A PERFORMER’S GUIDE TO GEORGE CRUMB’S

MAKROKOSMOS IV (CELESTIAL MECHANICS)

Hyangmee Kim, BM., M.M.

Dissertation Prepared for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS

August 2008

APPROVED:

Pamela Mia Paul, Major Professor

Elvia Puccinelli, Minor Professor
Steven Harlos, Committee Member
Graham Phipps, Director of Graduate Studies
in the College of Music
James C. Scott, Dean of the College of Music
Sandra L. Terrell, Dean of the Robert B.
Toulouse School of Graduate Studies
 Kim, Hyangmee. A Performer’s Guide to George Crumb’s Makrokosmos IV

(Celestial Mechanics). Doctor of Musical Arts (Performance), August 2008, 37 pp., 18

musical examples, bibliography, 87 titles.

George Crumb (b.1929)’s Makrokosmos is recognized as one of the masterpieces

of twentieth century piano writing. Inexplicably, volume four of Makrokosmos, Crumb’s

only four-hand piano piece, is rarely studied by Crumb scholars. According to Crumb's

program notes, his Makrokosmos is meant to be a hybrid of piano and orchestral sound.

Crumb devised a list of signs and abbreviated letters to explain his specific instructions

to the performers. The pianists who plan to perform Makrokosmos need to study

Crumb's notations carefully in order to faithfully realize the composer's intentions.

Therefore this dissertation will examine the composer’s treatment of four hands at the

piano. In addition, a performer’s analysis and practical “translation” of these techniques

will be provided, in the hopes of rendering this amazing piece more accessible to

pianists in search of new and wonderful repertoire for piano four hands. It is also hoped

that future composers will be inspired by Crumb’s innovations and imaginative ideas.
Copyright 2008

by

Hyangmee Kim

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF MUSIC EXAMPLES .......................................................................................... iv

Chapters

I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1

II. GEORGE CRUMB: BIOGRAPHY .............................................................. 3

III. INNOVATIVE SOUND EFFECT ................................................................ 7

IV. ANALYTIC OVERVIEW ........................................................................... 13

V. PERFORMER’S GUIDE TO PERFORMANCE ........................................ 20

VI. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................... 29

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 31

iii
 LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES

All musical examples are reproduced with permission

from the Peter Presser Company.

Page

1. Makrokosmos IV – I: page 6, beginning ............................................................. 13

2. Makrokosmos IV – I: page 9, rehearsal 5 ........................................................... 14

3. Makrokosmos IV – II: page 16, rehearsal 15 ...................................................... 15

4. Makrokosmos IV – III: page 20, beginning ......................................................... 16

5. Makrokosmos IV – III: page 22, rehearsal 27 ..................................................... 17

6. Makrokosmos IV – III: page 26, rehearsal 34 ..................................................... 17

7. Makrokosmos IV – III: page 9, rehearsal 42 ....................................................... 18

8. Makrokosmos IV – IV: page 30, beginning ......................................................... 18

9. Makrokosmos IV – IV: page 34, rehearsal 49 ..................................................... 19

10. Makrokosmos IV – I: page 7, rehearsal 21 ......................................................... 21

11. Makrokosmos IV - I: page 8, rehearsal 3 ............................................................ 21

12. Makrokosmos IV - I: page 9, rehearsal 5 ............................................................ 22

13. Makrokosmos IV - II: page 15, beginning ........................................................... 23

14. Makrokosmos IV - II: page 19, rehearsal 20 ....................................................... 24

15. Makrokosmos IV - III: page 27, rehearsal 36 ...................................................... 25

16. Makrokosmos IV - IV: page 30, beginning .......................................................... 26

17. Makrokosmos IV - IV: page 32, rehearsal 47 ..................................................... 27

18. Makrokosmos IV - IV: page 35, rehearsal 53 ..................................................... 28

iv
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Pianists today are increasingly turning their attention to duo piano repertoire.

Over the years, composers have taken various approaches to the sound of four hands

on the piano. This piano four hand repertoire has a history which reaches back to the

Viennese composers such as Mozart, Schubert, and Brahms whose masterpieces have

been handed down to us.1 Twentieth-century composer, George Crumb (b.1929) has

written a most imaginative and creative work for piano: Makrokosmos.

Crumb’s Makrokosmos is recognized as one of the masterpieces of twentieth

century piano writing. 2 Volumes one and two are for solo amplified piano, volume three

is for two pianos and percussion, and volume four is for piano, four hands. George

Crumb enjoys playing four-hand piano works of Schubert, and his interest in this genre

is the genesis of volume four of Makrokosmos. 3 Many of the sounds in these

masterpieces are created by amplifying the pianos and by using extended piano

techniques. Inexplicably, volume four of Makrokosmos, Crumb’s only four-hand piano

piece, is rarely studied by Crumb scholars.

Crumb himself states in his program notes for Makrokosmos that he wanted to

devise a hybrid of piano and orchestral sound. The result is hardly a traditional piece. In

1
George Crumb, George Crumb: Profile of a Composer, (NY: C.F. Peters Co., 1986), p.111.
2
Richard Bass, “Set, Scales and Symmetries: The Pitch-Structural Basis of George Crumb’s
Makrokosmos I and II,” Music Theory Spectrum, vol.13/1 (Spring, 1991), p.1.
3
David Burge, “Music Reviews,” Note (June, 1989), p. 859-860.

1
addition to amplification, use of harmonics, preparing of piano and playing inside the

instrument, Crumb actually employs six hands by including the page turner in the

performance, giving him/her a substantial role in the performance.

The principal source for this study, specifically dealing with volume four, subtitled

“Celestial Mechanics,” will be the composer’s program notes. Based upon Crumb’s own

specific signs and marks intended to help the performer and guide the performance of

the piece, this dissertation will examine the composer’s treatment of four hands at the

piano, using a variety of innovative and extended piano techniques. In addition, a

performer’s analysis and practical “translation” of these techniques will be provided, in

the hopes of rendering this amazing piece more accessible to pianists in search of new

and wonderful repertoire for piano four hands. Techniques which will be addressed

include a variety of sound effects such as plucking and muting of strings, use of

harmonics, and dropping a light metal ruler onto the piano strings.

2
 CHAPTER II

GEORGE CRUMB: BIOGRAPHY

George Crumb was born on October 28, 1929 in West Virginia. His father was a

clarinet player, music copyist, and conductor. Crumb’s mother was a cellist in a local

orchestra. Clearly, his musical talent was influenced by his parents.

Music was a major activity in Crumb’s early life. One of his most significant early

musical activities was playing flute, piano, and clarinet in his family chamber orchestra.

When Crumb graduated from high school, he already had composed about forty pieces

including his first two orchestral works namely Poem (1946) and Gethsemane (1947).

The two pieces were performed by the Charleston Symphony. He was very excited

about having his compositions played by such a prestigious professional orchestra.

Sometimes he followed written music while he listened to records or symphonic

broadcasts on the radio. He tried to imagine what they sounded like instead of paying

attention to his teacher. He read books such as Thayer’s Life of Beethoven, and

Einstein’s Mozart in his high school years.

After graduating from high school, he entered Morris Harvey College in

Charleston, West Virginia for his Bachelor’s Degree. Subsequently he got a Master’s

Degree from the University of Illinois in Urbana-Champaign.

His most substantial compositional outputs from his Urbana period were Trio for

Strings (1952) and Sonata for Viola and Piano (1953), and both works demonstrated the

3
influence of Hindemith and Bartók. Crumb began his doctorate at the University of

Michigan in 1953. He dealt with the music of mainstream composers such as Bartók,

Schoenberg, Webern, and Stravinsky in doctoral seminar classes. He studied

composition with Ross Lee Finney and Boris Blacher while at Michigan.

In 1955, Crumb was awarded a Fulbright Fellowship to study music in Berlin.

After staying in Berlin, he returned to Ann Arbor in 1957 to complete his doctoral degree.

His dissertation consisted of Variazioni for Orchestra (1959), using the twelve-tone

system and other techniques of Arnold Schonberg. Crumb continued to write many

compositions. He wrote Sonata for Solo Violoncello (1955) in a style similar to Bartók

and dedicated the work to his mother.

In 1962, he was awarded a faculty position at the University of Colorado and

met fellow faculty member, pianist David Burge, an ardent supporter of new music.

Crumb’s Five Pieces for Piano (1963) was dedicated to Burge who premiered the piece.

Five Pieces for Piano foreshadows some of his ideas later developed in Makrokosmos,

such as varying the quality of sound or timbre of the piano: pianists are required to pluck

the strings of the piano and to lightly touch some strings while playing the corresponding

keys. This produces high-pitched sounds called harmonics. Additionally, new ways of

using the three pedals are explored.

In 1965, Crumb joined the composition faculty at the University of Pennsylvania,

and remained there until he retired. In 1968, Crumb was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in

4
Music for his orchestral work, Echoes of Time and The River (1967), and composed

Songs, Drones, and Refrains of Death (1968), scored for baritone, electric guitar,

electric contrabass, amplified piano, amplified harpsichord, and two percussionists. This

is the first piece in which Crumb used electric instruments. In 1970, he wrote Black

Angels which is a long work for electric string quartet. Crumb chose to electrically

amplify the instruments because special dynamics such as pppp are so soft that they

would be difficult to hear without amplification. One of his major works, Voice of the

Whale (Vox Balaenae, 1971) which was inspired by the singing of a humpback whale, is

written for three instruments: electric flute, electric cello, and amplified piano. The

musicians who perform the work are required to wear black masks. The masks

represent the impersonal forces of nature. Deep blue stage lighting is used to suggest

the ocean. There are major works including Makrokosmos, Vol. I (1972) and II (1973)

for solo piano; Star Child (1977) for soprano, children’s voices, and orchestra; A

Haunted Landscape (1984) for orchestra; and The Sleeper (1984) for soprano and

piano. Crumb completed volume four of his Makrokosmos in 1979 for amplified piano,

four hands. The complete Makrokosmos was premiered in New York that same year by

Gilbert Kalish and Paul Jacobs.

Crumb most frequently refers to influences from the music of Debussy and

Bartók. Debussy’s influence is evident primarily in Crumb’s usage of timbre, extended

pedal, whole-tone scale and resulting symmetrical chord structure. While Crumb

5
acknowledged the influence from Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern, he never accepted

strict serial technique a dominant influence. However, a particularly prominent influence

of Webern is reflected in Crumb’s use of brief and dance-like musical gesture. In

addition, the influence of Bartók is found in relation to formal organization and timbre.

Bartók’s uses of cyclical and arch forms as well as various small-scale symmetrical

relationships were described by Crumb as “a primary influence.” Moreover, both

Bartók’s and Crumb’s music make frequent use of the sounds of nature, particularly

nocturnal sounds.

6
 CHAPTER III

INNOVATIVE SOUND EFFECTS

George Crumb is notable among other things for producing innovative sounds

and colors from the piano. In order to produce percussive effects he utilizes various

techniques. For example, following to some extent the model of Henry Cowell (1897-

1965), he asks for sounds produced from inside the piano such as hitting or plucking the

strings. When Crumb asks for strings to be played inside the instrument, he is

experimenting with various pedaling techniques. The pedaling in this work is very

significant because the sound produced by pedaling is sustained throughout the piece.

George Crumb wrote “Performance Notes” to accompany his Makrokosmos and

included them in the score. He categorized the special sound effects as follows: 1.

Harmonics, 2. Pizzicato, 3. Glissando over the String, 4. Glissando on the string while

playing partials, 5. Boxed Notes, 6. Muted Tone and Non-Muted Tone, 7. Various pedal

usages indicated by the composer, 8. Rests.

1. Harmonics (5th partial, 2nd partial)

Celestial Mechanics utilizes harmonics of 2nd, 4th, and 5th partials. The precise
nodal points can be indicated by affixing tiny slivers of tape to the strings. The
finger(s) touching the nodes should come off the string(s) immediately after
single harmonics or groups of harmonics are struck so that the harmonics ring
more luminously. 4

4
George Crumb, “Performances Notes” in Celestial Mechanics (Makrokosmos IV), Cosmic Dances
for Amplified Piano, Four Hands (Peters ed., 1973). p.1.

7
 In acoustical theory, a certain length of string creates a certain pitch on an

instrument. The frequency can be expressed by vibrations per second. When that one

string is divided into equal distances, a series of sounds is produced that is called the

harmonic series. When one considers the given note A, the “A” vibrates at 440

vibrations per second. The second partial is one octave higher than the given note, “A2”

and vibrates at 880 per second. The third partial is a fifth higher than the given note,

“E2.” The fourth partial is twice the frequency of the second partial, so it is again “A3”

but one octave higher than the second partial. In order to find the 5th partial of the string,

one must divide the string into five equal lengths. Then one must find one fifth of the

length from the key pin. That is where the sound of the 5th partial will be.

Crumb usually points out how the partial should sound. Crumb tries to indicate

the sound of harmonic effects precisely. The strings are clearly marked by a piece of

drafting tape. Each piece of tape is written with a pitch on the string. While it is not an

exact replica of the partial, normally the human ear cannot distinguish and

differentiate between sounds, even though one may be a few inches away from the

source of the actual sound.

2. Pizzicato

Celestial Mechanics also requires pizzicato, a technique normally used by string

players.

When pizzicato playing is indicated, the string should be plucked with the
fingertip (f.t.), unless specifically marked “at end of string” (for a more nasal,

8
 metallic timbre). Normal playing on the keyboard is indicated by the instruction
“on key.” 5

According to Crumb, when playing inside the piano, the intended special effects

include differentiation of dynamics by using the fingernail or the fingertip.

3. Glissandos over the String

As with pizzicato, glissando is also a technique used by string players. Crumb

indicates how a pianist should produce a glissando effect.

Glissando sound is to be played with the fingertip (f.t.), fingernail (f.n.) and the
thumbnail or the end of a metal ruler. The strings may be strummed in the front
of the dampers (i.e., between the front structural beam and the pins) or behind
the dampers; the choice, depending on the considerations of timbre and ease of
performance, is left to the discretion of the pianists. The precise duration and
approximate range of the glissando is always given in the score. 6

4. Glissando on the String while Playing Partials

In the beginning of the second movement, Crumb uses glissando on the string

when a performer is playing a second partial. This is a similar effect to the harmonic

glissando on string instruments. Since it is very hard to hear the difference when it is

gliding, one must use strong and clear fingertips to make the best sound effect.

5. Boxed Notes

5
Ibid.
6
Ibid.

9
 Crumb creates a special “Box” in Celestial Mechanics. The composer specifies

that all boxed notes are to be silently depressed. 7 Boxed notes appear in the score in

the beginning of the piece. This indication appears with sostenuto pedaling. For

example, the notes in the box are “a2” through “a1,” so the pianist presses all the notes

in this octave. The left palm presses the eight white keys, and right palm presses black

keys of “a#2,” “c#2,” “d#2,” “f#2,” “g#2,” “a#1.” Then the pianist silently presses the

sostenuto pedal, and then depresses the notes with the palms on the keyboard. The

secondo pianist holds this sostenuto pedal throughout the first movement. It creates an

echo effect in stereo because a vibration is now created by holding the sostenuto pedal.

6. Muted Tone (“+”) and Non- Muted Tone (“n”)

Muted tones (indicated by the symbol “+”) are used extensively in Celestial

Mechanics. The string(s) should be muted (with firm pressure) at the very end (next to

the bridge) in order to produce the maximum resonance and beauty of tone. Passages

involving rapid alternation of muted and non-muted tone (as in Alpha Centauri) are

precisely marked in the score and should be carefully observed. Crumb uses the term

“on key” for non-muted tones (“n”), for example, in the first movement of Alpha Centauri,

crumb precisely indicates the rapid alternation between muted and non-muted tones.8

The effect of a non-muted tone is similar to the sound of percussion.

7
Ibid.
8
Ibid.

10
 Crumb uses the term “on key” for non–muted tones (“n”). A regular playing, for

instance, in the first movement of Alpha Centauri movement of a (“n”) involves rapid

alternations of muted and non-muted tones. The effect of a non-muted tone is similar to

the sound of percussion.

7. Various Pedal Usages Indicated by the Composer

Crumb differentiates the use of various pedaling with markings PI, PII, and PIII.

PI means right (or damper) pedal, PII indicates middle (or sostenuto) pedal, and PIII is

for left (or una corda) pedal.

8. Rests

Crumb uses the mark SB to indicate striking the soundboard (through the circular

opening in the metal frame) with the fingertips. The markings of CBI, CBII, and CBIII are

for sound effects produced by using the metal crossbeams of the piano. CBI is the

leftmost beam; CBII and CBIII are the next beams to the right.

Crumb uses a single line (instead of the usual five staff lines) to indicate that the
performer will be pl aying some sounds that are percussive at rehearsal number

34. By adding a si gn like CB III or IV and a couple of notes written below or above the

11
line with a diagonal line connecting those notes (at rehearsal number 36), Crumb asks

the per formers to m ake a new and di fferent so und ot her t han the regular ke yboard

sounds.

In his performance notes, Crumb made a list of these signs and abbreviated

letters to explain his instructions. For example, at rehearsal number 36, the performers

are instructed to play tremolos on top of the stainless steel ruler which are placed on the

strings or to strike the top of the ruler.

On of the most striking features of the work is the use of amplified piano. The

amplification of the piano is specifically called for by Crumb. In effect, this makes the

amplification an extension of the piano as an instrument, and is essential to the

effectiveness of the work’s performance.

12
 CHAPTER IV

ANALYTIC OVERVIEW

This chapter provides an introductory analytic overview of Makrokosmos. There

are four distinctive movements, Alpha Centauri, Beta Cygni, Gamma Draconis, and

Delta Orionis named after popular stars.

1. Alpha Centauri

The first movement, titled Alpha Centauri, is named after the brightest star in the

southern constellation and the fourth-brightest star in the night sky. The piece reflects

the composer’s response to the enormity and infinity of time and space. A strong single

voice opens the piece in the middle register, and a rapid movement of notes connecting

from the primo (first pianist) to the secondo (second pianist) is imitative in nature. 9

Ex.1. Makrokosmos IV – I: page 6, beginning 10

9
Crumb’s score clearly indicates primo for first pianist and secondo for second pianist in
performance with a piano.
10
Examples from Makrokosmos IV in this document will be represented by a Roman numeral
indicating the volume number and movement number, following by the page number indicated with “p.”.

13
 In the middle, the texture gets thicker by using cluster chords; the rhythmic

intensity is increased by using triplet rhythms.

Ex.2. Makrokosmos IV – I: page 9, rehearsal 5, Chromatic Cluster Chords

The conversation gets intense as the piece progresses and the dynamic stays in

fortissimo until a few measures before the end. The piece dies out gradually with fewer

notes and less sound.

The techniques used in this movement are muted notes, scraping low register

strings, and 5th partial harmonics. There are also various combinations of chords, such

as 7th chords, minor 3rds, and minor 7ths (see Ex.1), as well as chromatic cluster

chords (see Ex.2) and whole-tone/step chords (see Ex.8). The use of harmonics adds a

different color to the sound. At rehearsal number 6, the first harmonic tones are

presented. These 5th partial tones are 14 cents lower than the regular sound that a

piano key produces. Normally it is not audible to people because it is difficult to

14
distinguish the difference. The sounds, techniques, and the writing style express both

the endless space and the bright energy of the star.

2. Beta Cygni

In contrast to the first movement, Beta Cygni opens with a warm and strong echo

of soundboard sound. The decay of that sound by waiting five seconds is followed by a

three- note cluster, while fingers sliding on the string at the 5th partial imitate the decay.

We have an echo followed by an echo. After having played mute and partial notes, the

actual notes are introduced on the keyboard at rehearsal number 15.

Ex.3. Makrokosmos IV – II: page 16, rehearsal 15

This return to familiar keyboard sounds is like the brightness of the star in the sky:

as in Alpha Centauri there is alternation of ideas back and forth, much like a question

and answer pattern.

15
3. Gamma Draconis

If the first movement (Alpha Centauri) and second movement (Beta Cygni) are

about the peacefulness and brightness of space and stars, this movement (Gamma

Draconis) is like a storm in that peaceful space. In the beginning of the movement, the

performers have to place three stainless steel rulers with cork stripping on one side

inside the piano, two that are 12 inches long and one that is 15 inches long.

These must be placed exactly on top of the strings. When the rulers drop onto a

vibrating string, it makes a rusty sound. Sudden dynamic changes from pianissimo to

forte create a surprise attack on the listeners.

Ex.4. Makrokosmos IV – III: page 20, beginning

The muted metal sound is similar to the sound created when putting papers on

the strings. However, a metal ruler makes a warmer and deeper sound than paper.

Dramatic changes in sound intensify the mood of the piece. The actual storm hits when

the piece reaches the at rehearsal number 27. Fast rhythms and loud dynamics wipe

16
out whatever was in their way, but that emotion dies very quickly.

Ex.5. Makrokosmos IV – III: page 22, rehearsal 27

At rehearsal number 34, the mood shifts as the performer reaches inside the

instrument to produce percussion-like sounds evocative of the spiritual mood of

Crumb’s Christmas Suite (1980). One particular effect is produced by striking the ruler.

Ex.6. Makrokosmos IV – III: page 26, rehearsal 34

As the notes used shift from the lower register to the higher register, we reach at

rehearsal number 42 where the page turner finally joins the four hand group by taking

charge of striking the ruler. This sustains the rhythmic gesture through the end of the

movement while both performers are moving up to higher registers on the keyboard.

17
 Ex.7. Makrokosmos IV – III: page 9, rehearsal 42

4. Delta Orionis

After removing the rulers, we are back to the sounds that were introduced earlier.

Particularly special in this piece is the composer’s fascination with the decay of the

sound. At the beginning, the secondo presses given notes silently and then primo

rapidly makes a glissando on the string. As the string sound fades out, the secondo has

to release notes a particular rhythmic pattern and that pattern is immediately introduced

on the keyboard. The rhythmic pattern goes back and forth between the two performers.

Ex.8. Makrokosmos IV – IV: page 30, beginning

18
 Crumb ends the piece by using the page-turner, to make it once again a six-

handed piece. Crumb gave a special title to the section, beginning at rehearsal number

49- Cosmic Canons. This ending is meant to symbolize the four stars in our

constellation.

Ex.9. Makrokosmos IV – IV: page 34, rehearsal 49

19
 CHAPTER V

PERFORMER’S GUIDE

1. Alpha Centauri

Before the primo starts to play, the secondo needs to press the block of chords

that approximately covers the indicated notes within the box while using the sostenuto

pedal. The secondo presses the pedal until the end of the piece. When the primo plays

on the keyboard, it sounds like the damper pedal is being used. At the end of the first

system, the secondo comes in playing notes, muted with the fingertips on the string.

The long arrow indicates the exact places for both performers to come together. Eye

contact and body movement must be coordinated and synchronized between both

performers. At rehearsal number 1, there is a black block with sharp and flat signs next

to it. The block indicates an approximate place for the performer to strike the strings with

the palm of the hand. Additionally, there is specific indication for usage of the damper

pedal for the primo.

On page 7, at rehearsal number 2 toward end of the upper system, the secondo

has another black block sign with grace notes and a tremolo sign within. This means the

performer will use fingernails to scrape the string in a fast motion like playing a grace

note. The tremolo sign indicates a strumming of the strings.

20
 Ex.10: Makrokosmos IV – I: page 7, rehearsal 2

On page 8, in the primo part, when he/she plays the quintuplet of 32nd notes, the

performer needs to know that the grace notes are regular notes while the 32nd notes are

muted. Unless it is indicated with (“+”) sign, notes are played on the keys without sound

quality changes.

Ex.11: Makrokosmos IV - I: page 8, rehearsal 3

On page 9, the cluster chords are played on the keys but at the same time the

21
sound is muted by the palm. The (“n”) indicates normal note playing and the (“+”) for the

palm to mute the sound. This rhythm is played on specific rhythmic patterns. On page 9,

at rehearsal number 6 is similar, but contains fewer notes and triplets of normal and

muted notes. One must be careful with dynamic changes that occur within triplet

rhythms. While the primo plays triplet rhythms, the secondo is playing the 5th partial of

given notes. One hand is touching the 5th partial of the string and the other hand plays

the key. The 5th partial of the string is usually right above the dampers.

Ex.12: Makrokosmos IV - I: page 9, rehearsal 5

22
2. Beta Cygni

The peaceful and tranquil mood is evocative of this movement the grandeur of

the night sky and gives the effect of a slow movement in context of the entire movement.

The extreme difference in dynamics expresses the brightness of the many stars. On

page 15, the primo starts the piece by striking the soundboard with their fingertips and

by pressing the damper pedal “violently.” The soundboard sound is like a grace note to

the vibration of the damper pedal. After allowing the sound to resonate for five seconds,

the secondo enters with a three-note chord. This sound starts with the 5th partial of the

actual note; by gliding the fingers toward the center of the string, the sound falls off from

the given pitch.

Ex.13: Makrokosmos IV - II: page 15, beginning

Then, the secondo strikes the second crossbeam with the knuckles as a grace

note follows, produced by gently striking the lower strings with the palm. Again, five

seconds later the primo enters with the secondo by pressing the 2nd partial harmonic

23
notes (specific notes are written out) that will be played by the secondo.

On pages 16, a few notes are still held by both performers to produce the 2nd

partial harmonic sound. As the secondo plays trills on given harmonic notes with the

right hand, he/she will lift the fingers off of the string on grace notes so that the

fundamental pitch momentarily emerges; then the 2nd and 4th fingers slide along the

given strings to produce a rising-falling glissando of various partials (see Ex.3).

On page 16, at rehearsal number 15, the secondo plucks the strings with the

fingertips while holding the 2nd partial of the strings, and the primo plays both on the

keyboard and pizzicato. In the second system, the primo will hold the string close to the

pin to mute the string and produce percussion-like sounds. The rest of the movement is

treated in the same fashion.

At the end of movement, on page 19, the sound should resonate for seven to ten

second, after which Crumb indicates to move into the 3rd movement right away.

Ex.14: Makrokosmos IV - II: page 19, rehearsal 20

24
3. Gamma Draconis

The primo presses the damper pedal throughout the entire movement. The

secondo starts the piece by playing glissando over the low strings and drops the 12-inch

metal ruler onto the strings. The performer must ensure that the cork stripping is faced

down on the strings. The Primo has similar notations to follow the secondo with a 12-

inch ruler and 15-inch ruler. The approximate places are indicated on the music.

On page 26, at rehearsal number 34, both performers play crossbeams with their

knuckles and strike and scrape the strings. Accurate rhythm is required when striking

the beams and strings (see Ex.6).

On page 27, at rehearsal number 36, on the first system, there are blocked

notations for secondo. Here the secondo will strike his/her ruler with the fingertips

simultaneously; the primo will play a trill on the top of his/her ruler from bottom to top as

indicated in the directions.

Ex.15: Makrokosmos IV - III: page 27, rehearsal 36

On page 29, at rehearsal number 42, the page turner finally joins the two

performers by striking the ruler on the low strings in a given rhythm. At the end of the

25
piece, the page turner and the secondo will remove the rulers by pulling off from the

string to make a glissando. Both performers will hold the pedal as the sound decays and

will wait for a few seconds before moving on to the last piece.

4. Delta Orionis

On page 30, the primo has specific indications to use the damper pedal. The

Secondo has a group of notes that are indicated in the box at the beginning of the piece.

He/she will press these keys silently, while the primo plays a rapid glissando on the

strings with their thumbnails. It will than remove the fingers in a given rhythm in 5’

intervals.

Ex.16: Makrokosmos IV - IV: page 30, beginning

On page 32, at rehearsal number 47, the primo plays black keys and white keys

with his/her forearm, and the secondo plays glissando on lower strings. The notes in the

box are to be silently pressed while the primo is playing.

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 Ex.17: Makrokosmos IV - IV: page 32, rehearsal 47

Crumb’s reference to compositional techniques of the Baroque period appears in

Cosmic Canons 11 from at rehearsal number 49 through the end of the piece. At this

point, Crumb indicates the piece is officially for six hands. The Primo plays on the keys

while striking the soundboard with the fingertips, the secondo plays on the keys while

striking the cross beam with the knuckles, and the page turner plays harmonic notes

with glissando along with striking the first cross beam with their knuckles. Specific

rhythmic structure and dynamics are given.

At rehearsal number 52, the second’s lower-note sounds end the piece first, but

his/her crossbeam sounds still continue with the upper notes. Then, at rehearsal

number 53, the upper notes of the secondo end followed by the crossbeam sounds of

11
Crumb himself wrote Cosmic Canons on the score.

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the page tuner. The final sounds of the piece are comprised of the soundboard and the

keyboard sounds of the primo, the crossbeam sounds of the secondo, and lastly, the

keyboard sounds produced by the page tuner.

Ex.18: Makrokosmos IV - IV: page 35, rehearsal 53

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 CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION

According to Crumb's program notes, his Makrokosmos is meant to be a hybrid

of piano and orchestral sound. Crumb devised a list of signs and abbreviated letters to

explain his specific instructions to the performers. The pianists who plan to perform

Makrokosmos need to study Crumb's notations carefully in order to faithfully realize the

composer's intentions.

This dissertation has examined the various sonorities which Crumb has devised,

and the result is quite exceptional within non-traditional composition. Crumb uses

amplification, harmonics, preparation of the piano, and playing inside the piano on the

strings. Further, he gives the page turner a substantial role in the performance by calling

for six hands at one point in the piece (see at rehearsal numbers 42, and 49 through 53).

At the same time, Crumb blends his less traditional approaches to sound with

more traditional compositional ideas and structures; for example, the composer’s idea of

using the inside of the instrument to produce specific sound effects differs from the

prepared piano of John Cage. For instance, Cage requires additional devices such as

nails, pins, and extra tools to produce sound. Crumb, however, uses a piano without any

extra tools.

By investigating and clarifying some of Crumb's intentions, this dissertation

hopes to render this amazing piece more accessible to pianists in search of new and

29
wonderful repertoire for piano four-hands. Crumb’s new and innovative thoughts

advance the technique of playing the piano. Therefore, it is hoped that future composers

will be inspired by Crumb’s innovations and imaginative ideas.

30
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Schwartz, Elliott & Godfrey, Daniel. Music since 1945: Issues, Materials, and Literature.
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Slonimsky, NY, Schirmer, 8th ed., 1991.

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___________. "Models of Octatonic and Whole-tone Interaction: George Crumb and his
Predecessors." Journal of Music Theory 38 (1994).

32
Bass, Richard. "Sets, Scales and Symmetries: the pitch structural basis of George
Crumb's Makrokosmos II." Music Theory Spectrum 13 (1991): 1-20.

___________. "Models of Octatonic and Whole-tone Interaction: George Crumb and his
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Bender, William. "Star-Child in Review." Time (May 1979): 36.

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Burge, David. "Celestial Mechanics (Makrokosmos IV): cosmic dances for amplified
piano, 4 hands." Notes 45 (1989): 859-60.

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Greimes, Ev. "Conversations with American composers: George Crumb." Music Clubs
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(1969): 280.

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584-8.

Lusk, Larry. "George Crumb: 'Makrokosmos Vol. I.'" Notes 31 (1974-75): 157.

Moves, Robert. "George Crumb: Music for a Summer Evening (Makrokosmos III)."
Musical Quarterly 62 (1976): 293.

Norris, Renee Lapp. "George Crumb's Five Pieces for Piano." Clavier 37 (October
1998): 22-26.

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29-42.

Smith, P.J. & Saylor, B. "Crumb's Makrokosmos II - new vision or dead end?" High
Fidelity Musical America 25 (February 1975): 36-37.

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___________. "George Crumb." Musical Times 119 (October 1978): 844-5.

Thomas, Jennifer. "The Use of Color in Three Chamber Works of the 20th Century."
Indiana Theory Review 4: 3 (1981): 22-40.

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United States Concert Music." Journal of New Music Research 4 (1994).

34
 Dissertations

Chenn, Chin-Chin. "An investigation of night music by Bela Bartok and George Crumb."
M.Mus. thesis. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1995.

Chun, Yung Hae. "The Extension of Piano Technique in Compositions by George

Crumb for Solo Piano." D.M.A. dissertation. University of Wisconsin - Madison,
1982.

Cordes, Jean Kunselman. "A New American Development in Music: Some

Characteristic Features Extending from the Legacy of Charles Ives." Doctoral
dissertation. Louisiana State University, 1976.

Cunningham, Peter. "Structural determinants in George Crumb's Night of the Four

Moons and Ancient Voices of Children." M.M. thesis. Ithaca College, Ithaca - NY,
1976.

De baise, Joseph. "George Crumb's Music for a Summer Evening: A Comprehensive

Analysis." Ph.D. dissertation. Eastman School of Music, 1982.

De dobay, Thomas Raymond. "Small-Scale Structural Principles in the Chamber Music

of George Crumb." Ph.D. dissertation. University of Southern California, 1979.

___________. "Harmonic Materials and Usages in the Lorca Cycle of George Crumb."
Ph.D. dissertation. University of Southern California, 1982.

Faulkner, Susan Green. "An Analysis of George Crumb's Makrokosmos, Volume II and
its Relationship to Makrokosmos, Volumes I and III." D.M.A. dissertation.
University of Cincinnati, 1980.

Fouse, Kathryn. "Surrealism in the piano music of representative twentieth-century

American composers." D.M.A. thesis. University of North Texas, 1992.

Fry, Johnathan. "New Musical Notation: a Bibliography." Ph.D. thesis. Eastman School
of Music, 1977.

Goter, Arlene. "The Treatment of the Piano in and Music for a Summer Evening
(Makrokosmos III)." Doctoral dissertation. Indiana University, 1983.

35
Harrel, Doris. "New Techniques in Twentieth-Century Solo Piano Music: An Expansion
of Pianistic Resources from Cowell to the Present." Doctoral dissertation.
University of Texas - Austin, 1976.

Jiorle-Nagy, Linda A. "A study of phrase structures and unifying devices in George
Crumb's Makrokosmos I and II." D.M.A. thesis. Boston University, 1993.

Kingan, Michael Gregory. "The influence of Bela Bartok on symmetry and

instrumentation in George Crumb's Music for a summer evening." D.M.A. thesis.
University of North Texas, 1993.

Ledbetter, Robert B. "An examination of the percussion writing in the chamber works of
George Crumb, 1960-1980." D.M.A. thesis. University of North Texas, 1993.

Maclean, Suzanne. "A Study of Constructional Principles in George Crumb's

Makrokosmos, Volume I." Master’s thesis. American University, 1974.

Matthews, Neil Wright. "George Crumb's Makrokosmos, Volumes I and II:

Considerations for Performance, Including Observations by David Burge, Robert
Miller, and Lambert Orkis." D.M.A. dissertation. University of Oklahoma, 1981.

McGee, William James. "Textural and Timbre as Formal Determinants in Selected

Music of George Crumb." Master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1979.

McKay, John Robert. "Notational Practices in Selected Piano Works of the Twentieth
century." Doctoral dissertation. Ball State University, 1976.

Moore, Linda Grace. "Contemporary Cello Techniques from the Twentieth-Century

Repertory." Doctoral dissertation. Ball State University, 1976.

Pienaar, E.A. "Number symbolism in Music: George Crumb's Makrokosmos I and the
Music of the Spheres." M.Mus. dissertation. University of Cape Town, 1997.

Ott, David L. "The Role of Texture and Timbre in the Music of George Crumb." Doctoral
dissertation. University of Kentucky, 1983.

Shuffett, Robert. "The Music, 1971-75, of George Crumb: A Style Analysis." D.M.A.
dissertation. Peabody Institute, 1979

36
Sutton, Daniel. "The musical language of George Crumb's Makrokosmos Volume II, and
its relationship to the style of Claude Debussy." D.M.A. thesis. Manhattan School
of Music, 1993.

Szutor, Kristina F. "Musical coherence and poetic meaning in George

Crumb's Apparition." D.M.A. thesis. University of British Columbia, 1994.

Websites

Duckworth, Robert; Harvey, John & Powell, Julie. "Interview with George Crumb."
[http://www.thing.net/~roddys/trickyol/interview3.html].

Holwin, Mic. "Those Were The Days. Or Were They? Three Living Legends of
Contemporary Music Compare Yesterday and Today (Interview with George Perle,
George Crumb, and David Diamond)."
[http://www.americancomposers.org/millen1.htm].

Musical Scores

Crumb George. Makrokosmos, Volume I, for Amplified Piano: C. F. Peters Corp., 1974.

___________. Makrokosmos, Volume II, for Amplified Piano: C.F. Peters Corp., 1973.

___________. Makrokosmos, Volume III, for two Amplified Pianos and Percussion: C.
F. Peters Corp., 1974.

___________. Makrokosmos, Volume III, Cosmic Dances for Amplified Piano, Four
Hands: C. F. Peters Corp., 1979.

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