I.

Renaissance

- definition
- features
- English Renaissance

The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century,
beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. As a cultural
movement, focused on a resurgence of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear
perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform. Traditionally, this intellectual
transformation has resulted in the Renaissance being viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages
and the Modern era.
( da da, e DIRECT de pe wiki luata asta.. ´da si eu puteam face asta!’ da, dar n-ai facut-o )
You know what? Important aspects of this subject are: renaissance was the next evolutionary step in
thought, bringing forth the end of the middle ages. In literature the humanists studied the ancient
texts of philosophers in their original form, debated amongst them and so forth. In art, painters
adopted a more realistically style, with a linear perspective. Also, they applied such technics as light
and darkness, to attract the viewer’s attention to certain parts of the painting.
For more information on the subject of Renaissance, please visit this place
All this new way of thinking, more freely than what was accepted during the Middle Ages, led to
some interesting developments in a totally different field: religion! There were ideas of emancipation
from the old church, the catholic – which was predominant in western Europe in those days. Why did
some men decided that an institution highly regarded as the church was rotten at its core and it
needed reformation? Because during the Middle ages, the church had a lot of power over everything,
and some members of it started abusing their attributes. The Mass was in Latin ( who understood
Latin? Quite no one actually… ), taxes went to churches, Bishops lived in opulence etc, etc..
Martin Luther ( founder of the Lutheran church ) from Germany with his thesis attracted the attention
of the church and of the people, Jean Calvin, from Switzerland, was another important figure in the
Protestant movement. What do these guys havta’ do with England? Be patient, it’s going to get nasty
later on…
English Renaissance!

The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England dating from the early 16th
century to the early 17th century. It is associated with the pan-European Renaissance. This era in
English cultural history is sometimes referred to as "the age of Shakespeare" or "the Elizabethan era",
the first period in English and British history to be named after a reigning monarch.Poets such as
Edmund Spenser and John Milton produced works that demonstrated an increased interest in
understanding English Christian beliefs, such as the retelling of mankind’s fall from paradise in
Paradise Lost; playwrights, such as Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare, composed
theatrical representations of the English take on life, death, and history. Nearing the end of the Tudor
Dynasty, philosophers like Sir Thomas More and Sir Francis Bacon published their own ideas about
humanity and the aspects of a perfect society, pushing the limits of metacognition at that time.
England came closer to reaching modern science with the Baconian Method, a forerunner of the
Scientific Method.

Sir Thomas was a lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman and noted Renaissance humanist. He
was an important counsellor to Henry VIII of England and for three years toward the end of his life he
was Lord Chancellor. He was an opponent of the Protestant Reformation and in particular of Martin
Luther, and William Tyndale.

More coined the word "utopia" - a name he gave to the ideal, imaginary island nation whose political
system he described in Utopia, published in 1516. Utopia contrasts the contentious social life of
European states with the perfectly orderly, reasonable social arrangements of Utopia and its environs
(Tallstoria, Nolandia, and Aircastle). In Utopia, with communal ownership of land, private property
does not exist, men and women are educated alike, and there is almost complete religious toleration.
Some take the novel's principal message to be the social need for order and discipline rather than
liberty. The country of Utopia tolerates different religious practices but does not tolerate atheists . He
opposed the king's separation from the Catholic Church and refused to accept the king as Supreme
Head of the Church of England, a status the king had been given by a compliant parliament through
the Act of Supremacy of 1534. He was tried for treason and beheaded.

Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, author and pioneer of
the scientific method. He remained extremely influential through his works, especially as
philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution.

Bacon has been called the father of empiricism. His works established and popularized the, or simply
the scientific method, through experiments to reach to the truth ( pe scurt )

William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in
the English language. He is often called England's national poet. Plays in many languages, great
influence, renaissance spirit, yea yea.. ( un pic cam mult nu? Eh, se poate schematiza foarte fain, atata
tot sa stii ce sa iei de unde.. sorray )

II. The Monarchy of the Tudors

- New possition of the monarchs

- Background info. on Henry VII and Henry VIII

Henry VII

H.7 was the first Tudor on the throne of England, following the end of the War of the Roses. He
married Elizabeth of York. Following the end of the feudal system, Henry VII acted in a different
manner than his predecesors. He was no longer the the first among the equals, but he was the
monarch. Since money was becoming the means of power in Britain, Henry gathered a vast amout of
riches to his court. As king, he needed an army and the support of parliament, but he had none ( only
a small personal guard ). His authority was not contested and he was revered with great admiration.
This situation arose from a few consequences: the war of the roses shattered the nobility and made
the English weary of medieval anarchy, not wanting to return to the old feudal system of the Anglo-
Norman rule. There was the Parliament, but during troublesome times, it failed to proove itself
trustworthy. There was the house of Commons, but they were constantly siding with whoever was in
power, in order to make their presence felt. There was a need for somebody to fill the transition from
a feudal rule to a parliamentary one and that was the King. Being a visionary, he understood that in
order for England to become great and to be able to stand off any of the Continental Powers ( France
and Spain especially ), it was needed to expand its territories, and where else than in the New World?
He encouraged shipbuilding and sailing. One successful voyage led to the discovery of Newfoundland,
by Cabot’s expedition. Henry forbade the import of wine in other ships than English, by a Navigation
Act ( 1489), thus encouraging local merchants. Speaking of which… the merchants and the middle
class expanded during Henry’s reign, his purpuose being that of weakening the old barons. He made
reforms in the law too, dealing with grave charges in his own Star Chamber ( star chamber – because
it was decorated with stars. ), where he was aided by his Council. He rarely gave a death sentence,
but preferred to fine those found guilty… so he got rich!... His council was
now made up of merchants, burgesses and men trained in the universities: a new type of men. The
Council, in close connection with the local administrations, could rule the country fairly and with no
problems. Henry 7’s legacy consist mostly of bringing back peace in England, after the war of the
roses, transforming the position of king into a respected institution, preserving the Parilament and its
authority and giving way to money as a means of controlling his servants.

Henry VIII

H.8 was a great historical figure in English history: at the same time, a Medieval King but a
Renaissance Prince too. How so, thou may asketh… easy! Medieval king – courteous, chivalrious,
devout. Renaissance prince – cruel, cultured, libertine. Add these and you get Henry VIII – legally
cruel, conjugally libertine and splendid. ( in other words, a true badass of his days, or a pimp if you
prefer. )

He became king in 1509, at the age of 18, historians remembering him as a fine athlete, a proud
person, avid hunter and horserider. He was well educated and manifested an interest in literature. He
married Catherine of Aragon, his first wife ( daughter of Ferdinand of Spain ). But Henry was a lady’s
men…so here the fun follows: C atherine was the widow of his brother, so that makes Cahty his sister-
in-law. See the problem? There were rules that forbade this kind of marriages between sister-in-law
and brother-in-law. But presumably, the marriage of Henry’s brother was not consumed ( no sexy-
sexy time happened. No intercourse. Back then virginity was sacred) so he could marry her, because
Spain in those days was the greatest power in Europe. It helped knowing that your father-in-law has
the best army there is, when in a war…

But Henry managed to prove that the marriage was not right under God’s eyes, so he managed to
divorce ( but broke contact with Rome and well.. Spain wasn’t so friendly after this episode. )
Henry+Catherine= Mary Tudor. But Henry needed a MALE heir. He fell in love with Anne Boelyn and
married her in secret, before the divorce was pronounced ( ouch!... ) . Furthermore, he began
reforming the church of England to suit his needs, which was a direct influence of the Protestant
movement, but you know what? This matter shall be dealt with in the following chapters! ( you shan’t
escape it. )
Back to H8 reign –he reorganized the fleet, such as H7 did before him, managed to annexe Whales
and to pacify Ireland. Through his reform ( church reform, that is ), he destroyed a great number of
monasteries, confiscated their wealth for his own purposes, and managed to put England in a
position that the rest of the countries of Europe would not achieve for more than 200 years later –
the separation of Church and State. what he do? What he do? (ai rabdare pana la capitolul cu
reforma! ) in short, the churches of England fought among themselves so no anti-clerical movement
was formed. But the separation was bloody…

Position of monarchs ( the new position, that is!)

The Tudor dynasty brought forth a new way of leading a country. A Renaissance way, in which no
longer the old aristocratic classes were in charge. The way was open to the middle classes, the
bourgeoisie, to prove their worth. The monarchs started distancing from all the troubles of the
realm, now being aided by the Council or Parliament in finding the best solution for all. The remains
of the former Anglo-Saxon and Normandy’s rule was that the small communities were well organized
and did not require the constant intervention of the king in their issues. These kings brought an era of
peace and non-aggression with other countries, their care was to keep the country in peace and
prosperity. Because of them ( the Tudors ), old feudal institution managed to fade into memory, being
replaced by more-effective local institutions.

III.Local institutions during the Tudor monarchy

- New classes

- New institutions

Yeomen and Gentry.

During the reign of the Tudors, there appeared certain new social classes. One of these was the
gentry. The gentry was made up of all the country gentlemen ( a nu se confunda cu termenul
gentleman din francezul gentilhomme ). The gentry appeared from the old knight class, merchants,
former important people in the community ( mayor, lawyer… ). He ( the gentleman ) need not own
lands, nor have a noble rank ( power to the people baby!!! ). The same amount of annual revenue was
fixed for becoming a gentleman, that is 20 pounds ( sterling. Cam 80 si ceva de lei de azi ), the same
amount that was fixed for the knight aswell. What did this mean for society? That wealth started to
substitute birth as the basis of the small aristocracy. The gentleman could become part of the justice
of peace ( more on this subject to follow. Da avizi de cunoastere ati devenit! ).

The yeomen were a new class that appeared during this period too! ( yes, there was more than one
new thing in that age! Amazing!) they were said to be above the peasantry, but below the gentry. To
be considered a yeoman, one had to gain a total revenue of 20 shillings ( cam 2 pachete de guma
orbit…cred). Again, it was not necessary for the yeoman to own land. He could be a farmer or a
scribe, as long as he had those 20 shillings revenue/year, it was all o.k.
During the seventeenth century, the yeomen numbered over 160.000, they were the backbone of
England. ( why? Think of the TAXES! ). The yeomen were what had remained of the old archers from
the Hundred Year War ( if you remember, those archers we’re baddass. They helped England win the
war and “helped” France become poor, because of looting. ). This social class made up a solid
economical, political and social body. By now, the English feared the effects of social disorder and civil
war so of course the yeomen sided with the king, whose authority they respected.

Local Institutions

As a difference between English officials and French ones, one can notice that in France there was a
well-developed hierarchy that depended on and was paid by the central government, as opposed to
the English system, where the custom was to take up official functions voluntarily. This derived from
the old Anglo-Saxon custom of the moot. ( do you remember the moot? No, you don’t remember the
moot! Or if you do, good for you! ) The Tudors liked to use what was at hand, so this way of
organizing things prevailed. After a few centuries, what was left from this moot were the parish
meetings, in which people discussed and agreed/disagreed upon what was there to be done to the
church. At first, there were expenditures for the books that were needed, for wax or minor repairs.
Then, a man was hired for keeping all the records, one for digging the graves etc etc.. The parish
obtained its revenue from the land: from its herds mostly and from the church rate ( asta a ramas si la
noi ), that was settled depending on each one’s revenue. So we can openly say that the Parish was a
local institution in Tudor times. But what else did it provide? During those days not all was cotton
candy dandy lions everywhere, there were a lot of poor that depended on others for support: the
poor relief. The Tudors adopted the parish as a mean of controlling this problem, each parish being
responsible for the poor people in its area. The parish appointed representatives to gather the poor
relief from others, each contributing with what he could. The ones who refused to pay were
sometimes sent to prison, after being summoned to see the bishop. As the poor’s situation generally
never improves nowhere, the poor relief became obligatory in time. A law was passed that ordered
the building of hospitals and houses for the infirm, aged, crazed… these houses were provided with
raw material, so that they could provide work for the workless ( mind you, NOT the aged, crazed or
infirm! ) and were poor children could learn a skill, by becoming an apprentice. Furthermore, each
cottage built required that it had at least 4 acres of land, so that the owners could produced their
foodstuff. If a parish could not support all its poor, another richer parish was to help it. All this help
worked on a local level, without the need of the government to take part.

As there was no police force back then, each parish had one man appointed a constable. He had to
maintain order, stop illegal gambling and other police-like duties. He was elected for a period of a
year. But it was not an easy task: this one man, was responsible for the peace in the whole parish. If
someone else arrested a vagabond, the constable had to pay a fine, for not doing his job correctly. If
he arrested someone, he had to keep him in his own house until the trial, for there were no prisons.
But as every cloud has a silver lining.. when a new constable was elected, the old ones were ready to
give him advice and provide assistance. The constable – the “police” of the Tudor times.

The Justice of Peace. He was the link between the parish and county, being elected by the king, from
the squires ( the guys with the $$$, only in sterling pounds ). Usually they were rich landowners,
respected members of the community. Each county had a fixed number of representatives to the
justice of peace, but in time, this number could vary. (at first there were 9, but there are cases when a
county had 39 )

The Justice of Peace had a great role in keeping order in the county. If the central seat of power
failed, the law had to be kept alive locally, by aid of these capable men. So, what they did more
exactly? Simple answer: dealt with crimes and various cases that required a higher authority to deal
with. Ahaa! So a kind of judge, righ? Yep. If the constable wasn’t always happy of his duty, not the
same can be said of the Justice of Peace, because it was regarded as a honorable position and the
sign of importance to the local community.

These are the important institutions that appeared during the Tudor’s time in England. The yeomen
and the gentry provided their services for the aid of their local community, while the central power
needn’t worry about the enforcing of the law in the land. This all because of the English customs
( of which we have discussed during the first term )

IV. Henry VIII and the Reform!

- The reform – wha? Whe’? why? Who?

- What did Henry do and why

As you may recall from somewhere above (if not, go read ) H8 was married to Catherine, his sister-in-
law. She failed to provide him with a male heir, so he tried to find other… methods of procuring a
male heir… but first!

Remember that in Europe Renaissance thought meant freedom from the indoctrinating views of the
church? There was one Martin Luther, from Germany. He was the most fervent protestant preacher
against the Church ( roman catholic ). He accused them ( the Church ) of being corrupt, of not
preaching the true word of God, of being too complex and useless in its rites and especially of the
fact that ( in Germany, but elsewhere also ) the mass was in Latin, and the common man could not
understand the word of God. To these accusations, the church decided to take action, at first, by
excommunicating Luther. But he couldn’t be stopped. He started gathering attention and the public
sided with him.

Meanwhile, in (our beloved) England, Henry had not yet conceived the idea of divorcing. England was
still catholic. He denounced Luther and accused him of heresy in an open letter. For his actions, the
pope called him “ a guardian of faith “. Nevertheless, Henry wanted something more: he was
deranged by the fact that even though the people respected HIS authority, the church of England
respected ROME’s authority… Things started looking bad for Catherine after she failed to give birth
( ow yea, like it was HER fault that she gave birth to a girl! ) to a male heir, because Henry was not a
patient kind of man. He had set his eyes upon Anne Boleyn ( to which he had secretly married, and
well… she was pregnant ). He had to divorce Catherine of Aragon, but as a marriage was blessed by
God, it could not be declared null… unless the marriage was not ethic ( or normal? ).

Enter Thomas Wolsey, the man Henry entrusted with most of the ruling busyness of the country. He is
important for what was to follow, so I am to speak of him a little bit in detail. Wolsey was appointed
cardinal, then Papal Legate in England. This new authority, combined with that of actually ruling the
country, gave him grand ideas ( as well as the people of England a prime example of a man wielding
both ecclesiastical and civil power ). He wanted to become Pope and threatened with separation of
the church if this was not granted. But what else did he do? He led a lavish and rich life, which he
could afford only by robbing monasteries of their wealth. He was involved in foreign affairs as well,
trying to find the best side for England, in allying with France or Spain, but he chose badly ( not
Spain ). In the mean time, Henry decided that a male heir was obligatory, to spare England of further
civil wars, so he tried his hand for obtaining permission to divorce his wife. By now, Wolsey became a
problem: he was in the position to aid Catherine ( as a Papal Legate ), but also, he was a servant of his
king… thus he was accused of treason, his wealth confiscated and nearly killed, if it weren’t for his
weak health ( but he still died.. )… Thomas More took the position formerly held by Wolsey – that of
lord chancellor. He managed to pull a plan to give Henry the right to divorce ( look into it, will ya’ ?
are de-a face cu o curte eclesiastica adunata special pentru asta si ceva tertipuri de-a lui More ).
Henry was pronounced divorced only in England by a court that was favourable to his cause. He
shortly married ( this time legally ) Anne Boleyn. The consequence was inevitable: the breach with
Rome had cometh… and Henry was excommunicated. ( now there should be a part in which I speak
about the other wives he had, but that is not the most important matter here. If you want to say more
about them, do it, but I am focusing on something else here ).

Enter Thomas Cromwell – his role was that he inspired Henry’s future actions against the church,
telling him of the German princes that had broken contact with Rome…

If Rome refused to acknowledge the separation of Cath and H8, then why should H8 and the whole
English nation respect the authority of the pope? Using the same means he used against Wolsey,
Henry accused the entire clergy of conspiring against him ( treason! Treason!! ). As a compensation, H
demanded 2 million pounds and the title of Protector and Supreme Head of the Church, and that the
taxes that were once destined for Rome, to be destined now for the King. He issued two acts: the Act
of Supremacy – making him the spiritual and lay ruler of the church, the Act of Succession, in which
he stated that his first marriage was null and that the throne would go to the children born within the
wedlock with Anne. More was executed, on the fact that he did not accept the fact that he had to
acknowledge the fact that the Bishop of Rome was usurping the title of Pope. ( More Thomas became
a saint ). Cromwell took his place. The monks who did not agree with this new order of things, were
deprived of their belongings. Almost all the monasteries had their proprieties confiscated in the
name of the King. Thus, during a 5-year period, the monasteries were literally pillaged, priests ran to
Scotland or Ireland, the king got very rich and his close ones ( friends, aides, etc ) became loyal to this
new church. Although he had broken apart from the Roman church, he wanted a national catholic
church for England. After persecuting the old believers, he turned his eyes to the protestants, which
did not have part of a gentler treatment…

Henry continued his reform with the Six Articles, in which he enounced the general principles of the
new church ( celibacy of the priests, needlessness of communion, etc etc )

Soap opera: Anne Boleyn cheated Henry, but she gave birth to Elizabeth. Anne lost her head.
( literally ). Jane Seymor – died while giving birth to the ONLY male heir – Edward VI ( non
important, died young ). Anne of Cleeves – suggested by Cromwell, she was ugleh in the eyes of
the king. Anne got back home in Germany, Cromwell’s head met his feet… Catherine Howard – chip
chop on the block – cheated him, she lost her head too. Catherine Parr – she survived, Henry died…

V. Elizabeth – Queen of the Renaissance

- profile, background, personality,

- Popularity

- religious policies

This Queen was the first monarch of England to have a period named after her, so she must’ve done
something good, right?

Verily..

She was the daughter of Henry 8, born from Anne Boleyn. Although by the act of succession, she
should’ve followed on the throne of England, being a girl, she didn’t have this occasion. ( remember?
H8 wanted a male heir! ). After her brother, Edward VI passed away and after her sister, Mary Tudor
done some nasty things for love and religion… she killed many protestants, in a time in which
Anglicanism was taking shape. Elizabeth was a protestant so she was more than welcome on the
throne. She conquered the hearts of her subjects ( just like lady Di, in a more latter time ) because
she knew how to use her intelligence and could see further than her own interests. For the good of
the country, yes?

She was remembered also as the virgin queen. She never married (maybe she fancied some guys, but
nevah had sexy-time…so they say), and she couldn’t become a mother ( this would to become a
somewhat problematic thing after her death ). She did not engage in wars on the continent, for she
had no standing army ( just like the Tudors before ), she did not levy new taxes and asked not much
for herself. This was the key to her success. In matters of religion, she supported Anglicanism, but
tried to bring peace and understanding between Catholics and protestants. The book of common
prayer was made compulsory for every subject ( in it there were prayers in english ) aaand the pope
was still neglected. The 39 Articles, were adopted in 1536, which were to become the basis of the
Anglican church. This meant that most of the catholic rites were kept, the language was now english
during sermon and the Pope got nothing from the English subjects ( protestant religion, yes? ). The
pope reacted by excommunicating the Queen, thus relieving the need for loyalty to her, by her
catholic subject. She was made responsible for the loss of so many souls ( excommunicating, etc etc)
that some voices murmured that her death would not be a crime in the face of God ( yeah, like we
know what GOD thinks… )… Puritans started to appear in England ( Calvinists, or simply put – hard-
headed religious zealots that wanted something totally not accepted by the Queen ). They opposed
the Queen, but did not manage to destabilize her position in the hearts of the people.

VI. Elizabeth’s conflicts

- Differences between Spain and England

- Spanish colonial expansion

Spain was catholic. Very devout. Very nasty against protestants. ( does the Inquisition ring a bell?).
And they were suparati on the English. Why? Remember good ol’ Henry 8 first divorce? No? GO
READ!... SO, as I was saying, Spain was a great power in Europe, thanks to its colonial empire in the
Americas, from which its riches came (lots of riches ). Spain controlled Itally, the Mediterranean, the
trading routes of Flanders… They controlled the seas ( the Portuguese did too, but on a smaller scale).
So England was left to find a way of breaking their domination. Captains tried to find a N-E or even a
N-W passage to the Indies, because the Spanish had the S-W, Portugal the S-E.

English merchants traded with the Spanish ports in the Americas and many times even attacked
Spanish ships. Letters of marque were given to those captains who were robbed by foreign ships.
These letters actually gave the captains a legal mean of piracy… John Hawkins started harassing the
Spanish, was captured and his ships confiscated. The queen found him on the guilty side, but
nevertheless, made him Treasurer of the Navy, so that she can benefit from his… knowledge.

Spain held large parts of N and S America. England wanted a share of the benefits! Francis Drake
started harassing Spanish ports and even robbing them. He managed, on his round the world voyage,
to get his hands on the gold from Eldorado, that was of course destined for Spain ( every year ) and of
course the Queen got a share of the gold, on his return… Spain grew impatient of these acts. They
now treaded with english pirates as if they were heretics ( nasty treatment ). In the meantime,
Hawkins was preparing the fleet for war. Elizabeth made Francis a Sir and put him in charge of a royal
fleet, a position from which he continued to harass the Spanish ports… war was inevitable. In 1588,
Philip II of Spain readied his Armada for war. 30,000 men were bound for England and another 30000
from the Netherlands. The englis fleet was led by Lord Howard, who had Drake and Hawkins under
his command and a total of about 34 warships and 150 merchant ships, provided by ports. The
Spanish fleet was led by the Duke of Medina-Sidonia and his experience at sea was… wasn’t… He
arranged his ships in a classic formation as preparing for a land battle, in expecting the English. When
they arrived, the English vessels formed an indian line, to the surprise of the Spanish, and opened
fire! ( the battle took place near Plymouth ). When the English opened fire, their cannons out-ranged
the Spanish ones, so them beated guys hurried back to to the low countryes… but they were beaten
badly. Victory… well, if the English had had more ammo, surely the outcome would’ve been
BAAAAAD for Spain. The Duke of Parma, leader of the Spanish fleet, was not ready to aid the Duke of
Medina-Sidonia, and asked for more time to prepare… in the mean time, English came and blasted
some more ships… The Spanish fleet tried escaping to the North Sea, but there the cannons of the
enghlish gave them a run. The Duke tried to debark in Ireland, still a catholic country, and gather
support for attacking England. But he chose to get there round Scotland, a difficult passage for his ill-
prepared ships…. He never got to Ireland, but retuned to Spain with 100 of 150 ships, many losses
and with his Armada shattered… Spain no longer had the supremacy of the seas. But was still master
on land. England tried making a colonial empire.. the beginning! There was the land in Newfoundland
and sir Walter Raleigh’s Virginia ( guess in whose honor? ). But what developed was the trading at
seas. Great companies were founded, with the sole purpose of trading with the colonies or distant
lands. They established monopolies on their trade routes and brought forth a new era of expansion,
and, of course, $$$ to the crown…

VII. Elizabethan England

- culture

- drama, poets, etc etc etc etc…

During this times of prosperity, people started fancying the arts and luxury. Everyone wanted to look
pretty, to be smart, to read poetry… Puritanism was starting to make its presence felt too.

The people were delighted with the plays and sonnets of Shakespeare, the vesrses of Spencer,
Marlowe… There was a lot of translating done from the Italian writers, such as Boccacio or the
French Montaigne essayist. From these foreign sources, Spencer or Shakespeare borrowed the
themes and adapted them to the English specific, the gentle gravity, the rustic poetry, homely
philosophy of their race…

Theatre, although not liked by puritans, developed outside the reaches of their law. The most famous
playhouse was Shakespeare’s Globe. The spectators were avid consumers of plays, from dramas, to
poetic works of Marlowe and Shakespeare or Ben Jonson.

New schools were founded, for the benefit of more eager students to learn : Eton, Winchester,
Harrow. Culture was spreading to all people, through the printing press had decreased the price of
books, the Inns and Courts offered a place that was for the benefit of the poets of the day.. (in carte
nu scrie asa mult despre astea, mai va documentati voi din surse secundare )

VIII. The early Stewarts

- who where they, how did they come in power

- James I, Charles I – conflicts, origins, flaws

After the death of queen Elizabeth, the next on the throne was James VI of Scotland, a son of Mary
Stewart, who would reign as James I of England, uniting the two crowns.

Being from Scotland, he had different ideas of how to rule a state, he believed that Kings were to rule
the states because God intended it to and subjects must give obedience… so he was above the Law,
only in some exceptions when he wanted to submit an example, he was subdued by the law ( only by
his bidding… ). In Scotland, this worked, but in England, where a Parliament had a long tradition, this
would cause problems.
He had no troubles with the Anglican church, but with the catholics…. They hoped for reconciliation
with Rome, but the king thought that the person they should offer their highest respect was HIM not
the POPE. This was against the beliefs of the catholics and some of them, disappointed by this new
lost hope, plotted against him. The most dangerous of these plots, was that of the Gunpowder Plot.
The catholics wanted to blow up the house of Lords, when it was assembled. Word was put out that
on the 5 of November, there would be sparks all over, but word got to the king, and the plod was
stopped before it was too late. Guy Fawkes, the brain behind the scheme… lost his head. The
catholics were deprived of their rights and were discriminated. This king seemed to be doing good,
until he turned against parliament. He could not conceive a state where a king could not do what he
pleased. He wanted to impose a hereditary right of kings, which was a new idea to parliament. He
thought that he was only responsible to God, not to his servants, but things were long since gone for
those times in England. The conflict between absolutism and parliament began with the Stewarts.

The king needed money, so he tried to force the hand of parliament to grant him more $$$. He had
the tonnage and duties on wool and leather, that gave him about 150000 pounds/year. Because the
parliament refused to give him the sums he asked for, he decided not to summon it no more ( 1611 –
1621, no parly. ) He waged no wars, because he could not afford none… He tried to make an alliance
with Spain, through a marriage, but failed to do so. Buckingham, his closest friend/advisor, was left to
deal with the country, while James idled doing nothing… he died in 1625.

Charles I followed on the throne, being the son of James and Maria Henrietta, daughter of Henry IV of
France. He resembled his father and thus, he decided to rule without a parliament ( until 1640 there
was no parliament in England. ) He was not too good in ruling a country… The Scots attacked and
occupied the north of England. Charles summoned a parliament to give him an army, but the
parliament refused to do so, because they had unsolved grievances too.He then moved to Oxford and
gathered an army. Civil war followed shortly…

IX. Cromwell and the new model army

- New model army?

- Protectorate

- Civil war

The country was divided between royalists and parliament. Oliver Cromwell was on the parliament’s
side. King Charles having been defeated, surrendered himself to the scots, in 1645

Oliver Cromwell, was a simple squire, but proved to be very important for the parliament. He was a
puritan by education. He managed to form a new model army, that was well disciplined, well trained
and very effective. He was very devout and religious, but despite being puritan, he treaded fairly with
the others of different confessions… his army was made up of different people and faiths, but all
respected Cromwell. He decided that the need for a professional army led by solders not politicians
was needed. The parliament voted in his favor, so the New Model Army was created, led by Sir
Thomas Fairfax and Cromwell. They defeated the royalists in ’45 and Parliament was victorious…
buuut… nobody felt good after this. Parliament was victorious, but the people needed a monarchy.
They did not like the harsh religion of Cromwell’s men. The conditions were difficult to understand,
because now the army demanded freedom of confession and said that an absolutist monarchy was
no different that a despotic parliament.

The Long Parliament was so called because it was sitted from 1640 untill 1648. It was later dissolved
by Cromwell.

The rump parliament appeared after it was purged of those deemed undesirable by the army. ( after
1649 (

King Charles was now a problem, because he sided with anyone that he thought could help him get
his throne back. He was captured by parliament, tried and sentenced to death in 1649. Oliver
Cromwell took the title of Lord Protector and led England until his death. The scots made an
agreement with Charles II, but they were defeated by the Parliament army.

Cromwell turned his eye towards pacifying Scotland and Ireland. In Ireland, the catholics were the
problem, because the english protestants were in danger ( they were murdered! Ok?!) Cromwell led a
New Model army there and repaid massacre by more massacre. Ireland was pacified.

Scotland on the other hand, was furious, because Charles was a scot, and they reeealy did not like the
idea of regicide. They sided with Charles II and wanted to attack England but Cromwell defeated them
too and the young Charles II had to flee across the channel. Cromwell reigned supreme. But this
doesn’t mean he was loved. The army was costing too much to keep, the country was in chaos
because of the former civil war… He called the end of the Rump Parliament in 1653 and formed a
new one, the Barebone Parliament, made up of clergymen from all the churches and confession of
England.

Cromwell died in 1658, leaving the country in still a state of uncertainty, because the parliament army
and people still couldn’t find a way to figure their problems… in 1660, the restoration took place, and
all that Cromwell tried to do, fell into ruin.

X. The Restoration

- Context

- Charles II

- Political parties

After Cromwell’s death, Charles II returned to England as king. He did not want to be put again in the
position to flee his own country, so he wanted to rule lawfully, but secretly wanted to do the
emancipation of catholics. He summoned a parliament that had remained in power for 18 years. They
granted him no standing army and not enough money so that he could not do as he pleased. The
king, remembering what happened to his father, accepted these conditions.

During this period, political parties started to take shape: the Whigs( liberals ) – aristocrats,
merchants, and the Tories, the Kings men, or the ones who sided with the king ( conservatives ). Their
representatives fought for control of the parliament, in elections and speeches directed against the
others. Usually, the Whigs controlled the parliament, but the Tories had their fair chances too.

By the end of Charles reign, the Tories held power. Charles died and was followed on the throne by
his brother, James II, a catholic. Because of this, he did not stay much on the throne, being replaced
by a revolution in 1688 by William of Orange. A constitutional Monarchy then followed ( until this day
)

XI. The Enlightenment!

- Features

- Age of reason

- Political philosophy

- Smart people worth mentioning

Enlightenment came after the end of Renaissance in Europe. It brought forth a more avid discussion
on human rights, liberties and how a state should be ruled.

This was not a school of thought, but rather a set of values, that questioned the traditional
institutions, customs and morals and held in high regard science and rationality. That’s why it’s called
the Age of Reason, because people THOUGHT of WHY things happened as they did!

Thomas Hobbes tried to answer to the question of how a state should be led, in his book – Leviathan.

Hobbes and Locke ( John Locke ) tried to figure out the human condition, what was a human being
and what was its purpose. During Cromwell’s reign, the country was left in a state of religious control,
of the puritan kind. No comedies, no theater, strict morals and such… after 1660, these restrictions
were declared null, so culture once again flourished! New playwrights began publishing, such as
Etherege, Whycherby.

John Milton, a devout puritan, wrote Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained, two epic poems dealing
with mankind and its flaws. John Dryden was the one to bring classic poetry into England.

The age of Reason, in literature, was known as the Classicism. People of this period started looking
back to the “ perfection” beauty of the ancients ( much as the Renaissance man before him ) but with
a sense of respect and desire for order. Even though comedies were written an played, theatre
embraced this new way of thinking and the plays became more rigorous. Poetry was sober, with a
perfect geometry. From these thoughts the Parnassian movement would later appear.

Other smart people of the time: J. Swift – satirist. Daniel Defoe – important for his work – Robinson
Crusoe ( the embodiment of the enlightenment man ).

The men of those days tried to find a fundamental truth in order to organize the world around it.

In politics, king James II succession was debated, because he was a catholic, and well… the country
was REAAAALY protestant. William III was followed on the throne by Anne, the daughter of James II.
During this time, there was a war for the Spanish Succession. England had a great general in the
person of John Churchill, who defeated the French at Blenheim, afterwards the peace of Utrecht was
signed.

In 1701 the act of settlement, that dealt with English Succession was signed. It said that the king or
queen of England had to be Protestant and from the house of Hanover. After queen anne’s death,
George I came on the throne, because of this act of settlement. Thus the Georgian age began.

Robert Wallpole – the first prime minister, the first man to hold this function – the link between
parliament and king. The government responded directly to parliament.

Ow yeah – the novel as a genre appeared during this period. ( duuh! Robinson Crusoe? )

XII.Loss of the American Colonies

- Why did Britain lose them

- Why did they rebel?

- 7 years war

- Boston Tea Party!!!

- War of Independence + French Resistance

- Consequences

Britain decided that if it were to become a great power ( a playa playa ) on the scene of Europe, it
had to use what it knew best: its fleet. Since the Elizabethan age, the English/British navy ( because
back then Elizabeth hath not had a Britain, ye?) was feared, for it was well-equipped and a strong foe
to fight against. Because Britain was an island state, it did not rely on a regular army when times
came to defend its territories, they would rather send their fleet with some men and wreak havoc on
the enemy’s side. Spain was leading the Colonial race back then ( not a real race, just for the fun of it
I said It was a race), having acquired territories mostly in Southern America, from where they brought
back great amounts of gold ( Senor Don Rodrigo de Bogatano, yes?). France was expanding in North
America: Quebec, Pennsylvania, Quiberion… England had only some small colonies there… they were
gealous!

The 7 years war started just of this ambition of Britain to have its own Colonial Empire ( it would help
trade, increase revenue, increase power, etc etc, become big boo-ha of Europe ). The war was fought
on a large scale, because it not only composed the American Continent, but also India, where France
and Britain had commercial interests ( spices mostly. )

William Pitt ( the elder ) was the head of the Parliament at that time, he being the promoter of war
agains France. He had public support on his side, but that didn’t mean it would be an easy war. He
moved the interest of continental intervention to the one of colonial intervention, to the disapproval
of king George II.

War started in 1756, but Britain lost the start, the French occupying Minorca ( island in
Mediterranean ). The Austrians decided to break the alliance with Britain and side with France, so
Britain had to find a new ally – Prussia.

Prussia was attacked on all sides by France, Austria and Russia, thus leaving Britain to fend of the
French attacks in the Electorate of Hanover ( from where George I, II, III were ). Then war broke out in
the colonies too. In America, there were about 1,200,000 English as opposed to about 60,000
Frenchmen… from 1759 and almost to the end of the war, Pitt had victory by his side. Quebec was
capturet and many French colonies too ( fort Duquesne Pittsburgh, in his honor ). In India, with the
aid of the great merchant companies, British rule was enforced, the French being driven out ( India
was to become to Britain the pearl in its crown, the same as South America was to Spain -$$$!)

After the death of George II, his son, king George III followed on the throne. He was only family
related to the house of Hanover, he was more English than anything else. But he had interesting
plans… he wanted to become THE KING, meaning – to restore power into his hands, but in a time
where Parliament ruled, his ideas were provoking. He made William Pitt resign ( if it weren’t for Pitt,
probably America would’ve had French origins…. ) and replaced him with someone more close to his
ideas – Bute, but this guy was not fancied by public opinion…

So, back to Amerika ( fuck yeah! ) in order to prevent the rebellion of the French population in the
newly acquired colonies, there needed to be an armed force to control a possible rebellion. But why
should Britain pay for these solders? It was so decided that the colonists should pay for them. ( from
here, bad things happen to ‘merican colonists ). From this came the motto:” no taxation without
representation” because the colonists had no representative in Parliament at that time… still, the law
passed and the tax was settled. Furthermore, the British colonies were not permitted to trade with
anyone else than British ships – they had to buy everything from them ( monopoly thus ensued )

The colonists were not allowed to produce the things that Britain exported ( wool mostly ), and they
could trade only with English ports… even more, the colonists could trade only what they produced
over there which was not usually found over here, such as tobacco. This prevented the colonies to
feel “free” but in returned, it filled the coffers of Britain and the great companies ( the guys who went
round the world and got rich because of monopoly ). The Stamp Act ( tax on almost anything. Had to
be agreed by the empire, had to be paid for ) was another tax, that helped pay for the British troops
stationed there, but this was an abusive tax. ( they had to pay in gold ). Finally, because of the more
and more rebellious colonists, the Stamp Act was suppressed by k.George3 but there was kept a small
duty on secondary articles, such as tea and glass. NOW the problem was that the great trading
companies wanted to sell their tea directly to the consumer, not with the aid of the local merchants,
who got left behind. This tax angered the tea drinkers everywhere, a tax on my tea? This is madness!
Guess what happened next!

In Boston, a group of men, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships carrying tea and threw their cargo
in the sea. This act was not tolerated by Britain and soon enough, the conflict was open. The 13
colonies sided with one and other in this fight. Parliament thought that it would be an easy fight,
seeing that the colonists had no standing army, no fleet, no fortified towns… war broke out in 1776,
when the colonists rejected the rule of George3 in favor of their own rule. This was not an easy war,
for neither sides. France, that was the great looser of the 7 years war, saw this occasion as a revenge!
( eh, eeet this, filthy englishes!). The French gave the Americans a fleet, money, weapons and aid in
fighting the British.

Outcome of the war: England lost the 13 colonies. America was born. France was broke. England was
supreme master of the seas. India was good for their trade. England reigned supreme. ( even though
it had LOST a big part of its empire in America… )… King George 3 was ill ( ill is a beautiful word for his
CRAZYNESS. He talked to trees, ok? ). William Pitt helped propel Britain as an imperial power, the
trading companies grew rich, the country was rather stable politically and economically, new things to
follow…

XIII. Agricultural and Industrial revolutions

- What, who and why ? ( mostly )

If the Black Death killed like ONE THIRD of England helped the emancipation of the serf ( peasant for
the pretentious), the 1700’s brought a new dimension of agriculture and industry. Population started
to grow because of many reasons: discoveries in medicine helped diminish the death rate, parish aid
supported large families, the migration villagetown forced people to move in more crowded housing (
where morals did go to the drain and the poor… multiplied ). Industrialization was taking over the
country ( note: Britain had sparked the industrial revolution. This is important ), and so,
manufactures appeared, where young children were employed ( again, population boom was benefic
for these people ). But a greater populace needs more food. The old ways of agriculture were not
enough to support all these hungry mouths. A change was needed. The great landowners wanted
more, so gradually the enclosure came to being. What was an enclosure? To explain it simply – great
amounts of land, under one man’s control. Big farms on short, or even better – the beginning of the
modern farm. The old habit of letting the earth rest for a year, after 3 years’ exploitation ( medieval
practice). Soon, new methods of cultivating were developed ( such as instead of letting the ground
rest for a year, something like clover was grown – this provided food for the animals for example ).
Fertilizers appeared, so now it was easier to grow grains and other things were previously it was not
possible. But because of the enclosures, nevertheless, transforming England into a grain-exporting
nation, left the peasants without their free land ( the commons, where everybody was master and no
one was master the same time ). The lords took the commons to add them to the enclosures, the
peasant was left with no means of working… so he went to the town…( imediat zic de ce e important)

The law that said that cottage needed 4 acres of land to be built, was abrogated. New houses could
be built more closely ( ca blocurile astea socialiste… ), but the downside of this new situation was that
in the towns, the slums developed ( mahala ), where living conditions were bleh… Keep in mind that
we are talking of the period between 1700 and somewhat 1800, so the Independence of the
Americas was not heard of yet. More people decided to move to the colonies, in hope of finding
better conditions, seeming as a refuge to the landless farmers… those who decided to stay, entered
the lord’s service. The yeoman started to fade away, as the independent and tenant-farmers were
now known only as farmers, that depended on the gentry ( personal, mi se pare ca-I un regress fata
de ce era inainte- conditia lor, nu faptul ca s-a trecut pe moduri mai eficiente de exploatare a
pamantului ). Society was in for a change, in this period.

Besides a development in agriculture, the industry boomed too. Inventions were put to use for the
benefit of man ( and for the benefit of the industrialists ). Capitalism was taking shape. Wool,
previously being made at home, could now be made in factories, where the work of 100 men was
replaced by a single machine. Steam engines are defining for this age. Coal was now the main
resource of an industrialized country ( steam engines replaced the manual labor, more efficient ).
Roads developed too. John McAdam ( no ia ghici ce-a inventat asta !? ) developed a method of laying
a water-resistant surface on the road, thus the speed of coaches increased to about 10 miles per
hour. Furthermore, after 1830 railroads developed that further led to an increase of travel speed and
of shortening distances and transporting more material from point A to point B.

Capitalism brought forth a new method of seeing what country was best: by its positive balance of
trade with other countries thus leading the way to the modern era ( capitaliszmus bby! )

XIV. Political reforms in Victorian England.

- Secret ballot

- The bills

- Romanticism

The bills! Queen Victoria – the Victorian age- 19 th century.

Victorian England was made up of many middle-class men, that lived in the city. Times had changed
for them, following the industrial and agricultural revolutions. Cheap newspapers appeared and fed
the need for information of the masses. Telegraph technology shortened even more the distances
between people and events were now learnt of much faster.

In 1832 a reform act was passed by the liberals, because it was needed. The situation of the peasants
was dear and the workers demanded a minimum wage to be settled upon. The talks for a reform
started in parliament in the 1830. The tory have been leading the country for about 50 years. The
wigs were in the opposition and sided with the population that demanded the reform. After it was
passed, in 1832, it allowed more representatives from the country to take part in the parliament, and
created an electorate of middle class townsmen and farmers ( which previously had no right to vote ).
The rotten boroughs brought the downfall of the tories ( rotten, because of the fact that it had few
voters but could be manipulated by someone easily ) mai pe romaneste, erau comunitati mici, care
aveau multe voturi la dispozitie in parlament, fapt cam aiurea, avand in vedere ca Manchester si
Liverpool erau comunitati de vreo 800000 suflete fiecare, iar Old Sarum, de exemplu, avea dreptul la
7 voturi, pe cand astealalte la mult mai putine.

THAT’S why the first bill was passed.

In 1867 a second bill was passed, by the conservatives, led by Disraeli. This reform again dealt with
voters and said that ownership of a house was required in order to be able to vote, or to receive a
sum, the limits of which were lower in the poorer boroughs. Thus more than a million voters
appeared, that were influencable.

The third bill, was passed by Gladstone and the liberals. This gave the right to vote to the agricultural
workers ( previous bills focused more on the townsfolk, because the great amount of population was
centered there ). In total, there were now five million voters that took part in the political process of
the country. Furthermore, the secret ballot was introduced, that stifled electoral corruption.

More on the social changes during victorian England: slavery abolished in 1807. The reform of the
education system in 1891 made elementary education compulsory. More schools and hospitals were
built.

The Crimean war broke out in 1855, in which England and France fought against the Tzarist empire.
( In Tzarist Russia, Europe fights you! ) here be told about the Oriental Problem, care ati dat din
istorie in a 12a stiti despre ce-I vorba, care nu, va prezint pe scurt

The Ottoman Empire was in decline ( Der Untergang des Ottomanreich ) aaand he was called the sick
man of Europe, because they still controlled a great deal of land there ( the Balkans, Greece, Bosfor
strait). While Enlightenment and Modernism swept through EU, in the Ottoman Empire, all was
chillax… But Russia had imperial ambitions and on the pretext of defending the Christians in Europe,
wager war against the ottomans. England and France intervened on the ottoman side because of a
simple reason: if Russia controlled the Bosfor strait, it had access to the Mediterranean sea and from
there, the world. Russia was a baad boy, because it had resources. So yeah, Russia was beaten, peace
at San Stefano then at Berlin. Peace all over Europe.

But wait, here’s more!

Romanticism!

A cultural movement opposed to the classic school of thought. They prized the emotions, the soul
and the heart of man. As inspiration, they turned to the Medieval Times, national history and places.
It was a nationalistic movement ( helping the revolutionaries of 1848 ). Main theme – love…
Other traits: nostalgia of times passed, admiring the nature, the fate of the human soul…

Authors: Shelley, Byron, Wordsworth.

Novel: Frankenstein. (representative.)