Lectures

on

ANTENNE E
COLLEGAMENTI WIRELESS
Lecturer: Prof. Giovanni Riccio

TRANSMISSION LINES
 The role of the wavelength
Is the pair of wires between terminals AA' and terminals BB' a transmission line ?

()
V AA' t = V0 cos ! t ( ) (
VBB ' = V AA' t ! l v p = V0 cos " t ! l v p )
where v p = f ! is the velocity of propagation related to the oscillation frequency f and the
wavelength λ.
 ! l 2" f l l
The determining parameter is the phase factor = = 2"
vp vp #

• l/λ < 0.01

Line effects may be ignored

Example
v p = c0 = 3!108 m s f = 1 kHz ! = 3"105 m l = 0.06 m l ! = 2 "10#7
t=0 ()
V AA' 0 = V0 () ( (
VBB ' 0 = V0 cos 2! 2 "10#7 )) $ V0
• l/λ > 0.01
It is necessary to account not only for the phase shift associated with the time delay, but also for
the presence of reflected signals. Power loss on the line and dispersive effects may need to be
considered as well.

Example
v p = c0 = 3!108 m s f = 1 GHz ! = 0.3 m l = 0.06 m l ! = 0.2
t=0 ()
V AA' 0 = V0 () ( ( ))
VBB ' 0 = V0 cos 2! 0.2 " 0.309 V0
 Transmission lines
A Transmission Line (TL) is a structure for guiding EM signals from the sending point to the
receiving point.

Transmission lines may be classified into two basic types:

• Transverse EM (TEM) mode TLs
Electric and magnetic fields are entirely transverse to the direction of propagation
• Higher-order modes TLs
At least one significant field component exists in the direction of propagation
 TEM-mode transmission lines
The propagation of EM signals along TEM-mode TLs can be described in terms of voltage V
and current I at any point on the TL.

E = eV H=hI
Lumped-element model
 TL equations
R' is the combined resistance of the
conductors per unit length [ ! m "1];

L' is the combined inductance of the

conductors per unit length [ H m !1];

G ' is the conductance of the insulation

medium per unit length [ Sm !1];

C ' is the capacitance of the conductors

per unit length [ F m !1 ];

The prime superscript is used as a reminder that the line parameters are quantities whose units are
per unit length. They have different expressions for different types and dimensions of TL.

The Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws are now applied to derive a set of two governing
equations.
 #
v ( z,t ) ! R' "z i ( z,t ) ! L ' "z i ( z,t ) ! v ( z + "z,t ) = 0
#t
!
v ( z + "z,t ) ! v ( z,t ) # "z$0 # #
! = R' i ( z,t ) + L ' i ( z,t ) % %%$ ! v ( z,t ) = R' i ( z,t ) + L ' i ( z,t )
"z #t #z #t

"
i ( z,t ) = i ( z + !z,t ) + G ' !z v ( z + !z,t ) + C ' !z v ( z + !z,t )
"t
!
i ( z + "z,t ) ! i ( z,t ) # "z$0 # #
! = G ' v ( z,t ) + C ' v ( z,t ) % %%$ ! i ( z,t ) = G ' v ( z,t ) + C ' v ( z,t )
"z #t #z #t

Time-domain form of the transmission line equations, otherwise called telegrapher’s equations:

# " "
!
%% "z v ( z,t ) = R' i ( z,t ) + L ' i ( z,t )
"t
$
%! " i ( z,t ) = G ' v ( z,t ) + C ' " v ( z,t )
&% "z "t
In the case of time harmonic functions, it is convenient to express time-dependent variables by
means of the corresponding phasor, i.e.,

v ( z,t ) = V ( z ) cos (! 0t + " ( z )) = Re #% V ( z ) e ( 0

j ! t +" (z)) & #V ( z ) e j! 0 t &
= Re
$ '( $ '

i ( z,t ) = I ( z ) cos (! 0t + " ( z )) = Re #% I ( z ) e ( 0

j ! t +" (z)) & # I ( z ) e j! 0 t &
(' = Re $ '
$

The voltage and current phasors V ( z ) and I ( z ) contain amplitude and phase information, but are
independent of the time variable.

By taking into account that ! !t in the time domain becomes equivalent to multiplication by j! 0
in the phasor domain, it results:

# d
%%! dz V ( z ) = ( R'+ j" 0 L ') I ( z )
$
%! d I ( z ) = ( G '+ j" 0C ') V ( z )
%& dz

These are telegrapher’s equations in phasor form.

The two first-order coupled equations can be combined to give two second-order uncoupled wave
equations, one for V ( z ) and another for I ( z ) .

d2 d d2
! 2 V ( z ) = [ R' + j" 0 L '] I ( z ) = [ R' + j" 0 L '] #$ ! ( G ' + j" 0C ')V ( z ) %& ' 2
V ( z ) ! ( 2
V (z) = 0
dz dz dz

d2
I (z) ! " 2 I (z) = 0
dz 2

where

$ R' ' $ G' '

! = ( R' + j" 0 L ')(G ' + j" 0C ') = j" 0 L ' & 1# j ) C ' & 1# j ) = j" 0 L 'eq C 'eq = * + j +
% "0L '( % " 0C ' (

# R' & # G' &

L 'eq = L ' % 1! j C 'eq = C ' % 1! j
$ " 0 L ' (' $ " 0C ' ('

! is the attenuation constant ! is the phase constant

 Propagation on lossless TLs
R' = G ' = 0

! = j" 0 L 'C ' !=0 ! = " 0 L 'C '

d2 j! + j" !
2
V (z) + ! V (z) = 0 " V (z) = V e
2 + # j! z #
+V e j! z +
V =V e + ! !
V =V e
dz

d2
I ( z ) + ! 2 I ( z ) = 0 " I ( z ) = I + e# j! z + I # e j! z
dz 2

1 d $ + ! j# z j# $ + ! j# z
I (z) = ! %V e + V ! j# z &
e ' = %V e ! V ! j# z &
e '=
j" 0 L ' dz j" 0 L '
1 $ + ! j# z ! j# z & 1 $ + ! j# z ! j# z &
= %V e ! V e ' = %V e ! V e '
L' C' Z0

Z 0 = V + I + = !V ! I ! = L ' C ' is the TL characteristic impedance

Time domain expressions for voltage and current:

( )
v ( z,t ) = Re $ V + e ! j " z + V ! e j " z e j# 0 t & =
% '
$ + j( + ! j " z j# 0 t &
= Re V e e e $ ! j( ! j " z j# 0 t &
+ Re V e e e =
)% *' )% *'

( ) ( )
= V + cos # 0t ! " z + ( + + V ! cos # 0t + " z + ( ! = v + ( z,t ) + v ! ( z,t )

$ 1
i ( z,t ) = Re &
% 0
Z
V e (
+ ! j" z ! j " z j# 0 t '
!V e e )=
(
)
V+ V!
=
Z0
(
cos # 0t ! " z + * + ! ) Z0
( )
cos # 0t + " z + * ! = i + ( z,t ) + i ! ( z,t )

2! 1
T= = is the time period of the wave oscillations
" 0 f0

2"
!= is the spatial wavelength of the wave oscillations
#
 $ 2! 2! '
y ( x,t ) = A cos & t" x)
% T # (
 $ 2! 2! '
y ( x,t ) = A cos & t" x)
% T # (
= A cos *i ( x,t )

The wavefront is defined by:

2" 2"
!i ( x,t ) = t# x = constant
T $

Its apparent velocity is obtained by taking

the time derivative, i.e.,

d 2" 2" dx
!i ( x,t ) = # =0
dt T $ dt
dx $ & 1
% vf = = = $ f0 = 0 =
dt T ' L 'C '

vf is the phase velocity

When the phase velocity is independent of the frequency, the propagation medium is
nondispersive.

The direction of wave propagation is easily determined by inspecting the signs of the t and x terms
in the phase expression: if one of the signs is positive and the other is negative, then the wave is
travelling in the positive x-direction, and if both signs are positive or both are negative, then the
wave is travelling in the negative x-direction. A constant reference phase has no influence on
either the speed or the direction of wave propagation.

!
v + ( z,t ) is a voltage cosinusoidal wave travelling in the positive z-direction with phase velocity v f
v ! ( z,t ) is a voltage cosinusoidal wave travelling in the negative z-direction with phase velocity v f

i + ( z,t ) is a current cosinusoidal wave travelling in the positive z-direction with phase velocity v f
i ! ( z,t ) is a current cosinusoidal wave travelling in the negative z-direction with phase velocity v f

The presence of two waves propagating in opposite directions produces a standing wave.
Travelling wave solutions

V ( z ) = V + e! j" z + V ! e j" z

1 # + ! j" z
I (z) = V e ! V ! j" z %
e &
Z0 $

Standing wave solutions

( ) ( )
V ( z ) = V + ( cos ! z " j sin ! z ) + V " ( cos ! z + j sin ! z ) = V + + V " cos ! z " j V + " V " sin ! z
! V ( z ) = V ( 0 ) cos " z # jZ 0 I ( 0 ) sin " z

V+ V" V+ "V" V+ +V"

I (z) = ( cos ! z " j sin ! z ) " ( cos ! z + j sin ! z ) = cos ! z " j sin ! z
Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0
V (0)
! I ( z ) = I ( 0 ) cos " z # j sin " z
Z0

V (0) = V + + V ! (
I (0) = V + ! V ! ) Z0
 VL V ( z = 0 ) V+ +V! Z L ! Z0
ZL = = = " V! = V+
I L I ( z = 0) (
V + ! V ! Z0 ) Z L + Z0

V" Z L " Z0 Z L Z0 " 1 j#

!L = +
= = = !L e !L
is the voltage reflection coefficient at the load
V Z L + Z0 Z L Z0 + 1

1+ ! L
Z L = Z0
1" ! L

A transmission line is said to be matched to the load when Z 0 = Z L ! "L = 0 .

V ( z ) = V + $% e ! j " z + # L e j " z &'

(e ) ( )
*
V (z) = V + ! j" z
+ #L e j" z $V + e ! j " z + # e j " z &
% L '

= V+ 1+ # L + # L $ e
2
%
j(2 " z+( #L )
+e
! j(2 " z+(# L ) &
'
= V+
2
(
1+ # L + 2 # L cos 2 " z + (# L )
#! L + 2n%
V ( z ) max = V +
(1+ ! L ) if 2 " z + #! L = $2n% & $ zmax = lmax =
2"

$" L + ( 2n + 1) %
V ( z ) min = V +
(1! " L ) if 2 # z + $" L = ! ( 2n + 1) % & = lmin =
2#

V ( z ) max 1+ ! L
VSWR = =
V ( z ) min 1" ! L

+ V+
I (z) =
V $ ! j" z
Z0 %
e ! # L e j" z &
' ( I (z) =
Z0
2
(
1+ # L ! 2 # L cos 2 " z + )# L )
 V (z) V + $% e ! j " z + # L e j " z &' cos " z ! j sin " z + # L ( cos " z + j sin " z )
Z (z) = = Z0 = Z0 =
I (z) +
V $% e ! j " z
! # L e &'
j " z cos " z ! j sin " z ! # L ( cos " z + j sin " z )

= Z0
(1+ # L ) cos " z ! j (1! # L ) sin " z
= Z0
( Z L Z 0 ) cos " z ! j sin " z
= Z0 L
Z ! jZ 0 tan " z
(1! # L ) cos " z ! j (1+ # L ) sin " z cos " z ! j ( Z L Z 0 ) sin " z Z 0 ! jZ L tan " z

Z L + jZ 0 tan " l
Zin ( z = !l ) = Z 0 is the input impedance
Z 0 + jZ L tan " l
 Zin
Vg = Vi = V ( z = !l ) = V + $% e j " l + # L e ! j " l &'
Z g + Zin

!
+ Zin Vg 1
V =
Z g + Zin e j ! l + " L e # j ! l

Z L ! Z0 +
V ! = " LV + = V
Z L + Z0

+ V+
I =
Z0

! V! V+
I =! = !" L = !" L I +
Z0 Z0
At the load it results:
" V+ $
pi ( t ) = vi ( t ) i i ( t ) = Re "#V i e j! 0 t $% Re "# I i e j! 0 t $% = Re " V + e j& e j! 0 t $ Re '
+ +
e j& e j! 0 t ( =
'# (% ' Z (
0
# %
+ 2

( )
V
= cos2 ! 0t + & +
Z0

+ 2

( )
V
p ( t ) = v ( t ) i ( t ) = Re "#V r e j! 0 t $% Re "# I r e j! 0 t $% = & ' L cos2 ! 0t + ( + + (' L
r r r 2
Z0
 !
1 1 " *$
Pav = p ( t ) dt = Re V I % is the time-average power
T 2 #
T

2
' ! + $** V +
1 V
i
Pav = Re )V + # &
,= is the time-average power arriving at the load
2 ) " Z 0 % , 2Z 0
( +

) + &*, + 2
1 + # V V
Pav = Re ! LV + .
r 2 2i
2 + % L Z ( . = " !L
"! = " ! L Pav
$ 0' 2Z 0
* -

is the time-average power reflected by the load

2
V+
t
Pav i
= Pav r
+ Pav = #1! " 2 % is the net time-average power delivered to the load
2Z 0 $
L &
 Reflection and transmission at discontinuities
The need for reflected and transmitted waves originates from the necessity to satisfy voltage and
current boundary conditions at the ends of TLs and at locations at which two dissimilar TLs are
connected to each other.

At the load
V r V " Z L " Z0 Vt VL V + (1+ " L ) 2Z L
!L = i = + = !L = = = = 1+ " L =
V V Z L + Z0 Vi V+ V+ Z L + Z0

At the junction (z=0) of two dissimilar TLs

V1 ( z ) = V1+ e ! j "1z + V1! e j "1z I1 ( z ) =
Z1
(
1 + ! j "1z
V1 e ! V1! e j "1z )
V2+ ! j "2 z
V2 ( z ) = V2+ e ! j "2 z I2 ( z) = e
Z2
"V1+ + V1! = V2+ "1+ ' = (
$ $ Z 2 ! Z1 2Z 2
# V1+ V1! V2+ & # Z1 & '= (=
$ ! = $1! ' = ( Z 2 + Z1 Z 2 + Z1
% Z
% Z1 Z1 Z 2 2
 Impedance matching

The purpose of the matching network is to eliminate reflections at MM ' . This is obtained by
designing it to exhibit the input impedance Zin equal to Z 0 . If the network is lossless, then all the
power going into it will end up in the load.

Quarter-wave transformer

The load is RL ! Z 0 and the matching network consists of a TL characterised by Zt and l.

RL + jZt tan !t l
Z 0 = Zin = Zt " Z 0 [ Zt + jRL tan !t l ] = Zt [ RL + jZt tan !t l ]
Zt + jRL tan !t l
This is possible if tan !t l " # , so that

" $0
!t l = ( 2n + 1) # l = ( 2n + 1) n = 0,1, 2...
2 4

Zt = RL Z 0

If the load is Z L ! Z 0 , the insertion of the matching network is not at AA' , but at the section
z = !l ' at which the reflection coefficient and the input impedance are real.

1+ ! ( z )
(
j$
1+ ! L e ! L
"2 % l ' )
Zin ( z ) = Z 0 # Zin ( z = "l ') = Z 0 is real if $! L " 2 % l ' = 0, ±!
1" ! ( z ) j ($ "2 % l ')
1" ! L e ! L

The quarter-wave transformer can be then applied to the load RL = Zin ( z = !l ') .
 Modulation and propagation
on dispersive TLs
A single-frequency signal that is always on at the same phase and amplitude conveys no
information. To actually transmit data, some aspect of our cosinusoidal signal must change with
time: the signal must be modulated.
A simple modulation

f ( t ) = m ( t ) cos (! ct )

+#
F (! ) = $ f (t ) e dt =
" j! t

"#
1
= %& M (! " ! c ) + M (! + ! c ) '(
2

F (! ) is the Fourier Transform of f ( t ) .

The effect of such a modulation is to translate the

spectrum of the modulating or baseband signal up
to the carrier frequency.
The modulated signals on TLs cannot be studied in the phasor domain, but the frequency domain
must be used. A matched and lossless TL is considered hereafter.

+$ & +$ )
% %
1 1
v ( z,t ) = V ( z, " ) e j" t d" = 2 Re ( V ( z, " ) e j" t d" +
2! ( 2! +
#$ ' 0 *

+#
V ( z, ! ) = V (! ) e " j # (! ) z V (! ) = V ( 0, ! ) =
$
"#
v ( 0,t ) e " j! t dt

1
v ( 0,t ) = vm ( t ) cos (! ct ) " V (! ) = $%Vm (! # ! c ) + Vm (! + ! c ) &'
2

Narrowband signals ! " c ! 1

" $ ! ' $ ! ' ,1 *# +! +#

Vm (! ) = v0 rect & =-
% 2# )(
rect &
% 2# )( .0
where
# otherwise

! vm ( t ) = v0 sinc ( "t ) = v0 sin ( "t ) "t

 $ +) &

*
j $! t " # (! c ) z &' 1 " j $ # (! )" # (! c ) &' z j (! "! c )t
v ( z,t ) = Re ++ e % c Vm (! " ! c ) e % e d! ,, =
2(
+% 0 ,'

= Re $+ e ( c c ) I m ( z,t ) &,
j ! t "# z
% '

$ c +!

) e (
v0 " j %& # ($ )" #c '( z j $ " $ c )t
I m ( z,t ) = e d$ envelope function
2!
$ c "!

d$
! "c ! 1 # $ (" ) = $ (" c ) + (" % " c ) = $c + $c' (" % " c )
d" "c

$ c +! !
( ) dx = 0 ( (
2 j sin ! t " #c' z )) =
% ($ "$ c ) z e j ($ "$ c )t d$ = v0
%
v " j #c' jx t " #c' z v
I m ( z,t ) = 0
( )
e e
2! 2! 2! j t " #c' z
$ c "! "!

( (
= v0 sinc ! t " #c' z ))
 ( ( ))
d ! t " #c' z = 0 $ dt " #c' dz = 0 $ vg =
dz 1 d%
= ' =
dt #c d # #c

1
vg = v f = dispersionless TL
L 'C '
vg = const ! v f dispersive TL

( ( )) ( (
v ( z,t ) = Re %' e ( c c ) v0 sinc $ t " z vg (* = v0 cos (! ct " #c z ) sinc $ t " z vg
&
j ! t "# z
) ))

a ( t ) = a0 cos (! ct ) sinc ( "t )

Gaussian pulse signals on dispersive TLs

1%!(2
$ $ 2 (# t )
1
2" 2

Vm (! ) = v0 vm ( t ) = v0 e
' *
e 2 & #)
+
#

1
! (" ) = !0 + !0' (" # " 0 ) + !0'' (" # " 0 ) + ...
2
2

" 2 (# t )
1 2

v ( 0,t ) = vm ( t ) cos (! 0t ) = v0 e cos (! 0t )

 Propagation on lossy TLs
R',G ' ! 0

$ R' ' $ G' '

! = ( R' + j" 0 )(
L ' G ' + j" 0 )
C ' = j" 0 L ' &% 1# j ) C ' & 1# j ) = j" 0 L 'eq C 'eq = * + j +
"0L '( % " 0C ' (

V ( z ) = V + e !" z + V ! e" z = V + e !# z e ! j $ z + V ! e# z e j $ z

1 d $ + !# z #
I (z) = ! V e + V ! #z&
e = $V + e !# z ! V ! e# z & =
j" 0 L 'eq dz % ' j" L ' %
0 eq
'
1 $V + e !# z ! V ! e# z & = 1 $V + e !# z ! V ! e# z & = I + e !( z e ! j ) z + I ! e( z e j ) z
= % ' Z % '
L 'eq C 'eq 0

L 'eq
Z0 = = Z 0 e j!z
C 'eq
 ( )
v ( z,t ) = Re $ V + e !" z + V ! e" z e j# 0 t & =
% '
$ + j( + ! () + j * ) z j# 0 t & $ ! j( ! () + j * ) z j# 0 t &
= Re V e e e + Re V e e e =
+% ,' +% ,'

( ) ( )
= V + e !) z cos # 0t ! * z + ( + + V ! e) z cos # 0t + * z + ( ! = v + ( z,t ) + v ! ( z,t )

$ 1
i ( z,t ) = Re &
% 0
Z
(
+ !" z ! " z j# 0 t '
V e !V e e )=
(
)
V+ V!
=
Z0
(
e !* z cos # 0t ! + z + , + ! , z !) Z0
( )
e* z cos # 0t + + z + , ! ! , z = i + ( z,t ) + i ! ( z,t )

Low-loss approximation R' ! ! L ' and G ' ! ! C '

1" C' L' % * 1 $ G' R' ' -

2
! = $ R' + G' ' ! = " L 'C ' ,1+ & # )( /
2# L' C' & ,+ 8 % " C ' " L ' /.
 * + !" z ! j # z ' * - * + 2 - + 2
$V e V / 1 V
1 , + !" z ! j # z
Pav ( z ) = Re V e e
e / = 1 Re , e !2" z
= e !2" z
cos 0 z =
2 , & ) / 2 , ! j0 z / 2 Z
% Z0 ( Z
,+ 0 e /. 0
+ .
= Pav ( z = 0 ) e !2" z

Power loss (dB)

! P ( z = 0) $
PLdB = 10 log10 # av & = 8.69 ' z
" Pav ( z ) %

At the load ( z = 0 )
+ 2
i 1 V
Pav = cos ! z is the time-average power arriving at the load
2 Z0
+ 2
) # + &*, V
1 V 21
= Re + ! LV + .
r 2 i
Pav "!
% LZ ( . = " ! L cos / z = " ! L Pav
2 + $ 0' 2 Z 0
* -
is the time-average power reflected by the load
i #
1! " L % is the net time-average power delivered to the load
t i r 2
Pav = Pav + Pav = Pav
$ &