Contents

TOPIC: STATES OF MATTER .................................................................................................................. 2

SECTION: 1.1 – EVIDENCE FOR PARTICLES ........................................................................................................ 2

EXPERIMENTS ............................................................................................................................................. 2
PRE-TEST ................................................................................................................................................... 3
LABORATORY ACTIVITIES ............................................................................................................................... 6
LESSON 1 ................................................................................................................................................... 8
LESSON 2 ................................................................................................................................................... 8
LESSON 3 ................................................................................................................................................... 8
SECTION 1.2 ............................................................................................................................................ 12
EXPERIMENTS ........................................................................................................................................... 12
LABORATORY ACTIVITIES ............................................................................................................................. 14
LESSON 4 ................................................................................................................................................. 17
LESSON 5 ................................................................................................................................................. 18
LESSON 6 ................................................................................................................................................. 19
LESSON 7 ................................................................................................................................................. 19
SUPPLEMENTAL (MCDUEL, 1983) ................................................................................................................ 21
SUPPLEMENTAL 2 (CSEC PAST PAPERS) ......................................................................................................... 25
IDEAS FOR PROJECTS ................................................................................................................................... 27

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Topic: States of Matter

Section: 1.1 – Evidence for particles

The students should be able to state evidence in support of the particulate nature of matter.
Evidence obtained from practical work including processes, such as diffusion and osmosis.

Content (CXC Module, page 4-9)

A particle is a very small portion of matter. The term ‘particulate’ refers to the existence of
separate particles.
Scientists believe that all matter is made up of particles and although this is difficult to prove,
there are several phenomena that provide evidence to support this view. Examples of such
phenomena are diffusion, osmosis and Brownian motion. The theory dealing with motion of
particles is called the KINETIC THEORY.

Diffusion:
Examples of diffusion include:
• The scent of perfume spreads through the air.
• The brown colour of bromine gas spreads through air.
• The purple colour of potassium manganite (VII) spreads through water.

There is little or no diffusion in solids.

Osmosis
Genuine osmosis involves the movement of solvent particle only, not solute particles. The solvent
particles move in both direction across a semi-permeable membrane, but the rate of movement is
greater towards the side where the solvent particles are less abundant.

Examples of osmosis include:

• The swelling of dried prunes when soaked in water. The plasma membrane in the cells
that form the tissue of the prune acts as a semi-permeable membrane. If the swollen
prune is then placed in concentrated solution (e.g. a saturated sucrose solution) the prune
will shrink since, in this case, the solution inside the prune will lose more water to the
sugar solution than it will gain from the sugar solution.

Examples of semi-permeable membranes:

• Cell membrane in cells
• Pigs’ bladders
• Visking tubing
• Cellophane

Brownian Motion
Brownian motion is the zig-zag, jerky movements of light, visible particles suspended in a fluid
(liquid or gas). The fluid particles are in constant motion and bombard the visible particles

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 constantly, but at any particular instant, such particles will tend to experience greater impulses
from the particles on one side, and will therefore be propelled in a particular direction.

Experiments

1. Diffusion of coloured gas in air

2. Diffusion of coloured liquid in water
3. Diffusion of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases in cylindrical tube.
4. Osmosis of pawpaw (green) strips in a container of distilled water

Multiple Choice Test Questions

1. Which of the following is true for particles?

I. Particles are found everywhere
II. Particles can move
III. Particles can attract each other

A. I and II are correct

B. I and III are correct
C. II and III are correct
D. I, II and III are correct

2. Which one of the following is evidence that matter exist as discrete particles?
A. Osmosis
B. Melting
C. Colour
D. Space

3. Someone wearing perfume enters the room. The smell of the perfume is soon detected by
everyone in the room. This is an example of:
A. Osmosis
B. Diffusion
C. Smell
D. Breeze

4. A strip of green pawpaw is placed in pure water. What would be observed after a day?
A. The strip swells and become softer
B. The strip shrinks and become harder
C. The strip swell and become harder
D. The strip shrinks and becomes softer

5. The state(s) of matter with the strongest attraction between particles is/are:
A. Solid only
B. Liquid only

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 C. Gas only
D. Solid and liquid both

6. In which state(s) of matter are the particles packed closely together with only little space between
the particles?
A. Solid only
B. Liquid only
C. Gas only
D. Solid and liquid both.

7. When ice is heated it eventually turns into liquid water. This process is called:
A. Freezing
B. Melting
C. Boiling
D. Sublimation

8. When dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) or air freshener is left for a while the solid changes directly
into a gas, without passing through the liquid phase. This process is called:
A. Freezing
B. Melting
C. Boiling
D. Sublimation

9. Which of the following is an exothermic process?

A. Freezing
B. Melting
C. Boiling
D. Sublimation

10. Two gases diffuse at the same rate. What conclusion can be deduced about the two gases?
A. They are the same colour
B. One gas is heavier than the other
C. Both gases have the same properties.
D. The particles in both gases have the same mass.

11. The random, zigzag movement of microscopic solid particles, such as dust or pollen grain,
observed through the microscope under certain conditions provides evidence for the existence of
invisible particles. This random, zigzag motion is called:
A. Osmosis
B. Diffusion
C. Brownian motion
D. Kinetic motion

12. Which of the following statements about osmosis is true?

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 I. Osmosis involves the movement of solvent particles only and not solute.
II. In osmosis water particles move in both directions across the semi-permeable
barrier.
III. During osmosis the movement of water is greater towards the side where water is
more abundant
A. I and II only correct
B. II and III only correct
C. I and III only correct
D. I, II and III correct

13. Which of the following statements about a pure solid is/are correct?
I. A pure solid melts at a fixed temperature
II. A pure solid has a fixed composition
III. A pure solid undergoes sublimation
A. I and II only correct
A. II and III only correct
B. I and III only correct
C. I, II and III correct

14. The melting points of some pure solids are given below.
ice 0 ⁰C
stearic acid 70 ⁰C
naphthalene 80 ⁰C
sodium chloride 800 ⁰C
oxygen -218 ⁰C
Which of these solids has the strongest cohesive force between particles?

A. Naphthalene
B. Oxygen
C. Sodium chloride
D. Ice

15. When a liquid changes to gas, there is

A. a decrease in mass
B. an increase in temperature
C. no change in mass
D. an increase in the size of particles

The table gives the melting points and boiling points of substances P, Q and R.
Room temperature is 30° C. Use the table to answer questions 5 -7.
Substance Melting point ° C Boiling point ° C
P -30 200
Q 20 80
R 75 444

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16. Which of the substances exist in the liquid state at room temperature?
A. P B. Q C. P and Q D. Q and R

17. Which of the substances exist in the liquid state at 100° C?

A.P B. Q C. P and Q D. P and R

18. Which of the substances diffuses rapidly at 100° C?

A. P B. Q C. P and Q D. Q and R

19. Which of the following provides direct evidence for the particulate nature of matter?
A. Chromatography B. Diffusion C. Distillation D. Melting

Answer True (T) or False (F) for items 20 to 25

20. Freezing is the opposite of melting

21. The freezing point of a pure liquid is the same as the melting point of the corresponding pure
solid.
22. Evaporation of water can occur at any temperature that water exists.
23. The presence of common salt is expected to decrease the melting point of ice.
24. The presence of common salt is expected to decrease the boiling point of water.
25. Particles in a solid have greater kinetic energy than the particles in a liquid.

Laboratory Activities

Diffusion in Gases
Gaseous diffusion can be demonstrated using two gas cylinders, a glass plate and a coloured gas.

The coloured gas is used to fill the first gas cylinder, covered with the glass plate. The second
cylinder is inverted on top of the first (this second cylinder is filled with air). When the glass plate
separating the cylinders is removed the movement of the coloured gas can be seen.

If bromine is used as the coloured gas the demonstration should be done in a fume hood as
bromine is highly corrosive and poisonous. The bromine must also be handled carefully. The
brown gas can also be generated in situ by reacting moderately concentrated nitric acid with
copper (a copper based coin can be used).

Diffusion in Liquids
A few coloured crystals of a soluble salt like potassium manganate (VII) are added to a beaker
with the aid of a glass tube. Keeping the tube in place, water is then added to the beaker and the
tube removed. This is left to stand for a while students explain their observations.

Discussion should be encouraged with regard to (a) how the rate of diffusion in gases compares
with that in liquids and (b) how and why the rate of diffusion of a gas depends on its density.

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With regards to (b) if the terms "light" and "heavy" is used, it should be emphasized that the
terms “light” and “heavy” for the comparison being made applies to individual particles. The
terms “dense” and “less dense” is for the comparison of the gases.

Comparison of molecular formula and atomic masses allows for the determination of relative
masses. For e.g., a molecule of carbon dioxide has the formula CO2 and the hydrogen molecule is
H2. The relative mass of carbon dioxide will be (1x12)+2(16) = 44. The relative mass of hydrogen is
2(1) = 2. The carbon dioxide particles is twenty-two (22) times as heavy as a hydrogen molecule
and the hydrogen particles will be able to move much faster than the carbon dioxide particles.

Other Diffusion Experiments

A simple experiment to show that gases of low density diffuse more rapidly than gases of high
density can be demonstrated with ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas.

(Include the chemical equation for the reaction, including state symbols. Students should
calculate the relative molecular masses of the gases).

After observing diffusion in gases and liquids, students should be helped to deduce that there is
little or no diffusion in solids. For example, they can be asked: "When you place a glass on a
wooden table, do you observe any merging of glass and wood?"

Osmosis
Simple apparatus such as a thistle funnel, with its mouth covered by a piece of cellophane, can be
used to demonstrate osmosis. The apparatus can be set up and left for approximately half an
hour.

Osmosis may also be demonstrated by soaking a dried prune in water.

This prune can then be placed in a concentrated solution (e.g. a saturated sucrose solution) and
will.

Brownian Motion
This can be demonstrated if a microscope is available. The experiment originally performed by
Robert Brown in 1827 can be repeated (using pollen grains suspended in water) or by using a
suspension of a small amount of toothpaste in water and viewing it under the high power
magnification of a microscope.
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 Brownian Motion can be seen when the following systems are observed under a microscope:

• Pollen grains suspended in water

• A suspension of a small amount of toothpaste in water

• Smoke in air

Lesson 1

Reference: Chapman, S et al, Chemistry for CSEC, pages 1 to 6

1) Define the term ‘matter’.

2) Give one example of matter and one example of non-matter.
3) What is meant by the term ‘particle’?
4) List the four main postulates of the particulate theory of matter.
5) Describe, simply, the kinetic theory.
6) Explain the relationship between temperature and motion of particles.
7) State two phenomena that give evidence for the existence of invisible particles in matter.
8) Define the term diffusion and give three examples of diffusion.
9) Explain how gaseous pollutants release from a factory can easily spread through the atmosphere.
10) Define the term osmosis and give three examples of osmosis.
11) Differentiate between diffusion and osmosis.

Lesson 2

1) Name the three type of particles

2) Illustrate by means of a sketch the difference between atoms, simple molecules and
macromolecules.
3) What name is given to particles with
a. an electrical charge?
b. a positive electrical charge?
c. a negative electrical charge?
4) Answer true or false:
Energy is needed to make particles attract
5) Answer true or false:
Kinetic energy is needed for particles to move.
6) Why is chemical energy referred to as a form of potential energy?

Lesson 3

1) Answer true or false:

In diffusion one substance spreads through another.

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2) A porous pot is an unglazed clay jar. The material allows gas particles to pass through. The smaller
the gas particles the faster they move through the
porous pot.
An experiment was set up using a porous pot as
shown in the diagram to the right. The aim of the
experiment was to compare how fast two gases
are able to diffuse through the porous pot.

a. Which gas diffused through the porous pot

faster?
b. Suggest a reason why this gas is able to
move through the porous pot faster.
c. Suggest a reason why, after some time, the level of water in the U-tube returns to how it
was in the beginning.

2. For osmosis to occur there must be different

aqueous phases
a. What does the term “aqueous” mean?
b. What is a “phase”?
c. How must the different aqueous phases be
separated for osmosis to occur?

3. The diagram to the right shows an apparatus set

up to demonstrate osmosis

a. Identify the solute and solvent present.

b. What will be observed if osmosis occurs for
a while? Explain you answer using the
particulate theory

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 Revision Questions (CXC Chemistry Module, pg 9)
1) Describe any one experiment that supports the theory that matter is made up of particles.
2) Define the term “diffusion” and give two examples that illustrate this process. What can be learnt
from the fact that diffusion takes place?
3) A sample of smoke is viewed through a microscope and the black specks are seen to move in a zig-
zag manner. Give a name for the black specks and explain what is happening.
4) a) A shrivelled carrot is placed in a dish of water and after a few hours it no longer has a
shrivelled appearance. Explain this observation.
b) What would you expect to observe if the carrot is removed from the dish of water and
placed in brine?

Nature of Matter Revision Notes (based on the CXC Chemistry Module)

Particles are very small particles of matter.

The particulate theory is the idea that all matter exist as separate particles that can move independently
of each other as well as attract. There are empty spaces between particles.

Sub-microscopic particles are difficult to observe but evidence of their existence are obtained from
phenomena such as diffusion, osmosis and Brownian motion.

Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration until uniform distribution is achieved.

Diffusion occurs quickly in gases since the gaseous particles have low attraction for each other, moves
quickly and has large spaces between the particles (collision between particles slows diffusion)

Diffusion occurs slower in liquids than in gases because the liquid particles have moderate attraction for
each other, moves slower than in gases, and there are much smaller spaces between the particles of
gases.

There is little or no diffusion in solids.

Dense gases (gases with larger particles), such as hydrogen chloride (HCl), diffuses slower than less
dense gases (gases with smaller particles) such as ammonia (NH3).

Osmosis is the movement of solvent (usually water) from an area of low concentration (more abundant
solvent particles) to an area of high concentration (less abundant solvent particles) across a semi-
permeable barrier.

Genuine osmosis involves the movement of the solvent only, with no movement of the solute. The
solvent moves in both direction but the speed is faster towards the side where the solvent particles are
less abundant.
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Brownian motion is the random, zigzag motion of small, visible particles suspended in a fluid medium
(such as water or air).

Brownian motion suggests that the small, visible particles are being struck by smaller invisible particles
of the suspending medium.

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Section 1.2

Explain the differences between the three states of matter in terms of energy and arrangement of
particles.
Consideration of freezing, melting, boiling, sublimation, condensation.

Content (CXC Module, pg 11-13)

If a solid is pure, melting occurs at a fixed temperature. The energy supplied during melting serves
only to increase the potential energy of the particles, not the temperature. This energy is used to
do work in separating the particles by partially overcoming the forces of attraction between them.
Since this energy does not show up as an increase in temperature, it is present in the liquid in the
form of latent (hidden) heat. (One normally expects the input of heat to result in an increase in
temperature.)

If a solid is not pure, it starts to melt at a lower temperature than the corresponding pure solid,
and the temperature rises slowly during melting.

The melting point of a pure solid gives an indication of the strength of the cohesive forces
between the particles in that solid. Some melting points are given below for comparison.

Ice 0 ⁰C
Naphthalene 80 ⁰C
Zinc chloride 283 ⁰C
Sodium nitrate 307 ⁰C
Potassium chloride 776 ⁰C
Sodium chloride 800 ⁰C
Calcium oxide 2600 ⁰C

Freezing is the opposite of melting. The freezing point of a pure solid is identical to the melting
point of the corresponding pure solid.

Evaporation and Boiling

The change of a liquid into a vapour is called evaporation. Although evaporation includes boiling,
the latter term has specific significance which must not be overlooked.

Evaporation of a liquid can occur at any temperature, but the higher the temperature the greater
the rate of evaporation. Although the AVERAGE energy of the molecules depends on the
temperature, there will be molecules of widely varying energies at a given time. At the SURFACE
of the liquid, the molecules that have high energy will be able to overcome the attractive forces
within the liquid. It is therefore possible for them to escape into the vapour state. The rate at
which such escape occurs depends on the temperature, since the higher the temperature, the
greater will be the number of high-energy molecules.

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Boiling is a special case of evaporation. When bubbles form in a liquid below its boiling point, the
pressure of the atmosphere on the liquid causes them to collapse. When, however, the molecules
in the liquid become so energetic that the pressure inside the bubble formed is equal to the
pressure of the atmosphere of the atmosphere outside, the bubbles are buoyed up to the surface
of the liquid where they burst, and the vapour escapes. Thus at the boiling point, evaporation
takes place not only at the surface, but throughout the liquid.

This consideration makes it clear that the boiling point of a liquid depends on the atmospheric
pressure. The figures usually given, are for normal atmospheric pressure. For example, water boils
at 100 ⁰C at normal atmospheric pressure, but it will boil at a higher temperature in a pressure
cooker, and at a lower temperature on a mountain. (Note that atmospheric pressure also affects
the melting and freezing points, but to a much less significant extent than it affects boiling points).

As with melting, the temperature of a pure liquid remains constant during boiling. Again at the
boiling point, energy simply does not work in separating the particles by overcoming
intermolecular attraction. Note that the conversion of a given mass of liquid to vapour requires a
great deal more heat energy than the conversion of a solid to the same mass of liquid – this is due
to the great freedom of gaseous particles as compared with either of the other states.

Energy absorbed in evaporation is stored in the form of LATENT HEAT in the vapour.

Note that if anon-volatile solute (i.e., a solute such as common salt which will not be converted to
vapour under normal heating conditions) is present in a liquid, the boiling point of the liquid will
be higher than its normal boiling point. For example, water will boil above 100 ⁰C if common salt
is added to it.

The boiling point of a liquid reflects the strength of the cohesive forces between the particles in
the liquid. Liquids with low boiling points (volatile liquids) have relatively weak cohesive forces.
For example, if ethoxyethane (ether) is rubbed on one’s hand, it immediately evaporates and the
hand feels cool. This is because the liquid uses up heat energy from the skin in evaporation.

Some normal boiling points are given for comparison:

Propanol 56 ⁰C
Ethanol 78 ⁰C
Water 100 ⁰C
Ethanoic acid 118 ⁰C
Sulphuric acid 330 ⁰C

Condensation
This is the reverse of evaporation. On condensation, energy (“latent heat”) is given out.

Sublimation

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A few solids, for examples solid carbon dioxide (dry ice), ammonium chloride and iodine, change
directly to vapour when their temperature increases. This is an indication that the forces holding
the particles together in the solid state are weaker than those in most solids.
The vapour given off when a solid sublimes will return to the solid state on cooling – the solid thus
formed is called a SUBLIMATE.

Experiments

1. Prepare water, ice and steam.

2. Heat naphthalene, iodine.
3. Determine the melting point of stearic acid or naphthalene using capillary tubes
4. Determine the heating and/or cooling curves of stearic acid or naphthalene and use this to
determine the melting/freezing point of the solid.
5. Determine the boiling point of distilled water.
6. Investigate the dependence of boiling point of water on pressure.

Laboratory Activities

Melting point determination

The students should determine the melting points of solids. Naphthalene is a good example and
its melting point could be found by either procedure (1) or (2) as shown in the diagrams. For (1),
the temperature at which the naphthalene starts to melt is immediately recorded. The water is
then allowed to cool and the temperature at which the molten naphthalene solidifies is recorded.
If there is a marked difference, more than 1° C, between the two results, the experiment is
repeated. For (2), students record the temperature at thirty (30) seconds or one (1) minute
intervals until the temperature is about 10° C above the melting point of naphthalene. A graph
can then be plotted. This method allows students to determine if the sample is pure.

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Figure 1: Method 1 for the melting point determination of a solid

Figure 2: Method 2 for the melting point determination of a solid

Testing Purity of stearic acid

Find the melting point of the stearic acid using the apparatus shown in Figure 1 or Figure 2. If the
melting point is 70⁰C the stearic acid is pure. If the melting point is lower than 70⁰C then the
stearic acid is impure.

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Boiling Point Determination

Distilled water can be boiled in a flask, and the temperature of the vapour evolved during boiling,
measured. The temperature rises steadily as the liquid is heated, but remains constant when the
liquid boils. The temperature at which the liquid boils is the Boiling Point. Do not immerse the
bulb of the thermometer in the liquid: the temperature recorded may be too high due to local
superheating.
Where vacuum pumps are available, the dependence of boiling point on external pressure can be
demonstrated.
If flammable liquids, such as ethanol, are to be investigated the presence of flames can cause an
explosion. In this case the flammable liquid should be heated in a hot water bath.

Figure 3: Apparatus used to determine the boiling point of liquids

Investigating the effect of impurity on boiling point

Find the boiling point of distilled water (or rain water) using the apparatus shown in Figure 3 (a
test tube heated directly with a Bunsen burner can be used to hold the water).
Mix 2 cm3 of ethanol with 5 cm3 of water and find the boiling point of the mixture. This is a
specimen of impure water; the ethanol is an impurity as there is less than 50% of ethanol

Testing the purity of water

Find the boiling point of distilled water. Test the boiling point of the water suspected to contain
impurity. If the boiling points are significantly different then the test sample is impure water.

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 Lesson 4

1. Name the three states of matter.

2. Give two examples each of solids, liquids and gases.
3. Compare solids, liquids and gases in terms of attraction and arrangement of particles.
4. Explain why there is a close correlation between the strength of attraction and arrangement of
particles in matter.
5. A drop of water soluble dye is placed in water and left undisturbed for a few days.
a. What will be observed?
b. How does this suggest the existence of particles?
c. If the water is kept at a higher temperature, explain any expected differences in the results.
6. Suggest two reasons why diffusion occurs faster in gases than in liquids
7. It is often taken for granted that diffusion does not occur in solids. Give two reasons why this is a
valid assumption in most cases.
8. If the cells from a dried prunes are placed in distilled water and observed under the microscope
they are seen to become turgid (swollen).
a. Why do the cells become turgid?
b. What purpose is served by the cell membrane in this process?
c. What do you think happens to the pressure within the cell?
9. The osmotic pressure of an aqueous solution is a measure of how strongly the solution attracts
water across a semi-permeable barrier, separated from the pure solvent.
a. Which solution would have a higher osmotic pressure? Dilute sugar solution or
concentrated sugar solution?
Drinking salt water dehydrates the body because the salt water has a higher osmotic pressure
than within the cell.
b. What happens to water within the cells of the body as a consequence of drinking salt
water?
c. What happens to the concentration of solutes within the cell?
d. Plants living in salt water mashes have the ability to absorb water “against the
concentration gradient”. What does the phrase “against the concentration gradient” mean?

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 Lesson 5

1. Explain the difference between physical properties and chemical properties.

2. Compare solids, liquids and gases in terms of the following physical properties: shape, volume,
compressibility and diffusion.
3. ‘Finely divided solids often do not demonstrate the properties expected of solids’. Using flour as
an example, justify this conclusion, giving two reasons.
4. Compare and contrast the physical effects of heat on solids, liquids and gases.
5. Define the terms:
a. Melting
b. Freezing
c. Evaporation
d. Condensation
e. Sublimation
Show by means of a flow chart how these five (5) processes are interrelated.

6. Explain the term “a pure solid melts at a fixed temperature”.

7. Explain the term “latent heat” as it relates to the melting of a pure solid.

Lesson 6
8. “One normally expects the input of heat to result in an increase in temperature”.
Explain why this is normally true except when a change of state increases.

9. Sketch and annotate a heating curve showing how the temperature of a solid change as the solid
is heated until it changes into a liquid then into a gas.

10. Sketch and annotate a cooling curve showing how the temperature of a gas changes as the gas is
cooled until it changes into a liquid then into a solid.

11. State the effect of impurities on the melting point of a solid. Suggest a reason for this effect.

12. The curves below show the changes of temperature with time as two solids A and B are melted.
Classify each of A and B as pure or impure. Explain your answers.

13.
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 Lesson 7
1. State one similarity and three differences between evaporation and boiling.
2. Explain why:
a. Evaporation occurs on the surface of liquid.
b. Evaporation is a cooling process
c. Hot water evaporates faster than cold water.
d. Methylated spirit (ethanol) evaporates faster than water at the same temperature.
e. Bubbles are formed during boiling
f. The boiling point of a liquid depends on the pressure on the liquid.
g. Food cooks faster in a pressure cooker than in an open pot.
h. Beans cooked on top of a mountain is harder to chew than beans cooked at the bottom of
the mountain for the same length of time.
3. Explain, using suitable examples, two factors that affect the rate at which a liquid would
evaporate.
4. Describe the process by which a bubble forms and burst during boiling.
5. The evaporation of sweat on the skin is an important means of keeping the body cool. Describe
three ways in which this effect can be enhanced.

Lesson 8

1. State two similarities and two differences between melting and boiling.
2. a) What is meant by a ‘non-volatile solute’?
b) What effect would the presence of a non-volatile solute have on the boiling point of a
liquid?
3. Explain why your skin will feel cool if ethoxyethane (ether) is rubbed on your skin.
4. Explain why steam will give a worst burn than hot water even though both are at the same
temperature.
5. Name three pure solids that sublimes
6. Suggest a reason, using the particulate theory, why some solids sublimes but most others do not.
7. What is meant by a ‘sublimate’?
8. Suggest a reason, using the particulate theory of matter, why a small volume of water produces a
much larger volume of steam.

States of Matter Revision Notes (based on the CXC Chemistry Module)

Solids have constant shapes, constant volume (at constant temperature, is hardly affected by pressure,
diffuses very slowly, expands only slightly when heated and melt usually with a slight increase in
volume.

These properties of solids are due to the strong attraction between the particles. This attraction
(cohesive force) holds the particles in fixed position (a lattice) with very little space between them.

Liquids have variable shapes but their volumes remains constant at constant temperature. The volume
of liquids is hardly affected by pressure and liquids diffuse slowly. Liquids expand slightly as temperature
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rises and boils at a specific temperature but many are able to evaporate at any temperature. A large
increase in volume occurs during boiling of liquids.

These properties of liquids are due to the moderately strong attraction between the particles. This
attraction holds the particles together in cluster with very little space between them. The clusters of
particles however can move around within the liquid. Some high energy particles are even able to
escape from the attraction of the other particles.

Gases have both variable shapes and variable volumes. Gases are easily compressed and they diffuse
rapidly. Heat causes gases to expand much more than solids and liquids (provided that the pressure
remains the same).

These properties of gases are due to the very small attraction between the particles. Gaseous particles
exist as individual particles that are widely spaced and rapidly moving.

(page 10 of the Chemistry module completed here)

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 Supplemental (McDuel, 1983)

1. In which state of matter are the particles most disordered:

A. Ice at 0 ⁰C
B. Water at 0 ⁰C
C. Water at 100 ⁰C
D. Water vapour at 100 ⁰C

2. When steam condenses the particles

A. Gain energy
B. Move further apart
C. Vibrate much faster
D. Move closer together

3. Which one of the following gives the best evidence that matter consists of tiny moving particles?
A. Air can be compressed in a gas syringe by increasing the pressure
B. Many elements conduct electricity
C. When a bottle of perfume is opened the smell is quickly detected in all parts of the room
D. A small mass of water produces a much larger volume of steam.

4. When a few drops of ethanol are placed on the back of the hand, the hand feels cold. This is
because ethanol
A. Requires heat to react
B. Freezes on the hand
C. Extracts heat to assist evaporation
D. Reacts with the surface of the skin
5. The spontaneous movement of particles of a gas to fill all of the available space is called
A. Evaporation
B. Condensation
C. Diffusion
D. Brownian motion

6. The volume of one mole of water is approximately 18 cm3. When one mole of water is converted
to steam, it has a volume of approximately 30 000 cm3. The difference in volume is due to the fact
that
A. Steam molecules are larger than water molecules
B. Steam contains more molecules than water
C. The mass of steam is greater than the mass of water
D. The space between the molecules is greater in steam than in water.

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7. The motion of fine pollen grains on the surface of water (Brownian movement) is caused by
A. Collision between pollen grains and water molecules
B. Convection currents in the water
C. Attraction and repulsion between charged particles
D. Diffusion of pollen grains.

8. Increasing the pressure on a liquid

A. Decreases its volume
B. makes it solidify
C. increases its mass
D. increases its boiling point.

9. When smoke particles are illuminated and viewed through a microscope, the particles are
observed to move with a jerky, random motion. Which one of the following best explain this
observation?
A. Electrostatic charges are caused by particles rubbing together.
B. Light energy excites the particles making them move faster.
C. The particles are charged and repel each other.
D. The smoke particles collide with invisible particles in the air.

10. A gas jar containing dark brown nitrogen dioxide gas is placed upside down over a gas jar
containing air. Which one of the following best describes the colours inside the gas jars after a
long period of time? (Nitrogen dioxide has a higher density than air.)
Upper gas jar Lower gas jar
A. Dark brown colourless
B. light brown light brown
C. dark brown light brown
D. light brown dark brown

11. The braking system of a car contains a liquid. The reason for using a liquid is because it
A. Cannot be compressed
B. Readily turns to a gas
C. Takes up the shape of the container
D. Does not have a fixed shape

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Questions 12 and 13 refer to the figure below. The figure shows a cooling curve for a liquid organic acid
which is cooled by immersing the test tube containing the acid in a bath of water.

12. Which one of the following gives the correct states of the organic acid at X, Y and Z?
X Y Z
A. Gas liquid solid
B. Liquid solid solid
C. Liquid solid and liquid solid
D. Liquid liquid solid and liquid

13. The temperature of T ⁰C represents

A. The boiling point of the organic acid
B. The melting point of the organic acid
C. Room temperature
D. The temperature of the cooling water.

14. Which of the following properties can be attributed ONLY to the gaseous state of matter?
I. There is a large decrease in volume when pressure is applied.
II. The gas takes the shape of the bottom of the container.
III. The kinetic energy of the particles is great.
IV. The density is usually high.

A. I and III only

B. I and IV only
C. II and III only
D. II and IV only

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15. The melting points and boiling points of two pure substances, X and Y, are given below:
Melting Point / K Boiling Point / K
X 273 373
Y 317 400

Which of the following statements about X and Y are correct?

I. At 298 K, the particles of X can occupy the volume of its container.

II. At 298 K, the particles of Y are in fixed positions.
III. At 380 K, the particles of X have more energy than the particles of Y.
IV. At 380 K, the particle of Y are not mobile.

A. I and II only
B. I and III only
C. II and III only
D. II and IV only

16.

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 Supplemental 2 (CSEC Past Papers)

1. The figure below shows how the three states of matter can be changed from one form to the
other. Numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and sublimation represent the process through which these transitions
are made..

a) Identify the processes taking place at 1, 2, 3 and 4. ( 2 marks )

b) Give the name of ONE solid that sublimes. ( 1 mark )
c) Explain the differences between solids, liquids and gases in terms of arrangement of
particles. ( 3 marks )
d) A glass tube was arranged as shown in the figure below. A compound is formed between
ammonia and hydrogen chloride in the tube.

(i) Calculate the relative molecular mass of ammonia and hydrogen chloride
(Relative Atomic Mass: Hydrogen = 1; Nitrogen = 14; Chlorine = 35.5) ( 2 marks )
(ii) Give the NAME of the compound that is formed between ammonia and hydrogen
chloride. ( 1 mark )
(iii) Write a balanced equation to represent the reaction in which the compound was
formed in the tube. (Include state symbols.) ( 2 marks )
(iv) At which of the positions, X, Y or Z, shown in the figure above, should the compound
be formed? Give ONE reason for you answer. ( 3 marks )

2. (a) Imagine you are in the kitchen and you observe the following:
(i) Some crystals of red food colouring fall into a cup of water. After a while the water
becomes red.
(ii) When chopping onions, you eyes begin to ‘water’.
(iii) When salt is added to cucumber slices in a bowl, water is observed in the container.

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 Explain EACH of the observations above in terms of the particle nature of matter.
( 8 marks )

(b) Water can exist as a solid, liquid or gas. Explain how this is possible. ( 4 marks )

3. (a) (i) Describe ONE piece of experimental evidence for the existence of the particulate
nature of matter. (2 marks)
(ii) Water can exist as solid ice, liquid water or gaseous steam in spite of the fact that the
individual particles in these three states are the same.
Explain the differences between these three states in terms of the arrangement of
their particles, forces of attraction between them, and their kinetic energy.
(6 marks)
(b) Discuss how it is possible for gaseous pollutants emitted from a factory to affect areas far
removed from its source. You should include in your answer the role of the air molecules in
this process. (4 marks)
(c) The experimental arrangement in Figure 1 is set up by a group of students.

(i) What phenomenon are the students investigating? (1 mark )

(ii) Make a drawing of the figure above in your answer booklet. Next to it make another
drawing to show any changes which may have occurred after two hours. (2 marks)
(iii) Suggest reasons for the changes you described in (ii) above. (2 marks)

4. Suzie made the following observations while spending the weekend at her grand mother's home.

Observation I: Red bean swells when soaked in water

Observation II: Cucumber "springs" water when salt is added to it
Observation III: Cigarette smoke causes light to scatter
Observation IV: She can tell when her sister is around from the scent of her perfume

(i) State TWO general deductions which can be made from all these observations about the
nature of matter. (5 marks)
(ii) Use your deductions in (d) (i) above to explain Observation IV above.
(3 marks)

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Ideas for projects

1. Poster showing arrangement of particles in solids, liquids and gases.

2. Poster showing summary of the changes of state.
3. Poster showing movement of particles across a semi-permeable barrier.
4. Demonstrate the resistance of a liquid to flow (viscosity), which is affected by the size and
shape of particles, and generally increases as the temperature decreases and as intermolecular
forces increase.
5. Demonstrate that sublimation involves a large change in volume – dry ice bomb.
6. Create a PowerPoint presentation on matter
7. Create a short movie, 1 minute or more, on the properties of each state of matter.
8. Model quicksand using corn starch (quick sand behaves like a solid at sometimes, a liquid at
others).
9. Demonstration showing the non-Newtonian behaviour of cornstarch/water mixture.

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