0,-f), then we
2φ θ' θ' θ'
have ρ ' (θ ' , φ ' ) = , aˆ n = − xˆ cos cos φ '− yˆ cos sin φ '+ zˆ sin ,
1 − cos θ ' 2 2 2
θ'
dS (θ ' , φ ' ) = ρ ' 2 sin θ ' csc dθ ' dφ ' , 2 tan −1 (4 f / D) ≤ θ ' ≤ π , and 0≦φ’≦2π.
2

Feed of reflector antenna

Classification of dual reflector antennas:

1. Cassegrain Reflector: It is a combination of a primary concave mirror and a
secondary convex mirror, both aligned symmetrically about the optical axis. The
primary mirror is of paraboloid type, while the secondary mirror is of hyperboloid
type.
2. Gregorian Reflector: It consists of two mirrors; the primary mirror is a concave
paraboloid which collects the light and brings it to a focus before the secondary
mirror. The secondary mirror is an ellipsoid.
 Cassegrain Reflector Gregorian Reflector
Symmetrical

Type

Non-

symmetrical

Type

8-13 Aperture Antennas


E a = xˆE a , P(R 0 ,θ,φ) at the far zone (βR>>1)
 d j d
E p = xˆE p , where E p = ∫∫ Ea ( x' , y ' )e− jβR dx' dy '
λR0 aperture
∵ βR>>1,
∴ R ≈ R0 − ( xˆx'+ yˆy ' ) ⋅ ( xˆ sin θ cos φ + yˆ sin θ sin φ )
= R0 − ( x' sin θ cos φ + y ' sin θ sin φ )
 j − jβR0
⇒ Ep = e ⋅ F (θ , φ ) , where
λ R0
d
F(θ,φ)= ∫∫ E
aperture
a ( x' , y ' )e jβ sin θ ( x 'cos φ + y 'sin φ ) dx' dy '

4πU max
Directivity: D = ,
Pr
1 2 d 2 1 d 2
U max =
2η 0
R0 E p max =
2η 0 λ2 ∫∫ a
E ( x ' , y ' ) dx ' dy '

2
d
1 d 2 4p
∫∫ a ( x' , y' )dx' dy'
E

∫∫
aperture
Pr = E ( x ' , y ' ) dx' dy ' ⇒ D = 2 d
2η 0 λ
a 2
∫∫ a ( x' , y' ) dx' dy'
E
aperture

If E a (x’,y’) is constant ⇒ D=4π/λ2

Case 1 φ=0 (in the xz-plane) Case 2 φ=π/2 (in the yz-plane)
Eg. Assume that the field in an a×b rectangular aperture in an xy-plane is linearly polarized in
the y-direction and that the aperture excitation has a uniform phase and a triangular amplitude

distribution f ( x) = 1 − 2 x , x ≤ a . Find (a) the pattern function in the xz-plane, (b) the
a 2

half-power beamwidth, (c) the location of the first nulls, and (d) the level of the first sidelobes.

(Sol.) (a) The xz-plane ⇒ φ = 0 , cos f = 1, sin f = 0, E a ( x' , y ' ) = f ( x) ⋅ 1

∫∫ E ( x' , y' ) ⋅ e
jβ sin θ ( x 'cos φ + y 'sin φ )
F (θ , φ ) = dx' dy ' ,
aperture

βa
sin 2 ( sin θ )
a/2 2 β/2 aβ ψ
F (θ , φ = 0) = ∫ [1 − x ]e jβx 'sin θ dx'⋅∫ 1 ⋅ dψ ' = ⋅ = Fxz (θ )
−a / 2 a −β / 2 2 βa
( sin θ ) 2
ψ

βa
sin 2 ( sin θ )
(b) ψ 1 πλ λ
= ⇒ 2∆θ ≈ 2 × 0.326 = 0.652 ×
βa 2 a a
( sin θ ) 2
ψ

βa sin θ 2l
(c) sin( ) = 0 ⇒ θ null = sin −1 ( )
ψ a
d sin 2 ψ 3π sin 2 ψ
(d) ( ) = 0 ⇒ ψ = ⇒ = 0.045
dψ ψ 2 2 ψ2
1
∴ The first sidelobe level = ) = 26.9dB
20 log10 (
0.045

Eg. A linearly polarized uniform electric field E a = xˆE 0 exists in a circular aperture of radius

b in a conducting plane at z=0. Assuming b to be large in comparison to wavelength, (a) find an

expression for the far-zone electric field, and (b) determine the width of the main beam between
first nulls.
(Sol.) (a) x' = ρ ' cos φ ' , y ' = ρ ' sin φ ' , and
x' cos φ + y ' sin φ = ρ ' (cos φ cos φ '+ sin φ sin φ ' ) = ρ ' cos(φ − φ ' ).
b 2π b J 1 ( bb sin θ )
F (θ , φ ) = E 0 ∫ ∫ e jbρ 'sin θ cos(φ −φ ') ρ ' dφ ' dρ ' = E 0 ∫ 2πJ 0 ( bρ ' sin θ ) ρ ' dρ ' = E 0 2πb 2 [ ]
0 0 0 bb sin θ
 2pb 2 − jbR0 J 1 (u ) 2πβ
E p = aˆ x jE 0 e [ ] , where u = β β sin θ = sin θ .
λ R0 u λ
(b) The first null of the radiation pattern occurs at the first zero of J 1 (u ) : u11 =3.832
3.832λ 3.832λ λ
θ1 = sin −1 ( )≅ = 1.22 (rad ) , where D=2b. The width of the main beam between
2πb 2πb D
the first nulls is 2θ1 = 2.44λ / D(rad ) .
2π
Formulae: ∫ 0
e jw cos φ ' dφ ' = 2πJ 0 ( w) and ∫ wJ 0 ( w)dw = wJ 1 ( w)