Planetary science

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Photograph from Apollo 15 orbital unit of the rilles in the vicinity of the crater Aristarchus on the Moon.

Planetary science or, more rarely, planetology, is the scientific study

of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System)
and the processes that form them. It studies objects ranging in size from micrometeoroids to gas
giants, aiming to determine their composition, dynamics, formation, interrelations and history. It is a
strongly interdisciplinary field, originally growing from astronomy and earth science,[1] but which now
incorporates many disciplines, including planetary geology (together
with geochemistry and geophysics), cosmochemistry, atmospheric
science, oceanography, hydrology, theoretical planetary science, glaciology,
and exoplanetology.[1] Allied disciplines include space physics, when concerned with the effects of
the Sun on the bodies of the Solar System, and astrobiology.
There are interrelated observational and theoretical branches of planetary science. Observational
research can involve a combination of space exploration, predominantly with robotic
spacecraft missions using remote sensing, and comparative, experimental work in Earth-based
laboratories. The theoretical component involves considerable computer simulation and
mathematical modelling.
Planetary scientists are generally located in the astronomy and physics or Earth sciences
departments of universities or research centres, though there are several purely planetary science
institutes worldwide. There are several major conferences each year, and a wide range of peer-
reviewed journals. In the case of some exclusive planetary scientists, many of whom are in relation
to the study of dark matter, they will seek a private research centre and often initiate partnership
research tasks.
 Contents

 1History
 2Disciplines
o 2.1Planetary astronomy
o 2.2Planetary geology
 2.2.1Geomorphology
 2.2.2Cosmochemistry, geochemistry and petrology
 2.2.3Geophysics
o 2.3Atmospheric science
 3Comparative planetary science
 4Professional activity
o 4.1Journals
o 4.2Professional bodies
o 4.3Major conferences
o 4.4Major institutions
 4.4.1National space agencies
 4.4.2Other institutions
 5Basic concepts
 6See also
 7References
 8Further reading
 9External links

History[edit]
The history of planetary science may be said to have begun with the Ancient Greek
philosopher Democritus, who is reported by Hippolytus as saying
The ordered worlds are boundless and differ in size, and that in some there is neither sun nor moon,
but that in others, both are greater than with us, and yet with others more in number. And that the
intervals between the ordered worlds are unequal, here more and there less, and that some
increase, others flourish and others decay, and here they come into being and there they are
eclipsed. But that they are destroyed by colliding with one another. And that some ordered worlds
are bare of animals and plants and all water.[2]
In more modern times, planetary science began in astronomy, from studies of the unresolved
planets. In this sense, the original planetary astronomer would be Galileo, who discovered the four
largest moons of Jupiter, the mountains on the Moon, and first observed the rings of Saturn, all
objects of intense later study. Galileo's study of the lunar mountains in 1609 also began the study of
extraterrestrial landscapes: his observation "that the Moon certainly does not possess a smooth and
polished surface" suggested that it and other worlds might appear "just like the face of the Earth
itself".[3]
Advances in telescope construction and instrumental resolution gradually allowed increased
identification of the atmospheric and surface details of the planets. The Moon was initially the most
heavily studied, as it always exhibited details on its surface, due to its proximity to the Earth, and the
technological improvements gradually produced more detailed lunar geological knowledge. In this
scientific process, the main instruments were astronomical optical telescopes (and later radio
telescopes) and finally robotic exploratory spacecraft.
The Solar System has now been relatively well-studied, and a good overall understanding of the
formation and evolution of this planetary system exists. However, there are large numbers of
unsolved questions,[4] and the rate of new discoveries is very high, partly due to the large number of
interplanetary spacecraft currently exploring the Solar System.

Disciplines[edit]
Planetary astronomy[edit]
This is both an observational and a theoretical science. Observational researchers are
predominantly concerned with the study of the small bodies of the Solar System: those that are
observed by telescopes, both optical and radio, so that characteristics of these bodies such as
shape, spin, surface materials and weathering are determined, and the history of their formation and
evolution can be understood.
Theoretical planetary astronomy is concerned with dynamics: the application of the principles
of celestial mechanics to the Solar System and extrasolar planetary systems.
Planetary geology[edit]
Main article: Planetary geology
See also: Geology of solar terrestrial planets and Icy moon
The best known research topics of planetary geology deal with the planetary bodies in the near
vicinity of the Earth: the Moon, and the two neighbouring planets: Venus and Mars. Of these, the
Moon was studied first, using methods developed earlier on the Earth.
Geomorphology[edit]
Main article: Geomorphology
Geomorphology studies the features on planetary surfaces and reconstructs the history of their
formation, inferring the physical processes that acted on the surface. Planetary geomorphology
includes the study of several classes of surface features:

 Impact features (multi-ringed basins, craters)

 Volcanic and tectonic features (lava flows, fissures, rilles)
 Space weathering - erosional effects generated by the harsh
environment of space (continuous micro meteorite bombardment,
high-energy particle rain, impact gardening). For example, the thin
dust cover on the surface of the lunar regolith is a result of micro
meteorite bombardment.
 Hydrological features: the liquid involved can range from water
to hydrocarbon and ammonia, depending on the location within the
Solar System.
The history of a planetary surface can be deciphered by mapping features from top to bottom
according to their deposition sequence, as first determined on terrestrial strata by Nicolas Steno. For
example, stratigraphic mapping prepared the Apollo astronauts for the field geology they would
encounter on their lunar missions. Overlapping sequences were identified on images taken by
the Lunar Orbiter program, and these were used to prepare a lunar stratigraphic
column and geological map of the Moon.
Further information: Geology of the Moon
Cosmochemistry, geochemistry and petrology[edit]
Main articles: Cosmochemistry, Geochemistry, and Petrology
One of the main problems when generating hypotheses on the formation and evolution of objects in
the Solar System is the lack of samples that can be analysed in the laboratory, where a large suite of
tools are available and the full body of knowledge derived from terrestrial geology can be brought to
bear. Direct samples from the Moon, asteroids and Mars are present on Earth, removed from their
parent bodies and delivered as meteorites. Some of these have suffered contamination from
the oxidising effect of Earth's atmosphere and the infiltration of the biosphere, but those meteorites
collected in the last few decades from Antarctica are almost entirely pristine.
The different types of meteorites that originate from the asteroid belt cover almost all parts of the
structure of differentiated bodies: meteorites even exist that come from the core-mantle boundary
(pallasites). The combination of geochemistry and observational astronomy has also made it
possible to trace the HED meteorites back to a specific asteroid in the main belt, 4 Vesta.
The comparatively few known Martian meteorites have provided insight into the geochemical
composition of the Martian crust, although the unavoidable lack of information about their points of
origin on the diverse Martian surface has meant that they do not provide more detailed constraints
on theories of the evolution of the Martian lithosphere.[5] As of July 24, 2013 65 samples of Martian
meteorites have been discovered on Earth. Many were found in either Antarctica or the Sahara
Desert.
During the Apollo era, in the Apollo program, 384 kilograms of lunar samples were collected and
transported to the Earth, and 3 Soviet Luna robots also delivered regolith samples from the Moon.
These samples provide the most comprehensive record of the composition of any Solar System
body beside the Earth. The numbers of lunar meteorites are growing quickly in the last few years –
[6]
as of April 2008 there are 54 meteorites that have been officially classified as lunar. Eleven of
these are from the US Antarctic meteorite collection, 6 are from the Japanese Antarctic meteorite
collection, and the other 37 are from hot desert localities in Africa, Australia, and the Middle East.
The total mass of recognized lunar meteorites is close to 50 kg.
Geophysics[edit]
Main articles: Geophysics and Space physics
Space probes made it possible to collect data in not only the visible light region, but in other areas of
the electromagnetic spectrum. The planets can be characterized by their force fields: gravity and
their magnetic fields, which are studied through geophysics and space physics.
Measuring the changes in acceleration experienced by spacecraft as they orbit has allowed fine
details of the gravity fields of the planets to be mapped. For example, in the 1970s, the gravity field
disturbances above lunar maria were measured through lunar orbiters, which led to the discovery of
concentrations of mass, mascons, beneath the Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Nectaris and
Humorum basins.

The solar wind is deflected by the magnetosphere (not to scale)

If a planet's magnetic field is sufficiently strong, its interaction with the solar wind forms
a magnetosphere around a planet. Early space probes discovered the gross dimensions of the
terrestrial magnetic field, which extends about 10 Earth radii towards the Sun. The solar wind, a
stream of charged particles, streams out and around the terrestrial magnetic field, and continues
behind the magnetic tail, hundreds of Earth radii downstream. Inside the magnetosphere, there are
relatively dense regions of solar wind particles, the Van Allen radiation belts.
Geophysics includes seismology and tectonophysics, geophysical fluid dynamics, mineral
physics, geodynamics, mathematical geophysics, and geophysical surveying.
Planetary geodesy, (also known as planetary geodetics) deals with the measurement and
representation of the planets of the Solar System, their gravitational fields and geodynamic
phenomena (polar motion in three-dimensional, time-varying space. The science of geodesy has
elements of both astrophysics and planetary sciences. The shape of the Earth is to a large extent
the result of its rotation, which causes its equatorial bulge, and the competition of geologic
processes such as the collision of plates and of vulcanism, resisted by the Earth's gravity field.
These principles can be applied to the solid surface of Earth (orogeny; Few mountains are higher
than 10 km (6 mi), few deep sea trenches deeper than that because quite simply, a mountain as tall
as, for example, 15 km (9 mi), would develop so much pressure at its base, due to gravity, that the
rock there would become plastic, and the mountain would slump back to a height of roughly 10 km
(6 mi) in a geologically insignificant time. Some or all of these geologic principles can be applied to
other planets besides Earth. For instance on Mars, whose surface gravity is much less, the largest
volcano, Olympus Mons, is 27 km (17 mi) high at its peak, a height that could not be maintained on
Earth. The Earth geoid is essentially the figure of the Earth abstracted from its topographic features.
Therefore, the Mars geoid is essentially the figure of Mars abstracted from its topographic
features. Surveying and mapping are two important fields of application of geodesy.
Atmospheric science[edit]
Main articles: Atmospheric science and Global climate model

Cloud bands clearly visible on Jupiter.

The atmosphere is an important transitional zone between the solid planetary surface and the higher
rarefied ionizing and radiation belts. Not all planets have atmospheres: their existence depends on
the mass of the planet, and the planet's distance from the Sun — too distant and frozen
atmospheres occur. Besides the four gas giant planets, almost all of the terrestrial
planets (Earth, Venus, and Mars) have significant atmospheres. Two moons have significant
atmospheres: Saturn's moon Titan and Neptune's moon Triton. A tenuous atmosphere exists
around Mercury.
The effects of the rotation rate of a planet about its axis can be seen in atmospheric streams and
currents. Seen from space, these features show as bands and eddies in the cloud system, and are
particularly visible on Jupiter and Saturn.

Comparative planetary science[edit]

Main article: Comparative planetary science
Planetary science frequently makes use of the method of comparison to give a greater
understanding of the object of study. This can involve comparing the dense atmospheres of Earth
and Saturn's moon Titan, the evolution of outer Solar System objects at different distances from the
Sun, or the geomorphology of the surfaces of the terrestrial planets, to give only a few examples.
The main comparison that can be made is to features on the Earth, as it is much more accessible
and allows a much greater range of measurements to be made. Earth analogue studies are
particularly common in planetary geology, geomorphology, and also in atmospheric science.

Professional activity[edit]
Journals[edit]

 Earth and Planetary Science Letters

 Earth, Moon, and Planets
 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
 Icarus
 Journal of Geophysical Research—Planets
 Meteoritics and Planetary Science
 Planetary and Space Science
Professional bodies[edit]

 Division for Planetary Sciences (DPS) of the American Astronomical

Society
 American Geophysical Union
 Meteoritical Society
 Europlanet
Major conferences[edit]

 Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (LPSC), organized by

the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston. Held annually since
1970, occurs in March.
 Division for Planetary Sciences (DPS) meeting held annually since
1970 at a different location each year, predominantly within the
mainland US. Occurs around October.
 American Geophysical Union (AGU) annual Fall meeting in
December in San Francisco.
 American Geophysical Union (AGU) Joint Assembly (co-sponsored
with other societies) in April–May, in various locations around the
world.
 Meteoritical Society annual meeting, held during the Northern
Hemisphere summer, generally alternating between North America
and Europe.
 European Planetary Science Congress (EPSC), held annually
around September at a location within Europe.
Smaller workshops and conferences on particular fields occur worldwide throughout the year.
Major institutions[edit]
This non-exhaustive list includes those institutions and universities with major groups of people
working in planetary science. Alphabetical order is used.
National space agencies[edit]

 Canadian Space Agency (CSA). Annual budget CAD $488.7 million

(2013–2014).
 China National Space Administration (CNSA) (People's Republic of
China). Budget $0.5-1.3 Billion (est.).
 Centre national d'études spatiales French National Centre of Space
Research,Budget €1.920 Billion (2012).
 Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V., (German:
abbreviated DLR), the German Aerospace Center.Budget $2 Billion
(2010).
 European Space Agency (ESA). Budget $5.51 Billion (2013).
 Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO),
 Israel Space Agency (ISA),
 Italian Space Agency Budget ~$1 Billion (2010).
 Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). Budget $2.15 Billion
(2012).
 NASA: Considerable number of research groups, including
the JPL, GSFC, Ames. Budget $18.724 Billion (2011).
 National Space Organization (Taiwan).
 Russian Federal Space Agency Budget $5.61 Billion (2013).
 UK Space Agency (UKSA).
Other institutions[edit]

 Arctic Planetary Science Institute

 The Australian National University's Planetary Science Institute
 Brown University Planetary Geosciences Group
 Caltech's Division of Geological and Planetary
Sciences and Planetary Sciences subdivision
 Cornell University's Space and Planetary Science
 Curtin University's School of Earth and Planetary Sciences
 Florida Institute of Technology's Department of Physics and Space
Sciences
 Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory
 Lunar and Planetary Institute
 Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research's Department
Planets and Comets
 MIT Dept. of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences
 Open University Planetary and Space Sciences Research Institute
 Planetary Science Institute
 Stony Brook University's Geosciences Department and soon to
open Center for Planetary Exploration
 UCL/Birkbeck's Centre for Planetary Sciences
 University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Lab
 University of Arkansas's Center for Space and Planetary Sciences
  University of California Los Angeles's Department of Earth,
Planetary, and Space Sciences
 University of California Santa Cruz's Department of Earth &
Planetary Sciences
 University of Hawaii's Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and
Planetology
 University of Copenhagen's Center for Planetary Research
 University of Central Florida Planetary Sciences Group
 University of British Columbia Department of Earth, Ocean and
Atmospheric Sciences
 University of Western Ontario's Centre for Planetary Science and
Exploration
 University of Tennessee Department of Earth and Planetary
Sciences
 University of Colorado's Department of Astrophysical and Planetary
Sciences
 INAF– Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali [1]

Basic concepts[edit]
 Asteroid
 Celestial mechanics
 Comet
 Dwarf planet
 Extrasolar planet
 Gas giant
 Icy moon
 Kuiper belt
 Magnetosphere
 Minor planet
 Planet
 Planetary differentiation
 Planetary system
 Definition of a planet
 Space weather
 Synestia
 Terrestrial planet

See also[edit]
 Selenography - study of the surface and physical features of the
Moon
 Theoretical planetology
 Timeline of Solar System exploration
 Liet-Kynes is the Imperial Planetologist of Arrakis in the Frank
Herbert novel Dune

References[edit]
 1. ^ Jump up to:a b Taylor, Stuart Ross (29 July 2004). "Why can't planets
be like stars?". Nature. 430 (6999):
509. Bibcode:2004Natur.430..509T. doi:10.1038/430509a. PMID 1528
2586.
2. ^ Hippolytus (Antipope); Origen (1921). Philosophumena (Digitized 9
May 2006). 1. Translation by Francis Legge, F.S.A. Original from
Harvard University.: Society for promoting Christian knowledge.
Retrieved 22 May 2009.
3. ^ Taylor, Stuart Ross (1994). "Silent upon a peak in
Darien". Nature. 369 (6477): 196–
7. Bibcode:1994Natur.369..196T. doi:10.1038/369196a0.
4. ^ Stern, Alan. "Ten Things I Wish We Really Knew In Planetary
Science". Retrieved 2009-05-22.
5. ^ http://www.uwyo.edu
6. ^ {curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/lmc/lmcintro.pdf}

Further reading[edit]
 Carr, Michael H., Saunders, R. S., Strom, R. G., Wilhelms, D. E.
1984. The Geology of the Terrestrial Planets. NASA.
 Morrison, David. 1994. Exploring Planetary Worlds. W. H.
Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-5043-0

External links[edit]
Planetary scienceat Wikipedia's sister projects

 Definitions from Wiktionary

 Media from Wikimedia Commons

 News from Wikinews

 Quotations from Wikiquote

 Texts from Wikisource

 Textbooks from Wikibooks

 Resources from Wikiversity

 Planetary Science Research Discoveries (articles)

 The Planetary Society (world's largest space-interest group: see
also their active news blog)
 Planetary Exploration Newsletter (PSI-published professional
newsletter, weekly distribution)
 Women in Planetary Science (professional networking and news)

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