Harrison, L.-Getting Started in Music PDF

GETTING
STARTED
IN MUSIC
LOIS N. HARRISON
GETTING STARTED
IN MUSIC
Lois N. Harrison
University of the Pacific
PRENTICE HALL, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632
Charlestown Branch Library

179 Main Street
Charlestown, Massachusetts
02129
Library of Congress Catalogmg-in-Publication Data
Harrison, Lois N. -
Getting started in music
Includes indexes.
1. Music —Theory, Elementary 2 Music — Handbooks,
manuals, etc. I. Title.
MT7 H:hh 14X4 7N 1 XI C(,H7
ISBN 0-13-U54911-9
/o - as-?*]
Editorial/production supervision
and interior design: F. Hubert
Cover design: George Cornell
Manufacturing buyer: Ray Keating
© 1989 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.

A Division of Simon & Schuster
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

reproduced, in any form or by any means,
without permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
10 987654321
ISBN D-lB-BSMTll-T
Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London

Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney
Prentice-Hall Canada Inc. Toronto ,
Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico

Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi
Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo
Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd. Singapore ,
Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro

THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED, WITH LOVE,
TO MY MOTHER AND FATHER,
THERESA MARTHA HUNGER
AND
JOHN DENIS NEUWIESINGER,
FOR GETTING ME STARTED IN MUSIC.

CONTENTS
PREFACE ix
CHAPTER 1 ELEMENTS OF MUSIC 1
Introduction of constituent and expressive elements of music: rhythm, pitch (mel-

ody and harmony), form, tempo, dynamics, timbre.
CHAPTER 2 NOTATION: VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF MUSIC 12
Written symbols related to the elements of music as used in music reading.
CHAPTER 3 USING NOTATION 26
Song analysis based on elements of music, application of musical concepts,

development of performance techniques.
CHAPTER 4 METER 61
Development of metrical understanding through concentration on songs with dif-
ferent meters.
v
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5 THE KEYBOARD 79
Development of visual, aural, and tactile knowledge of music through the key-
board.
CHAPTER 6 MAJOR SCALES AND KEY SIGNATURES 92
Construction and use of major scales and key signatures.
CHAPTER 7 INTERVALS 110
Analyzing, naming, and writing general and specific intervals.
CHAPTER 8 CHORDS 123
Naming, constructing, inverting, and using major, minor, diminished, augmented

triads and seventh chords.
CHAPTER 9 MINOR SCALES AND KEY SIGNATURES 135
Construction and use of minor scales and key signatures.
CHAPTER 10 PENTATONIC 149
Construction and use of pentatonic scales including improvisation.
CHAPTER 11 CREATING MUSIC 156
Suggestions for engaging in different types of creative musical behavior.

CONTENTS vii
CHAPTER 12 LISTENING 169
Continuation of emphasis on listening with concentration on two aspects: ear-

training related to the elements of music and aural analysis with emphasis on variety
in music literature.
MUSIC 185
Selections alphabetically arranged
APPENDIX 234
Discography 234
Tempo marks 237
Dynamic marks 238
gradation of dynamics 238
Music analysis sheet 239
elaboration 240
Rhythm syllable chart 241
Keyboard pictures 242
Answers 244
Instruments
Autoharp 28
Guitar 286
Keyboard 298
Recorder 314
Voice 327
Terminology review 339
MUSIC INDEX 347
GENERAL INDEX 351

PREFACE
Getting Started in Music is a resource for adults with little or no background in music.
It provides materials to support different modes of learning, depending upon the
teacher's style, facilities, equipment available, the size of the class, and the motiva-
tions of the students. When instruments are available, students in small classes can
play the musical examples. Larger classes and those having limited access to instru-
ments may depend upon the teacher to play examples, especially of pieces provided
for illustration that the students cannot sing or otherwise perform. Even in the large
classes, some highly motivated students may wish to pursue performance oppor-
tunities outside of class; independent instruction materials are included for them in the
instrument section of the Appendix.

Different tracks are indicated in the text for a variety of approaches to music
learning. Instructors are encouraged to incorporate concepts and experiences most
appropriate for their students' particular goals. For example, although the chapters on
listening and creativity appear late in the book, items from these chapters will be
beneficial if introduced earlier, in conjunction with other activities. The section on the
voice, included in the Appendix, will be of utmost importance to some classes and
should be introduced early in the learning sequence for those classes.
Explanations are included in the text to minimize note taking in class time, thus
allowing more time for student/teacher active involvement in musical experiences.
ix
x PREFACE
The main goals of the text are to help the student
1. Learn music fundamentals such as note values, meter and key signatures, pitch
names, chords, and so on.
2. Develop an understanding of music concepts such as beat, meter, syncopation,
melodic direction, form, mode, and so on.
3. Consistently learn theoretical aspects of music fundamentals in conjunction with
aural experience.
4. Participate in aesthetic experiences.
5. Increase involvement in music through singing and playing of melodic and

harmonic insturments.
Getting Started in Music is organized with a variety of provisions for musical

experiences. The tape, the music, the rhythm drills and examples in the text, and the
instrument instructional materials focus on these experiences. Many chapters of the
text include analysis of music in regard to seven elements: rhythm, melody, harmony,
form, tempo, dynamics, and timbre. Analysis leads to aural experience of the music,
to performance of the music, or both.
The performance media included are the voice, keyboard, autoharp, guitar, and
recorder. In classes with these instruments available, it is possible (and recommended
as a challenge) for the student to explore the musical elements using all the instru-
ments included. Adults with little musical background may concentrate on only one
instrument for producing melody, and another for producing harmony, as aids to
understanding the concepts presented. Large classes and those with no available
instruments can incorporate singing as a regular performance opportunity. Listening
should be part of every class, no matter what the other participatory involvements.
Choices are provided so students and teachers can select their best alternatives. In
addition to singing, listening, and playing, opportunities are provided for the student
to read, write, create, and move to music.
These resources are provided as components of Getting Started in Music:
1. The text with twelve chapters explaining relevant concepts and providing exer-
cises to strengthen the student's musicianship.
2. A tape with musical illustrations to help the student understand the concepts
more fully through aural involvement.
3. Music notation for analysis and performance.
4. An appendix that includes supplementary materials, answers to questions asked
in the text, reference charts, a keyboard facsimile and an instrument section
with instructions for voice, autoharp, guitar, keyboard, and recorder directly
related to discussions in the text.
5. A teacher's manual available on request from the publisher. This supplementary

PREFACE xi
book includes discussion of how different groups of students may use the text.
Sample tests that may be used as study aids by the students are also in the
teacher's manual.
The student should read about concepts in the main text, apply the discussion to
music selections, listen to related items on the tape, and follow performance instruc-
tions in the appendix when required. Liberal use of paper clips will help the student
locate supplementary materials in the music section and the appendix.
The music section is arranged in alphabetical order. Because some melodies
have more than one set of words, a music index has been added at the end of the book
to facilitate finding different versions of the piece. The music index also includes
selections shown in the text. A list of the names and numbers of the instrumental
sections that mention the piece appears under each selection that is so mentioned.
The large dot (•) in the margin is there to alert you to the expectation that you
will be instructed to carry out an overt response (clapping, singing, writing, answer-
ing, or the like).
Although students should work through many parts of the text independently,
group participation with a teacher's help is recommended. Teachers are needed to
help students ascertain correct musical and written reponses.

Getting Started in Music was strengthened by its use with students at three
tertiary institutions, the University of Oregon, the University of the Pacific and
Western Australian College of Advanced Education, with their supportive and com-
plementary environments. I am grateful to the students who made helpful comments
and who asked perceptive questions. The final product benefited from their involve-
ment and from contributions made by cooperating teachers who used, and then
discussed, the materials with me: Chris Anderson, Wendy March, Barry Palmer,
Alan True, Sandra Williams, Mary Lou Van Rysselberghe. Edmund Soule was a
source of inspiration in dealing with both editorial and musical matters.
University of the Pacific faculty members were generous in contributing to the
tape (Joan Coulter, William Dehning, William Domink, Wolfgang Fetsch and Carol
van Bronkhorst) and the text (Joan Anderson and Terry Mills), as were University of
the Pacific students who played on the tape (Paul Kimball, Mary McKean, Jody
McComb, Jean Neven, Ed Powell, Tim Roberson, Coleman Sholl and Karen
Wilson). Marge Dehning (Stanislaus State), Victor Steinhardt (University of
Oregon), and Hope Harrison (Klamath Falls Union High School) cheerfully gave time
and talent. My husband, Nelden Ward, gave me the gift of time by taking on many
reponsibilities that otherwise would have been mine.
Before "getting started," read the table of contents to ascertain the general plan
of the book. Find and follow the directions for identifying the selections on the tape
(Appendix, p. 234) as you listen to it. This book is most effective when all its
resources are used.

ELEMENTS OF MUSIC
Contrast the regular beat with an irregular one in which the taps are not
equally spaced (! !! ! !!!!).
2. Strong and weak. Alternate a strong hand clap with the weak sound of your
forearms striking each other. After doing a series of strong claps alternating
with weak forearm strikes, switch to one strong clap, followed by two weak
forearm strikes. Keep the spaces between the clap and strikes equidistant.
3. Long and short. Create a long humming sound with no break. Contrast it
with a series of short humming sounds.

4. Equal and unequal. Contrast the equal sounds of the chanted "murmur"
with the unequal sound of a pseudo-sneeze. Say "murmur murmur kachoo
kachoo." Notice that both syllables of "murmur" are equal in length; the
syllables of "kachoo" are unequal with the first syllable being shorter than
the second. These equal and unequal syllables are related to beat divisions.
They can be superimposed over a regular beat if you choose to say them that
way, or they can be chanted irregularly. Say them with both a regular and an
irregular beat for an added contrast.
murmur murmur kachoo kachoo

! ! ! !
murmur murmur kachoo kachoo

! ! ! !
These words used only two syllables for each beat. Beats can also be
subdivided into three: "merrily" is a word with three syllables that can be
chanted to show division of the beat into three equal parts. Contrast the
equal syllables of "merrily" with the unequal syllables of "intellect."
merrily merrily merrily merrily
iiii
!
intellect
Rhythm
!
intellect
!
intellect
!
intellect
patterns combining the contrasts of long/short and equal/unequal

are used in melodies and harmonies as well as with rhythm passages standing
alone. They are related to regular/irregular and to strong/weak, and are superim-
posed over the basic rhythmic structures caused by them.
Most of the rhythm you hear in contemporary music is built upon a series of
regular beats called the steady beat. Most of the music you will experience in this
text will have a steady beat. It is easier for the beginner in music to perceive music
that has regularity of rhythm.
Because you will be working with music having a steady beat, that music
will alsohave meter that is constant. Meter refers to the grouping of a strong beat
followed by one or two weaker beats that creates sets of steady beats. In most of
the music you study with this text, you will be working with meter that remains
ELEMENTS OF MUSIC 3
constant throughout the piece. You should be aware, however, that musical
pieces are not always confined to one meter throughout. It is possible to change
meters within a composition.
When you tap your foot regularly in time with a piece of music, you are
responding to the underlying pulsation, or the steady beat of that composition. A
nonmusical illustration of a steady beat is the ticking of a clock. If music used only
the steady beat, it would not be very interesting! To maintain variety in music,
rhythm patterns are superimposed over the beat. Such patterns are often repeat-
ed, or stated only once. Patterns are used with
1. the rhythm of the melody.

2. the rhythm of the harmony.
3. therhythm of percussion instruments or sounds made by parts of the body,
such as clapping, clicking, tapping, thumping, and so on.
• Find the response section (Tape 1). This section demonstrates repeated rhythm
patterns. Respond with the music playing on the tape:
1. When you hear the claves (the first instrument playing in the response sec-
tion) clap along with it on the steady beat. Even when other instruments
begin to play, continue to clap the steady beat with the claves.
2. As soon as you are confident in keeping the steady beat, try to produce
rhythm patterns related to the steady beat. Slap your thighs with the har-
monic rhythm as played by the piano. Notice that even though the notes
played by the piano change, the rhythm pattern is consistently repeated.
3. Tap the melodic rhythm as played by the recorder. Notice that even though
the recorder pitches change, the rhythm pattern repeats itself.
4. Use either percussion instruments or environmental objects (easily accessi-

ble sound-producers found around you, such as pens, keys, spoons) to re-
produce five more patterns illustrated on the tape by the following
instruments (in order):
a. tambourine
b. woodblock
c. bongo
d. triangle
e. xylophone
• Listen to Tape 2 for an example of irregular rhythm (Gregorian chant). Rhythm is
generally predictable and regular, but this music does not have a regularly recur-
ring beat. In the case of Gregorian chant, the lack of regularity helps one to
identify it. Instead of the systematic grouping of sounds according to their dura-
tion, as is heard in the previous items on the tape, the rhythm of Gregorian chant
follows the natural stresses of the words.
ELEMENTS OF MUSIC
In contrast to Gregorian chant, much music uses not only a steady underly-
ing beat but also a grouping of steady beats in sets of twos or threes or combina-
tions oftwos and threes. This grouping, called meter, is caused by stress (accent)
being given to the first beat in each group:
12 3 12 3
or
I 2 I 2.
• As you listen to "Hallelujah!*' (Tape 20). alternate a clap (for the strong beat) with
a forearm strike (for the weak beat) to find the meter of two.
• As you listen to "Orchestra Song'* (Tape 13). use one clap followed by two
forearm strikes to find the meter of three.
• Find the meter of a piece of music of your own choosing that has a steady beat. Is
it in two or three? Create a brief accompany your music. Your

rhythm pattern to
pattern should be related to the steady beat (regular) and should match the group-
ing of the meter (with its strong and weak beats), but should also demonstrate the
variety made possible by the use of long short and equal unequal rhythmic con-
trasts. Repeat the pattern as you listen to the music. Be analytical; does your
pattern fit with the music you selected? Do the accents of the meter in your piece
correspond with the important notes of your pattern
A rhythm pattern repeated throughout a piece is called a rhythm ostinato.

Rather than explaining that a musical pattern will be repeated many times in
succession, it is more direct to use the word ostinato when that effect is desired.
In a rhythm ostinato only the rhythm is patterned, whereas the melodic ostinato
incorporates a pattern of pitches as well as of rhythm.
• Create a rhythm ostinato to go with "Semper Fidelis" (Tape 8). Follow these
steps in creating the ostinato:
1. Find the steady beat as you listen to the piece.
2. Clap or tap with the steady beat.

3. Find the strong weak beats to determine if the meter is two or three.
4. Use long short and equal unequal rhythmic ideas to create a pattern that fits
with the steady beat and the meter of the piece. The pattern should match
the rhythmic emphasis demonstrated by the meter. In other words, your
pattern should emphasize the strong beats of the music you are hearing.
• Create two other rhythm ostinatos to accompany two different musical selections
chosen by you. (Your teacher may ask you to collect musical examples on tape for
class sharing in assignments like this.)
ELEMENTS OF MUSIC 5
PITCH
The elements of both melody and harmony are related to pitch. The word pitch
refers to identification of individual musical sound in relationship to other indi-
vidual musical sounds in a tonal arrangement proceeding from low to high, or high
to low. Exact pitch is determined by the frequency or number of vibrations per
second of the sound.
MELODY
Although melody can be defined as a succcession of musical pitches, it is crucial to
note that an integral part of melody is rhythm. The notes of a melody vary
according to both pitch and duration. The rhythm concepts already introduced
apply to melodies as well as to independent nonmelodic patterns. The element of
form applies to melody also. Repetition and contrast of sections of melodies help
contribute to their unique characteristics.
• Whistle or hum a song you know. It is unlikely that you would whistle or hum
something other than the melody, since that identifies the song.
• Listen to the Gregorian chant again. The succession of single notes of the chant is
a melody, although not an easy one to remember.
• Listen to Tape 3. Pearl Bailey sings the melody of "Takes Two to Tango."
• Practice singing a melody you like.
• Listen to Tape 4. William Kendall, a tenor, sings the melody of "Ev'ry Valley"
(Handel) accompanied by a symphony orchestra.
Pitch characteristics of melodies include
1. Direction. The melody may go up, go down, or stay the same. The
pitch of a
notes for the words of "Ev'ry Valley" (Tape 4) clearly move in an
first
upward direction: the notes for the "Horn" (Tape 13) stay the same; those
for "feelin* of romance" (Tape 3) move in a downward direction.
2. Range. The melody may have a wide or narrow spectrum of notes ranging
from low to high.
3. Position. The melody may be performed using notes of high pitches or it may
be transposed to notes of low pitches. As long as the intervals between the
pitches remain consistent, the melody may be performed at different places
within the total pitch continuum.
6 ELEMENTS OF MUSIC
4. Intervals. The distance between the pitches of the melody may be
a. Steps. When melody moves in a stepwise fashion from

this is true, the
one note to the next adjacent one. The pitches go in a downward
direction using steps with the words "Do the dance of love" on Tape 3.
b. Skips. Intervals larger than steps may be small skips, such as those at
the beginning of the clarinet part of the '"Orchestra Song" (Tape 13,
"The clarinet, the"). Notice that steps follow these small skips ("clar-
inet makes doodle, doodle, doodle").
Large skips occur when pitches leap from one to the other. See if
you can hear some spectacularly large skips in "Bravour, Variations on a
Theme from Mozart" (Tape 17).
HARMONY
At two different pitches must be sounded simultaneously to produce harmo-
least
ny. Chords result from the simultaneous sounding of three or more different
pitches. A chord progression results from chords being produced successively.
Depending upon the texture of the piece, harmony may be the result of
1. Vertical structure: chords connected to and supportive of the melody

{homophonic).
• Listen to an illustration of homophonic harmony ("Bring Me Little Water, Sil-
vy," Tape 9).
or
2. Horizontal structure: chords created by simultaneously sounding melodies

(polyphonic).
• Listen to an illustration of polyphonic harmony ("Orchestra Song." Tape 13),
created when all the instruments play together. Rounds are also examples of
polyphonic harmony.
To review the concept of texture in music that you have heard: There is no
harmony with the Gregorian chant: the melody is unaccompanied (monophonic).
The symphony orchestra accompanying the tenor soloist in "Every Valley" pro-
vides homophonic harmony as does Pete Seeger's guitar in "Bring Me Little
Water, Silvy" and the group accompanying Pearl Bailey in "Takes Two to
Tango."
Listeners sometimes hear modern music and say it doesn't have harmony.
This suggests a confusion in terms. Some contemporary music may not be conso-
nant, that is. it may harmony meeting the expectations of an individual,
not have
but it still has harmony, two or more pitches sounding together. Dissonance is a
ELEMENTS OF MUSIC 7
term for harmony that produces a sensation of unrest, disturbance, or instability.
Consonant harmony is stable; it lacks the sense of tension and disruption caused
by dissonance. Dissonance and consonance are opposites. As music has devel-
oped historically, dissonances have gradually been perceived as more consonant.
Listeners become accustomed to sounds that were previously considered disso-
nant. Because of changing attitudes and individual reactions, equating conso-
nance and dissonance to "pleasant" and "unpleasant" is not entirely satisfacto-
ry. Even though the overall concept of a piece of music generally is that of
consonance or dissonance, the two contrasting qualities can both be present in

varying degrees in any one piece of music.
• Listen to the illustrations. Tape 5, 6, and 7 showing different kinds of harmony.
1. "Sixty-seventh Psalm" by Charles Ives (Tape 5) is dissonant.
2. "Danse Sacrale," is the climax of "The Rite of Spring" by Stravinsky (Tape

6). In its premier performance it was regarded as so dissonant that people
fought in the aisles of the concert hall while the orchestra played. Audience
members disagreed violently on its acceptability. Today "The Rite of
Spring" has become a regular part of orchestral concert literature.
3. "Country Gardens" by Percy Grainger uses harmony that is consonant
(Tape 7).
• Find another example of consonant harmony.
• Find another example of dissonant harmony.
FORM
Form relates to the organization of music, its shape or structure, the arrangement
of the elements in their unique musical relationships. It is perceived in terms of
repetition and variety. Short pieces can be analyzed according to phrases that are
the same or different. Phrases are short sections of music that end with a feeling of
pausing or stopping. They are generally comparable to a sentence or a clause in
language. Phrases end with cadences, which consist of a combination of melodic,

harmonic, and rhythmic factors that combine to give a sense of stopping or paus-
ing. The stop often is the end of a piece or section. The pause implies that more
music will follow. (This use of the word cadence is not to be confused with its use
when referring to the beat of music in a march or a dance.)
song with two different phrases can be labeled AB form; two phrases that
A
are thesame can be labeled AA form; two phrases that differ in minor details only
can be labeled AA' The letters provide an abbreviated way to describe the struc-
.
ture of the piece.

ELEMENTS OF MUSIC
Another way of describing form is to use the words binary and ternary.
Binary form (AB) occurs when the music is in two contrasting sections. Ternary
form (ABA) occurs when the music has three sections; the third is a repetition of
the first.
Although the beginning student may analyze the form of a piece of music in
small pieces, even measure by measure, it is advisable to develop the ability to

look at the total composition as soon as possible in order to ascertain its overall
structure.
• Sing "Old MacDonald" after you find it in the music section of this book. (Al-
though there is an index for the music section at the end of the book to help find
songs with several sets of words, most of the songs can be located easily because
they are in alphabetical order.)
Did you recognize any repetitions in the melody? How many times did you
sing "ee-i-ee-i-o"? Compare the sound of the music before the first and last times
you sing "ee-i-ee-i-o." Both the music and the words are the same in these parts
of the song. Compare the music just before the second "ee-i-ee-i-o" with the two
phrases for the words "Old MacDonald had a farm." The words are different, but
except for one extra note to accommodate the words, the music is the same. Form
in music should not be determined by the words, even though the music some-
times changes to match the words. Look at the music alone to determine the form
of a song.
What is the music like for "With a chick-chick here, chick-chick there, Here
a chick, there a chick, Everywhere a chick-chick"?
You are right if you decided it was different from the music for the other
parts of the song. An
efficient way to represent the form of this piece is to say it is
AA'BA. These letters indicate that the third part is different from the other three
parts. The second part differs from the first and last parts only slightly, so a prime
mark is used next to the letter of that phrase to indicate it is slightly different. The
cadences at the end of the A phrases imply full stops. The cadence at the end of
the B phrase hardly pauses. It seemed to hurtle into the last phrase.
• Place the letters on your copy of "Old MacDonald" to show the analysis of its
form.
• Afteryou have analyzed "Old MacDonald" as directed here, compare the place-
ment of your letters with the analysis in the Appendix.
• Listen to Pearl Bailey on your tape (3) again. What is the form of the song she
sings? (The answer is in the Appendix. Please don't look until you have tried to
identify the form by yourself!)

ELEMENTS OF MUSIC 9
TEMPO
The speed at which a musical composition is played is called its tempo. Italian
terms are used universally to indicate varying degrees of tempo as well as changes
of speed in musical compositions. Sometimes words in the language of the country
in which the music is written or used are substituted for the Italian terms. The
tempo directions are placed at the top left of the page, over the beginning of the
music notation. If tempo changes are made in the music, the descriptive words are
introduced where the effect is to take place.
This nonmusical illustration may help you understand the meaning of the
word tempo. Most heartbeats are steady. Close the opening to one of your ears to
hear your heart beat, or find your pulse in your neck or on your wrist. How fast is
the beat? Run in place for a minute; then listen to your heartbeat or feel your pulse
again. Is the beat faster? Is the beat still steady The consistent spaces between
?
the beats are still there, but the spaces are nowsmaller. The tempo is faster.
Changing tempo in music means that the speed of the steady beat becomes faster
or slower.
Normal heartbeat
Heartbeat after running
!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Listen to Tape 8 for music with a fast tempo ("Semper Fidelis" Sousa.)
• Listen to music with a slower tempo, Tape 5 ("Sixty-seventh Psalm" Ives.)
There are many gradations of tempo. In some music the tempo changes
during the piece. A table of tempo marks appears in the Appendix.
• Find a piece of slow music.
• Find a piece of fast music.
Be careful to use "fast" and "slow" and terms like them to describe the
speed of a piece of music. These terms should not be used to describe "long" and
"short" notes. The durations of the notes will retain their relationships to each
other, but they will become faster and/or slower depending on the tempo of the
piece. No matter what the tempo, the longest notes will still be the longest notes,
the shortest notes will still be the shortest notes even when all of them are speeded
up or slowed down. Their values are relative rather than absolute.
DYNAMICS
Degrees of loudness and softness used in music are called dynamics. Composi-
tions may be at a certain dynamic level throughout; they may use subtle or abrupt
dynamic contrasts.
10 ELEMENTS OF MUSIC
Many abbreviations, such as f and p, are used in place of Italian words to

describe dynamic variations. They are generally placed below the melodic nota-
tion. A table of dynamic marks is in the Appendix.
The Stravinsky "Danse Sacrale" (Tape 6) illustrates music with variety in
dynamics. Listen especially for sudden, loud accents.
• Describe dynamic variations in a piece of your choice.
TIMBRE
Tone color or quality of sound is called timbre (pronounced "tamburr"). Dis-
tinguishing timbre characteristics identify the voice or instrument creating the
sound. Although, in general, a certain timbre is associated with an instrument or
voice classification, variation is usual within the classifications because of indi-
vidual characteristics and usage. Two people singing the same pitch will have
differences in timbre. An oboe and a trumpet playing the same pitch will have
contrasting timbres. The relative presence or absence of overtones (harmonics) in
the sound determine the timbre.
• Listen to Tape 18, 11, and 12 to hear the timbre of a string, woodwind, and brass
instrument, respectively.
1. Violin. "Modere" by Ravel (Tape 18).
2. Clarinet. "Zart und mit Ausdruck" by Schumann (Tape 11).
3. Trumpet. "Concerto in E-flat Major" by Haydn (Tape 12).
• Explore timbre differences made possible by different uses of your voice. Can you
produce these effects: nasal, husky, strident, breathy? Compare your effects with
those of a friend. Does your voice have characteristic timbre that distinguishes it
from your friend's voice when you both try to produce new effects? A tape
recorder is a useful tool in this exercise to help you gain perspective on your
particular vocal timbre.
ELEMENTS OF MUSIC
MUSIC CHECK
You should be able to define, identify, and illustrate musically:
CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS STEPS
RHYTHM SKIPS
MELODY CHORD
HARMONY MONOPHONIC
FORM HOMOPHONIC
EXPRESSIVE ELEMENTS POLYPHONIC
TEMPO CONSONANCE
DYNAMICS DISSONANCE
TIMBRE PHRASE
BEAT CADENCE
OSTINATO BINARY
METER TERNARY
PITCH
CHAPTER 2
NOTATION: VISUAL
REPRESENTATION
OF MUSIC
Learning to read music gives the prospective musician independent access to

music. Although songs are often transmitted from one person to another by aural
means, learning to interpret notation can save time by expanding repertoire in an
efficient way. It enables the reader to bring to life music that is unavailable on
records or tapes or through another "live" performer. This chapter introduces the
basic visual symbols that represent music.
Reading music is the ability to interpret written notation. The notation repre-
sents regular and irregular, strong and weak, long and short, equal and unequal,
melodic direction, high and low, intervals, combinations of sounds, patterns,
phrases, repetitions and contrasts, fast and slow, loud and soft, and other compo-
nents of music. Soon you will be challenged to use symbols for all the elements of
music at the same time. Before combining them, learn some of the symbols for
components of the elements separately.
RHYTHM
Rhythm is shown by notes representing how long or short the sound will be. The
longest sound in general use is shown by the whole note (=). The rhythm names of
the notes indicate the length of sound and their mathematical relationships to each
other. A sound half as long as the whole-note is shown by the half note (J). The
12
NOTATION: VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF MUSIC 13
quarter note ( J ) is half as long as the half; the eighth note half as long as the
quarter; the sixteenth (J^) half as long as the eighth. If progressively shorter notes
are needed, they are formed by adding flags to the stem J|) and named by
doubling the number (32nd, 64th, and so on). Practically speaking, notes shorter
than sixteenth-notes appear infrequently in music for beginning music students.
The round part of the note is called its head (=>), the perpendicular line is the
stem ( | ), the curved line attached to the stem is the flag ( S ).
Notes with flags are often joined together so they are easier to read. These
are eighth-notes: JJ These are sixteenth-notes: «T3 The straight horizontal line
used to join the notes in place of the curved flag used with single notes, is called a
beam.
The separate notes shown so far have their stems on the right side, going up.
Notes are generally written this way when their heads are on, or lower than the
middle line of the staff. (The staff is a set of five parallel lines used to show pitch
placement.)
Note heads on, or higher than, the middle line have their stems going down on the
left side.
Shorter notes, placed above the middle line, have stems going down, but their
flags and beams, like those of the lower notes, are on the right of the stem.
An exception to the rule of stem direction occurs when two vocal parts are placed
on one staff with stems up for the higher part, and stems down for the lower part.
Silence is important in music, too. The absence of sound is indicated by

rests. The whole-rest (
"~ is the longest silence commonly used in music.
)
Notice it is attached to the bottom of a line, usually the fourth line of the staff.
(Call the bottom staff line number one, and count up to find line four.) The names
of rests correspond to the names of the notes, similarly demonstrating their rela-
tive values. The half-rest ( ~ ), half as long as the whole-rest, sits on top of a
NOTATION: VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF MUSIC
line, usually the third staff line. The quarter-rest (I), half as long as the half-rest, is
not easy to draw as precisely as it appears in printed music. Think of the quarter-
rest as a backward, elongated "Z" when you make one. The eighth-rest (v), half
as long as the quarter-rest, is like a seven starting with a large dot. To make
progressively shorter rests, add lines with large dots similar to the top of the
eighth-rest to the left of the main part of the rest $ ) and name them by doubling
the number (16th, 32nd, and so on).
• Complete this chart to show the comparison of notes and rests. (Answers are in
the Appendix.)
notes rests
whole
half
quarter
eighth
sixteenth
• Chant this old rhyme to help you learn how to use notes and rests.
Pease porridge hot, Pease porridge cold,

Pease porridge in the pot, Nine days old.
• Say the rhyme again, clapping a steady beat as you say it.
////////
Pease porridge hot, Pease porridge cold,
////////
Pease porridge in the pot, Nine days old.
Notice that every syllable does not have a clap mark (/). If you use quarter-notes
to represent the steady beats or claps, you must add eighth-notes where two
syllables appear within the time span between two steady beats:
Pease
j n
por - ridge hot,
j j
Pease
j n
por ridge cold,
j j
Pease
j
por
j
- ridge
] n in the
Find three places with no word or syllable above the quarter-note. Circle the
pot,
j
Nine
j
days
j
old.
j j
quarter-notes with no matching syllable. Since the usual way of saying "hot,"
"cold," and "old" gives no indication that these words should be elongated (such
as by saying "ho-ot"), there is no need for the note under these words to be
lengthened. Instead, put corresponding rests in place of the extra quarter-notes.
Pease por - ridge hot, Pease por • ridge cold,
j j * j j *
Pease
j nn
por - ridge in the
Clap the rhythm of the words indicated by the notation as you say the rhyme
pot,
j
Nine
j
davs
j
old.
j *
again. Be sure to show the rests by separating your hands emphatically rather
than clapping.
Rhythm syllables are often used to help students learn the rhythmic rela-
tionships of notes. This chart gives rhythm names for notes and rests.
Rhythm Syllables
J> « 1 -
J „ , .
J ta-a m . sa-a
o ta-a-a-a w sa-a-a-a
The rhythm for "Pease Porridge Hot" with rhythm syllables is:
ta ti ti ta -sa
ta ti ti ta sa
ta ti ti ti ti ta
ta ta ta sa
Say the syllables in the same rhythm you previously chanted the rhyme. If you
need help later with more advanced combinations of rhythm syllables, check the
Appendix for the Rhythm Syllable Chart.
• Put notes under these automobile names to show the rhythm of the words.
Datsun Volkswagen Ford
Colt Subaru Buick
Chevrolet Volvo Honda
Oldsmobile Chrysler Audi
Pontiac Cadillac Lincoln-Mercury
If your answers differ from those given to you in the Appendix, consult your
instructor to see if you have devised an acceptable alternative matching the
rhythm of your speech.
• Use rhythm syllables to match the automobile names.
The notation below is the visual representation of the rhythm patterns you
clapped at the beginning of your tape:
1. steady beat, claves J J J J i
2. harmonic rhythm, piano J J J =1
3. melodic rhythm, recorder
4. percussion
a. tambourine nnni \
b. wood block m n>

j n j i
jm n--
xylophone j~] j j =i n j
Clap the patterns, looking at the notation and listening to the tape. Begin with the
steady beat (number one), then clap the harmonic rhythm (number two) and so on.
The repeat sign (

:
|| ) normally tells you to play or sing the pattern or section
of the music once more. In this case, repeat the patterns as many times as the tape
does. Pattern number one is repeated throughout the response section of the tape.
You will be required to clap or play each of the other patterns four times instead of
the normal two times indicated by the repeat sign.
Show by moving your hands away from each other emphatically. Show
rests
half-notes by holding hands together; but still show the pulsation of the longer
note with your clasped hands.
Clap the patterns with the tape as you say the appropriate rhythm syllables. As
soon as you can perform the rhythm patterns accurately, clap or play them (using
nonpitched percussion instruments) without the tape. Form an ensemble with
other people playing or clapping patterns other than the one you are performing.
Find musicians to join your ensemble who can play the piano, recorder, and
xylophone to recreate the parts you have heard on the tape. Music for these parts
is in the music section of this book (Response Section, Additional Parts).
Practice additional rhythm drills by clapping, saying the rhythm syllables, and
playing them on nonpitched percussion instruments, or on sound makers that are
readily available (such as two pencils striking each other, a pen striking a book, a
spoon striking a glass, and so on):
JJJ I J] J J flJJJJJ J IJ J]J

:
IIJJJJJ]JJIJJJlJ'
J J J JJJ I J / J f IJ J J' =IIJ J * HJJJ "

J J J J lo IJ J =I|J J J J IJ J J
4.J]J J I J^J J IJ J J]J I J JJJ :

IIJJJ JJJ I JJJJJ'
J I - I
- 4' J * J h J
JJ* JJJ I JJ* J IJ J J I J J J

:
IIJJJJJJJJU J J
:
I J JJJ >
I JJJ JJJ I JJJJJ IIJ J J IJ J J
JJJ JJJ I JJJJJ '

IJ J1JJJ I J J J' IU :
J JJJJU J J
18 NOTATION: VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF MUSIC
• After you have played or clapped these rhythm patterns a line at a time, play them
consecutively with no stop or hesitation from one line to the next unless a rest has
been indicated.
• Play or clap them next with another person starting on line two while you play line
one, both of you moving to the next line until you have played them all.
• As you become more independent, add players on other lines until your ensemble
is composed of people playing all the different lines. Be careful to maintain accu-
rate rhythmic relationships throughout the exercise.
PITCH
Pitch is shown in notation by the position of the note head on the staff ( ).
The staff is made up of five parallel lines. It is used to show the position of the
notehead as the determiner of the highness or lowness of the sound. Highness in
music notation refers to the top of the staff; lowness refers to the bottom of the
staff.
low high
The first two words of "Ev'ry Valley" (tape 4) illustrate the sound of a
melody going from low to high. Notice that the orchestra begins the introduction
with the same melodic fragment going from low to high.
To read a melody, it is necessary to look at the note to see the
1. rhythm, as shown by the stem, beam, or flag, and whether the note head is
empty or filled.
2. pitch, as shown by the placement of the note head.
The position of the note head itself is the only determiner of the highness or
lowness of the sound.
One staff is often used alone, depending on the instrument(s) or voice(s)
using it to realize the notation. Two staves, each containing five parallel lines, may
be joined together for instruments with wide ranges, such as keyboard instru-
ments, which use both staves simultaneously. Also, the upper staff can be used by
high voices or instruments while the lower staff is used by low voices or
instruments.
Notes higher or lower than those represented within the staff are shown by
ledger lines above or below the staves.
Each note on the staff has a letter name. Only the first seven letters of the
alphabet are used for these names, so the position of the note on the staff is
necessary to help define its exact sound.

The position of a note refers to its placement on the line or in the space of a
staff, counting from the bottom up. Line two indicates the second line from the
bottom.
lines 2^ spaces
A special symbol at the beginning of each staff, called a clef, is also neces-
sary to identify the note locations:
treble clef sign
bass clef sign
Although these signs are commonly called the treble and bass clefs, they are
more precisely identified by the names G-clef and F-clef. The G-clef shows the
location of the G on the second line. This information helps you determine the
names of all the other notes. Notice that the G-clef cuts through the second line of
the staff four times.
Notice, too, that the clef circles the second line as if to emphasize its importance.
You will observe that clef signs in music books use curved and shaded lines.
Artistic drawing of the clef sign is attractive, but not essential. It is essential to be
accurate in placing the clef sign so the note "G" is in its proper location.
• Practice making the G-clef sign until you can do it easily.
When placing notes on the staff, put them on the line or in the space. This
music terminology is different than the directions applied to writing or printing the
alphabet:
Written letters sit on the line, but notes on the line have the line going through
them. Notes in the spaces are placed with no line running through them.
the space
Ascending consecutive notes alternate lines and spaces.
Beginning with the note "G" on the G-clef, this staff shows how the notes look
going up in pitch using only the first seven letters of the alphabet.
Consecutive notes descending also alternate lines and spaces, but use the seven
letters of the alphabet in reverse order.
• In the treble clef, draw ten notes in spaces and ten notes on lines.
• Name the notes you have drawn.
Students sometimes find memory aids (mnemonics) valuable in helping them

remember note names quickly. The lines of the treble clef (E, G, B, D, F) may be
remembered by thinking of Elephants' Great Big Dusty Feet.
The spaces of the treble clef spell the word FACE .
The bass or F-clef shows the placement of fourth line F.
This clef sign begins with the large dot on the F line, curves up before cutting
down through the F line, then, after stopping just below the second line, uses two
more dots, one on either side of the F line.
Note names with the F-clef follow the same order as those with the G-clef,
but they are in different places on the staff. Lines and spaces going up from F are:
F G A B
Lines and spaces going down from F are:
F EDCBAG o
F
Practice making the F-clef sign until it is easy for you.
In the bass clef, draw ten notes in spaces and ten notes on lines.
Name the notes you have drawn.
Memory may be helpful to you in remembering bass clef note

aids that
names are All Cows Eat Grass for the spaces, and Gentle Babies Don't Fight
Alligators for the lines.
Mnemonics that you make up may be even better than the ones shown above, but
the best thing to do is to learn the notes thoroughly so that their names come easily
without memory aids.
• The notes on the staff below spell words. Find the words by naming the notes.
(Answers are in the Appendix.)
• Put notes on the staff over the letter names given below. These pitches are from a
song you may know. Be sure to draw a G- or an F-clef at the beginning of the staff
before you place the notes. (Answers in Appendix.)
BAGBAGGGGG A A A A B A G
The moveable C-clef is used much less often than the F- and G-clefs. Its
most frequent use in music today is with orchestral instruments such as the viola,
when it is called the alto clef, or cello and bassoon (for their high ranges), when it
is called the tenor clef. Its indentation shows the location of middle C.
Moveable C-clef:
Alto
middle C middle C
Historically, the C-clef has been used to avoid using ledger lines.
Ledger lines extend the staff above or below for higher and lower pitches.
Lines and spaces alternate as they do within the staff.
GABCD BCD
DCBAG GFEDCB
When notation is needed show high or low pitches, the notes are spaced away
to
from the staff using short lines drawn as if the staff were being extended beyond
its usual five lines. It is important to space the ledger lines the same distance from
each other as the lines of the staff are from each other. Ledger lines must be used
to show notes in spaces as well as on lines; they are used only between the notes
and the staff.
Middle C is one of the most often used ledger lines. It gets its name because
it is in the middle, between the G- and F-clefs. Middle C is placed as follows in
relationship to the G- and F-clefs.
When two staves are joined together, middle C should come precisely between the
two, theoretically. Actually, it is never placed that way. Extra space is allowed
between the two staves to make it easier to distinguish the notes on two separate
five-line staves, rather than having ten lines so close together that it is difficult
visually to separate their lines. Middle C is located near one of the staves.
Identify these notes.
The octave sign (8va) may be used with high or low notes to avoid ledger
lines. The word octave means eight notes, the distance between one pitch letter
name to the next pitch having the same name. The octave sign followed by a
broken line over the G-clef staff means that all the notes under the broken line are
to sound an octave higher:
The octave sign followed by a broken line under the F-clef means that all the notes
over the broken line sound one octave lower:
• Write these notes with ledger lines to show the same pitches:
• Write these notes with the octave sign (8va) instead of ledger lines to show the
same pitches. (Answers in Appendix.)
TEMPO
Tempo is indicated on a musical score by words and by metronome markings.
Although tempo words may be in English, they are generally in Italian. Many of
these words will be introduced to you in association with the music you use. Start
by finding the meaning of two tempo words on the Tempo Marks chart in the
Appendix: allegro and andante.
• Compare theTelemann "Triste" (Tape 16) with Grainger's "Country Gardens"

(Tape 7). Which of these selections is played allegro? Which is played andante?
The abbreviation MM. sometimes appears at the beginning of a piece to
show metronome markings. M.M. stands for Maelzel's metronome, named after
the man who invented it. The metronome is a musician's tool that emits a regular
click to show the steady beat. It is sometimes electric, sometimes handwound like
a clock. The beat can be adjusted so the tempo can be changed. M.M. J = 60
means that when the metronome is set at 60 clicks per minute, each click corre-
sponds to a quarter note or its equivalent. The metronome marking is sometimes
shown without M.M., using only J = 60. Some metronomes are marked with
words corresponding to the numbers to show how many beats per minute corre-
spond to the Italian words.
DYNAMICS
Dynamics are generally indicated by abbreviations showing gradations of loud-
ness and softness. Although the Italian word for soft is piano, that dynamic level
is most often shown by using the Very soft, pianissimo, is pp. Even softer
letter/?.
than that is pianississimo, ppp. Find the meaning of mp on the Dynamic Marks
chart in the Appendix. Also, study the Gradations of Dynamics chart following it.
• After listening to "Semper Fidelis" (Tape 8), decide on an appropriate dynamic

marking for it.
• Determine the dynamic marking for "Bring Me Little Water, Silvy" (Tape 9).
MUSIC CHECK
RHYTHMIC VALUES OF NOTES AND RESTS HIGH AND LOW SOUNDS

WHOLE, HALF, QUARTER, EIGHTH, SIXTEENTH LEDGER LINES
RHYTHM SYLLABLES OCTAVE SIGN
REPEAT SIGNS TEMPO MARKINGS, INCLUDING M.M.
PITCH NAMES IN BOTH TREBLE AND BASS CLEFS DYNAMIC MARKINGS
G-, F-, AND C-CLEFS

CHAPTER 3
USING
NOTATION
This chapter presents opportunities for you to develop concepts presented in the
first chapters of this book and to add new ones. Songs and instrumental excerpts
are used to help you apply your knowledge of music fundamentals. Many music
concepts are of negligible value if they are perceived intellectually only, without
developing aural perception. You should play, sing, or listen to these musical
materials. If it is impossible for you to perform them because of factors such as
lack of musical instruments or size of class, concentrate on development of your
listening skills as your teacher presents the musical illustrations.
This chapter provides directions for students who will learn to play the
materials on piano, recorder, autoharp, or guitar. These instrumentalists should

follow the directions in condensed print. If you are not going to play the music,
skip the condensed print directions. If your class sings the song examples, use
portions of the voice section of the instrument book as needed.
This chapter is organized around selected pieces of music. Below each title
is a list of terms that will be introduced or amplified in the discussion to follow.

The elements of music needing clarification will be consistently addressed in the
context of the song or instrumental excerpt.
Hot Cross Buns

KEY SIGNATURE, KEY OF G
SHARPS (tt), FLATS (!>)
26
USING NOTATION 27
METER SIGNATURE, %
MEASURE, BAR-LINE, BEATS, RHYTHM PATTERNS

PITCHES G, A, AND B
G CHORD
FORTE, MODERATO
Rhythm:
Apply your knowledge of note values to clap this rhythm pattern.
j j j j j j rm rm j j j
Melody:
Name the notes below:
Form:
Do you see repeated patterns in either the rhythm or pitch examples above?
Circle the patterns even if they consist only of three notes.
Use letter A to label the first pattern, and any like it; use B, C, and so on, to label
other patterns.
Check the placement of your circles and labels in the Appendix.
Tempo:
What does moderato mean? (Put a paper clip on the tempo chart in the
Appendix to help you find tempo term definitions quickly.)
Dynamics:
What does / mean?

Find the notation in the music section for "Hot Cross Buns."
28 USING NOTATION
Notice these items that appear first as you look at the notation:
1. The key signature. The sharp (fl) immediately after the G-clef sign is on the F
line. It tells you that all F's should be altered and that the piece is in the key
of G. Sharps (H) or flats (}) after the clef sign tell what key the piece is in, and
make up the key signature. The key is important because it affects specific
notes of the melody if the altered notes are included in the melody. (In this
piece, there are no F's in the melody, so the key does not require the
musician to alter any melody notes.) It also indicates the harmonies that
should be used to support the melody. The name of the key tells the center of
tonality, sometimes called the "key tone," "home tone," and "tonic," to
which other notes relate as the most important pitch. The key signature will
help you select and construct chords. It appears on every line of notation.
2. The meter signature. The numbers following the key signature make up the
meter (or time) signature. The top number tells how many steady beats there
are in one measure. It documents the recurring sets of accented and unac-
cented beats. The bottom number tells the kind of note that gets one beat.
The meter signature appears only at the beginning of a piece unless it
changes.
Rhythm:
In this piece, the meter is four; there are four steady beats in each measure. The
strongest pulse will be felt on the first beat of the four.
• Clap on the first beat, strike your forearms together on the other beats as you count
meter created by a series of steady beats grouped in sets of four: (1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4).
Measures are formed by vertical lines cutting through the staff.
bar-
line
measure
The vertical lines are called bar-lines (or bars). A measure occupies the space
between two bar-lines. Even though no bar-line appears at the beginning of a
between the clef sign and the first bar-line can also be a measure.
piece, the space
Each measure (with the possible exception of the first and last measures, which
may be incomplete) contains the number of beats indicated by the top number of
the meter signature.
USING NOTATION 29
How many measures are in "Hot Cross Buns"? (Answer is in the Appendix.)
Count 1 2 3 4 as you clap this rhythm. Be sure to hold the half notes through as you
show their pulsation.
123412341rm rm 1234
j j j I j j j i
2 3 4
i j j j n
When the bottom number of the meter (time) signature is four, it tells that the
quarter-note gets one beat. Imagine that four stands for A

l
or a quarter-note. If
a 2 were on the bottom it would stand for Vz or a half-note. Notice that as you counted
1 2 3 4 in the illustration above, the quarter-note got one count or beat. How many
beats did the half-note get? How many beats did the eighth-note get?
Fill in quarter notes to equal notes shown in the left column.
J-
n.
o =
nn.
These examples all use the i meter signature. The top number tells you there are
beats in a measure; the bottom number tells you the note gets
one beat. (Appendix.)
From now on, look for answers in the Appendix when questions or exercises
are followed by the word Appendix in parentheses.
Write four beats in the correct places for each measure of these examples. After
you have checked the placement of your beats to see if they are correct, count
them aloud while you clap the rhythm patterns. As you count, give extra emphasis
to the first beat.
i J J J J IJ J I J J J L I!
j n j j i rm j i rm j j i j - »
JJ/lJIJ'JHJJ/iJI/l/lJ' II
j
*
j ij j j \rm rm i„ n
J ' J MJ]J J MJ ' j ' l)J )J HI

USING NOTATION
(Appendix.)
• Now, say the rhythm syllables for the patterns.
So far, even though the name of this chapter is "Using Notation," you have
not integrated it with music. You have looked at it, answered questions about it,
and clapped rhythm patterns. The next step is to put the musical package together
as the notation shows. "Hot Cross Buns" was chosen as your first piece because
you probably know it.
1. If you can already play an instrument, use it to play "Hot Cross Buns".
2. If you do not play an instrument, or if you wish to learn to play another one, turn to either Keyboard 1 or
Recorder 1.
3. If you want to learn more than one melodic instrument, play both Keyboard 1 and Recorder 1.
4. After you have played the melody, return to this chapter.
Melody:
• Sing the melody of "Hot Cross Buns" using the words.
• Sing the melody using the letter names of the notes.
Notice the numbers and syllables written under the melody. They are in-
cluded as aids for two systems of learning to sightread vocally through perceiving
relationships between pitches. The numbers are assigned to notes according to the
key of the composition. (In this introductory discussion, keys referred to are all
major keys.) The key name, numbered one, its next highest
in this case G, is
neighbor is numbered two, the next highest, three, and so on. The numbers used
are from one to seven; if higher or lower notes are needed, the numbers are used
over again, corresponding with the pitch names. Unlike pitch names that remain
constant, the numbers change according to the key. Thus, when you move out of
the key of G into a new one, such as C, number one will be used to represent C,
number two D, and so on. The idea of using the numbers in this way is to establish
aural relations between the pitches of any key to make it easier for the student to
hear, read, and relate the sounds. One-two-three in any key will have the same
relative sound even though the exact pitches will be higher or lower depending
upon the key.
• Sing the melody using the numbers.
Solfege in which syllables (do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti) are used in the
is a system
same way numbers in the previously described system: Do is the name of
as the
the key-note G, re is A, mi is B, and so on. These syllables come from a Latin
USING NOTATION 31
source and were originally the first part of Latin words. Many musicians prefer to
use them instead of numbers because they are more musical to sing. If you were to
use the fixed do system, do would always be C, re would be D, and so on.
However, in the United States, the moveable do {do is always the name of the
major key) is most often used. This text uses the moveable do.
• Sing "Hot Cross Buns" using the syllables.
you and your teacher decide to use the syllables and/or the numbers to
If
help you with vocal sightreading, continue to use them with the pieces as they are
introduced even when specific instructions are no longer given to you. In using
either system, it is necessary first to get the sounds of the note relationships
{intervals) into your ear, to recognize them in the notation, and then to apply them
to new situations by reading the notation, hearing the sound internally before you
produce it. Whether you decide to use numbers or syllables, the system you use
must be practiced consistently and accurately to be effective.

If you choose to work with numbers, be careful to differentiate between the
numbers used to represent pitches, and the numbers used to represent counting of
beats.
If you choose to work with syllables, be careful not to confuse ti as assigned
to the seventh syllable in solfege, with the "ti" assigned to represent eighth-notes
when using rhythm syllables.
Harmony:
It is easy to provide a harmonic accompaniment for some pieces, especially

those like "Hot Cross Buns," which uses only one chord. (A chord is a combina-
tion of three ormore notes.) The letter G near the beginning of the piece tells the
instrumentalist to play a G chord (spelled G-B-D.) The absence of any other chord
symbol in the piece means that the G chord is repeated throughout.
1 . If you already can play a harmony instrument, use it to put one G chord with each measure of "Hot Cross
Buns."
2. If you don't play a harmony instrument, or want to learn another, turn either to Keyboard 2, Autoharp 1, or
Guitar 1.
Lady, Come
PITCHES C AND D, SEQUENCE
• From now on, as each new piece is introduced, find it in the music section. Mark it
with a paper clip or rubber band for ease in finding it as needed.

USING NOTATION
Rhythm:
• What is the meter signature for "Lady, Come"? It tells you there are
beats in a measure and the note gets one beat.
• Write the correct numbers under the notes to show the proper locations of the four
beats in each measure. Be careful, the numbers already written under the words
refer to the pitch, not the meter.
• Use rhythm syllables to show the appropriate length of the notes.
• Clap the notes as you count the four beats for each measure.
• Say the words for this piece as you clap the rhythm.
Melody:
• What pitches appear in "Lady, Come" that were also in "Hot Cross Buns"?
What pitches were not in "Hot Cross Buns"?
• Identify all the pitches of "Lady, Come" using letter names.
• Play "Lady, Come," turning to Keyboard 3 or Recorder 2 if you need help.
• Sing "Lady Come," using words, pitch names, syllables, and numbers. Notice
that since this piece is in the key of G (as was "Hot Cross Buns") the relationship
of the words, syllables, and numbers remains the same.
Form:
How many measures are in "Lady, Come"? Find three measures with the
same rhythm. Do any of them have the same melody? Measures one and two are
sequential: They have different pitches, but the same melodic shape and rhythm.
Measures one and four also have melodies that are related: Measure four is
measure one inverted (upside down).
Harmony:
"Lady, Come" requires only the G chord to accompany the melody.
• Play the G chord either at the beginning of each measure or on counts 1 and 3 of each measure.
Dynamics:
• Choose a dynamic marking from the chart in the Appendix for this piece to show
how loudly you think it should be performed.
USING NOTATION 33
Tempo:
Choose a tempo marking from the chart in the Appendix to show how fast you
think this piece should be performed.
Sing the melody using both the tempo and dynamic markings you have selected.
• Use the tempo and dynamic marking you have chosen as you play the melody.
• Sing the melody as you play the chordal accompaniment.
• Enlist the aid of friends or family to put the melody and harmony together. If you can, play the melody and
harmony together using the piano.
Are You Sleeping?

ADDING "AND" ("Tl") FOR EIGHTH-NOTES, PITCHES E AND LOW D, ECHO
SONG
Rhythm:
Write the time signature for "Are You Sleeping?" here: How many beats
are in each measure? What kind of a note gets the beat? You
have probably written: The time signature is t, there are four beats in each mea-
sure, and the quarter-note gets one beat. Those are correct answers.
Write the count for each measure of this rhythm pattern. When counting eighth-
notes, add "and" for the second eighth-note ("1 and 2 and," etc.)
I- J J J J I J J J J I J J J I J J J II
nn
1 and 2 and
}
3
j
4
i
j~3 j~] j j u j j i j j j ii
Count as you clap the rhythm pattern. Be sure to hold the half-notes and clap
twice on beats showing two eighth-notes.
Say the rhythm syllables for each note as you clap the rhythm.
Say the words as you clap this rhythm pattern.
i J J J J IJ J J J IJ J J I J J J I
Are you sleep ing, Are you sleep • ing. Broth - er John, Broth - er John?
n
Morn-ing
n
bells are ring
j
-
j
ing,
i n
Morn-ing
n
bells are ring
j
-
j
ing.
i j j
Ding, dang, dong,
j i j j
Ding, dang, dong.
j ii
USING NOTATION
Melody:
There are two new notes in "Are You Sleeping?"

• Write the names of all the notes under the staff below.
Which of these notes were not in "Hot Cross Buns" or "Lady, Come"?
• Play "Are You Sleeping." Turn to Keyboard 4 or Recorder 3 if you need help with the new notes.
Harmony:
How many different chords are needed to accompany "Are You Sleeping?"
• Sing the melody as you accompany yourself on your chordal instrument.
Form:
• Find measures in "Are You Sleeping?" with exactly the same melody and
rhythm. Did you find a pattern of repetition in this piece? It is a good example of
an echo song: Each measure is repeated throughout.
Dynamics and Tempo:

• Use the charts in the Appendix to help you choose appropriate tempos and dy-
namics for this song.
• Sing "Are You Sleeping" using the expressive markings you have chosen.
• Practice "Are You Sleeping?" until you can play it accurately. Play it with other people as often as you can
so you have the experience of hearing melody and harmony together. Use the piano to play melody and
harmony together if you can. Vary tempo and dynamics when you wish to change the interpretation of the
piece.
Introductions or Beginning Pitches:
When you sing, it is crucial that you begin the melody on the correct pitch. If
you are to sing with other people, unless you all begin on the correct pitch, you
will probably each select your own keys, with dissonant results. Even when you
USING NOTATION 35
sing alone, unless you establish a reasonable starting pitch, you may find yourself
singing portions of the song using unreasonably high or low areas of your vocal
range. There are several ways to find the correct starting pitch:
1. The most direct way is to play the beginning pitch on a fixed pitch instru-
ment, such as a keyboard or recorder. Match the pitch with your voice
before starting the melody; listen to make sure you are singing the same note
you are playing. If you have difficulty in matching one pitch, it may be
helpful for you to hear the first phrase before beginning to sing. Be careful to
give yourself the first pitch again before you begin, especially if the phrase
you have heard does not end on the pitch you need.
2. Play, or have someone else play, an introduction to the song. The introduc-
tion should give the tempo of the piece, its style, and the key. If the introduc-
tion is harmonic only, you will have to find the beginning pitch by ear,
relating the starting pitch to the chordal construction of the introduction. If
the introduction is both harmonic and melodic, the melody of the introduc-
tion can end on the starting pitch for the beginning of the song.
3. Use a combination of 1 and 2: Play the starting pitch first, then use an
introduction to add attractive elements that will enhance the beginning of the
piece.
Be consistent in giving attention to starting pitches, especially if you think of

yourself as an uncertain singer. See the Voice section of the Appendix for addi-
tional discussion of singing as a mode of musical expression.
An introduction to "Are You Sleeping" can be as simple as using the guitar,
piano, or autoharp to play four G chords in the tempo you wish to sing the song. If
the four chords do not clearly indicate the starting pitch to you, play the starting
pitch alone before beginning the introduction.
The Bird's Song

d7 chord, allegro, mf
Apply what you know about music to this new piece.
Rhythm:
• Use as many of these techniques as you need to be accurate in performing the

rhythm patterns below.
1. Write the counts in their proper places for each measure. Clap the rhythm
saying the counts evenly.
36 USING NOTATION
2. Write rhythm syllables ("ta," "ti" and "ta-a") under the appropriate notes.
Clap the rhythm as you say the rhythm syllables accurately.
i j j j j i j n j i j j j j i j n j i
j j rj .n i
j~j n j i j j j i j j j n
3. Find the notation for "The Bird's Song" in the music book. Say the words
for the song showing the rhythm indicated by the notation.
(As you continue to learn new music, use as many of the techniques of
counting, writing, clapping, using rhythm syllables, and rhythmic speaking of
words as you need to help you be rhythmically accurate. Devise alternatives to
clapping to generate rhythmic interest and keep your hands from becoming tired.
Tapping, clicking, and using percussion instruments or sound producers found in
your environment are some of these alternatives.)
Melody:
• Write the letter names for these notes under the staff below. Write the numbers,
then the syllables, with G as "1" or "do."
(Appendix.)
• Sing and/or play "The Bird's Song" with accurate rhythm and pitch.
Harmony:
"The Bird's Song" is in the key of G, as were the previous songs in this
chapter. Notice it has the same signature (F-sharp) at the beginning of each line. The
reasons for staying in this key for so long are to give the instrumentalists practice in
playing the chord(s) in that key, and to give singers using solfege or numbers ample
opportunity to locate the symbols they are using.
Look at the chord symbols above the melody line. Instead of having only
one chord for this piece, there are two: G (spelled G-B-D) <y o i and D7
USING NOTATION 37
(spelled D-Ftt-A-C) The 7 in the D7 chord symbol indicates that in-
stead of only three notes in the chord, four notes are to be used. The 7 means that
the additional note is seven notes away from the bottom note (root).
1 . For help with chords, turn to Keyboard 5, Autoharp 2, or Guitar 2.
2. Before adding the D7 to the piece, play the G chord at the beginning of each measure. If you accidentally
play the G chord where the symbol says D7, you will notice a dissonance.
3. Play the G and D7 chords at the places indicated by the symbols above the melody.
4. Use repeated chords between the chord symbol indications. In the first measure, play two G chords, then
two D7 chords on the steady beat with four beats in a measure. In the second measure, play four G chords.
In the third measure, play two G chords and two D7 chords. If a new chord is not indicated in the next
measure, you should continue playing the last chord shown.
Form:
• Find repeated rhythm patterns in "The Bird's Song." Divide the song into two-
measure phrases. Are any two-measure melodic passages repeated? Can you find
sequences?
The rhythm of the first two measures is the same as the rhythm of the second
two measures. The shape of the melody of these two phrases is the same, but the
notes are different; the second phrase is higher. These two phrases are sequential.
Sequences are often used in music. There can be many more than just two phrases
involved in sequences. Their general characteristics are:
1. The rhythm is either exactly the same, or very similar.
2. The melody has the exact, or very similar shape.
3. The notes used in the melody are not the same. Repeated passages are not
sequential since they use the same notes.
Tempo:
What does allegro mean?
Dynamics:
What does mf mean?

• Put all the elements together to play and sing "The Bird's Song."
USING NOTATION
A-Hunting We Will Go
ANACRUSIS, PICK-UP OR UPBEAT, DOTTED HALF-NOTE, C CHORD
Rhythm:
Sometimes it is necessary to use a note longer than a half-note and shorter

than a whole-note. A dot placed immediately after the half-note indicates that half
the value of the half-note will be added to it. Thus, if the value of the half-note is 2,
the dot will add 1. If the value of the half-note is 1, the dot will add Vi. This rule
applies to any note: A dot following the note adds half its value.
The value of a note is determined by What is the meter
the meter signature.
signature in the rhythm example below? The upper number tells you there
are counts or beats in each measure. The lower number tells you the
gets one count. Since a half-note is twice as long as a quarter-note,
it gets two counts. When the half-note has a dot after it, it gets three counts.
• In the example below, write "1 2 3" under each dotted half-note.
i n\) j j j i j. j i j j j j l. j i
jijij j \nn} j i j j j j i j. ii
Notice that the first dotted half-notes are followed by quarter-notes. Write
"4" under these quarter-notes. They complete the four counts needed for each
measure of this rhythm pattern.
Notice that the last dotted half-note is not followed by a quarter-note. Can
you find the missing fourth count of the last measure?
The missing fourth count is at the beginning of the pattern. Write "4-and"
under the first two notes of the pattern. These two eighth-notes form an in-
complete measure. Many pieces begin with incomplete measures. An unaccented

note (or notes) in an incomplete measure at the beginning of a piece is called an
upbeat, anacrusis, or pick-up. The anacrusis is used when the rhythmic emphasis
for the first note or notes is less than that required for the following one. The first
beat of the measure, the strongest one, is saved for the note requiring the greatest
emphasis. Music is an orderly art; the remainder of the incomplete starting mea-
sure will be found somewhere else, at the end of either the piece or the section.
• Write the numbers under the notes not already marked in the
for the correct count
preceding pattern. Be sure to use "and" or " + " for the second eighth-notes when
the eighth-notes are shown in sets of twos.
USING NOTATION 39
Keep a steady beat as you count and clap the rhythm pattern. Be sure to clasp
your hands and show the pulsation of three for the dotted half-notes.
Write "ta" and "ti" under the appropriate notes above. Use "ta-a-a" for the
dotted half-note.
Clap the rhythm pattern above as you say the rhythm syllables aloud.
Say the words for this rhythm pattern aloud as you clap the rhythm.
n\i j j j i j. j i j j j j i j. j i
Oh, a • hunt - ing we will go, a hunt - ing we will go. We'll
nn
catch a lit - tie
j
fox
j
and
i nn
put him in a
j
box
j
and
i
j
nev -
j
er
j
let
j
him
i j.
go.
ii
The following example by Schubert shows the dotted half-note used in the
introduction to the first movement of his Unfinished Symphony (No. 8).
What is the difference between this meter signature and the one for "A-Hunting
We Will Go"? This one shows that there are beats in a measure, and the
note gets one count.
Write three counts under each measure of the examples below. After you have
placed the counts, check them for accuracy, then count aloud as you clap the
rhythm patterns. Emphasize the first beat of each measure to strengthen the
meter grouping the beats in sets of three. (Appendix.)
feeling of the
i J J J IJ J IJ J J IJ. II
J. IJ J IJ. IJ J J IJ J IJ. II
j /ij j-j j
j ij j n\i i
M M
i
J * J J J n J I J * Ml
Say the patterns using rhythm syllables. A dotted half-note will be "ta-a-a." If
you are not sure of other rhythm syllables, check the chart in the Appendix.
Johann Strauss, Jr., used the I meter signature in his waltz "On the Beautiful
Blue Danube." Since his melody contained notes that were worth four counts,
USING NOTATION
and since in I meter there can only be three counts in a measure, Strauss needed a
means to make the dotted half-note sound for one extra beat. His solution was to
use a tie (
^"^ ) to join the dotted half-note to the quarter-note in the next measure:
When two or more notes on the same pitch are tied together (joined by a curved
line), the notes following the first note are not sounded anew, but their value is
added to that of the first note for the total number of counts on that pitch. Ties can
only be used to connect pitches that are the same: They are not to be confused
with slurs, curved lines that join notes of different pitches indicating that they are
to be played or sung legato (smoothly joined together).
tie slur
• Count and clap these examples that use tied notes.
3 j j i rm j^jj j ii
1 J J J 4J.J J J I' J J U 'II
I J1J JJ,J J J~3 J J^jj j I
m m
I
\ j ji j^Tjj * u jjj j j f ii
(Appendix.)
• Say the rhythm syllables for the examples above. The dotted half-note tied to the
quarter-note will be "ta-a-a-a." Be sure to say "sa" for the quarter rests.
The second theme from the overture to Mozart's Marriage of Figaro uses
the dotted half-note in another meter.
• The meter signature <f stands for \. That means there are beats in the
measure, and the gets one beat. If the half-note gets one beat, what will the
dotted half-note get?

USING NOTATION 41
Write the count for each note in the left column when there is a meter signature of
I
J. -
J>-
}-
O =
(Appendix.)
Write two counts below each measure of the examples below. After you have
placed the counts, check them for accuracy, then count aloud as you clap the
rhythm patterns. Use "one-uh and-uh" for «H J~i.
J I J J J I J J J J I J J J II
J IJTJ]J I J J J J I J J II
1 J J J I J J J I J J] J J U - II
(Appendix.)
Melody:
You have previously used all the notes of the melody for "A-Hunting We
Will Go." Decide whether or not you need the practice of writing letter names,
syllables, or numbers under the melody to help you sing it accurately. Write as
much or as little as you need.
Sing or play the melody, being careful to keep the rhythm steady.
Write the letter names for the notes under the Schubert, Strauss, and Mozart
examples above.
USING NOTATION
Harmony:
• What is the key signature for "A-Hunting We Will Go"? How many
different chords are needed to accompany the melody? Name the chords.
• Turn to either Keyboard 6, Autoharp 3, or Guitar 3 for help in learning to play the new chord.
Form:
• Find repeated rhythm patterns in "A-Hunting We Will Go." Are the pitches the
same for the repeated rhythm patterns? Is the shape of the melody the same?
• Identify two sequential patterns. (Appendix.)
Dynamics:
Are dynamics marked for "A-Hunting We Will Go"? If none are marked,
you can determine the dynamics you think are appropriate for the music.
• Put a dynamic mark on this piece using a symbol from the chart in the Appendix.
• Sing or play the piece with the dynamic intensity you have selected.
Tempo:
• Sing or play "A-Hunting We Will Go" using the tempo indicated in the music
notation.
Good News
C AND ^ TIME SIGNATURES
Rhythm:
The sign c sometimes appears instead of the usual numbers for the meter
signature. It stands for 1 Note the difference between it and the <t with a line
through it in the Mozart example. The addition of the line signifies the pulsation of
2 rather than 4 in the measure even though the notes may have the same general
appearance.
• Review what you have learned so far by clapping the rhythm for "Good News."
USING NOTATION 43
Expression:
Select tempo and dynamic markings for this piece.
Form:
Circle measures in this piece that are the same. Debate this statement: Since the
phrase with the words "Good news, the chariot's comin'," occurs three times,
and since the music for each of those repetitions varies only slightly, the form of
this piece is aa'ab. (The mark used next to letter a for the second repetition
indicates a slight variation in each phrase.)
Melody and Harmony:

Sing the melody.
• Play the accompanying chords as you sing the melody.
It's Raining
LOW E, KEY OF C, C CHORD
Rhythm:
Clap or tap the rhythm of the piece before you sing or play the melody.
Melody:
How many different pitches are used in this traditional children's song?
Name the notes you have not used in previous pieces in this chapter.
If you cannot play these new notes, turn to Keyboard 7 or Recorder 4.
Some of the pieces in your music book such as "It's Raining" have numbers
over the melody to show which fingers of the right hand to use when playing the
keyboard.
Harmony:
"It's Raining" is in a different key than the one you have used in previous
pieces. There are no flats or sharps at the beginning of the staves. The piece is in
the key of C. Notice that only one chord is shown at the beginning of the piece, the
C chord. Instrumentalists have already played this chord in "A-Hunting We Will
USING NOTATION
Go," but it was in an inverted position on the keyboard. The C chord used in the
key of C will be in root position (C-E-G rather than G-C-E).
root position inverted position
If you are playing autoharp or guitar, you need not change what you are doing. If you are playing a
keyboard instrument, you should now learn the C chord in root position for "It's Raining." For help in
playing the C chord in root position, turn to Keyboard 8.
Expression:
• Write dynamic and tempo indicators at the beginning of this piece. Play and sing it
using the tempo and dynamic instructions you have written. Choose different
expression indicators to use as you play and sing the piece again. Determine
which of them are most suitable for your interpretation of the music.
Orchestra Song
Imeter signature; G7 chord
TIMBRE OF FRENCH HORN, TIMPANI, CLARINET, TRUMPET, VIOLIN,
BASSOON
PHRASES
middle c, low and high f
chord progression
sixteenth-notes; concerto
SLURS
DOTTED NOTES, DOUBLE-DOTTED NOTES
STACCATO/ LEG ATO
The next six pieces with instrument names are part of the "Orchestra
Song." Some of them are much easier to perform than others. The easiest is
probably the "Horn," part one. Before you consider individual characteristics of
sections of the "Orchestra Song," look at them as contributing parts of one piece.
Answer these general questions:
1. Are all the sections in the same key?

2. What key are they in?
3. What meter signature is used?

4. Analyze the forms of each section. Notate the form with letters under each
section.
USING NOTATION 45
5. How many different chords are needed to accompany this piece?

6. Compare the placement of chord changes in all the sections.
7. With what pitch does each section begin?
8. Which of the sections begin with an anacrusis? (Appendix.)
In preparation for realizing the rhythm of the "Orchestra Song" sections, count 1
2 3 as you clap these rhythm patterns.
3 J IJ J IJ j i j j j i j ii
J in) j jij j \nnn\m

J u j j i j j j i j j j i j j ii
J u j u j i j j j i j ii
J ijij n i jij /]i j j j u ii
, /] J J I J] J J I /] J J I J J II
Label the rhythm pattern with the name of the section having a matching rhythm.
Which of the patterns above match this phrase from Mozart's Minuet in F?
Say the rhythm patterns using the rhythm syllables.
Say the rhythm patterns using the words of their corresponding texts.
Now look at the unique characteristics of each of the instruments in the
"Orchestra Song."
Horn
How many different pitches are used in the "Horn"? Give yourself the pitch
from a stable pitch producer such as the piano, recorder, or pitch pipe, and sing
the "Horn."
• Write the beats for each measure under the notes, beginning with "3" for the first
note.
• If you need help in playing the G7 chord, turn to Keyboard 9, Autoharp 4, or Guitar 4.
• Accompany yourself as you sing the "Horn" part of the "Orchestra Song."
You may comment on the limited interest in a part with only one note.
Orchestra and band players sometimes complain about uninteresting parts written
for the French horns, especially in pieces for beginners. Listen to Tape 13 to hear
the "Horn" part of the "Orchestra Song" played by a French horn. Then listen to
an attractive French horn solo that is not so easy to play (Tape 14). At the
beginning of Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks, you hear a brief section played first
by the strings, then by the clarinet, then the French horn.

Pictures of the instruments you hear in the "Orchestra Song" are found in
Chapter 12.
Drum
How many different pitches are used in the "Drum"? Which note has not
been used in other pieces in this chapter?
If you need help to play it, turn to Keyboard 10 or Recorder 5.
• Write the beats under the notation.
• Count and clap the rhythm before you sing or play the melody.
If you sing the piece with chordal accompaniment, listen to the changing
chords. The order in which they are used is called the chord progression.
• Play the chordal accompaniment as you sing the melody.
• Play and sing the melody and the accompaniment for the "Drum" at the same time a friend plays and sings
the "Horn."
This part was written with the timpani in mind. The timpani, or kettledrums,
differ from most other drums because they can be tuned to specific pitches by
increasing or decreasing the tension of the drumhead (membrane covering the
open end of the kettle). Since the word drum is used to describe many types of
percussion instruments, the word timpani should be used to describe those that
play discernibly different pitches. Listen to the timpanist playing the "Drum"
(Tape 13), and then a solo for timpani (Tape 15) in the percussion section of The
Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra.
Clarinet
Write three counts per measure in their appropriate places under the notation for
the "Clarinet."
USING NOTATION 47
Tap steady beats while you say rhythm syllables for the notes of the "Clarinet."
How many different pitches are used in the melody of the "Clarinet"?
Which of them have not been included in songs used in this chapter?
• If you need help in playing these notes, refer to either Keyboard 11 or Recorder 6.
• Play the melody using accurate rhythm.
• Sing the melody for the "Clarinet" while you accompany yourself on the keyboard, autoharp, or guitar.
Sing the melody for the "Clarinet." When you find that you can sing it accurately
and confidently, sing it while other musicians sing the "Horn" and the "Drum."
Switch parts. Try not to be dependent upon large group experiences only; endeav-
or to carry each part alone. Use numbers and syllables as well as words.
Listen to the clarinet playing this part of the "Orchestra Song" (Tape 13). Then listen
to the clarinet playing Movement I from "Phantasiestiicke" (Tape 1 1) to identify the

clarinet sound in a different context.
Trumpet
Circle the sixteenth-notes in this part. Notice that all the sixteenth-notes here are
When you
mn n
on the last half of the first beat of the measure in which they occur.
count these measures, use "and-uh" for the sixteenth-notes.
1 and - uh 2 and 3 and
Sixteenth-notes can occur on the first part

K of the beat ^ ^ ^ or on the last part
(1 - uh and) _
of the beat as shown above; or they can comprise the entire beat J J J
(1 uh and • uh)
Even though the examples shown in parentheses use beat 1, the sixteenth-notes
can be used with any beat.
Write the beats in the appropriate places for these rhythm patterns.
? mi j i jtoj * u mn u * * n
j u j j \mn n \mn n \rm n
t snsnm \mmimi \mijmm i
(Appendix.)
• Count as you clap the rhythm patterns.

48 USING NOTATION
• Say the rhythms with rhythm syllables. Use tu tu for the sixteenth-notes.
• Count, clap, and use rhythm syllables with these themes:
Rossini, theme from

"William Tell Overture"
(Appendix.)
• Count as you clap the rhythm for the "Trumpet."
• Review the pitch names in the melody, then play and sing it with correct rhythm.
• Play the chordal accompaniment as classmates sing two or three parts of the "Orchestra Song."
• Listen to the trumpet play this part (Tape 13). Then listen to the "Andante'* of the
Haydn Trumpet Concerto (Tape 12). A concerto is a piece written for solo instru-
ment with orchestra accompaniment. It usually provides the instrumentalist with
a chance to demonstrate great virtuosity (exceptional artistic and technical skill).
Violin
• Count and clap the rhythm for this part.
• Say the rhythm syllables as you tap the steady beat.
The curved lines under or over selected notes in the "Violin" are called
slurs. They show that more than one note is to be used with one word or syllable.
The first slur, over "ring," shows that two notes go with the first part of the word
"ringing." The second slur shows that four notes are to be used with "love-."
How many slurs can you find in the "Violin"? A slur helps you produce a smooth
(legato) melodic line.
• Say the words using a pulsation in your voice to show the notes joined by the
slurs.
USING NOTATION 49
Name the new notes in this melody.
• For help in playing them, turn to Keyboard 12 or Recorder 7.
Sing the "Violin" with care in matching the correct number of notes with each
word or syllable.
Listen to the violin play this part (Tape 13). then listen to the sound of the violin in
'"Modere*" (Tape 18). After a brief piano introduction, the violin (high) and the
cello (low) play the first theme together.
Bassoon
You have used dotted half-notes in other pieces. The dotted note used in the
""Bassoon" part is a dotted quarter. The rule for the use of the dot is the same: It
adds half the value of the note preceding it. When writing these dots, put them in
spaces so the line of the staff does not obscure them.

The dot appearing to the right of the note is not to be confused with a dot
appearing either under or over a note head: # or *. The dot to the right adds half
the temporal value of the note; the dot over or under the note is a staccato mark,
indicating the note is to be separated or detached. Staccato is the opposite of
legato.
The time signature indicates that the quarter-note gets one beat. The dot
following the quarter-note adds half its value or half a beat. Hold the dotted
quarter-note for one and one-half beats. Notice that an eighth-note follows the
dotted quarter-note in this part. This combination is often found in music. It
makes it easy to count:
1 and 2 3 and
ta -
The half beat unused by the dotted note is used by the eighth-note following the
dotted quarter-note.
Count and clap the rhythm for the "Bassoon." Be sure to clasp your hands and
show the pulsation for the extra half beat of the dotted quarter-note.
Say the words as you tap the steady beat.
Use dotted quarter-notes followed by eighth-notes to show the notation for these
words. As you say them, be sure to elongate and emphasize the syllables preced-
ing the dashes.
50 USING NOTATION
J. J> J J
huck - le - ber - ry wa-tch the wind-mill
see-the ship ca-tch the ball
ho-ld it cle-an up
(Appendix.)
• After you write the beats per measure in the correct places, count and clap these
patterns.
n n n n ni\ \ s>\nni i
nnn\nnn\ni wnni u n
, c j nn i j. j>j. j* i j. >n n u - n
3 . i j. u. JT3U. u. my. u j. j>u j ij * mi
4. 5 j. jtj i j. rn\x jtj i jTTini j. jtj ix jtj ij. ii
, \ j>ij. j>j. i>ijn]j. j-uinjinij j j 'i

(Appendix.)
Some of the rhythm patterns above match the following excerpts:
Gounod, first theme from

"Ballet Music, Faust," Act V
Schubert,first theme from first
movement, "Unfinished Symphony"
Allegro moderato
USING NOTATION 51
Tchaikovsky, finale to
first act, "Swan Lake"
Schumann, "The Happy Farmer"
Put the number of the matching rhythm pattern after the composer's name:
Gounod Schubert , Schumann Tchaikovsky
, ,
Tempo marks are of great importance in interpreting music.
Clap the rhythms of the excerpts reflecting the influence of the tempo marks.
A note followed by a dot may substitute for two notes tied together. For
example, a dotted quarter-note is the equivalent of a quarter and an eighth tied
together, since the dot, representing half the value of the quarter, has the value of
an eighth-note.
Draw one note to equal these tied notes.
O- U- oj. >J* J.j- jjj.

Draw two notes to equal these dotted lines.
J- y j.- ... y-
(Appendix.)
Double-dotted notes are used less frequently than single-dotted ones. Dou-
ble dots elongate the note they follow by three-quarters of the original value of the
note: The first dot adds one-half the original value of the note; the second dot adds
one quarter of the original value of the note. If a quarter-note (J ) is worth one
beat, the dotted quarter-note (J) worth one and one-half beats, the double-
is
dotted quarter note (J- ) is worth one and three quarter beats.
52 USING NOTATION
• Fill in these equations:
J = 1 beat, j. -.
J = 2 beats, . L
beats, a o~
j.
. J! . Ji
(Appendix.)
When you use dotted notes, be sure to hold them out for their full value. If
composers do not want the extra length, they will use rests instead of the dots, as
Mozart did in "Eine Kleine Nachtmusik."
Clap and use rhythm syllables to show the differences in sound between these
examples using either dotted notes or rests.
. J J 'J>J ÎJTUJ * IJ »J>J i>\rm J * II
b . j. ju j>umj * ijl j>j. j>i/"mj * ii
,j j t
rm\} ?j>j 'j>u 'j>/7T3u - ii
~5 S3 \C~A- C\ 53
.
;
JU JH 1 J>JTT1 1
-
-4^1 * I J
# ? J71 I
z
r
•
-
z
*
0- Z »• z
J . '77. . 77. . 77. 77777. .
I Appendix.)
What new pitches are notated in the "Bassoon"?
• It you need help in playing the new notes, turn to Keyboard 13 or Recorder 8.
Listen to the sound of the bassoon playing its part in the ""Orchestra Song" (Tape
13). Then listen to it playing a more challenging composition. "
Triste" (Tape 16).
• Sing the Bassoon" part as you play the chord progression.
Review singing and or playing all the pans of the ""Orchestra Song." As you gain
confidence, involve other performers until you are one of six parts playing and
singing together. Have some musicians play the melody along with the singing.
Because the key is the same, the chord progression is the same, and the melodies
are compatible, these parts can be used together to create consonant polyphonic
harmony.
Listen to the instruments play these parts together (Tape 13). Notice that the
cadences in the ""Orchestra Song" are much more clearly defined when the instru-
ments play together.
African Noel
3 METER SIGNATURE, SYNCOPATION, TIES, REPEAT SIGNS,

DOUBLE BARS, F CHORD. CHANGING DYNAMICS AND TEMPOS
You have used all the notes in this melody. Review them to be sure you
remember them.
Although the "African Noel" uses a new meter signature, the principle for
using it is the same. How many beats are in each measure 1 What kind of
note sets one beat ?
54 USING NOTATION
An example of syncopation is found at the end of the third measure. Unex-

pectedly, the pattern of two eighth-notes followed by a quarter-note, established
in the first two measures, is broken when a fourth eighth-note is introduced at the
end of the third measure and then tied over into the fourth measure.
The result is that the second syllable of the word "Noel" begins on the last half of
the second beat in measure three instead of on the first beat of the fourth measure
as might be expected. This rhythmic emphasis in an unexpected place produces
syncopation, which is generally caused by a displacement of rhythm or meter.
How many examples of syncopation can you find in this piece? (Appendix.)
What do you call the curved lines in "African Noel"? These curved lines,
ties, are used to join together notes having the same pitch. When properly written,
they curve from one note head to the other. J_J
• Check the curved lines used in "African Noel." Do they all join notes of the same
pitch? How many ties can you find?
What composer have you read about in this text that used ties to make a note
longer than would fit into a measure?
How many beats should be given to the last "-el" of the "African Noel"?
• State the differences between the tie and the slur. What are the similarities?
• Count, clap, and use rhythm syllables with the following examples that use tied
notes:
Vivaldi, third movement of the

"Concerto in A Minor"
for Viola d'Amore
Wagner, first theme from the

overture to "Die Meistersinger"
USING NOTATION 55
Observe the repeat signs of the "African Noel." Not only is the first line
repeated; the second one is also. The repeat sign ||) at the end of the second line (
:
refers to the one at the beginning of the second line ). Notice that the dots inside ( ||
:
the repeated section are to the right of the double bar for the beginning of the
repeated section and to the left of the double bar for the end of the repeated
section. The dots are on the side of the double bar next to the material to be
repeated: ||
: :
|| When there is no initial repeat sign, as at the beginning of the
first line, it is understood that the repeat goes back to the beginning of the music.
Do not confuse the double bar
at the end of the piece with a repeat sign.
( || )
Double bars with no dots indicate the end of a piece or section. They do not
indicate repetition.
In what key is "African Noel?"
What chords are used to accompany it?
The chords for "African Noel" are the three most commonly used chords
for the key of C. Since the key is named "C," call the C chord Roman numeral I.
Count from C to F, with C as I, to find that the F chord is Roman numeral IV.
Count from C to G7, with C as I, to find that the G7 chord is Roman numeral V7.
Many pieces can be performed using only the I, IV, and V7 chords, although they
may not be in the same key. The idea of numbering chords is transferable from
one key to another.
Identify the chords to correspond to these numbers in the key of G. Be sure to

number the name of the key as I, then count through the alphabet to find the chord
name.
I chord
IV chord
V7 chord
(Appendix.)
As you analyze musical selections in the future, look at the relationships of

the chords you use. The I, IV, and V7 chords make up a family of often-used
chords. Keyboard players especially must look at the key to determine if the
chords are to be used in root or inverted positions.
• For help with the new chord, turn to Keyboard 14, Autoharp 5, or Guitar 5
• Play the chordal accompaniment as you sing the melody for "African Noel."
Many different dynamic levels are shown in this piece. Use them as you sing
and play the piece. Are you making an obvious difference between the various
dynamic levels?
Begin the "African Noel" andante. Accelerate until you are singing and playing
allegro at the beginning of the fourth line. At the end of the fourth line, ritard so
your tempo is andante by the end of the piece.
USING NOTATION
• Use drums or empty containers, such as cottage cheese holders, coffee cans with
plastic lids, or oatmeal boxes, to add percussion sounds to "African Noel." Use
patterns like these at first:
s nn i nn n n i i j < *
ji j i j j ijij i j j i
j j ij~jj u j ijij =11
• Make up your own patterns.
• Notate at least three original patterns here that you can play as percussion parts
for "African Noel."
Alphabet Song
RHYTHM CHANGES TO MATCH TEXT, ABA FORM, VARIATIONS
In what key is the "Alphabet Song?".
• Play the chord progression as it occurs in the piece.
• Count and clap the rhythm of the melody.
• Say the words in rhythm.
• Two sets of alternate words appear under the "Alphabet Song." Write the rhythm
as it must be adjusted to match the rhythm of each of these two sets of words.
• On a blank piece of staff paper, write the correct rhythm and the melody for one
set of these words. Be sure to write the words under the corrected notation.
• Play the melody.
• Sing the melody with chordal accompaniment.
The "Alphabet Song" is a clear example of ABA form.
• Bracket and label the three parts of the song.
• Find repeated patterns within one of the parts of the song.
• Compare the cadences for each phrase. Which cadence is the least definite?
(Appendix.)
Composers often use familiar songs as themes for elaborate compositions.

Mozart used the French song "Ah! Vous dirai-je, Maman" as the theme for one of
his piano compositions. Adolphe Adam borrowed the same theme and used it in a
USING NOTATION 57
brilliant series of variations for soprano. The form of this composition is theme
and variations.
Listen to Tape 17. Do you recognize the theme? How many times is it used? What
kinds of changes do you hear in the variations?
Assign different tempo and dynamic marks for versions of this song using three
different sets of words.
Play and sing the different versions of the song with classmates, family, and
friends, using not only the various expression marks you have chosen but also
different timbres for each version. For example, use only voices and guitars for
one version, autoharps and recorders for another version, piano only for another
version. For one version, consider adding the percussion instruments you need in
"African Noel." Create original rhythm patterns for them to play that are appro-
priate for the interpretation you have chosen for the "Alphabet Song."
Ten Little Indians
F SHARP, ABAC FORM
Rhythm:
Clap the rhythm of the first two measures. How many times can you find that
rhythm repeated in the piece?
Clap the rhythm pattern that is different.
Clap the rhythm of the entire piece.
Melody and Harmony:
The new note in "Ten Little Indians" is F-sharp. Because the piece is in the
key of G with the sharp (If) appearing on the F line, all F's are to be sung and
played one half step higher than the F without the sharp. This applies to low F's as
well as high F's, even though the sharp appears only on the top line in the key
signature.
Circle all the F-sharps in the melody to remind you where they are.
• If you do not know how to play an F-sharp, refer to Keyboard 15 or Recorder 9.
• Play the melody using the correct rhythm.

58 USING NOTATION
Form:
This piece is a good example of ABAC form.

• Label each of the phrases of "Ten Little Indians" with the appropriate letter to
show its form. How long is each phrase of the melody? What makes the last
cadence seem more final than the others? (Appendix.)
Tempo and Dynamics:

• Choose appropriate dynamic and tempo markings to show your interpretation of
this piece.
Timbre:
• Choose percussion sounds to add to the Indian atmosphere of this piece.
• Write two rhythm patterns here for the percussion instruments to play.
• Listen to Tape 21 to hear an authentic American Indian song performed with a

rattle.
SUMMARY
The purpose of Chapter 3 is to help you begin to use notation. You are developing
basic concepts necessary to get you started in music.
• Before you turn to Chapter 4, review the concepts and skills you have developed
so far by singing and playing these pieces. If they have ostinatos or ensemble
parts, practice the parts by yourself, then play and sing them with other
musicians.
"Auld Lang Syne" "Polly Wolly Doodle"
"Dance in a Circle" "Shroom Song"

"The Muffin Man"
Be sure you can answer these questions about each of the pieces:
What is the key of the piece?
What is the form?

USING NOTATION 59
How many different chords are used?
What is the meter signature?
(Appendix.)
• You should be able to anticipate sound by looking at notation. Identify these

excerpts:
60 USING NOTATION
MUSIC CHECK
You should be able to define, identify, and illustrate musically
KEY SIGNATURES OF G, C
SHARPS, FLATS
METER SIGNATURES OF C >
(f f J \
MEASURES
BAR-LINES
BEATS
RHYTHMIC AND MELODIC PATTERNS
PITCHES FROM MIDDLE C TO HIGH F IN THE TREBLE CLEF
CHORDS: G, D7, C, G7, F
DYNAMIC MARKINGS: F, MF
TEMPO MARKINGS: MODERATO, ALLEGRO, ACCELERANDO, RITARD,
ANDANTE
SEQUENCE
SYMBOLS FOR: J ? J
DOTTED AND DOUBLE-DOTTED NOTES
ANACRUSIS, UPBEAT, OR PICK-UP
ROUNDS
TIMBRE OF: FRENCH HORN, TIMPANI, CLARINET, TRUMPET, VIOLIN, BASSOON
PHRASES
CHORD PROGRESSION
CONCERTO
SLURS AND TIES
LEGATO/STACCATO
SYNCOPATION
REPEAT SIGNS
DOUBLE BARS
VARIETY OF FORMS
VARIATIONS
CHAPTER 4
METER
While it is important for you as a beginner to deal with written and intellectual
aspects of music, the most significant part of your learning should continue to be
making and listening to music. This chapter is intended to broaden your abilities
and increase your perception of musical qualities related to meter. Read the
materials, listen to the music recommended, and do the activities described.
Meter is the grouping of steady beats in sets of twos (duple meter) or threes
{triple meter) or combinations of twos and threes. The grouping is caused by
stress being given to certain beats on a regularly recurring basis:
I2i2i2J2
or
123123123
Music may be perceived with either regular or irregular metrical organiza-
tion. Most of the music used in this text has regular meter. Some music, however,
uses irregular meter, or changes meter so frequently that it is difficult to find the
meter, or uses expressive devices such as fermatas (holds), accelerandos (tempo
directions tobecome faster), and ritards (tempo directions to become slower) that
impede the regularity of the meter. Examples of music in which the meter is not
obvious are found on your tape: Gregorian chant (Tape 2), The Rite of Spring
(Tape 6), Trio in A Minor (Tape 18), Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (Tape 19),
Djamu the Dingo (Tape 22).
61
62 METER
Listen to them for contrast with the examples of regular meter described in the
remainder of this chapter.
By this you can probably tell the meaning of both numbers of the meter
time,
signature easily. Although there is no rule specifying which numbers can be used
for the top of the meter signature, in common practice the ones that appear most
often are 2, 3, 4, and 6. The pulsation of music, if it has a regular meter, can be
narrowed down even more: to either two or three, or to multiples of two or three.
Even though music will be written with a variety of top numbers in meter sig-
natures, and conductors will conduct the music using patterns related to those
numbers (shown in these diagrams), listeners often do not hear the differences
represented by the meter signatures or the conducting patterns. The differences
between two beats in a measure and four beats in a measure, or between a six and
two sets of three are not always obvious.
Conductor's
Patterns
1 1
1 1
2 3 4 6
• To feel duple meter, alternate a handclap with an arm-strike. (Strike your right
forearm with your left wrist.) This will give you a feeling of a strong beat alternat-
ing with a weak beat. It shows how the beats are grouped in sets of two.
As you find the grouping of beats in music, remember that the tempo of each
piece of music is unique; beats may be faster or slower depending upon the
characteristics of the music. The constant item in music with regular meter is the
steady repetition of the beat. A piece with duple meter enables you to clap/strike
evenly with no extra-long holding of the clap or strike to give it an uneven
movement.
• These pieces are examples of music with duple meter. Clap/strike evenly as you
listen to them. Count 1-2 as you clap/strike, assigning count 1 to ihe clap, or the
strongest beat.
Tape 4. "Ev'ry Valley"

Tape 7. "Country Gardens"
Tape 11. "Phantasiestucke"
• Change from duple to triple meter: Follow one clap with two strikes for a meter of
three. Count 7-2-3 evenly as you clap/strike/strike with emphasis on the first
count. Continue to count and clap as you listen to these pieces with a meter of
three.
METER 63
Tape 15. "Young People's Guide to the Orchestra"

Tape 16. "Triste"
Use Tape 4, 7, 11, 13, 15, 16, 20, and 23 with a variety of physical responses to
show their meter:
1. Stamp your foot for the first beat, clap your hands for the following beat or
beats.
2. Use a combination of other body percussion sounds such as thigh slapping

(sometimes called patschen) and finger clicking to show the strong and weak
beats.
3. Use nonpitched vocal sounds to show the strong and weak beats. Be sure
they are soft enough that you can still hear the music.
4. Move with the music using a large step to show the strong beat and a small
step(s) to show the weak beat(s).
5. Make note here of another way you devise to show strong and weak beats
with your body.
Use percussion instruments to show groupings of meter. Listen carefully to your

choices to be sure that the stronger instruments are used for the first beat. For
example, use a large hand drum for the first beat and a triangle for the weaker, or
secondary beat(s). If percussion instruments are not available to you, substitute
sound producers that are available either in your home or in your classroom. For
example, strike a large wastebasket for beat one; tap a pencil or pen for the
secondary beat(s). Produce these metrical patterns alone and in ensembles.
Write the names of instruments or other sound producers you use to make meters
of two and three in the tempos indicated.
In two In three
A. Allegretto C. Largamente
B. Lento D. Vivace
• Add pitch components to the instrumentation you have just created. Decide how many instrumentalists will
be needed for the ensembles you develop.
1. Add a piano improvisation on the black keys to A.
2. Add a vocal improvisation to C.
3. Use a recorder or barred percussion instrument with B and D.
Improvise on the instrument you have selected in a style that is compatible with the rest of the ensemble.
Select two pieces (one with a meter of two and one with a meter of three) that you
can sing or play on a melody instrument. (Pieces in four can be used, too, consid-
ering four as a form of duple meter, two plus two.) Add body sounds, percussion
64 METER
instruments, or other sound producers to these pieces to enhance their metric

organization as you sing the melody. Write the names of the pieces you have
chosen to arrange:
In two:
In three:
SIMPLE METER
So far, all the pieces you have sung and played in this text have been in simple
meter; their basic beat has been normally subdivided into two pulsations:
Quarter-notes have been assigned the beat; they have the potential of being
subdivided into two eighth-notes.
Half-notes have been assigned the beat; they have the potential of being
subdivided into two quarter-notes.
• Fill in the blanks to check your understanding of simple meter:
In 4 meter, the ^ note gets the beat and may be subdivided into _2_
J
In 5 meter, the note gets the beat and may be subdivided into
In £ meter, the note gets the beat and may be subdivided into
In iJ,
meter, the note gets the beat and may be subdivided into
(Appendix.)
Home on the Range

• Find the notation for "Home on the Range." There are two versions, the one you
need now is the one marked Andantino with a meter signature of I. It is an
example of simple meter.
• Chant the words as you clap/strike the triple meter.
• Sing or play the melody. You have not previously used the key of F in this text.
All B's must be flatted.
• Recorder players should consult Recorder 10 for help with note fingering.
METER 65
The Wild Colonial Boy

Rhythm:
For the first time in this text, you will analyze a song whose meter signature
uses an eight for the bottom number. This means that the eighth-note gets one
beat. When this happens, the quarter-note gets beats, the dotted quarter-
note gets beats, the dotted half-note gets beats, the half-note gets
beats. How many beats are in each measure? (Appendix.)
Clap the rhythm of "The Wild Colonial Boy" as you count six beats in each
measure.
Use rhythm syllables to say the rhythm of the melody.
Say the words as you clap the melodic rhythm.
Clap and count, these examples in
mm
i:
8 i j ju i jtj j J>i j. ii
8 J J>J J> I m J J> I JT3 J J 1

1 J. II
8 j }jn i j j>jtj imj jhj. h ii
8 J i J » I J. J. I J i J i I J.
•
J. I
8 J>i J>J>* J> I J. *• IJ" )^ J>IJ. II
Apply rhythm syllables to the examples above.
Write six beats in their proper places in each measure for this excerpt from
Offenbach's "Barcarolle" in Act II of Tales of Hoffman.
Count and clap the rhythm. Match the rhythm of "Barcarolle" with one of the
rhythm examples above.
66 METER
Melody:
"The Wild Colonial Boy" is in the key of D.
• Name the two sharps in the key of D.
• Before you play the melody, turn to Keyboard 16 or Recorder 11 for help in finding C-sharps. Be sure to
play sharps for all F's and C's, not just the ones on the sharped line or space of the key signature.
cf
• Sing the melody.
Harmony:
• Name the chords used in the chord progression for "The Wild Colonial Boy."
• Turn to Autoharp 6, Keyboard 17, or Guitar 6 for help with the new chords.
• Practice the chord progression D-G-A7-D, giving eight beats to each chord, then four beats, then two
beats. As soon as you can change chords and keep a steady beat, sing the melody with the chords
changing in the appropriate places to accompany the melody.
Form:
• Compare the song's phrases to determine its form. Label the phrases with letters
to show the form. (Appendix.)
Tempo:
• Practice "The Wild Colonial Boy" until you can sing or play it allegro.
Dynamics:
• Vary the dynamics according to your interpretation of the the words in the differ-
ent verses.
• Complete this diagram to help you confirm your understanding of note rela-
tionships in £ time when counted with six beats in a measure:

METER 67
Note Value in 8 time
..
J)
(Appendix.)
COMPOUND METER
Compound meter occurs when the beat is subdivided into three equal parts. The
following examples show a 6 as the top part of the meter signature, but the
pulsation of the listener's response will be as if it were a 2. "The Wild Horseman"
by Schumann shows a clear pattern of two sets of three eighth-notes making up a
measure counted in two. It is not counted in six because the rapid tempo of the
piece makes it too unwieldy to try.
• Write the two beats per measure under the notation above. (Appendix.)
The following illustrations of compound meter are all from "Semper

Fidelis" by Sousa (Tape 8).
68 METER
First Theme
Second Theme
Third Theme
Fourth Theme
• Write six beats in the proper places in each measure as if it would be counted in
six rather than two.
• Count and clap the themes slowly with six beats in each measure.
• Listen to Tape 8, trying to count six beats in each measure. You will find that the
music is too fast to count that way.
• Without referring to the notation, try to find a pulsation of two beats. It is much
easier to respond to the feeling of two than it is to try to respond in six.
• Under the six beats you have already written, write two beats for each measure.
In doing this, note that there will be three eighth-notes for each beat. This is a
good example of compound time. (Appendix.)
• Listen to Tape 8 again, responding to the pulsation of two, and try to locate each
of the four themes shown above.
Compound time occurs with meter signatures other than |, also. In this
example in S, the quarter-note is indicated as the note to get the beat, but because
of the feeling of the meter, each of the two beats/measure will be given to a dotted
half-note.
"Liebestraum"
Liszt
METER 69
"Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring" by Bach is in compound time. How many

beats are there in each measure?
The "Pastoral Symphony" from The Messiah by Handel is in compound

time. How many beats are there in each measure?
(Appendix.)
Decisions on whether the composition is to be counted and conducted in
simple or compound meter are based on the feeling of the rhythmic pulsation, the
performance style, and to a large extent, on the tempo.
• Complete this diagram to help you confirm your understanding of note rela-
tionships when a & piece is counted with two beats in a measure. The *• gets one
beat.
Notes Value in § counting two beats in a measure
J.
J J>
m
m
(Appendix.)
70 METER
Home on the Range

• Find your copy of "Home on the Range" with a meter signature oft
The rhythm of this version of "Home on the Range" looks different from the
version you used in |. The tempo is different, also. Pieces written in different ways
reflect differing interpretations. In the § version, the tempo is faster; the rhythmic
feeling will be in two, with beat one receiving greater stress than beat two.
• On your copy of "Home on the Range" in

£, numbers 1-6 in their appropri-
write
ate places in the measure as if the piece were marked Largo. (Appendix.)
• Play or sing it as though the conductor were using the conductor's pattern of six in
a slow tempo with primary emphasis on beat one, and less emphasis on beat four.
• Under your counts in six, write counts 1 and 2 as though the conductor were
tempo with only two beats in a measure. (Appendix.)
leading a fast
• Play or sing "Home on the Range" quickly with the feeling of only two beats in
the measure.

• Sing or play "The Wild Colonial Boy" in compound meter using a faster tempo
than you did previously.
• Add pitched percussion or recorder parts to the melody.
The Cuckoo
The meter signature of this piece tells you there are beats in each
measure and the note gets one beat.
• Say the words in rhythm as you clap/strike the meter of the piece. Be sure to clap
on the first beat of the measure. When you reach the beginning of the fourth line,
you see three fermatas over the notes. The fermata tells you to hold the note
longer than usual. Use your discretion to determine how long you want to hold the
note under each fermata.
Beethoven uses fermatas at the beginning of the first movement of his Fifth
Symphony.
Allegro con brio

METER 71
Listening to several conductors' interpretations of Beethoven's Fifth is likely to

show that notes under the fermata are held for varying lengths of time depending
upon the individual's interpretation.
Say the words for "The Cuckoo" aloud, in rhythm, as you tap the rhythm.
Tap the rhythm as you say the words to yourself.
The key signature for this piece is one you have used before. The single
sharp in the key signature is Do you remember the name of the key with
one sharp?
• Play the melody on either the recorder or the piano. The numbers over the notes of the piece tell you which
piano fingers to use to make it easier to play. Use the recorder fingering chart (Recorder 12) if you need to
find new notes. Be especially sure to play the F-sharp accurately.
• Play the chords for "The Cuckoo" on your harmony instrument.
• Sing the melody as you accompany yourself on your harmony instrument.
• Change the style of your harmonic accompaniment. On the first beat of every measure play the lowest note
of your chord alone. Play the rest of the chord on your second and third beats. This will give you an "oom-
pa-pa" effect.
Play or sing this piece using three different dynamics. Write the dynamic marking
you prefer here Do you like playing it with the same dynamics throughout?
Select an appropriate tempo marking for this music. Write what you have chosen
here:
The Frogs
What is the key of this piece?
What does its meter signature tell you?

What kind of rests are used in this piece?
In the sixth measure of "The Frogs, a number 3 is written under the first
three notes of the measure: —

3
—
3
(In another piece you may find the 3 written
above the notes or with a slur: f f * The meaning is the same.) It tells you
that the three notesform a triplet. They receive the amount of time usually given
to two notes. Without the triplet sign, only two eighth-notes would be used for
that beat. The triplet makes each of these three eighth-notes shorter than they
would normally be.
The triplet does not change the meter from simple to compound; it only
changes parts of the rhythm in simple meter.
• Say the words to "The Frogs" in rhythm, keeping a steady beat.
• Play or sing the whole piece.
• Write the tempo and dynamics you prefer on your music.
• Clap and count the rhythm of these examples:
"March" from Aida

1
Verdi
3
* r 1
ft)
"Coronation March" from

Le Prophete
Meverbeer 3
A , 3 -
ft)
• Use rhythm syllables with them. Say "tri-ple-ti" for the triplet.
Over the River and Through the Wood

• Before singing or playing this piece, review the meaning of the meter signature
with an eight on the bottom for a piece that is performed slowly. For the slow
piece there will be beats in a measure. The note will get one
beat. Fill in the blanks in this chart.
Kind of note Number of beats when / gets the beat
T~
';_}
j
_i
j. j
(Appendix.)
• Chant and clap the words and rhythm of "Over the River and Through the Wood"
as if it were to be performed slowly. Then chant and clap it reflecting the tempo
marking of Allegro.
This piece sounds better in compound time (counted in two rather than six).
METER 73
• Fill in the blanks of this chart for compound meter:
Notes Number of beats when § is counted

with two bea ts in a measure
m
j j>
j.
(Appendix.)
What does the key signature for "Over the River and Through the Wood"
tell you?
• What is the song's form? (Appendix.)
• Play and sing the melody.
• Add chords to accompany the melody.
• Use . «hj J~> with the chordal accompaniment to heighten the sense of traveling in a horse-drawn sleigh.
SONG ANALYSIS
From now on, you will be expected to be independent in analyzing the musical
material you play and sing. Make a habit of asking yourself the same kind of
questions this book has posed for you about the pieces. To help you with system-
atic analysis, use the Music Analysis Sheet (MAS) from the Appendix. It lists
appropriate considerations for you. Along with the MAS is a Music Analysis
Sheet Elaboration to help you learn how to use the sheet. This text will continue
to point out new or unusual features of the songs. In addition to responding to the
fill out a Music Analysis Sheet (MAS) for each
specific questions raised in the text,
new For your convenience, duplicate a number of the sheets from the form
piece.
in the Appendix. As you become skilled in musicianship and thorough in your
approach to music, your practiced routine of looking carefully at all aspects of the
composition should eventually free you of the necessity of continuously writing
this information. Use the MAS until you have your routine memorized.
Use the MAS from the Appendix to help you play and or sing these songs. Be
especially perceptive of the metrical analysis of each piece.
El Jarabe
Watch the sharps. In addition to the accidentals written in the melodic line,
be sure to play sing the sharps indicated by the key signature.
A problem that may arise as you continue to piay the recorder is that pieces may use notes below the
range of the instrument. Oo not let this limitation affect your choice of materials. Rather than avoid a piece
if it has notes lower than your recorder can play, consider alternatives such as these suggested for El
Jarabe.
Find the one place where a note lower than the recorder range appears in the metody. If you are not sure
what the lowest recorder note is. check the fingering chart in Recorder 12. Look at the notation for the
soprano recorder (appearing above the fingering diagrams), not for the alto recorder (which appears below
the diagrams).
Among the options you have for taking care of this problem are:
1 . Play the melody or another instrument, such as the keyboard.
2. Play it on the recorder, but sing or leave out the note that is too low.
3. Play the first five notes of the second phrase an octave higher.
4. Transpose it to a higher key. Since the low note is only a half step below the range of the recorder,
piay everything one half step higher. This puts the piece in the key of A flat with the starting pitch on
E-flat. In order to transpose it still higher, play all the notes of the piece one whole step higher. The
transposition done this way puts you in the key of A with the starting pitch on E. Transposition is
difficult, but not impossible. It requires the harmonizing chords to be transposed as well. This
fourth alternative is not the best solution here, but may be the best solution for pieces that are easier
to transpose.
Returning to El Jarabe" as written, the last four phrases seem to be in a different key than the first four
phrases. Play the A7 and D chords as if you are in the key of D for the last four phrases, then return to the
key of G for the Da Capo al Fine.
The DC al fine (fee-nay) at the end of the notation stands for the Italian "Da
Capo al Fine."* It means: Go back to the beginning: the piece is not finished. Play
until Fine, the end.
METER 75
There is one slur in the piece. To review, depending on your performance

medium, the slur tells you to
1. Sing one word or syllable with more than one note.

2. Play smoothly from one note to the next on the keyboard.
3. Tongue only the note at the beginning of the slur on the recorder.
• Use this rhythm with your chordal accompaniment for "El Jarabe":
Summer Is A-coming In
This song dates from the thirteenth century. What sharps does it require?
How many ties can you find in "Summer is A-coming In"? How
many slurs are there?
Play or sing this piece with attention to the meter signature and the tempo
marking.
Yankee Doodle
Although the meter signature of "Yankee Doodle" is \, the notation appears
the same as if it had a % signature. In Allegro, \ indicates that the piece should be
performed with a brisk tempo and a strong feeling of two beats in a measure.
What kind of note gets one beat?

What kind of note gets half a beat?
What kind of note gets three quarters of a beat?
Write two beats per measure in their appropriate places under each measure of
"Yankee Doodle." (Appendix.)
• Use this rhythm with your chordal accompaniment of the verse: J J Switch to J ^for the chorus. Play your
chordal accompaniment with a different rhythm of your own choosing.
Yellow Rose of Texas

Sometimes ^ appears in the meter signature instead of 5. The meaning is the
same. How many beats are in a measure of this piece? What kind of note
gets one beat? What kind of note gets half a beat? What kind of note
gets three quarters of a beat? What kind of note gets one and a half beats?
What kind of note gets one quarter of a beat? What kind of note gets
three eighths of a beat? (Appendix.)
• Tap the rhythms of these examples:

First theme, "Overture" to the
Marriage ol Figaro, Mozart
Three kinds of dotted notes appear in the "Yellow Rose of Texas": J )

- J- J-
To help you perceive their length, review the rule you used previously telling you
how long to hold a dotted note. Then, draw the correct dotted note next to the tied
note it matches.
•L> JL> LJ-

(Appendix.)
• Clap the rhythm of the melody.
• Sing the melody of the "Yellow Rose of Texas."

• Accompany yourself on a chordal instrument.
Bela Bimba
• Name the sharps in the key signature.
• Say the rhythm of the piece using rhythm syllables.
• Play the accompaniment with a single chord note on beat one and at least two chord notes on beats two
and three.
Shoo, Fly
Syncopated passages are often caused by a combination of a short note on the

accented beat followed by a long note on the unaccented beat. The combination of the
eighth-note and the quarter-note with the words "shoo, fly" illustrates this type of
syncopation.
METER 77
• Circle all the syncopations in this piece.
What is the meaning of D.C. al Fine?

What is the ending word of "Shoo, Fly"? (Appendix.)
When you play and sing "Shoo, Fly," be sure to put extra emphasis on beat
one of each measure. Playing chords on beat one only will help make a strong first
beat.
This Train
• Circle syncopated passages in this melody before you play it.
• Find accidentals in the melody. These flats alter the tonality of the piece. They are
often called "blue notes." When you hear reference to the "blues" or a "blues
singer," it is probably because of the altered tonality associated with Afro- Ameri-
can music, particularly jazz. In this piece, the blue notes occur on the third and
seventh steps of the scale.
How long should the dotted quarter-note tied to the quarter-note be

held? What is the difference between the tie and the slur? (Appendix.)
SUMMARY
Many pieces of music use duple or triple metrical groupings. Approaching meter
from a purely intellecutal perspective will probably not give you the sensation of
meter. Review the songs in this chapter. As you play and sing them, do you feel
the groupings? Whether clapping their rhythms or singing or playing them, stress
the first beat of the measure. Contrast these regular meters with the irregular
feeling of selections on your tape (2, 6, 18, 19, 22).
• Devise an arrangement for at least two songs using nonpitched percussion instru-
ments to emphasize their metric grouping.
78 METER
MUSIC CHECK
METER SIMPLE METER
METER SIGNATURE COMPOUND METER

SU§1<K FERMATA
NOTE VALUES IN DIFFERENT METERS TRIPLET
CONDUCTOR'S PATTERNS D C. AL FINE
PATSCHEN SLUR/TIE
TEMPO INDICATORS SYNCOPATION
ALLEGRETTO, LARGAMENTE, LENTO, VIVACE BLUE NOTES
DOTTED NOTES IN DIFFERENT METERS

CHAPTER 5
THE KEYBOARD
Whether or not you intend to use the keyboard as a performing medium, it can be
a helpful tool to further your understanding of theoretical concepts related to
music. The keyboard is especially useful because it gives visual reinforcement of
aural concepts. It also gives tactile reinforcement of musical concepts and pro-
vides attractive ways for the beginning music student to create. Even if you have
chosen to play chordal accompaniments on autoharp or guitar, be sure to use the
keyboard to help you understand selected concepts identified in this chapter. The
keyboard you hear the sounds described, see the organization of whole-
will help
and half-steps in scales and chords, and feel spatial relationships.

There will be times when you cannot be at a real keyboard. For those
occasions, pictures of the keyboard have been provided in the Appendix. One is a
plain keyboard; the other shows the names of notes. Use this aid only when you
cannot be at a real keyboard. Its limitation is the absence of sound to reinforce the
musical concepts presented.
NOTE NAMES AND LOCATIONS

Notice that the black keys are grouped in alternating sets of twos and threes. The
pattern of two and three black keys sets helps to locate note names on the keyboard.
Find the set of two black keys nearest the middle of the keyboard. The white key to
79
80 THE KEYBOARD
the left of this set is called middle C. The white key to the left of any black set of two
on the keyboard is always C.
Middle C is shown on the keyboard picture above.
• Write C on all the other appropriate keys in that picture.
• Play all the Cs on the keyboard you use for practice. Many keyboards available
for student use today are smaller than the traditional keyboard with 88 keys. No
matter what the size of the keyboard, C will always appear to the left of the black
key set of two.
The white keys to the left of the three black key sets are F's.
• Label all the F's on this keyboard.
• Play all the F's on your keyboard.
Since you already know that musical pitches are named by letter names from A
to G, and that they follow each other either forward or backward, you should be able
to figure out the names of all the keys on the piano. (Try to label them with no help. If
you need to check, use the keyboard picture in the appendix with the names written
on the keys.)
• Label all the D's on this keyboard.

Play all the D's on your practice keyboard.
Label all the G's on this keyboard.
Play all the G's on your practice keyboard.
Label all the E's and F's on this keyboard.
Play all the E's and F's on your practice keyboard.
Label all the A's and B's on this keyboard.
Play all the A's and B's on your practice keyboard.
Label and play the notes indicated on this keyboard.
t t t t t
82 THE KEYBOARD
OCTAVES
When you played all the notes having a common name on the keyboard, you were
playing octaves. Beginning at the bottom of your keyboard, play the lowest D, the
next highest one, and so on. You are playing successively higher octaves. The
word octave is derived from octa, or "eight." If you count the bottom D as
number one, then count each of the note names up to and including the next
highest D, that note will be number eight, or an octave higher than the first D.
SHARPS AND FLATS

In learning note names on the keyboard so far, you have played only white keys.
Black keys are often used. They may be indicated by flat (t) or sharp (jt) signs. The
black key directly to the right of middle C is called C -sharp. It sounds a half a step higher
than C. (Another name for half-step is semitone.)
• Label the rest of the C-sharps.
• Find all the C-sharps on your keyboard. They will be in octaves, or eight notes
apart.
• After you have played the C-sharps alone, then play all the C to C-sharp combina-
tions on the keyboard, listening for the half-step difference in pitch going up.
• Label all the F-sharps on this keyboard.

THE KEYBOARD 83
(If you are not sure, refer to the keyboard picture in the Appendix.)
• Play all the F-sharps on your keyboard.
• Play all the F to F-sharp combinations listening to the half-step difference in pitch.
• Label all the black-note sharps on this keyboard.
As you play all the black keys on your keyboard, say their sharp names aloud.
A black key may also be named in relation to the white key on its right; then
it is called a flat (l>). This note is D-flat. It sounds a half-step lower than D.
uu l| UN uuu
D
• Play all the D-flats on your practice keyboard.
• After you have played the D-flats alone, then play all the D to D-flat combinations,
listening for the half-step difference in pitch going down.
• Label all the black-note flats on this keyboard.
• As you play all the black keys on your keyboard, say their flat names aloud.
ENHARMONIC SPELLING
You are probably aware that the note you played and called D-flat was called C-
sharp earlier. Two different names for the same key are called enharmonic spell-
ings.C-sharp is to the right of C and D-flat is to the left of D, but the key you play
on the keyboard for both of them is the same.
84 THE KEYBOARD
• Write two names for each black key on the keyboard pictured here.
HALF-STEPS (SEMITONES)
Play C, then C-sharp. The difference in sound between the two notes is half a step,
the space on the keyboard between two adjacent keys. The C-sharp sounds a half-
step higher than C. Play D, then D-flat. The difference in sound is a half-step. The
D-flat sounds a half-step lower than D.
Play D to D-sharp. Listen carefully to get the half-step sound in your ear. Play D
to D-flat. Notice that the sound of D to D-sharp is a half-step going up. The sound
of D to D-flat is a half-step going down.
Play F to F-sharp, then G to G-flat. Listen to the sound of half-step going up,
then a half-step going down.
• With the same aural attention, play G to G-sharp, A to A-flat, A to A-sharp, B to

B-flat.
All the sharps and flats you have been playing are from white to black keys.
Sharps and flats can also be from white to white keys. Notice on your keyboard
there is no black key between E and F. In order to have an E-sharp, it is necessary
to use F as the note one half-step above E. Although this does not happen a great
deal, learn it now, so you are accurate even in its infrequent use.
• Label all the E-sharps on this keyboard.
• Play all the E to E-sharp combinations on your keyboard. As you play them, listen
to the half-step sound from E to E-sharp.
Just as F is used for E-sharp, E is used for F-flat.

THE KEYBOARD 85
• Label all the F-flats on this keyboard.
• Play all the F-flats on your keyboard. Listen to the sound of the half-step as you
play from F to F-flat.
• Find other places on the keyboard where white keys must be used for flats and
sharps.
• Label all the B-sharps on this keyboard.
Play all the B's followed by B-sharps, listening for the half-step sound.
Label all the C-flats on this keyboard.
Play all the C's followed by C-flats, listening for the half-step sound.
CHROMATIC SCALE
A scale is a series of musical pitches in ascending or descending order. If you play
all the half-steps on your keyboard consecutively, you will play a chromatic scale.
• Play the chromatic scale and listen for the sounds of the half-steps.
• Find and listen to a recording of Rimsky-Korsakov's "Flight of the Bumblebee."

Its melody uses chromatics extensively. Find recordings in libraries (public,
school, or friend's) and record shops. Purchases of attractive recordings for your
own continuous use are long-term investments for your listening enjoyment.
THE KEYBOARD
• Play the chromatic scale again, then write it on the staff beginning with middle C.
As you write the ascending notes, mark all the names of the black keys as sharps
(d). As you write the descending notes, mark all the names of the black keys as
flats 0>). Even though you call the notes by the letter name followed by the flat or
sharp (A-sharp, E-flat, and so on), when writing music, write the flat or sharp sign
in front of the note (I* If).
• Continue writing this upward chromatic scale for one octave only. (Appendix.)
1^
• Play the chromatic scale until your ear can identify its unique sound.
• Continue writing this downward scale for one octave only. (Appendix.)
• Play the downward chromatic scale until your ear can identify its sound.
This example shows how Liszt used a chromatic scale in his first theme from
the "Grand Galop Chromatique" for piano.
• Write a one octave chromatic scale going up, then down, beginning on G.
(Appendix.)
• Begin this chromatic scale on E. (Appendix.)
WHOLE STEPS (WHOLE-TONES)

Music frequently uses whole steps (whole-tones) as well as half-steps (semitones).
Whole steps are composed of two half-steps. To determine a whole step, be sure
there is one key between two adjacent keys. For example, from C to D is a whole
THE KEYBOARD 87
step because C-sharp (D-flat) is between them. From E to F is not a whole step
because there is no key between them.
On the keyboard picture below, identify the spaces between the marked notes as
being either whole steps (W) or half-steps (H) As you figure out what they are,
play them on your keyboard, listening to their different sounds.
b b 'b b U
(Appendix.)
All the whole steps you have identified so far have been from white key to
white key. Whole steps can also be from black key to black key, such as from F-
sharp to G-sharp. They will be whole steps as long as there is a key between them.
In this case, the key between them is G.
Label the whole and half steps in the picture below. (Appendix.)
u
1 '
b b b b b
Play the whole and half steps, listening for their differences.
Whole steps can also occur between a white key and a black key. A whole
step up from E is F-sharp. The key between them is F.
Label the whole and half steps in the picture below. Play them, listening for their
differences. (Appendix.)
b b
88 THE KEYBOARD
In summary:
Half-steps can occur between a white key and a black key. a black key and a
white key. or a white key and a white key. A half-step is present if there is no
key between the two named keys.
Whole steps can occur between a white key and a white key. a black key and
a black key. a white key and a black key. or a black key and a white key.
One key must be present between the notes of the whole step.
• Review whole steps and half-steps by labeling the intervals (spaces between the
notes) in this picture either with a W (whole) or H (half) and listening for their
differences as you play them. (Appendix.)
WHOLE-TONE SCALE
A contrast to the chromatic scale (which uses all half-steps) is the whole-tone
scale (which uses all whole steps.)
• Finish writing this whole-tone scale. Be sure to end with the same key you started
on. only an octave higher.
How many notes are in a whole-tone scale? (Appendix.)
• Play the whole-tone scale. Listen to it as you play to help your ear identify it.
• Finish writing these whole-tone scales. It may be easier for you to write them if
you play as you write. Be sure to play them after you have finished writing. Keep
the same accidentals you start with: i.e.. if you use a sharp or a flat in the scale,
continue to use the same sign. Don"t mix sharps and flats in the same scale.
THE KEYBOARD 89
(Appendix.)
• Listen to the Debussy Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (Tape 19). One of the
factors contributing to this composer's originality is his use of pentatonic, chro-
matic, and whole-tone scales.
ACCIDENTALS
In addition to flat or sharp signs, the following signs can be used to alter notes:
natural fl), double flat (t^), double sharp («). All these accidental signs affect notes
of the same pitch within the same measure, but not notes of the same name in
different octaves.
If a flat or sharp has been used in a piece but subsequently is not needed, the
note can be returned to its original condition by canceling the flat or sharp through
the use of a natural sign ft). This example shows the natural sign being used after a
note that had been sharped. The natural indicates that the note following it will be
an F instead of an F-sharp as it was at the beginning of the measure.
This example shows the natural sign being used after a flat. The natural
indicates that the note following it will be a B instead of a B-flat as itwas at the
beginning of the measure.
Because the natural sign removes flats and sharps, it can alter a pitch by
indicating it is to be a half-step higher or lower than it was previously. Notice in
this illustration that the effect of the natural on the G-sharp is to lower it one half-
step, the effect of the natural on the A-flat is to raise it one half-step.
THE KEYBOARD
A natural sign can also cancel a sharp or flat indicated in the key signature.
Because this key signature says that the B is to be flatted, it will be played that
way unless the natural is inserted in the notation. The effect of the natural on the
key signature is only for one measure. If the effect of the natural is desired for
more than one measure, it must be inserted in all measures where needed.
This example ("Fur Elise," Beethoven) shows the insertion of the sharp in two
different measures, then the cancellation of the sharp by use of the natural.
The natural sign is used in a key signature only when there is a change of
key. The use of the natural then is a reminder that the flats or sharps of the
previous key signature have been superseded by the new key signature.
A (bb) lowers a pitch one whole step; a double sharp (*) raises it a
double flat
whole These signs are used infrequently. Both the double flat and the double
step.
sharp can be canceled by a natural.
• Name these notes.
(Appendix.)
Sharps, flats, naturals, double flats, or double sharps used within the nota-
tion of a piece of music are called accidentals. This term does not apply to the
signs when they are used in a key signature.
• Write and play these notes in the treble clef:
Gjt Db AX Cbb F Bjt Eb Gbb D(t Ab C$ GX

THE KEYBOARD 91
Write and play these notes in the bass clef:
Cb AX D$ Ebb A* Bb Cf Ab Gtb Cx Db Ff
• Label these notes on the keyboard picture below:
Bbb FX Dtt Cb All Fbb Ejt
MUSIC CHECK
NOTES ON THE KEYBOARD ACCIDENTALS
HALF AND WHOLE STEPS SHARPS

SEMITONES AND WHOLE-TONES FLATS
SCALES NATURALS
CHROMATIC DOUBLE FLATS
WHOLE-TONE DOUBLE SHARPS
ENHARMONIC SPELLINGS
CHAPTER 6
MAJOR SCALES
AND KEY SIGNATURES
This chapter deals with tetrachords and major scales (how to build them, their use
in selected pieces) and key signatures (their formation, ways to name them, order
of sharps and flats).
Scales are arrangements of pitches with predetermined relationships to each

other, into ascending or descending order. You have used chromatic and whole-
tone scales. The arrangement of the component pitches of the chromatic scale
sharply contrasts with the arrangement of the whole-tone scale pitches. The major
scale that you are about to study provides another contrasting arrangement of
pitches. Once you become familiar with the arrangement of pitches in any given
scale, that familiarity will help guide you to recognize correct pitches of melodies
based upon the scale. This recognition of appropriate pitches within the context
set up by the scale transfers to melodies that are not arranged in the order of the
scale. The scale summarizes tonal relationships within given keys.
MAJOR SCALES
The major scale is used much more frequently than the chromatic and the whole-
tone scales. It incorporates both whole and half steps. As an introduction to the
major scale, put both hands on the keyboard with the shortest finger of each hand
on C's an octave apart.
92
MAJOR SCALES AND KEY SIGNATURES 93
No thumbs
In order to play the major scale now, do not use your thumbs. Play four con-
secutive notes with your hand beginning with the little finger, then four con-
left
secutive notes with your right hand beginning with the forefinger. After you have
played the C major scale up, reverse the use of your fingers, and play the C major
scale down.
You have just played a tetrachord with each hand. Tetra means "four"; you
played four notes with each hand.
You can play every major scale by combining two tetrachords in this way,
but C is the only major scale using no black keys. The problem in other major
scales is the correct placement of the black keys. Remember that there will be a
whole step between all your fingers except those marked in this picture. Each
hand will put one half-step in place in the scale. Each hand plays that half-step
between the third and fourth notes of its tetrachord.
tetrachord tetrachord
L.H. No thumbs R.H.
• Put your on an F. Begin playing up the scale with white keys under
left little finger
your first three fingers. To

put a half-step next, you must use a black key, B-flat.
Play it with your left forefinger. The next note, C, a whole step away, is played
with your right forefinger. Continue with your right hand playing up the scale. You
will notneed another black key because there is already a half-step between E and
F on the keyboard (the third and fourth notes of this tetrachord.) Practice playing
the F major scale with four fingers of each hand until it is comfortable to play and
easy to find. For consistency in playing the two tetrachords of a major scale, do
not use your thumbs. Pianists, practicing to gain skill in playing scales, use many
fingerings that include the use of the thumb and fingers crossing over or under
each other. Since the purpose here of play ing scales is to determine the location of
the half-steps in the tetrachords of major scales and not to develop play ing skill,
be consistent in using four fingers only to develop the concept of tetrachord major
scale building.
Notice that the sound of the third tone of the scale is pulled by the half-step
into the fourth tone. The same pull is felt by the seventh tone toward the eighth
tone of the scale. The third and seventh tones lead into the fourth and eighth tones
of the major scale. When one puts two tetrachords together to form a major scale,
it becomes evident that the major scale has a half-step between the third and
fourth and seventh and eighth degrees of the scale. All other steps of the major
scale are whole ones. This is true of every major scale.
• Listen carefully as you play to help your ear learn to identify the major scale.
• This is what the F major scale y ou have been playing looks like when notated.
shows the half steps
• Put your left finger on G. Figure out by sight and sound how to play the
hand little
G major you can play it easily finish writing it. Check to be sure that
scale. After ,
half steps are between steps three and four and steps seven and eight of the scale
and that all other steps of the scale are whole ones. When writing major scales, be
sure that all note names are used once, except for the key name (used at the
beginning and the end), and that only fiats or sharps are used in one scale. They
cannot be mixed.
i
Appendix.)
• The D scale has two sharps. Begin playing it with your left little finger on D. After
you are satisfied with the sound, finish writing it.
SINGING MAJOR SCALES

Do not rely solely on the keyboard to help you with the sight and sound of music.
Practice singing the scales in several different ways. At first you may want to play
as you sing to give you confidence. As soon as you can, try singing without
playing the notes on the keyboard.
• Sing the C major scale as you play it. First sing the numbers of the scale tones,
then the syllables.
•
CDEFGAB
do
1
re
Sing the letter names of the

mi
3
fa
C major
so
5
la
scale.
ti
7
do
C
8
Notice that (as with the songs pre-

viously introduced using numbers and solfege) as you sing different scales, the
numbers and syllables remain the same, but the letter names must be changed
according to the scale you are singing.
• Sing both the F and G major scale using numbers, syllables, and letter names.
(Appendix.)
The syllables and numbers retain the same relationship as in the scale, even
when they are used in a melody with different order or in a different major key.
• Sing the following melodies using numbers, syllables, and letter names. Note that
the first piece is in the key of C and the second is in the key of G.
MAJOR SCALES AND KEY SIGNATURES
• Sing "Row, Row, Row Your Boat" using numbers, syllables, and letter names by
ear. It starts on "1," "do," or "C."
Scales sometimes begin on black keys. In building these major scales begin-
ning on black keys, follow the same procedure as when building major scales
starting on white keys. Use four fingers of each hand. Be sure there are half steps
only between the top two notes of both tetrachords. Another way of saying this
important rule: Half-steps will occur between the third and fourth degrees and
between the seventh and eighth degrees of the major scale. Be sure that either
flats or sharps are used when writing a major scale. Both are not used in the same
major scale.
• After drawing a treble clef sign, begin writing a scale using flats by drawing a flat in
front of the B note in the space under the first ledger line below the treble staff.
Continue to write the correct notes of the B-flat major scale as you play it. Listen
to the sounds of the individual pitches, determining their relationship to the accu-
rate total sound of the scale.
• Sing the B-flat major scale using numbers, syllables, and letter names.
(Appendix.)
So far, you have played, sung, and written scales in the treble clef. When
you sang them, you may not have sung the pitches exactly where they are written.
For example, a man singing an F scale written in the treble clef may not be able to
sing it in his normal voice. He may have to sing the scale an octave, or perhaps
two octaves, lower than written. Changing octaves to suit your individual voice is
generally recommended, but also strive to stretch your vocal capability to avoid
being a lazy singer. Both women and men often erroneously think they cannot
sing high pitches. In fact, they may only need practice to expand their ranges.
Men should experiment with singing in falsetto to develop additional range capaci-
ty. (Further discussion of vocal techniques and capabilities appears in the Voice
section of the Appendix.) Even though the following scales are to be written in the
bass clef, sing them in the range most comfortable for you.
• Using the tetrachord approach, write and play these major scales in the bass clef.
Also sing them using syllables, numbers, and letter names. Use flats when black
keys are needed for the first three scales. Use A to show the placement of the half-
steps in the scales.
Eb scale
Ab scale
Db scale
• Use sharps when black keys are needed for these scales.
A scale
E scale
B scale
(Appendix.)
98 MAJOR SCALES AND KEY SIGNATURES
Lullaby Round
Melody:
Some music uses complete major scales for melodic lines. "Lullaby Round"
uses
1. a complete descending C major scale (with some repeated notes).

2. an incomplete descending C major scale (with some repeated notes).
3. an incomplete ascending C major scale.

• Find and label each of these scales and parts of scales in the "Lullaby Round."
(Appendix.)
Finding the key of "Lullaby Round" is easy. When you look at the begin-
ning of the staves for this piece, you will notice that there are no fiats or sharps
there. This helps tell you that the piece is in the key of C. Remember that the key
of C has no flats or sharps in its signature.
Rhythm:
What does tell you about this piece? Review the meaning
the meter signature
of the dot after a note. The two notes are the equivalent of one quarter-note.
first
Together they get one beat. Because of the dot, they will be uneven; the first note
will receive three quarters of the beat, the second note will receive only one
quarter of the beat.
• Count and clap the rhythm for "Lullaby Round."
• Say the words of "Lullaby Round" in strict rhythm. Be sure to hold the half-notes
for two full counts. How many measures have exactly the same rhythm? How
many measures have the dotted note rhythm? (Appendix.)
• Use rhythm syllables to say the melodic rhythm.
These examples show uses of the dotted eighth-note followed by a sixteenth.

Two examples also include the dotted quarter-note.
• Count and clap the rhythm of the examples. Add pitch to the rhythm either
independently, or with the help of your teacher.
"Minuet in G"
Beethoven
"Nocturne in E Major"
Mendelssohn
"Prelude in A Major"
Chopin
First theme, "Overture"

to Dido and Aeneas
Purcell
Form:
Are any measures of this piece exactly the same? How many measures have
the same rhythm? What is the form of this piece? (Appendix.)
• Play the melody of "Lullaby Round" in the key of C. Put your hands in the same position you used to play
the C major scale in tetrachords.
• Transpose the melody of "Lullaby Round" to the key of D by moving your hands to the tetrachord
positions for the D scale.
Sing "Lullaby Round" using syllables, numbers, and letter names. Use the key-
board to help you sing accurately if you need it.
Harmony:
After you have learned to play and sing the melody accurately, enlist other
musicians to perform this piece with you as a round, using the entrances indicated
by the numbers above the melody at the beginning of each measure. Note that up
to nine independent entrances are shown.
Philippine School Song
This song is in the key of Its meter signature says that there are
beats in a measure and the note gets one beat. The piece begins on
beat
Clap the rhythm of the piece. Be accurate with silence during the eighth rest.
Use rhythm syllables to say the rhythm.

Form:
• Circle a repeated pattern.
• Bracket a scale passage that descends regularly except for the inclusion of two
extra notes. Underline the two extra notes. (Appendix.)
• What is the form of

"
"Philippine School Song"' (Appendix.)
• Put your hands in the tetrachord position for the C scale. Play the melody of the
"Philippine School Song** using both hands.
• Sing the "'Philippine School Song*' with syllables, numbers, letter names, and
Philippine and English words.
• Transpose this piece to the key of F by placing your hands in the tetrachord
positions for the F scale.
NAMING KEY SIGNATURES

WHEN FLATS ARE USED
When using key signatures, remember that sharps or fiats in the key signature apply to
all notes with the same name. This is true in all octaves even when the fiat is on one
line or space of the staff.
This note will be called B-flat even though the flat in the key signature is on
the line an octave above.
This note will be called B-flat even though the fiat in the key signature is on
the line an octave below.
• Name these notes.
(Appendix.)
Follow this procedure in naming the major key if the piece you wish to play
or sing has two flats at the beginning of the staves. Name the last flat (to the ngbt i
fa, then go down the scale to do. You discover that the note for do is B, but since
there is a flat on the B line, it must be B-flat.
If you called the last flat 4 and counted down to 1, you would also have landed on
B-flat.
The use of either of these two methods (syllables or numbers) will help you
find the name of the major key when flats appear in the key signature.
In what key is a piece whose key signature has three flats?
In what key is a piece whose key signature has four flats?
(Appendix.)
You may have noticed that when you count from fa to do, or 4 to 1 to find the
name of the major key with flats in the signature, fa or 4 is always the last flat to
the right, do or 1 is always the next-to-last flat. Since this happens in all flat keys
(except the key of F with only one flat in its signature), save time by calling the
key by the name of its next-to-last flat. This is an accurate short-cut.
• Name these keys.
(Appendix.)
NAMING KEY SIGNATURES

WHEN SHARPS ARE USED
The key name for a major piece with sharps in the signature is the letter name a
half-step up from the last sharp. This key has only one sharp (F-sharp). The letter
name one half-step up is G. The key signature is G.
Key ofG
• Name these major keys:
(Appendix.)
• Name the keys for these pieces:

"Skip to My Lou"
"Holla Hi, Holla Ho"
"Rocky Mountain"
"Kum Ba Yah"
"Old MacDonald"
"Roll Over"
(Appendix.)
CONSTRUCTING KEY SIGNATURES

You have learned to tell the names of keys whose flats or sharps are shown in a
key signature. In the future you may be required to construct a key signature with
the name of the key as the only information given to you. Remember, the key of C
has no fiats or sharps. AH other key names having no flat in the name of the key,
EXCEPT the key of F, will be sharp keys. The names of these sharp keys will all be
half a step above the last sharp in the key signature. If you have been asked to tell
the number of sharps in the key signature for the key of A, count one-half step
down to find that the last sharp in that key is G-sharp. The problem is that with no
further information, you don't know how many other sharps are in that key. You
need to know the order in which the sharps always appear in the key signature.
ORDER OF SHARPS
To help you construct key signatures, memorize the order of sharps. They always
appear in the key signature in this order: F, C, G, D, A, E, B. Use the keyboard to
help you remember the order in which sharps occur in key signatures. The first
sharp to be used in a key signature is F-sharp, the lowest black key in the set of
three. The second sharp to be used in a key signature is C-sharp, the lowest black
key in the set of two. The order of sharps follows a pattern with the third sharp
being the next highest black key in the set of three, the fourth sharp being the next
highest black key in the set of two, the fifth sharp being the highest black key in
the set of three.
If you wish to determine the order of sharps without the keyboard, start on
F-sharp for the first sharp, then count up five note names for the next one (C-
sharp), down four note names for the third sharp (G-sharp), up five note names for
the fourth sharp (D-sharp), and so on. The pattern is up a fifth and down a fourth.
Play the sharps in this order. Say their names as you play them.
Since you have used all the sharps found on black keys, ifyou need more
sharps for a certain key signature, use white keys. Stay in the same alternating
pattern to find the order of all seven sharps.
Play and name these sharps in order.
To get back to the process of constructing the key signature in the key of A,
you have identified the sharp one half-step lower than the name of a sharp key (G-
sharp). Use the order of sharps to help you determine the sharps that preceded
that last sharp (F-sharp, C-sharp). Place these three sharps on the staff after the
clef sign at the beginning of the line to show the key signature.
This model shows the placement of the sharps for the treble and bass clef
key signatures. Always place your sharps on the lines and spaces as indicated in
this model.
Logically, to show the regularity of the order of sharps, they should be

placed like this:
They are never used this way, in spite of the logical arrangement, because the
sharps move out of the confines of the staff and become more difficult to read.
This illustration is given only to show the regular order. Sharps never follow this
configuration in the key signature.
To summarize, this is the process to be used in constructing sharp key
signatures when the name of the key is known:
1. Find the sharp one half-step below the key name.
2. Find which sharp(s) precede that sharp in the order of sharps.
3. Include the preceding sharps and the sharp one half-step below the key name
in the key signature.
4. Place the sharps in the key signature in the correct order of sharps.
• Write these key signatures in the treble clef.
Key of D Key of B Key of G
• Write these key signatures in the bass clef.
Key of A Key of E Key of C
(Appendix.)
ORDER OF FLATS
All flat keys use a flat in their names except for the key of F. Remember from
previous discussion, the name of the key when using flats is always do or Count 1 .
up to fa or 4 to find the last flat. In all keys except F (with only one flat), the name
of the key will be the next to last flat. The order of flats is B, E, A, D, G, C, F.
Notice that the order of flats is the reverse of the order of sharps. The first four
flats will be easy to remember since they spell the word BEAD.
The order of flats follows a pattern on the keyboard also. Notice that the first
flat is B, the highest black key in the set of three black keys. The second flat is E,
the highest black key in the set of two black keys. The third flat is A, the next
highest in the set of three black keys. The fourth flat is D, the lowest in the set of
two black keys. The fifth flat is G, the lowest in the set of three black keys.
To find the order of flats without the keyboard, start on B-flat, then count
down five note names, up four note names, and so on to find to remainder of the
flats. The pattern is down a fifth and up a fourth.
• Play and say these flats in order.
Since you have used all the flats found on black keys, if you need more flats
for a certain key signature you must use white keys. Stay in the same alternating
pattern to find the order of all seven flats.
• Play and say these flats in order.
To review:
1. For all flat keys except F (which has only one flat), the name of the key is the
next to last flat.
2. Use the order of flats to help you determine the flats preceding the key name
and the one flat following it.
3. Place the flats on the staff after the clef sign at the beginning of the line to
show the key signature.
This model shows the placement of the flats for the treble and bass clef key
signatures. Always place your flats on the lines and spaces indicated here.
• Write these key signatures in the treble clef.
Key of E b Key of Ab Key of Gb

• Write these key signatures in the bass clef.
Key of F KeyofBb KeyofDb
(Appendix.)
Reminder: All flat keys, except F with one flat, have flats as part of their
names. When naming keys, with two exceptions, all keys with no flats in their
names are sharp keys. The two exceptions are C with no flats or sharps, and F
with one flat.
CIRCLE OF FIFTHS
A way of summarizing the relationship of key signatures to each other and the
number of flats and sharps in them is to use a circle offifths. Notice that as your
eye moves around the circle clockwise from the top. sharps are added one by one.
As your eye moves around the circle counterclockwise from the top. flats are
added one by one. They are added in the order previously described.
Notice that the distance from the name of a key to its next-door neighbor on
the circle is that of a fifth (five note names). Always count the beginning and
ending letters when determining an interval. From F up to C is a fifth; from C up
to G is a fifth, and so on.
Notice at the where the flats and sharps cross
bottom of the circle the area
The key of D-flat with five flats is
over. These relationships are called enharmonic.
an enharmonic spelling of C-sharp with seven sharps. They look different, but
they sound the same and will be played using the same keys on the keyboard.
• Put your hands on the keyboard in the tetrachord position. Play a scale beginning
on D-flat. same notes and play the scale of C-sharp. The
Leave your hands on the
sound should be the same. Write both those scales. They will look quite different.
Key of Db
(Appendix.)
Moving in a clockwise direction, notice that the upper tetrachord of each

scale is the lower tetrachord of the next scale.
C scale D E scale -
1 1
scale 1
and so on
The octave sign (8va ) is used to indicate that the written notes are to be
played an octave higher or lower to avoid ledger lines. Play the notes an octave
higher when it appears over the staff; play them an octave lower when it appears
under the staff.
• Play all the scales starting with C major and moving in a clockwise direction. Use
the tetrachord position with one tetrachord in each hand. As you move to a new
key, use the hand for the tetrachord played by the right hand in the previous
left
key. Depending on where you begin and how many keys are on your keyboard, at
some point in the exercise you will run out of notes. When this happens, simply
transfer the upper tetrachord to a lower position on the keyboard and continue
through the rest of the keys.
• Name the major keys for these signatures:
(Appendix.)
Roll Over
What is the key of this piece? (Appendix.)
• Clap the rhythm while you say the words for "Roll Over" rhythmically.
• Place the fifth, third, and first fingers of your left hand on F-sharp, A-sharp, and C-sharp as shown in the
picture.
L.H. Middle
C
Play the notes together to sound an F-sharp major chord. Practice playing the F-sharp major chord on a
steady beat.
• Spread your right hand over an octave, from middle C-sharp to C-sharp an octave higher. Your thumb (1)
will be on middle C-sharp; your little finger (5) will be on C-sharp an octave higher.
• Play the melody of "Roll Over" with your right hand. Be careful; the key signature shows that all the notes
in this melody are sharps.
• Play the F-sharp chord with the left hand using a steady beat while you play the melody with the right hand.
Be sure to get the left thumb out of the way when the right thumb must play the middle C-sharp as part of
the melody.
The first and second ending enables economical printing of a piece of music.
Normally, the first ending ('

^| ) and second ending ('
|| ) contain two differ-
ent cadences for a phrase of the repeated section, so the bulk of the printed music
can be used twice. "Roll Over" is unusual in that the first ending is used nine
times and is longer than the preceding part of the piece. In this case, the "second"
ending becomes the tenth ending.
MUSIC CHECK
MAJOR SCALES MAJOR SCALE SINGING
TETRACHORDS MOVEABLE DO
MAJOR KEY SIGNATURES SYLLABLES
ORDER OF SHARPS AND FLATS NUMBERS

CIRCLE OF FIFTHS LETTERS
CHAPTER 7
INTERVALS
An interval is the difference in pitch between two notes. You have already heard
and used many intervals, but have not identified them, visually or aurally. More
knowledge about intervals will help you build chords and scales containing inter-
vals larger than whole steps. Practice in recognizing and producing intervals
should help you sing and play music accurately.
GENERAL INTERVALS
When naming an interval, be sure to number its first note "one," then count
within the scale to the other note of the interval: In the C scale, going up from C to
E is a third. Going down from C to G is a fourth.
• Play these intervals on the keyboard as you say their names:
2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th octave
110
INTERVALS 111
Intervals determined by counting from letter name to letter name are called
general intervals. When interval names are determined by counting the half-steps
they contain, they are called specific intervals.
• Determine these general intervals by counting from the letter name of one note to
the letter name of the other note in the interval. Be sure to call the first note
"one." (Appendix.)
• Name these general intervals. (Appendix.)
INVERSIONS
When intervals are inverted (bottom note is put on top), the relationship of the
pitches in the interval is also determined by counting from one note in the interval
to the other, calling the first note "one." From C E is a third, from C down
up to
to E is a sixth. From G up to C is a fourth, from G down to C is a fifth.
3rd 1 (2) 3 6th 1 (2 3 4 5) 6 4th 1 (2 3) 4 5th (1 (2 3 4) 5)
The name of an inverted interval can be determined by subtracting the

original, noninverted name from the number nine. For example, the third (sub-
tracted from nine) becomes a sixth, the fourth becomes a fifth.
• Play these intervals, followed by their inversions, on the keyboard as you say
their names:
prime (1)/ octave (8) 2nd / 7th 3rd / 6th 4th / 5th
5th / 4th 6th / 3rd 7th / 2nd octave / prime

• To check your understanding of inversions, fill out these equations:
An inverted third = a
An inverted second = a
An inverted prime = an
An inverted = a
fifth
An inverted fourth = a
An inverted sixth = a
An inverted seventh = a
An inverted octave = a
You determine the accuracy of your answers by totaling the intervals in each
equation. If the total is nine, you have given correct answers.
• Next to the intervals on this staff, draw their inversions. Under the intervals,
write their names.
(Appendix.)
The illustrations of intervals and inversions in this chapter so far have been
in the key of C major. The principles apply to any major key.
• Check your understanding of intervals by playing and naming these in the key of
G:
(Appendix.)
• Identify these intervals, then invert them. Name the inverted intervals also. Name
the keys used. (Appendix.)
SPECIFIC INTERVALS
Specific intervals are determined more precisely than general intervals. The
number of half-steps within the interval tells whether it is major, minor, perfect,
diminished, or augmented.
INTERVALS 113
MAJOR AND MINOR INTERVALS
When describing intervals in an ascending major scale with the lowest tone as the
key tone, seconds, thirds, sixths, and sevenths are called major intervals. If any of
them are made smaller by a half-step, they become minor intervals.
Play these major intervals, then the interval with the same name made minor by
lowering the upper note one half-step. Listen to the difference in their sounds.
(Examples given here are in the key of C major. The same principles apply in
other major keys.)
major 6th minor 6th major 7th minor 7th
Write these intervals in the key of F, using F as the bottom note of each interval.
Place the correct key signature after the clef sign. Also, put the appropriate fiats
from the key signature in parentheses before the notes affected (as reminders).
(Appendix.)
maj. 2nd, min. 2nd maj. 3rd, min. 3rd
maj. 6th, min. 6th maj. 7th,
Write these intervals in the key of G, using G as the bottom note of each interval.
Place the correct key signature after the clef sign. Also, put the appropriate sharps
from the key signature in parentheses before the notes affected (as reminders).
(Appendix.)
maj. 2nd, min. 2nd maj. 3rd, min. 3rd
maj. 6th, maj. 7th. min. 7th
When a major interval is inverted, it becomes a minor one. The reverse is
true also; inverted minor intervals become major ones.

114 INTERVALS
• Play these inversions as you read their names:
major 2nd minor 7th major 3rd minor 6th major 6th minor 3rd major 7th minor 2nd
• Write these inversions in the key of G. Use the appropriate key signature and the
appropriate sharps from the key signature in parentheses (as reminders). Use G as
the bottom note of the major intervals. (Appendix.)
maj. 2nd, min. 7th maj. 3rd, min. 6th
maj. 6th, min. 3rd maj. 7th, min. 2nd
• Write these inversions in the key of F. Use the appropriate key signature and the
appropriate fiats from the key signature in parentheses (as reminders). Use F as
the bottom note of the major intervals. (Appendix.)
Name the keys. Identify the intervals.
(Appendix.)
PERFECT INTERVALS
Fourths, fifths, octaves, and unisons (or primes) are called perfect intervals. They
are never called major or minor.
INTERVALS 115
Play these perfect intervals, written in the key of C with the key-note on the
bottom:
4th 5th octave prime
When perfect intervals are inverted, they remain perfect:
4th 5th 5th 4oth octave prime
Write four perfect intervals in the key of D with the key-note on the bottom. Next
to them, write their inversions.
(Appendix.)
Write four perfect intervals in the key of B-flat with the key-note on the bottom.
Next to them, write their inversions.
(Appendix.)
DIMINISHED INTERVALS
Both minor and perfect intervals can be reduced by a half-step. When they are so
reduced, they are called diminished intervals, a term used because the space
between the pitches of the interval has been lessened.
Name and play these diminished intervals. Use "dim" or "o" in naming them.
or 5th°
(Appendix.)
• Name the keys of the following examples; identify the written interval; next to it,
notate and name the same interval in its diminished form.
(Appendix.)
AUGMENTED INTERVALS
Perfect and major intervals increased by a half-step are called augmented, a term
used because the size of the interval has been made greater.
• Name and play these augmented intervals. Use "aug" or "+" in naming them.
aug. 6th
or 6th+
(Appendix.)
• Name the keys of the following examples; identify the written interval; next to it,
notate and name the same interval in its augmented form.
(Appendix.)
When they are inverted, augmented intervals become diminished and dimin-
ished intervals augmented.
• Play these inversions as you read their names. Be sure to keep accidentals
throughout a measure: The sharp in the first chord applies to the F in the second
chord as well, because they are both in the same measure. A bar line or a natural
sign is required to remove the sharp or flat if the note is to be played or sung
without the accidental.
aug. 4th dim. 5th dim. 7th aug. 2nd dim. 3rd aug. 6th aug. 5th dim. 4th
INTERVALS 117
• Name the keys of these exercises. Name the written interval. Next to the written
interval, notate and name its inversion.
(Appendix.)
Summary of Interval Sizes
1. Minor, half-step smaller than major.

2. Major, half-step larger than minor.
3. Diminished, half-step smaller than perfect or minor.
4. Augmented, half-step larger than perfect or major.
ENHARMONIC INTERVALS
Intervals with different names and different appearances on the staff can sound
the same. When they do, they are called enharmonic intervals. The diminished
third sounds like a major second; the diminished fourth sounds like a major third,
the augmented second sounds like a minor third; the augmented third sounds like
a perfect fourth; and so on. The names of enharmonic intervals depend on the way
they are written.
dim. 3rd M2nd dim. 4th M3rd aug. 2nd M3rd aug. 3rd P4th
Name these enharmonic intervals. Play them.
» *»
MEASURING INTERVALS
IN RELATIONSHIP TO KNOWN KEYS
Illustrations thus far about intervals have been based upon relationships in known
keys, with the key-note being one note of the interval. Some of the exercises have
asked you to transfer principles to different keys. All of the principles stated about
intervals can be transferred to note relationships in any major key.
118 INTERVALS
• Name these major keys, then name the specific intervals.
Key of _ Key of _
Interval Interval
Key of -
Interval
Key of _ Key of -
Interval Interval .
Key of _ Key of _
Interval Interval
Key of . Key of .
Interval Interval
MEASURING SPECIFIC INTERVALS

It is name a specific interval with no reference to key by counting
possible to the
make up the interval. Every specific interval is identified by
half-steps that the
number of half-steps contained in it as shown in this chart:
INTERVAL SIZE
a minor second = one half step
a major second = two half steps
a minor third = three half steps
a major third = four half steps
a perfect fourth = five half steps
an aug 4th or dim 5th = six half steps
a perfect fifth = seven half steps
a minor sixth = eight half steps
a major sixth = nine half steps
a minor seventh = ten half steps
a major seventh = eleven half steps
a perfect octave = twelve half steps

INTERVALS 119
The chart above does not include all the enharmonic spellings that are possi-
ble. Nor does it include compound intervals that are greater than an octave such
as:
10th 12th 9th 11th
• Name these compound intervals. (Appendix.)
• Name these intervals by counting half steps. (Appendix.)
Counting half-steps for large intervals, however, is a time-consuming exer-

cise. Some of the larger intervals can be more easily identified by counting down
from the octave (that is, counting one half-step down from the octave for the
major seventh, a whole-step down from the octave for the minor seventh, a step
and a half down from the octave for the major sixth, etc.).
• Count backwards from the octave to identify large intervals to develop a system
that is quicker for you than counting the large number of half-steps in the Inter-
val/Size chart.
(Appendix.)
HEARING INTERVALS
The most musical way to identify intervals is by sound. Constantly involve your
ear in developing interval recognition. Some developing musicians find that they
can learn the sound of intervals more easily if they relate them to music they
already know. You should use examples that are useful to you because you can
remember them. The following examples are from music used in this text.
Play and sing them to learn them both and out of the context of the songs. A
in
potential problem with memorizing intervals through familiar song intervals is that
different contexts may influence your ability to perceive the intervals.
Memory Aids for Learning

the Sound of Intervals
minor second between E and F, first two measures of "African Noel"

major second between D and C, next to last measure of "African Noel"
minor third, between F and D, first measure of "America, the Beautiful"
major third, between D and F-sharp, first two notes of "Kum Ba Yah"
perfect fourth, between G and D, last measure of "Are You Sleeping"
perfect fifth, between C and G, first measure of the "Alphabet Song"
minor sixth, between F-sharp and D, next to last measure of "The Cuckoo"
major sixth, between E and C-sharp, first two notes of "Bella Bimba"
minor seventh, between C and B-flat, second measure of "Dona Nobis
Pacem"
perfect octave, between D and D, sixth to seventh measures of "The Frogs"
Analyze the intervals of the "Yellow Rose of Texas." Label the intervals between
the melody notes.
(Appendix.)
INTERVALS 121
• Sing the "Yellow Rose of Texas" using numbers, then syllables. Remember, do
(l) is the name of the key.
So-fa syllables and numbers used consistently help identify the sounds of
intervals. The chart below provides samples of intervals identified by different
syllables and numbers. The intervals are the same ascending and descending. That
is, do-mi (1-3) is a major third; mi-do (3-1) is a major third.
INTERVAL IDENTIFICATION
minor third fa-re (4-2), so-mi (5-3), re-ti
(2-7), do-la (8-6)
major third mi-do (3-1), la-fa (6-4), ti-so
(7-5)
perfect fifth do-so (1-5), re-la (2-6), mi-ti
(3-7), fa-do (4-8), so-re (5-9),
la-mi (6-10)
diminished fifth ti-fa (7-11)
In conclusion, subsequent chapters of this book are built on your ability to

spell and recognize intervals. Review the sight and sound of intervals by drill with
exercises such as the following:
1. Select a specific interval. Write several of the selected intervals on different

pitches chosen by you. Sing and/or play the intervals you have written. For
example:
Write major thirds with these notes on the bottom of the interval: D, G, F,
B. Play the major thirds you have written on a keyboard. Count the half-
steps in each major third you have written. Do they all have four half-
steps?
2. Tape-record intervals you play on a keyboard. List the specific intervals as

you record them. Play the tape back and identify the intervals as you listen
to them without referring to your list. Check your answers with the list to see
if you correctly identified the intervals by sound.
122 INTERVALS
MUSIC CHECK
INTERVALS
GENERAL
SPECIFIC
INVERSIONS
ENHARMONIC
MAJOR
MINOR
PERFECT
DIMINISHED
AUGMENTED
CHAPTER 8
CHORDS
A chord is a combination of three or more pitches arranged in thirds. Although the

pitches of the chord generally sound simultaneously, a broken chord may be used
in accompaniments or as part of a melody. The pitches of the broken chord are
sounded one after the other, rather than all at once.
So far, you have played chords by placing fingers as directed in the text, or
through response to fingering charts and pictures in the instrument book. It is
useful for your future musical progress for you to learn how chords are con-
structed and how they are used.
MAJOR CHORDS
If you have followed the instructions in the instrument book, all the chords you
played at the beginning and end of the pieces so far have been major triads. (A
triad may be used in more
has three different notes, although any of these notes
than one octave.) It is when analyzing some of the chords because you
confusing
have not played all the chords in root positions. The chords used in the middle of
the pieces by students playing the keyboard were often inverted chords; many of
the chords used by the guitarists were inverted; it is difficult to determine chord
positions on the autoharp because of the nature of the instrument. No matter what
your experience has been in playing instruments, you should now look at chords
123
on the keyboard to address both their sound, and their appearance when arranged
in root positions.
• Play a C major triad with your left hand.
L. H.
Your little finger (5) plays the root of the chord, your middle finger (3) plays the
third of the chord, and your thumb (1) plays the fifth of the chord. The root is both
thebottom note of the chord, and the note from which the chord name is derived.
The third is three letter names away from the chord root, counting the root as
number one; the fifth is five letter names away from the root. The interval between
the root and the third is a third, the interval between the third and the fifth is a
third. To arrange a chord by thirds, simply skip a letter name between the root and
the third; skip another letter name between the third and the fifth.
When traids are in root position, if a root is on a line, the other two notes of
the chord will also be on lines. If the root is in a space, the other two notes of the
chord will be in spaces.
Chords have different qualities, depending on the size of the thirds in the
chord. Unless accidentals are added, the key determines the quality of the chords
by influencing the intervallic relationships. To construct chords accurately, it is
necessary to stay in the key unless there is a musical reason to change key. Later,
as your use of chords becomes more sophisticated, you may construct them with
accidentals to meet the requirements of altered chords.
Triads can be constructed on every note of the scale.
IV V vi vii° I
For quick identification of chords, Roman numerals are used to show the number
of the scale-tone upon which they are built. Capitals are used for major chords,
lower case for minor or diminished chords. (The raised circle or the letters "dim"
after the lower case chord symbol indicates a diminished chord.)
Triads built on the first, fourth, and fifth notes of the major scale are major
triads. Play these triads and listen to them carefully. The interval from the root to
the third of the major triad is a major third (four half-steps.) The interval from the
CHORDS 125
third of the triad to its fifth is a minor third (three half-steps.) Another way to
describe the intervallic relationship of the fifth is to say it is a perfect fifth (seven
half-steps) from the root.
I IV v
• Write the I, IV, and V triads in root position in the keys of G, F, and D. Write the
appropriate key signature at the beginning of the staff. In addition, put flats or
sharps in parentheses in front of the affected notes as reminders of the effect of the
key signature. Remember that no traid can use both sharps and flats when spelled
correctly.
(Appendix.)
Another name for the I chord is the tonic. The V chord, often called the
dominant, is built on the pitch that is five letter names above the tonic. The IV
chord, called the subdominant, is built on the pitch that is five letter names below
the tonic.
subdominant tonic dominant
DOMINANT SEVENTH
A seventh is frequently added to the V chord to help strengthen the key center.
The chord contains a root, third, fifth, and seventh. The number names of the
chord notes describe the intervals between them and the root. The third is three
notes above the root, the fifth is five notes above the root, and the seventh is seven
notes above the root.
7th
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
root
126 CHORDS
The addition of the seventh pulls the ear to a resolution of the dissonance it
creates because of its close proximity to the root. It demands that something else
follow.The dissonance causes an irresolute stopping place, so the ear anticipates
consonance to follow. It demands a resolution of the dissonance to a consonant
sound. The V7 chord resolves most frequently to the I chord.
• Play these chord progressions in C, G, F, and D with the seventh added to the V
chord. Be careful to use the flat or sharp shown in the key signature.
INVERSIONS
An inversion occurs when notes of a chord are used in positions other than the
space-space-space or line-line-line configuration of the root position. Note that the
I chord in the examples above is not used in its root position. The change is made
to improve voice leading (the movement of individual notes from one chord to
those of the next chord.) The 4 next to the I tells the distance from the lowest note
of the chord to the other chord notes.
In a 4 chord, the fifth is the lowest note of the chord. If the third is used as the
lowest note, the chord is marked with a 6 alone. This is an abbreviation; it is a 3
chord (counting from the lowest note to other chord notes in the inversion), but
since triads are normally arranged in thirds, it is redundant to use the 3.
6th
• Write inversions of these major triads. Use accidentals when required. It is impor-
tant to remember the names of the pitches in the root position chord because when
the chord is inverted, even though the original, root position notes appear in
different places, they still have the same names. If pitches not in the original
spelling are used, the chord assumes a new identity. It becomes a different chord.
CHORDS 127
(Appendix.)
Inversions enable the keyboard player to keep notes under the fingers with a
minimum of movement from one chord to the other.
Play these chord progressions with your left hand. The inversions of the V7 are
labeled Vf because of the lower notes' distance from the upper note. If you need
help, turn to Keyboard 2, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 14 in the Appendix. They show how to
play chords with the left hand using inversions of the V7 chord.
v| I v| ] Vj I
The complete V7 chord is spelled with four note names. Often, however, the
fifth of the chord is eliminated to improve voice leading or make the progression
easier to play.
Using the same pattern of voice leading that you played above, write Vf~I pro-
A major. (Appendix.)
gressions in D, B-flat, and
The same principle is used to label inversions of seventh chords that is used
to label triad inversions. The numbers next to the chord Roman number or letter
name indicate the distance from the lowest note to the rest of the chord tones.
Because %, i, and 2 establish unique characteristics of these inversions, the num-
bers in the parenthesis can be eliminated.
Write chord inversions as indicated:
(Appendix.)
128 CHORDS
MINOR CHORDS
Minor chords differ from major chords in thenumber of half-steps between the
root and the third, the third and the fifth. The major chord is made up of a major
third (four half-steps) plus a minor third (three half-steps); the minor chord is
made up of a minor third plus a major third. The interval between the root and the
fifth of the chord is the same for both major and minor chords.
perfect 5th
major chord minor chord
These chords are minor when used in major keys such as C major:
ii iii vi
Other names for the minor chords in a major key are
supertonic (ii), built on the pitch next above the tonic.
mediant (iii), built on the pitch midway between the tonic and the dominant.
going up.
submediant (vi), built on the pitch midway between the tonic and the sub-
dominant, going down.
submediant tonic mediant supertonic
As long as you stay

any particular key, you will probably have little
in
trouble in forming chords accurately. However, it is important to know the dif-

ferences in construction of chords so that you can construct and identify major
and minor chords even if you do not know the key.
• Play these major (M) and minor (m) chords. If you see a natural sign (n) before a
note, be sure to take away the flat or sharp previously used with that note. Even
though the bar-line removes an accidental, the natural is often used as a reminder,
and as a reminder, may be shown in parenthesis.
D Dm Em E Cm G Fit F|m Am A Bb
CHORDS 129
• Write and play these chords. Check their accuracy by sound and sight. Be sure to
use natural signs ft) if necessary. If a capital letter appears alone as the chord
name, the chord will be major.
C Cm Eb Bm B Cttm Bbm C|t Abm
(Appendix.)
DIMINISHED CHORD
One chord used in major keys is neither major nor minor:
vii°
This chord is the leading-tone or subtonic chord. It is a diminished chord

containing two minor thirds and is unstable; it gives little feeling of finality, but
pulls toward, or leads into the tonic chord.
subtonic tonic supertonic
• Write diminished chords. Be sure they contain two minor thirds.
E° Ft A Db° B° Gb° Ab° Ctt°
(Appendix.)
CHORD NAMES
Names of chords have been given to you as the chords have been introduced. This
staff shows the relationship of all these chords as they center around the tonic or
key-note.
subdominant submediant subtonic tonic supertonic mediant dominant

130 CHORDS
• Write the numbers of the chords, then their names. These chords are arranged
with their roots in the order of the scale. (Appendix.)
• Number these chords, then write the names of the chords below their numbers.
(Appendix.)
SEVENTH CHORDS
You have used the dominant seventh chord ( V7). It is important because of its role
in establishing the key by resolving to the tonic. It is used more frequently than
other seventh chords. The name is given to this chord because it is built on the
fifth degree of the scale. It has a major triad with a minor third on top that causes
the seventh to be a minor seventh.
Although the dominant seventh can be built on any scale degree, when it is
used on any scale degree other than the fifth, it tends to change the key, to
modulate into a new key.
• Write and play these dominant sevenths. Check their accuracy by sound and
sight.
(Appendix.)
Compare the construction of the dominant seventh with other, less fre-
quently used seventh chords.
CHORDS 131
SEVENTH CHORDS
Chord Name Components 7th Size
diminished diminished triad + minor third diminished — =»-
half-diminished diminished triad + major third minor
Write and play seventh chords as indicated.
major sevenths (M7)
DM7 FM7 A M7 GM7 EI.M7 BkM7
minor sevenths (m7)
Cm7 Am7 Dbm7 Em7 Bm7 Gbm7
diminished (°7)
(Appendix.)
132 CHORDS
CHORD PROGRESSIONS
Many melodies can be accompanied using a progression of I, IV, and V7 chords.
Generally some of these chords are inverted because pitches of the chords do not
lead musically from one to the other if root positions are used for all the chords.
Use of inverted chords with pitches common to more than one chord remaining in
the same octave, and other pitches moving to their closest neighbor in the new
chord improves the voice leading. The following example shows a common type
of chord progression using inverted F and G7 chords.
• Write and play the I-IVJj-V^-I progression in F, G, D, A, B-flat, and E using the
example above as a model for your voice leading. Write at least half of the
progressions in the bass clef. Eliminate the fifth in the V§ chord. Show common
tones ( ) and closest neighbors (—»).
(Appendix.)
Holla Hi, Holla Ho

• Analyze the form of this piece. (Appendix.)
• Write the chord progression that should be used to accompany the melody. Show
common tones ( ) and closest neighbors (—
(Appendix.)
• Play and/or sing the melody for "Holla Hi, Holla Ho."
• Play it on the keyboard or with the recorder. Recorder 12 contains a fingering chart on which you can look
up new notes or fingering for those you have forgotten.
• Sing the melody while you play the chords on either the autoharp, keyboard, or guitar. Guitar 7 contains a
fingering chart for new or forgotten chords.

CHORDS 133
Sing and play the piece using allegro as the tempo indicator. Then perform the
piece using andante as the tempo indicator. Which tempo seems more suitable for
the piece?
Kum Ba Yah
What is the form of "Kum Ba Yah"? (Appendix.)
Write the chord progression for this piece.
(Appendix.)
Sing and/or play the melody for "Kum Ba Yah." Be sure to hold the dotted eighth
notes for three-quarters of the beat.
• Sing the melody while you play the chords on either keyboard, autoharp, or guitar.
As you sing all the verses of "Kum Ba Yah," vary the dynamics to suit the words.
Write the dynamic marking you find most suitable for each verse.
Skip to My Lou
What phrases of this song are musically the same? Which phrases are par-
tially the same? Where is the sequence in this piece? What is the form of this
piece? (Appendix.)
Write the chord progression for "Skip to My Lou."
Play and/or sing the melody of "Skip to My Lou."

• Accompany the melody using the chord progression you wrote.
Select three songs you have used previously in this book. Write chord progres-
sions to accompany them.
As you become familiar with new melodies, analyze chord progressions to
accompany them. Thousands of songs can be performed with basic I-IV-V7
progressions. When you become secure in using them, you will probably wish to
add or substitute other chords, creating less predictable harmonies.
134 CHORDS
MUSIC CHECK
CHORDS
TRIADS
MAJOR
MINOR
DIMINISHED
SEVENTH CHORDS
DOMINANT
MAJOR
MINOR
DIMINISHED
HALF-DIMINISHED
ROOT POSITIONS
INVERSIONS
NAMES
NUMBERS
CHAPTER 9
MINOR SCALES
AND KEY SIGNATURES
Although major keys are widely used, other means of tonal organization exist to
give variety to melodic and harmonic expression. Minor keys offer attractive
alternatives.
Listen to "The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra" (Tape 15), "Triste"
(Tape 16), and "Modere" (Tape 18) for examples of music written in minor keys.
Students faced with music that does not designate whether it is major or
minor must learn to discriminate between the two.
Play or sing "Shalom Chaverim."

What information is given to you by the key signature for "Shalom
Chaverim"? From past experience, it looks like the piece is written in the key of
G.
Try to accompany the melody with a G chord.
The sound of the G chord clashing inappropriately with the melody provides
a clue that the piece is in a key other than the key signature seems to indicate.
"Shalom Chaverim" is in E minor, the relative minor of G major. Although their
key names are three half-steps apart, they share the same key signature. The
major keynote (also called tonic or home tone) is three half steps higher than the
minor keynote, or, to reverse the relationship, the minor keynote is three half-
steps lower than the major keynote.
135
136 MINOR SCALES AND KEY SIGNATURES
• Count three half-steps down from G on the keyboard to find the keynote of E
minor.
Even though the relatives share the same key signature, their organization of
melodic and harmonic material differs. Differences between a minor key and its
relative major include the following:
1. The minor scale begins and ends on different notes than the major.
2. The minor uses half-steps in different places than the major.
3. The minor uses a different chordal structure than the major.
Play or sing the melody of "Shalom Chaverim" and use an E minor chord to
accompany it.
Although keyboard pictures are frequently used in this text to illustrate
harmonic concepts because they are well-suited for showing note relationships,
do not interpret their use as a rejection of the autoharp or guitar for producing
harmony. Continue to use the medium you prefer in playing accompaniments to
melodies.
NATURAL MINOR
There are different forms of minor keys. "Shalom Chaverim" is a good example
of the natural or pure minor. It adds no accidentals, so it uses the same pitches as
its relative major.
• Write a natural minor scale beginning on E. Like the major scale, the minor uses
each letter name consecutively. Include the F-sharp as shown in the key sig-
nature. Use/~\to show the location of the half-steps in the scale.

MINOR SCALES AND KEY SIGNATURES 137
The half-steps of the E natural minor scale occur between and between
(Appendix.)
• Play the E natural minor scale. Contrast it with the G major sound.
• Sing the E natural minor scale using pitch names and pitch syllables. To maintain
the relationship of pitches with the relative major, call the keynote la.
• To consolidate your understanding of relative major and minor using the same key
signature, name both the major and minor keys that use these key signatures:
major
(Appendix.)
The Little Man Who Wasn't There

• Use the Music Analysis Sheet to help you analyze this song.
• Look at the key signature for "The Little Man Who Wasn't There." Play or sing
the melody being careful to include the B-flat. What is the key of this piece? You
are right if you said D minor. What is its relative major? Play the first measure of
the melody with an F chord. Now play it with a D minor chord. What does your
ear tell you about using these chords with the first measure?
D minor chord
• Write the D natural minor scale. Mark the half-steps.
Check to be sure the placement of the half-steps in the D minor natural scale
corresponds to the placement of the half-steps in the E minor scale.
)
• Review the general rule governing half-steps in the natural minor scale:
Half-steps in the natural minor scale occur between and between
(Appendix.)
• Describe the outstanding characteristic of the melody for "The Little Man Who
Wasn't There." (Appendix.)
• Play a D minor triad on the piano. Move your hand up so the little finger of your
lefthand is on E, and play a triad with E as its root. Stay in the key of D minor.
(That means, be sure to use the B-flat!) Move your hand up so your little finger
plays F as the root of the next triad. Continue to move up the D minor scale,
playing a triad on each degree of the scale.
• Write the chords you have just played. To insure the correct inclusion of the B-
flat, put a flat sign in front of each B that occurs. Put parentheses around the fiat fl>
as an indication that you know it is included in the key signature but are reminding
yourself it is there.
(Appendix.)
• Practice the chords until you can play them easily.
• Play the chords for F major as you have done for D minor. Be sure to play a B-flat
whenever the notation shows a B. Write the chords for F major and number them
with Roman numerals from I to vii.
Review the construction of a major chord: The distance from the root (bot-
tom note) of the chord to the third (middle note) is four half-steps, a major third.
The distance from the third to the fifth (top note) is three half-steps, a minor third.
Construction of a Major Chord
root 3rd 5th

Analyze the chords of F major. Put an "M" under the number of each chord you
identify as major. (Appendix.)
Minor chords reverse the half-step pattern of major chords. The minor chord
has a minor third on the bottom, with a major third on top of it.
Construction of a Minor Chord
uu uuu
Identify all the minor chords in F major by putting an "m" under the number of
each minor chord. Write the Roman numerals of the minor chords in lower case.
(Appendix.)
There should be one chord without an "M" or "m" under its number. If you
count the half-steps in the E chord, you will find it has a minor third with a minor
third on top of it: This is a diminished chord.
Construction of a Diminished Chord
It is called a diminished chord because it is smaller than other chords. The

two minor thirds cause the perfect fifth used in other chords to be replaced by a
diminished fifth.
Write the chords for G major. Number the chords with Roman numerals. Identify
the chords with "M" for major, "m" for minor, and a raised circle (°) for
diminished.
(Appendix.)
Compare the major, minor, and diminished chords for F and G major. Gen-
eralize about chords in major keys:
In major keys, chords numbered are major.
In major keys, chords numbered are minor.
In major keys, the chord numbered is diminished.

(Appendix.)
• Analyze the chords for D natural minor, using the same three symbols to show the
character of each chord number. (Appendix.)
• Write an E natural minor scale.
• Write a chord over each note of E natural minor. Mark each chord as major,
minor, or diminished. (Appendix.)
• Generalize about chords in natural minor keys:
In natural minor keys, chords numbered are major.
In natural minor keys, chords numbered are minor.
In natural minor keys, the chord numbered is diminished.

(Appendix.)
• Play "The Little Man Who Wasn't There'

1
using the chords indicated under the

melody.
• Transpose "The Little Man Who Wasn't There" to the key of E minor.
• Transpose it to the key of A minor. Before beginning to play, figure out the name
of A minor's relative major. (Appendix.)
Artsa Alinu
Use Music Analysis Sheet to help you become acquainted with "Artsa
the
Alinu." Analyze its form and clap its rhythm before you begin to sing or play the
whole piece. Try to accompany it using a D minor chord. Where do you want to
change the chord? Try other chords until you find one you like for the places
where you want to use something besides the D minor chord. (Appendix.)
Zum Gali Gali
• Use the chords indicated to accompany the melody for "Zum Gali Gali." Consult
Autoharp 7, Guitar 7, or Keyboard 18 if you need help.
What chords did you use to play "Zum Gali Gali"? Were they major or
minor? (Appendix.)
HARMONIC MINOR
Not all minor pieces are in the natural minor. Sometimes accidentals are added to
strengthen chord progressions, particularly the final cadences (endings). The most
frequent change is raising the seventh note of the scale to increase the power of the
leading tone. Not only does the seventh tone then lead more strongly into the tonic
(one half-step away), but also the V7 chord resolving to the i helps set up a stronger
key center. Without the raised seventh, the dominant chord is minor. The form of the
minor resulting from the raised seventh tone is the harmonic minor.
• Write an E natural minor scale. To change it to a harmonic minor, raise the

seventh degree of the scale one half-step to a D-sharp. Use^xto show the location
of the half-steps.
(Appendix.)
Where are the half-steps in the harmonic minor? Between between
, and between How many half-steps are between the sixth and
seventh degrees of the scale?
You should have found half-steps between two and three, between five and
six, and between seven and eight. There should be three half-steps between the
sixth and seventh degrees of the scale. The
between the sixth and seventh
interval
degrees of the harmonic minor scale augmented second rather than a
is called an
minor third because it uses consecutive note names. From C to D is a second,
from C to Df is an augmented second.
• Play the E harmonic minor scale.
• Write a D harmonic minor scale. Use /\ to show the half-steps in the scale. Be
sure there is an augmented second between the sixth and seventh degrees of the
scale.
(Appendix.)
• Play the scale.

• Compare natural and harmonic minor scales. (Appendix.)
Half steps in the natural minor scale occur between

Half steps in the harmonic minor scale occur between
An augmented second is found between in the
minor scale.
• Play and write chords on each note of the E harmonic minor scale. Number them
and label them. You will find that the addition of the D-sharp has altered the
character of some of the chords. Chord III now has two major thirds in it. Call that
chord augmented (III + ). Chord V has become major, and chord vii has become
diminished (vii°).
• Play and write chords on each note of the D harmonic minor scale. Be sure to label
each chord. (Appendix.)
• Generalize about chords in harmonic minor keys:
In harmonic minor keys, chords numbered are major,
In harmonic minor keys, chords numbered are minor.
In harmonic minor keys, chords numbered _ _ are diminished.
In harmonic minor keys, the chord numbered is augmented.
(Appendix.)
When using the harmonic minor, the V7 is the same as when it is used in
major keys. The significant difference is that it is now coupled with a minor tonic
chord, so fingering and ear will need to accommodate.
• Analyze, then play the chord progression of the C minor chord to the G7.
Cm G< Cm
• Write, then play these chord progressions.
Dm Aj Dm Em Aj Em Bm F(t^ Bm
(Appendix.)
MELODIC MINOR
The melodic minor a third form of the minor. It is the only form that is different
is
going up than coming down. The melodic minor scale raises its sixth and
it is
seventh notes one half-step ascending, then lowers them descending, becoming a
natural minor on the way down.
• Write these melodic minors.
Em
• Label these minor scales. Are they natural, harmonic, or melodic? (The descend-
ing part of the melodic minor has been omitted, but it can still be identified by the
raised sixth and seventh notes of the scale.)
• Write natural, harmonic, and melodic forms of these minor scales.
A minor
G minor
B minor
CIRCLE OF FIFTHS
The circle offifths helps show the logical relationships between the relative majors
and minors, their key signatures, and the sharps and flats they use. Minor names
are in the outer circle.
• Use the circle of fifths to help you answer these questions:
What is the relative minor for these major keys?

A B-flat D E
What is the relative major for these minor keys?
Fm Ajtm Qtm Gm
Draw key signatures for these major keys:
E A El. F
Draw key signatures for these minor keys:
E G Fjf B
(Appendix.)
All the Pretty Little Horses
• Practice the chord progressions for this piece. If you need help with keyboard fingering, turn to Keyboard
19. The Guitar Chord Chart is Guitar 7. If your autoharp does not have the necessary chords, transpose it to
a minor key that is close. See Autoharp 6.
• After you have analyzed the piece using the Music Analysis Sheet, play the melody. If you can sing and play
your accompaniment, do so. If you wish to play the melody, invite friends to play the accompaniment with
you. What kind of instrument enables you to play both the melody and harmony together?
Hold On
• Practice the chord progressions for "Hold On." Be sure to use the harmonic minor. A clue that this is in
the harmonic minor is that the A7 is indicated rather than the Am7. When you play the melody, be careful of
the syncopated, anticipated second beat of many measures (such as 2 and 4, where the eighth-note is tied
to the half-note).
Erie Canal
Compare the chords of the verse with those of the chorus. What is the key of
this piece?
The first part of the piece is in D minor; the second part is in F major. If the
chords were not written there to help you, you would have to try to figure out the
key by considering the possibilities. If you understand the relationship between
major and minor keys sharing the same key signature, you have already limited
the possibilities as to the key of the song. The single flat in the key signature tells
you the piece is in either F major or D minor. When looking at a new song with no
chords written in, determine both the major and the minor keys. Recall the notes
of the tonic chords for both the major and the minor.
F Major D minor
Next, look at the first few and the last few notes of the melody. The first few notes
are A, D, and F. When arranged in thirds, these notes spell a D minor chord. They
tell you the appropriate chord to use.
The last few notes are A, F, and G.
When you look at the major and minor tonic chords, you see that G is not in either
of them, but F and A melody of the last few measures, then
are in both. Play the
try an F chord with the last melody note. Does it sound all right? Play the last few
measures again, but play the D minor chord with the last melody note instead of
the F chord. How does that sound? Let your ear be your guide. All pieces do not
change from minor to major as this one does, but be prepared for that eventuality.
The same procedure used to find the chords for "Erie Canal" can be used with
other pieces without written chord symbols.
• Play and sing "Erie Canal" watching the syncopation, accidentals, and equal {J~}) and unequal
eighth-notes carefully.
Eency, Weency Spider

• Analyze the key signature of "Eency, Weency Spider." It tells you the song may
be in either major or minor. The tonic chord for the major key is
spelled ; for the minor key it is
• Analyze the melody. Does the first pitch of the melody appear in both chords?
Consider the eighth-note A at the end of measure one to be a nonchord tone
since it is on a weakDoes the first pitch of the second measure occur in both
beat.
the major tonic chord and the minor tonic chord? Since you have discovered that
the main notes of the first two measures appear in the tonic chords of both the
major and minor keys indicated by the key signature, the most direct way of
deciding which chord to use is to try them. Play or sing the melody of the first two
measures using a G major chord for the accompaniment, then try the same two
measures with an E minor chord. Which sounds best? The key is G major.
• Use the V7 of G major with the next to last measure, moving to G for the last
measure.
Start at the beginning with the G chord, changing only when the sound demands
that you do. Use as few chords as possible throughout the piece.
Write the chords you used over the melody. Check in the Appendix only after you
have tried to harmonize the piece all the way through.
I'm a Little Teapot

Figure out the chords needed for the harmonization of this piece. Change chords
as seldom as possible. Check in the Appendix only after you have written your
chord choices under the melody.
The following theme from Haydn's Symphony in G (No. 94, Surprise),

second movement, shows how a melody sometimes outlines broken chords. The
theme can be accompanied by forming chords from melody notes.
Spell the chords formed by the first two measures of the melody, the third and
fourth measures, the fifth and sixth measures, the seventh measure, and the last
measure.
measure 1 and 2 3 and 4 5 and 6 7 8
Write the chord letter names under the Haydn theme. Play the melody with the
chordal accompaniment.
As you continue to grow in musical sophistication, seek out different modes

of musical organization. Music may shift from minor to major as the "Erie Canal"
does. It may even use major and minor at the same time. Listen to Ives's "Sixty-
seventh Psalm" (Tape 5). The men's voices are singing in G minor, the women's
voices in C major.
MUSIC CHECK
MAJOR CHORD CONSTRUCTION

MINOR MAJOR
NATURAL MINOR
HARMONIC DIMINISHED
MELODIC AUGMENTED
RELATIVE MAJOR AND MINOR DOMINANT SEVENTH
HALF-STEPS IN SCALES CHORD PROGRESSIONS

AUGMENTED SECONDS IN SCALES SONG HARMONIZATIONS WITH NO CHORDS INDICATED
CHORDAL ACCOMPANIMENTS CIRCLE OF FIFTHS INCLUDING MINOR KEYS
CHAPTER 10
PENTATONIC
Pentatonic is the general name given to any scale that has five tones within the
octave. There are many pentatonic scales. This text will deal only with the pen-
tatonic scale that avoids half-steps by eliminating the fourth and seventh notes of
the major scale.
PENTATONIC IMPROVISATION
If you play on the black keys of the keyboard only, you are using a pentatonic
scale. The sounds of these notes, with no half-steps, are so compatible that they
generally lend themselves to success in improvising.
• Using the black keys only, create:
1. A march with a very steady underlying beat. Try to create a sound that
trumpets might make as part of the march.
2. The sound of ocean waves. Use as many notes to create the waves as you
can get under your fingers, or use a glissando effect created by gently letting
your fingernails (palms up) brush across the black keys.
3. An accompaniment using your left forearm playing as many black notes as it
can cover while your right hand plays a melody in a meter of three.
4. An accompaniment using your right forearm playing as many black notes as
it can cover while your left hand plays a melody in a meter of two.
149
150 PENTATONIC
5. An original composition contrasting monophonic sections (melody with no

accompaniment) with homonophonic sections (melody played with
accompaniment).
6. A completely original composition.
PENTATONIC ACCOMPANIMENT
Pentatonic songs are easy to play and to accompany. "Get Along Little Dogies" is
one of many pentatonic songs for which you can improvise an accompaniment. Begin
singing the melody on D-flat next to middle C. Devise an accompaniment using all
black keys to sound like horses on the trail. (This sounds different from the white key
pentatonic shown by the notation for "Get Along Little Dogies" in this book.)
All songs do not lend themselves to this type of accompaniment. You must
analyze the song to see if it is pentatonic before devising an accompaniment. To
determine if the music is pentatonic:
1. Name the key shown by the key signature.
2. Identify the fourth and seventh notes of the scale for the key you named.
3. Examine the melody to see if the fourth and seventh notes appear in the
melody.
4. Try an accompaniment using only degrees 1-2-3-5-6 of the scale. This is
necessary because some melodies may not have degrees 4 and 7 in the
melody, but they may still demand a major-key accompaniment because of
their particular construction. Use your ear to help you determine this.
• From this list of songs, select those that are pentatonic:
"America" "Ifca's Castle"
"Go to Sleep" "It's Raining"
"Hot Cross Buns"
PENTATONIC SCALES
You used a black-note pentatonic scale when improvising.
• Play a pentatonic scale starting on F-sharp and using the five black keys of the
keyboard.
• Write the F-sharp pentatonic scale on this staff.

PENTATONIC 151
Analyze the intervals (half-steps and whole steps) between the pitches of the
pentatonic scale. Mark them on the scale you have written. (Appendix.)
You should have found whole steps between all the pitches of the pentatonic
scale except between the third and fourth degrees of the scale. A step and a half
occurs between three and four in the pentatonic scale you are using. There are other
ways of describing this interval:
a whole step plus a half-step.
three half-steps.
a minor third.
In a pentatonic scale,
whole steps occur between

a minor third occurs between
half-steps occur between
(Appendix.)
Write a pentatonic scale beginning on G.
Write a G major scale. Cross out the fourth and seventh scale degrees.
(Appendix.)
Compare the G pentatonic scale and the G major scale without degrees 4 and
7. If you have written them accurately, they should be the same.
Play the G pentatonic scale you have written to learn its sound.
Write and play these pentatonic scales:
F pentatonic Eb pentatonic
C pentatonic A pentatonic
152 PENTATONIC
• Practice singing pentatonic scales using numbers, syllables, and letter names. Use
the keyboard to support your singing if you need help in singing accurately. Aim
to sing independently as soon as you can.
1 2 3 5 6
D E Ftt A B
Go to Sleep
• Analyze the melody of "Go to Sleep." Are any of the measures the same? Can
you identify parts of the melody that look like sections of the scale? What scale
does it sound like?
• Play the melody on the keyboard. Use your right thumb (1) on the F, your right
little finger (5) on C.
• Sing the melody using letter names.
• Sing the melody using numbers.
• Sing the melody using syllables.
If you need to play the melody as you sing to help you with accuracy or
confidence, do so, but try not to become totally dependent on the keyboard.
Challenge yourself to sing a cappella (voice alone, without an instrument).
• Transpose the melody of "Go to Sleep" to black keys; that is, shift from the white
keys where you just read and played it correctly, to the black keys half a step
higher.
• Sing the melody in this new key.
• Sing the melody in the new key while you improvise an accompaniment on the
black keys. By this time you should have decided correctly that this song is in the
pentatonic mode.
• Transpose "Go to Sleep" into the G pentatonic mode. Begin playing the melody
on G.
Look at the key signature for "Go to Sleep." Why didn't you play the
indicated flat when you played the piece? Your observation that there is no B-flat
in the melody is correct. Why has a flat been written there? That flat is part of the
key signature. It helps tell what scale the melody is based on, and what chords can
be used to accompany the melody. Some pieces, such as this one, can be in the
pentatonic mode but also have a major key signature and can be harmonized with
PENTA TONIC 153
a major tonality. This gives you flexibility in developing different types of accom-
paniment for the piece.
What is the name of the major key with one flat?
• Play an F chord with your left hand— little finger on F (5), middle finger on A (3), thumb on C (1). Practice
playing the F chord with a steady beat.
L.H.
"Go to Sleep" is a piece that can be played or sung with one chord in the accompaniment. Use the F chord
on two steady beats per measure while you sing the melody. When you are able to coordinate your singing
and chord playing confidently, try playing the melody with your right hand, while the left hand plays the
chords.
• Transpose the piece to the key of F-sharp major by raising all the pitches one half-step. Later, you may
decide to use more than one chord when playing "Go to Sleep," to give greater variety to the
accompaniment.
Roll Over
• Analyze this melody. Is it pentatonic? If so, improvise an accompaniment for it.
Old MacDonald
This piece is in the key of Its meter signature tells that
What is its form?
(Appendix.)
• Play the melody and harmony of "Old MacDonald" on piano, recorder, autoharp, or guitar.
• After you have played it as written, transpose it on the piano to this key:
• Name the key. (Appendix.)
• Play the melody on the piano using all black keys. Create a black key accompaniment for it.
Rocky Mountain
What kind of rest appears at the end of each phrase of this song?
• Use rhythm syllables to say the rhythm.
In what key is "Rocky Mountain"?

154 PENTATONIC
• Try to play both the melody and the harmony in this key. If this is too difficult, transpose the piece up a
half-step. This transposition puts the piece in the key of (Appendix.) To transpose the meiody,
play all the notes one half-step higher than they are written. Move all the notes of the chords one half-step
higher, also.
• Play Rocky Mountain' in the new key on the instrument(s) of your choice. Although you transposed this
piece into another key to make it easier to play, sometimes you transpose songs to make singing ranges
more suitable.
Swing Low. Sweet Chariot

In w hat key is
'
"Swing Low. Sweet Chariot'" Does it use all the notes of the
major scale? If not, what is missing? (Appendix.)
• Play "
Swing Low . Sweet Chariot*" as written in your music book, observing the
D.C. al Fine. D.C. al Fine is an abbreviation for the Italian phrase "
da capo al
fine" (from the head to the end). Itmeans that you go back to the beginning and
continue until the end. which is marked by the word Fine. This is not to be
confused with D.S. al Fine (dal segno al fine) that indicates a repetition starting at
the sign I I and ending at the word Fine.
• Transpose ""Swing Low Sweet Chariot"' to the black keys starting the melody on
.
B-flat. Are there problems in doing it'1 Does it sound right?

• Roll (play consecutively) your accompaniment notes from the bottom to the top to sound like a harp for the
first two lines (broken chords). Play block chords (all the notes sounding at the same time) for the other
lines.
Singing on the Old Camp Ground

• Play and sing '"Singing on the Old Camp Ground." In what key is it? (Appendix.)
• Play it starting on A-sharp. Can you play it completely on black keys?
Ifca's Castle
• Play and sing '"Ifca"s Castle. "

In what key is it? (Appendix.)
The Old Brass Wagon

• Play and sing ""The Old Brass Wagon." In what key is it? Would it be easier for
you to play it if you transposed it to the key of G? (Appendix.)
PENTATONIC 155
Skin and Bones

• Play and sing "Skin and Bones." In what key is it? Would it be easier for you to
play it if you transposed it to the key of G-flat pentatonic?
• Improvise accompaniments to pentatonic songs using the keyboard, your record-

er, or pitched percussion instruments such as xylophones, metallophones, or
glockenspiels. Be tempos and dynamics for your
careful to choose appropriate
creative work. Because half-steps are missing in the pentatonic mode, it is rela-
tively easy to produce satisfactory harmonizations. Try to create an accompani-
ment to match the mood of the melody and the words of the songs.
MUSIC CHECK
PENTATONIC
SCALES
IMPROVISATION
ANALYSIS OF MELODIES
IDENTIFICATION
CHAPTER 11
CREATING
MUSIC
It will take only a few minutes to read the material in this chapter, but if you try
the creative activities suggested here, you may find yourself engaged in enjoyable,
creative expressions that will make your life increasingly richer. Creative
behavior grows, matures, and flourishes if you are willing to take the risk of
developing intuition, trying alternatives, and putting together musical ideas that
you may not have heard before.
If you are asked to write a symphony, you may not have it ready by tomor-
row. If you have never tried to write a symphony, the assignment will be a
formidable task. The problem with certain assignments is that they are too large,
too unfamiliar, too complicated, to be comprehensible. Yet, doing simpler tasks
may eventually result in the completion of a more complicated task, and if you are
reasonably successful in the simpler tasks, you may eventually find yourself com-
pleting assignments that will amaze even you as you become aware of the ad-
vanced level of the product you are creating. Furthermore, you may find that even
when no one is giving you assignments to complete, you continue to assume a high
degree of self-motivation for using the skills you have developed as vehicles for
your creative imagination in ways that may now seem out of the question.
The purpose of this chapter is to help you begin to realize some of your
potential creative musical ability. You may be relieved to know you won't be
asked to write a symphony by the end of the chapter! In fact, the creative ac-
tivities of this chapter need not be viewed as serious, traditional composition.
156
CREATING MUSIC 157
They are intended to help you develop an attitude toward creativity that will help
you expand your freedom of musical expression.
Creative behavior in music does not necessarily result in an end product.
Musical creativity can be a process of dealing with sound in ways that are differ-
ent. It is not necessary that you produce a product for future use. Musical
creativity can be defined, in part, as the human search for organization and re-
organization of musical materials in ways that are unique for that individual. The
more that an individual practices creativity, the more chance there is that truly
unique products may result.
ENVIRONMENTAL SOUND COMPOSITION

• Look around the room. Pick out five sound-producers of any kind. Gather the
sound-producers together so you can manipulate them from a central location.
See how many different sounds you can produce with each. Devise a variety of
ways for producing sound with them. Try striking, rubbing, plucking, tapping,
blowing, pulling, tearing (be careful, this is intended for disposable products
only), shaking, dropping, pushing, or any other way you can devise to make the
sound. Vary the production of the sound. For example, ifyou are striking the
object, vary the intensity of the impact to change the dynamics. Change the tempo
of your striking action. Use different objects as striking implements for variety in
timbre: hard or soft, large or small, thick or thin, rigid or flexible, single or
multiple. It is possible that you have chosen sound-producers that cannot be
manipulated by you, such as an animal noise or the household sound of a clock
ticking. If the sound cannot be changed by you, how can you include it as part of
your composition?
As you experiment with these objects, begin to make judgments about the
sounds you are producing with them.
1. Do any of them make sounds you find attractive, unusual, bizarre, horrible,
exciting, mundane, beautiful, sickening, sublime?
2. Do some of them have such affinity for each other that they could become
part of a unified means of expression?
3. Do some of them contrast in interesting ways so they could be used to
develop variety in sound passages?
4. Do some of them demand a higher level of performing skill than others?
5. Could some of them be used at the same time so a thick texture of sound
could result from their combination? If this is done, would more than one
performer be needed to produce the desired texture?
158 CREATING MUSIC
The questions you are dealing with are questions composers answer in the
course of writing music. They are also questions considered by performers in-
volved in improvisation. A main difference betw een the behavior of the composer
and the improvisor is that the former produces notation for another musician to
use to recreate the music. In the past, this distinction was more significant: Be-
cause the improvisor creates without notation, it used to be that nothing w as left
for another musician to use to recreate the music. Today, in the age of electronics,
that distinction has become blurred. The improvisor still does not write the music
in regular notation for future use. but electronic inventions such as video and
audio tape recorders have made it possible to keep a permanent record of the
music as it is being made. The recreation of the original work is made possible by
having an aural product to study and learn through audible example. In your
creative w ork, keep in mind that recordings are useful options if you w ish to pass
your musical products on to others. Both the written and the aural model have
value. You should try to determine which of these models is your best means of
transmitting your own creations if you wish to preserve or share them.
• Now organize your musical materials. From the five sound-producers you found
.
and the variations you developed with them, select the sound you find most
interesting. Decide on a time allotment for the sound to be made.
1. Within that time allotment, how will you produce the sound
2. Does it have melodic potential?
3. Do you have a rhythmic organization for the sound?
4. Do you prefer to use more than one sound at a time?
Notice that these questions deal w ith the elements of timbre, melody, rhythm, and
harmony.
Consider the element of form.
L How much unity do you desire in the composition you are developing?
2. How much variety do you wish to have?
3. Is there a simple song form that will help give you the unity you desire (AB.
ABA ABA CA ABA CADA
. , . .ABA CABA I ?
4. Would you rather have a through-composed composition (one w ithout re-

peated sections) to allow the variety you seek?
If you need help w ith organization or in remembering ideas, consider jotting

notes to yourself as to the organization of your composition.
L What do you want to happen first?
2. What next?
CREATING MUSIC 159
3. What stylistic attributes will you include? What will give your composition
its own individual characteristics?
4. How do you want the sound produced?
you make these notes in a thorough enough fashion so that someone else
If
could recreate your intention, you have just written a score for your composition.
Although a score is conventionally written with notes, rhythms, and so on, an
environmental sound composition such as the one you are creating can use non-
conventional notation and still effectively transmit the composer's intentions.
• Continue to develop your creative work with environmental sounds until you have
a composition you can share with others. The sharing can be done in different
ways. Choose one of these:
1. Write a score that will enable others to recreate your composition.

2. Perform your composition for other people.
3. Tape your composition so others can listen to it.
4. Gather together enough people to make an ensemble to play the composi-

tion. Teach them how to play it so it sounds the way you want.
OSTINATOS
Ostinato is a term for a melodic pattern repeated unchanged throughout a com-
position. The ostinato of the baroque period was often used in the bass part and
was called "basso ostinato" or "ground bass." Ostinatos can be used in any part.
In addition to melodic ostinatos, rhythmic ones (nonpitched) are also used. They
can be instrumental or vocal. The nature of the music to which they are attached
helps determine the nature of the ostinato. The key or the chord progressions of
the piece must be such that a consistent repetition of the ostinato can take place
without creating inappropriate conflict. Ostinatos are found in folk music through-
out the world.
• Listen to the didgeridoo ostinato in "Bungalin Bungalin" (Tape 23).
One-chord songs lend themselves to the development of ostinatos. A simple

way of creating an ostinato for a one-chord song is to develop a pattern using the
notes of that one chord, and words related to the song.
The G chord can be used to accompany "The Frogs." These ostinatos are
two of many that will go with it.
Hear the songs. Brr - umph!

160 CREATING MUSIC
• Create two one-measure melodic ostinatos for "The Frogs" using only the pitches
of the G chord.
• Create one two-measure rhythmic ostinato to go with "The Frogs."
• Sing or play the ostinatos while someone else sings the melody of the song. (If you
are doing this assignment alone, tape the melody, then try your ostinatos with the
taped melody.)
• Create at least one ostinato for:
"Are You Sleeping"

"Lady Come"
"Shalom Chaverim"
Pentatonic songs also lend themselves to the development of ostinatos. Be
sure to use only the notes of the pentatonic scale that match the song. Decide
whether you wish the ostinato to be played or sung.
• Create a two-measure pattern using the pentatonic scale to play or sing with the
melody of these songs:
"Go to Sleep"
"The Old Brass Wagon"
"Singing on the Old Camp Ground"
"Skin and Bones"
"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot"
IMPROVISATION
If you think of improvisation solely as "making it up as you go along," you do not
have the complete picture in mind. It is true that improvisation is a spontaneous
activity, but there is almost always a plan connected with it. The plan may be a
rhythmic design, a melodic structure, a chord progression, a formal idea, ex-
pressive applications, or combinations of all the above. Before embarking on
improvisation, have some kind of a scheme in mind. Write it down if you are
afraid that you may forget it. Here are suggestions for some things you may plan in
advance.
CREATING MUSIC 161
OSTINATO-BASED
Instead of creating an ostinato to go with a song, start with an ostinato. Determine

the key, the meter, and the rhythmic and melodic aspects of the ostinato and
whether it is to be played or sung. If you are creating this musical experience
alone, tape the ostinato so you are free to improvise while it plays. An alternative
to taping is for you to play the ostinato while you improvise vocally. Decide
whether words are to be part of the improvisation or not. Scat singers use sylla-
no words. The singers don't convey literary meaning
bles effectively, often with
through the syllables, but by changing the consonants, vowels, and style, they
explore much variety of expression.
Create two ostinatos with contrasting moods. Improvise in styles matching the
moods. Analyze the different techniques you implemented to make the dif-
ferences in styles.
PITCHED PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS
School children throughout the world engage in musical experiences using pitched
percussion instruments, to a large extent because of the influence of Carl Orff
(1895-1982). The evolution of Orff s philosophy of music education resulted in the
development of a combination of language, movement, creativity, and playing of
instruments that enables beginning musicians to have very musical experiences.
Orff encouraged the use of pitched and nonpitched instruments for creative play-
ing. The families of pitched instruments used in the Orff process are the xy-
lophone, metallophone, and glockenspiel. The xylophone has wooden bars; both
the metallophone and glockenspiel have bars made of metal. The bars of the
metallophone are heavier and larger so their sounds are different than the high,
crisp sound of the glockenspiel.
All the instruments are made with removable bars, so pitches that are unnec-
essary for a particular piece can be taken off the instrument to avoid striking them
unintentionally.
If you have access to these instruments, use them to create an instrumental

composition:
1. Determine the pentatonic scale you wish to use.
2. Remove all the bars for notes not in that pentatonic scale.
162 CREATING MUSIC
3. Decide on the mood of the composition.

4. Select the timbre of instrument(s) that enhances the mood you have
selected.
5. Set the tempo for the piece.
6. Create an ostinato appropriate for the mood.

7. Decide w hether you want more than one ostinato. If you decide on more
than one. determine whether they are to be used continuously or
alternatively.
8. Decide on the form to be used when creating the melody.

9. As members of the ensemble play the ostinato(s). improvise a melody of
your own on one of the instruments, staying in the pentatonic mode and
realizing the form you have decided to use.
10. Analyze the components of the ensemble as to their effectiveness in main-

taining the mood you desire. Make changes for improvement if necessary.
LANGUAGE-BASED
Creative music can spring from a language base. Because language is easier for
many people to handle than is music, association with aspects of language may
make music composition easier.
RAP
Start a steady beat, then talk aloud creating rhythm patterns superimposed over
the steady beat. A special challenge is to rap creatingrhyming phrases.
QUESTION AND ANSWER. MELODIC COMPOSITION
If you are asked to answer a question using language, there is a good chance you
can do it. If you are asked to answer the question in several different ways,
depending on the question, you probably can do that too. Beginning to create
music can be as simple as responding to questions in language. Many musical
creations are combinations of smaller musical tasks and inspirations put together
in different ways.
• Sing this question with your own melody: "How are you today?** Sing it several
times to memorize your melody. Now. make up a singing conversation that you
might have with other people. Alternate your question with as many answers to
the question as you can devise. The sample conversation below is included only
to give you an idea of a possible w ay to get started. Your conversation could, and
should, be longer, have different questions, and have many more answers.
CREATING MUSIC 163
Hov< are you to - day? Great, ter-ri-fk. swell.
• Carry on musical conversations with other people too. Find a compatible person
who will sing questions and answers with you. Try to incorporate the following in
your musical conversations:
1. Answers with beginnings similar to beginnings of questions asked.
Q. Was the moon out last night
A. I did • n't see it, I was sleep - ing!
2. Answers with melodies differing from the questions. Note that even though
pitches can differ, use of similar language in answering questions may force
rhythm to be similar.
8
Q. Did you hear the sound of the rain up • on the roof?
A. Yes, I heard the sound of the rain up -

on the roof!
164 CREATING MUSIC
3. Questions with ambiguous cadences followed by answers with a strong

sense of completion.
Q. What is your fa - vor - ite col - or?
A. Not one, but or - ange, pink and red.
There is a risk in singing conversations. Because you have to think about

music as well as words, your conversation may not be completely coherent. Your
melodies may not be masterpieces either, at first. The more you practice, the
better they should become because you spend time working on them. These
weaknesses in in some operas in
your musical conversation can also be found
contemporary repertoire. Even the sung conversations of an experienced com-
poser may not be great demonstrations of musicality. (In opera, recitatives are
used by the composer for conversation as well as narration to move the story
ahead. They are usually interspersed between melodious arias that often deal
more effectively with music than story development.)
Creating musical conversations in this way can be enjoyable and challenging
for the musician starting to explore personal creativity.
POETRY
Songs have traditionally been produced by a wedding of poetry and music. Song-
writers do not agree as to whether the creation of a song begins with the poetry or
the music. Some creative artists write words to fit a piece of music; more often,
the music is written to fit the words. The latter procedure begins with poetry.
• Take a short, favorite poem, or create one with a regular meter. (Nonmetrical
poetry can also be set to music; find the rhythm of each individual phrase, then
proceed with step number three below.)
1. Say the poem with emphasis on its metrical organization. If it is a measured

poem, the meter will emerge.
2. Clap the strong beats and click the weak beats as you say the poem.
3. Begin to sing it rhythmically, in a way similar to the musical conversations
you developed.
CREATING MUSIC 165
4. Refine the musical phrases. Remember the best ones. Reject ones that you
do not like or that you feel are not supportive of the text. Be influenced by
the answers to those of the following questions that seem appropriate to
your composition. Not all the questions will apply equally to every poem.
a. Does your rhythm match the rhythm of the poem 1
b. Is there a high point of excitement or emotion in the text?
c. Does the melody you have created enhance the high point of the text?
d. Should the pitch be higher, the dynamics louder, the rhythm more
1
intense where the climax of the poem takes place'
e. Does the poem suggest a formal structure that would benefit from
having certain melodic phrases repeated?
f. Have you a sense of a certain key emerging?
g. Are you singing in major, minor, pentatonic?
h. What chords can be used to support the melody?
i. Do your cadences give a sense of completion or noncompletion that is
appropriate for the text?
5. Write your song in music notation or tape its performance.

6. After a period of time, return to your song. Do you like it as it is? Have you
thought of changes to improve it?
VARIATIONS
Creativity in music need not always be completely original. You can be creative
by making changes in established materials. Theme and variations is a popular
form that takes a melody (theme) and presents it several times, each time with
unique changes.
• Listen to •"Variations on America" (Tape 10), and "Bravour —Variations on a

Theme from Mozart" (Tape 17). List ways these composers changed the original
songs.
• Sing and play the melodies for "America" and "Twinkle. Twinkle. Little Star"
(same melody as the "Alphabet Song").
• Sing and play them with a meter change.
• Change the rhythm of the melody. Add dotted notes, syncopation, and rests
where they have not been before.
166 CREATING MUSIC
• Play the melody of '"Twinkle" adding upper neighbors to the melody. The follow-
ing is an example of added upper neighbors:
Twin - kle. twin - kle, lit - tie star
• Play the melody of "Twinkle"' adding low er neighbors to the melody. The follow-
ing is an example of added lower neighbors:
How I won • der what you are?
The last measure of the preceding example shows a different kind of embellish-
ment: The E sounds at first like an upper neighbor, but instead of returning to
melody note D. it moves to an F. still further away from the melody. Such an
embellishment is called a passing tone. Upper and lower neighbors generally
return to the melody note from which they departed with no intermediary notes.
• Try other combinations using passing tones (nonharmonic notes leading stepwise
in the same direction from one note to another member of the chord) and other
variations that maintain some relationship to the original melody. The following
example illustrates passing tones:
Up a - bove the world _ so high
• Play or sing a variation of either 'Twinkle. Twinkle. Little Star"' or "Yankee

Doodle" combining the techniques you have used to change the melody
creatively.
Alternative harmonizations add variety to musical compositions. Any single

note of a melody occurs in at least three chords, as the root, the third, or the fifth.
Root Third Fifth
C Am F
CREATING MUSIC 167
To give variety to a harmonization, try changing from the original chord to one of
the other two possibilities in which the melody note appears. Play and listen to the
alternatives suggested here for the first phrase of "Twinkle."
C <£m) (Dm) C (Dm)

@ (7) G C
Twin - kle, twin kle, lit tie star. How I won - dei what you are?
Alternative chords are circled.
• Devise alternate harmonizations for either "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star" or

"America."
• Select a different melody that you know. Make any changes you wish in melody or
harmony to reflect your creativity.
SUMMARY
Creative expression demands a more personal involvement than any other aspect
of music making. It is somewhat threatening to think that listeners may not like
your creation. It is The most important
not realistic to think that everyone will.
consideration for you is whether or not you are happy with the creative efforts you
make. If you are not, change, revise, invent, until the music you make is accept-
able to you. Your efforts may result in breaking traditional rules of composition.
Keep in mind that new rules come into being because of creative efforts that
expand human acceptance of aural organization. You may find that you are un-
happy with some aspects of your creativity. That may mean you have violated
rules of composition that have been ingrained in your ear because of the culture
you are in. If this is true, it will be useful for you to study composition to find more
about rules used traditionally and then determine whether your musical creativity
isenhanced or inhibited by application of conventions of musical composition.
When you are looking for a really special gift for someone, consider giving
music you have created.
168 CREATING MUSIC
MUSIC CHECK
CREATIVITY OSTINATO
ENVIRONMENTAL SOUNDS ORFF
COMPOSITION PITCHED PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS
IMPROVISATION LANGUAGE-BASED
CREATIVE ORGANIZATION ARIA
WRITING/TAPING RECITATIVE
THROUGH-COMPOSED VARIATIONS
STYLE UPPER NEIGHBORS
SCORE LOWER NEIGHBORS

SCAT SINGER PASSING TONES
ALTERNATIVE HARMONIZATIONS
CHAPTER 12
LISTENING
Music exists because we are able to hear it, but even when we hear it, we do not
always listen to it. All of your associations with music should involve listening.
Your music education requires active listening! There is a great deal of difference
between merely being in a room where music is played and actively listening to
the music.
Since the beginning of your work with this text, you have been encouraged
to listen. This chapter expands concepts mentioned before and introduces un-
familiar ones to help your listening acuity; it synthesizes concepts already ex-
plored and suggests others for your future study. It is likely that many of the
concepts have been part of the work done in class with your instructor. Two main
perspectives will be developed in this chapter:
1. Ear-training for the functioning musician.
a. melodic dictation
b. aural analysis
1) harmony
2) form
3) timbre
2. Music literature for the educated musician.

a. cultures
b. periods
169
170 LISTENING
EAR-TRAINING
Even if you listen very well, you cannot always identify what you hear. Ear-
training is a process of helping you to identify what you hear and to develop the
vocabulary, both in music and in language, to describe it.
You have already been involved in ear-training experiences. You have iden-
tified such things as high and low pitches, meters, scales, chords, rhythm patterns,
expressive devices, and so on. How fluent are you in translating the sound of
music into notation?
MELODIC DICTATION
Perhaps your instructor has already played melodies for you to notate. The pro-
cess of hearing a melody and then writing it down generally begins with the
dictation of melodic fragments of a few measures, gradually increasing to longer
phrases as the student develops skill. It is useful for you to be able to write music
as you hear it live. When your instructor is not available, work with another
student playing or singing melodies for you to notate. Be sure that you know the
starting pitch, the key, and the meter when you begin. You are not expected to
—
have perfect pitch that is, the ability to identify the pitch the melody starts on
without having it given by a stable pitch producer such as a pitch pipe or an
instrument. Once you have the starting pitch, determine the pitches that follow by
their relationship to each other. Start with very easy ones such as these.
Progress to more difficult melodies only when you can write the easy ones with
facility.
If writing melodies is difficult for you, begin with rhythm patterns only.
When you can write the rhythm patterns from dictation, try pitch patterns alone.
Finally, put pitch and rhythm together.
You can continue the development of your ability to take melodic dictation
by recalling a familiar melody. This requires the use of your inner ear. Beethoven
had an uncanny ability to use his inner ear. During the last years of his life, when
he was writing some of his best music, he was so deaf that he had difficulty hearing
the orchestra performing his work. Still, his inner ear enabled him to hear the
music in his imagination.
I. Write the melody for "America" ("God Save the Queen") in the key of F.
(This exercise is constructed on the premise that you know the song. Sub-
stitute another if you do not know this one.)
LISTENING 171
2. Before writing the pitches, establish the meter signature and the melodic
rhythm.
3. The melody begins on Do, which is F. Add the pitches of the melody to the
melodic rhythm you have noted.
4. Add tempo and dynamic markings.
5. Play the music you have written.
6. If your notation disagrees with the sound you expected, correct it.
7. Compare your writing with the notation of "America" in this book. Play
your version and the printed version. If they differ, is the difference because
you had a different aural image, or did you notate what you wanted to hear
incorrectly?
8. Analyze problems you may have had in order to determine the area(s) in
which you need help: meter, rhythm pattern, pitch, or the like.
Some students develop certain musical abilities more quickly than others. If
you do not possess the skill of taking melodic dictation immediately, don't give
up: your ability can be improved with practice.
• Write themelody of "America, the Beautiful," using the process outlined for
"America." The melody of "America, the Beautiful" begins on so. Write it in the
key of B-flat. When you have finished, compare your work with the score for
"America, the Beautiful" found in this book.
• Select two pieces you know well. Write their melodies.
If your inner ear has not developed enough to help you notate familiar
music, an intermediary step is to use an instrument to "pick out" the melody
before notating it. Use this procedure as an ear-training device until you can
notate the music without the aid of the instrument.
AURAL ANALYSIS
You have analyzed songs from printed notation. How much can you tell about
music using your ear alone? you do not have perfect pitch, you are limited in
If
telling exactly what pitches are used, but you can tell a lot about a piece of music
without knowing the exact pitches. Relative pitch enables you to write melodic
dictation because you are aware of the relationships of pitches to each other.
Aural analysis is dependent upon your ability to perceive what you are hearing
about all the elements of music and their relationships.
1. Can you determine the relative tempo and dynamics of what you hear?
2. What timbre(s) are used in the music?
3. What is the meter of the music?

*72 _S~=\ S3
4. What are the rhythmic characteristics?
5. What is its form?

6. What is the harmonic structure?
Notice that the questions posed are similar to those appearing on the MAS (Music
Analysis Sheet you have used
i when looking at song scores. The AM 5 can be used
for aural analysis as well. The sections that follow will delve more deeply into
some of the elements of music in order to increase your ability to analyze music
aurally.
Harmony
The songs in this text, for the most part, use vertical harmony. That is. the
songs have melodies with chordal accompaniment to go with them. Vertical har-
mony also called homophony. The F and C7 chords used with the melody for
is
"'Will You Come?" create homophonic harmony.

Some of your songs have used horizontal harmony: that is. their harmonies
have resulted either from the same melody being used by more than one voice
singing at the same time but beginning and ending at different times, or from
different melodies being performed simultaneously. The use of melodies to pro-
duce harmony creates polyphony. Examples of polyphonic music are rounds,
canons, and fugues. "Will You Come?" produces polyphonic harmony when
used as a three-part round with voices entering at four-measure intervals.
When a melody is harmony added either homophonically or
alone, with no
polyphonically. the music is called monophony. Gregorian chant (Tape 2) illus-
trates monophonic music. "Will You Come?" is monophonic when its melody is
used without chordal accompaniment and without the entrance of voices at differ-
ent times to make it a round.
'
Will You Come?" ""Hark to the Singing." and "Coffee" are partner
songs. They can be performed with each other. This produces a type of polyphony
different from the round. Their distinctive melodies combine to produce harmony.
The interesting feature of these songs is that they each can also be used as rounds,
thus producing theirown polyphonic harmony without partnering with the others.
Beware: These songs function as partner songs and as rounds because the chord
changes of their phrases occur in the same places, and the chords are the same.
Songs without compatible chords and chord progressions are not rounds and will
not work as rounds.
• Can the three partner songs be used monophonically and homophonically as well
as polyphonically?
LISTENING 173
• Examples of monophonic, homophonic, and polyphonic music are all found in

"Hallelujah!" from Handel's Messiah (Tape 20). Analyze it aurally to find the
different textures (horizontal and vertical use of sounds). Locate the textures with
the words of the piece that match their occurrences. After you have done this,
check your analysis in the Appendix.
Form
Analyze the form of music using your ear alone. Identify phrases that are
alike, that are similar, and that are completely unlike each other. Begin by listen-
ing to simple songs, then progress to larger works. Find sources in libraries and
record shops with scores as well as records or tapes so you can compare your
aural analysis with written notation to see if you are accurate.
Music is organized in many forms. You have used a few of them, such as
ABA, AB, and so on; there are still many others. The forms listed here show some
of the contrasting means of organizing music, which are worth more intensive
attention in your future attempts at analyzing music aurally.
Fugue: There are many different forms of the fugue. They all use poly-
phonic harmony. Usually, a given number of parts or voices enter one by one
stating the main theme, based alternately on the tonic (subject) and dominant
(answer). After the initial statement of the subject, the same voice usually con-
tinues with another melody called the countersubject. Episodes occur between
statements of the subject, often using short melodic fragments (motives) derived
from the subject or countersubject. The theme(s) may be altered for variety
through diminution (shortening notes), augmentation (lenghening notes), frag-
mentation (using only parts of the themes), retrograde (using the notes of a theme
in reverse order), inversion (using a theme with all its intervals inverted), and so
on. Johann Sebastian Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier contains many fugues. Each
of them is coupled with a prelude (companion or introductory piece coming before
the fugue.)
Theme and Variations: This form occurs when a main theme is stated and
then restated with changes. The changes may amplify, elaborate, or extend the
main theme. Good examples of theme and variations are Charles Ives's "Varia-
tionson America" Tape 10) and "Bravour, Variations on a Theme from Mozart"
(
(Tape 17).
Ternary (ABA) Form: This widely used form can be found in simple songs
and also in very elaborate works. Sonata-allegro form (or sonata form) is a large
ABA form. It consists of an exposition (usually stating two main themes), a devel-
174 LISTENING
opment (in which the themes are stated in different ways such as those described
under alterations of the fugal themes, as well as modulations, sequences, and so
on), a recapitulation (in which the themes are stated more closely to the way they
were stated in the exposition). Key changes are crucial to the interest generated
by this form. A splendid example of sonata-allegro form is Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart's Symphony No. 40 in G minor, first movement.
Rondo: Repetition of a main theme between contrasting themes results in a

rondo form. It can use any of these arrangements: ABACA, ABACADA, ABA-
CABA. Sonatas by Mozart and Beethoven contain fine examples of rondos. (The
use of the word sonata in this case refers to a piece containing several movements
or separate sections. One section usually uses the sonata-allegro or sonata form
described above. Another section may use rondo form.)
Timbre
The tone color, quality, or timbre of voices and instruments used to make
music provides some of its greatest interest. Instruments are often classified ac-
cording to the families to which they belong in the symphony orchestra.
The four instrumental symphony orchestra are the strings,

families of the
brass, woodwinds, and percussion. The most numerous members of the orchestra
are the strings; the greatest variety is found in the percussion family.
Strings.Four members of the string family look very much alike except for
and string bass. They all are played with a bow,
their size: the violin, viola, cello,
except when their strings are plucked (pizzicato) for special effects. The move-
ment of the bow hairs across the string sets it vibrating to produce the sound.
Pitches are changed by the fingers on the fingerboard. As they shorten the string,
the pitch becomes higher. The "f" holes help produce the distinctive sound of
these string instruments. A warm string sound is produced when the left hand
moves rapidly back and forth while the finger tip remains in contact with the string
(vibrato.) Violin and viola players can either sit or stand to play. Cello players
always sit with the instrument between their legs. The player of the string bass
often stands, but has the option of leaning on a high stool.
The member of the string family that is different in appearance is the harp.
The harpist always sits to play, uses only the fingers, and has pedals to change the
pitches from flats to naturals to sharps.
• Listen to "Modere" (Tape 18) to hear the violin and cello. Find at least five other
pieces on your tape in which you can identify the sound of the string family.
The harp will be most prominent in "Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun" (Tape
19).
LISTENING 175
String Family: violin, viola, cello, and double bass, (photo courtesy of Jon Blumb)
The difference between a symphony orchestra and a band is the presence or

absence of strings. Compare the sound of the band playing "Semper Fidelis"
(Tape 8) and the orchestra playing "Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun" (Tape
19).
Brass. All the members of the brass family use a cup-shaped mouthpiece to
focus a column of air activated by vibrating lips into the body of the instrument.
All brass instruments (except the slide trombone) use valves to help make pitches
available by lengthening and shortening the tubing of the instrument. The trumpet
and tuba usually have piston valves (some have rotary valves); the French horn
has rotary valves; the trombone has a slide to lengthen and shorten the pipe when
changing pitch. Piston valves work up and down; rotary valves turn in a circular
motion.
All brass players use variable lip tension and breath support in addition to
changing the length of the tubing for different pitches. Although these instruments
are no longer all made of brass, with a few exceptions they are all made of metal.
The most notable exception is the fiberglass Sousaphone used by marching bands.
The Sousaphone was originally developed at the suggestion of John Phillip Sousa
as an easier-to-carry substitute for tubas in marching bands. Its bell configuration
also broadened the dispersion of sound. The weight of the Sousaphone rests on
Brass Family: tuba, piccolo trumpet, C trumpet, French horn, and alto, tenor, and bass trombones.
(photo courtesy of Jon Blumb)
the player's shoulder; modern use of fiberglass instead of metal has lightened the
weight considerably.
• Listen to "Andante" (Tape 12) for the distinctive sound of the trumpet. Til
Eulenspiegel (Tape 14) gives a good example of the French horn.
Woodwinds. Instruments with intricate keys and holes belong to the wood-
wind family. Originally their bodies were made of wood; now they are sometimes
constructed of other materials. Flutes and piccolos are generally made of metal,
although piccolos may be made of wood or plastic. Very fine flutes may be made
of gold or platinum. Clarinets are usually made of wood, but plastic is also used.
(The use of metal for beginning clarinetists seems to have given way to plastic.)
Saxophones are traditionally metal instruments.

Alternate materials for making woodwind instruments have been introduced
in a quest for improving quality, but other factors have been responsible for
changes as well. Some new materials are less expensive or easier to maintain.
Oboes and bassoons are not often purchased for children and beginners.
This may be them continuing to be made of wood (with very
a factor in most of
few Both of these instruments have their vibrating columns of
plastic exceptions).
air activated by a double reed, two pieces of reed bound together and carefully
shaped, usually by the player. Clarinets and saxophones use single reeds. Flutes
and piccolos have no reeds. Their column of air is activated by the musician
blowing across a round hole held at a right angle to the body. Pitch on these
LISTENING 177
Woodwind Family: baritone saxophone, alto saxophone, piccolo, flute, clarinet, bass clarinet, oboe,
English horn, bassoon, and contrabassoon. (photo courtesy of Jon Blumb)
instruments is changed by varying the length of the air column, which is controlled
by the number of holes covered by the fingers.
• Listen to "Phantasiestiicke" for the sound of the clarinet (Tape 1 1) and "Triste" for
the sound of the bassoon (Tape 16). Can you find the sound of the flute in "Prelude to
the Afternoon of a Faun" (Tape 19)?
Percussion. The percussion family includes the timpani, gong, cymbals,

triangle, celeste, maracas, guiro, tambourine snare drum, bass drum, marimba,
,
xylophone, glockenspiel, metallophone, whip, wood block, bongo drum, temple

blocks, and chimes. It is difficult to list all the members of the percussion family.
There are many of them, and for certain literature instruments are added to the
orchestra for the special effect desired by the composer. Contemporary com-
posers have added the sound of breaking bottles, brake discs to be hit, and more.
The percussion family includes any instruments that are struck (or shaken,
tapped, and so on) to produce their sound. Some are pitched; some are
nonpitched.
• Listen to the excerptfrom The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra for an
example of timpani and other percussion sounds (Tape 15).
One of the problems with classifying instruments according to the families of

orchestral instruments is that these families are not all-inclusive. The guitar is
generally omitted. Ethnic instruments are ignored. The piano is placed in the
Percussion Family: gong, cymbals, orchestral bells (Glockenspiel), xylophone, timpani (kettle
drums), snare drum, and bass drum, (photo courtesy of Jon Blumb)
percussion or the string family depending upon whether its use of strings, or its
hammering action is perceived to be most important.

Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs published another system for classify-
ing instruments in 1914: It deals with the categorization of instruments according
to the way sound is produced. The categories used are the aerophones,
their
idiophones, membranophones chordophones, mechanical and electrophones:
,
AEROPHONES. These instruments produce sound by the vibration of air.

The group includes woodwinds, brass, bagpipes, whistles, recorders, mouth
the
organs, accordians, and organs.
IDIOPHONES. The instruments in this classification are made of sonorous

material and produce their sound in a variety of ways. They are stamped, shaken,
scraped, plucked, hit, rubbed, clashed. Among the instruments in this category
are metallophones, xylophones, bells, rattles, jingles, gongs, cymbals, steel
drums, slit drums, clappers, Jew's harps, sansa, and celeste.
MEMBRANOPHONES. The sound of these instruments is made by the vibra-

tion of a stretchedmembrane or skin. It includes any drum with a vibrating head
and, of far less importance, the mirlitons, whose membrane modifies a sound
made in some other way (such as a comb with paper, or a kazoo).
LISTENING 179
CHORDOPHONES. The vibration of strings produces the sounds of the in-

struments in this category. It includes lyres, harps, lutes, harpsichords, virginals,
pianos, clavichords, dulcimers, guitars, ukuleles, banjos, and orchestral strings.
MECHANICAL AND ELECTROPHONES. Instruments in this group range from

music boxes, carillons, hurdy gurdies, and player pianos to electric guitars,
organs, and synthesizers.
With the criteria of these categories established, all instruments are in-
cluded. The effect of using this system is to help musicians (composers, perform-
ers, and listeners) realize broader parameters for timbre possibilities to be in-
cluded in music.
• Locate and list at least two instruments in each of the Hornbostel and Sachs
categories. Tell where you located the instruments and who was playing them.
• Reclassify the string, brass, woodwind and percussion families according to the
Hornbostel and Sachs categories.
• Listen to Tapes 21 and 22. Determine the appropriate categories for the instru-
ments in those pieces.
MUSIC LITERATURE
This brief section has been separated from the ear-training section to highlight the
value of including many different types of music literature in your listening experi-
ences. The broad spectrum of music literature contains abundant contrast, enough
so that individuals may find wide variety in music especially appealing to their
tastes. When forming those tastes, it is important that the listener be open to new
alternatives. Although your present listening experiences may now be highly
satisfactory to you, continued receptivity to new musical experiences may help
you expand your listening vocabulary to still more fulfilling dimensions.
A characteristic of human beings is that they produce and value music. The
development of electronic devices for sound reproduction (tape recorders, radio,
television, stereos) has multiplied opportunities for hearing music to an unprece-
dented degree. In spite of the technological advances, many listeners have neither
expanded their horizons nor sought out musical alternatives to keep pace with the
opportunities technology has provided. Public media tend to provide an abun-
dance of music within certain restricted categories to the exclusion of other pos-
sibilities. Records and tapes, on the other hand, do provide alternatives. Live
performances are available to provide stimulating contact with a variety of musi-

cal styles. This discussion is intended to suggest alternatives to what may be your
180 LISTENING
conventional listening habits, to challenge you to explore new dimensions of

sound, to expand your aesthetic involvement as a listener.
MUSIC OF ALL CULTURES
Cultures throughout the world are represented by their arts. Most cultures have
developed a style of music that is unique to them, a distinctive sound that, along
with sight, represents cultural differentiation.
• Listen to "Bird Song," American Indian (Tape 21), "Djamu the Dingo" (Tape 22)
and "Bungalin Bungalin," Australian Aboriginal (Tape 23). List elements of music
you hear in these pieces. Compare them with a piece of music you choose. What
common elements do you hear? What elements seem to represent differences?
• Select three pieces of music from three different cultures in collections at the
library or from your record collection. Compare the elements of music in these
selections. What elements of music would help you identify the pieces and remind
you of the culture from which they come?
It is possible that mass media may have a negative impact on cultural differ-
entiation in music. A question worthy of discussion asks if it is necessary and/or
desirable to preserve, perform, and value music that uniquely represents dis-
tinctive cultures.
MUSIC OF ALL PERIODS
Within the western tradition, music falls into historical periods of development.
The periods to be discussed briefly here are the baroque, classical, romantic, and
contemporary. All of these periods, as well as periods before the baroque, deserve
exhaustive study, which is not possible in this book. You are encouraged to
nurture your curiosity about music as it developed throughout history and find
resources to enable you to hear more of it. Given dates are approximate.
As public interest in music from before the baroque period grows, authentic,
well-recorded examples continue to become available. The only selection of early
western music on your tape is the Gregorian chant (Tape 2).
• Find a recording of music that can be traced to a time before the sixteenth
century. Describe one of the selections according to its inclusion and treatment of
the elements of music.

LISTENING 181
Baroque, 1575-1750
This period manifested a spirit of theatricalism with decorative elaboration

influencing music as well as other arts. Important composers of this period were
Bach, Handel, Vivaldi, Scarlatti, Telemann, and Purcell.
Listen to two selections by Handel on your tape (4 and 20). Use the Music*
Analysis Sheet to tell as much as possible about what you hear. Adapt the sheet if
it does not enable you to reflect adequately on what you hear.
Analyze "Taste," Telemann, using a MAS (Tape 16).
Classical, 1750-1800
The dates for these periods only give an indication of time. There is overlap-
ping of the practices of the periods. In every period, composers use techniques
from previous periods. Sometimes contemporary composers deliberately revert to
styles used in previous times, becoming neobaroque, neoclassical, and so on.
The music of the classical period tended to be objective, reacting against the
floridity of the baroque. Refinement, precise organization, symmetry, and con-
trast were characteristic of this period. Major composers were Haydn and
Mozart. Beethoven's early works were in the classical vein, but he gradually
changed his writing to become a leader in establishing practices of the romantic
period.
Listen to "Andante" by Haydn (Tape 12). Use the MAS to help you analyze its
characteristics.
Select a composition by Mozart. Use the MAS to help you describe its
characteristics.
Romantic, 1800-1900
The romantic period allowed the individual to become important and music
to become emotional and subjective. Because of the individual freedom, dis-
tinctive styles became evident. Leaders in this period were Beethoven, Schubert.
Berlioz, Mendelssohn, Chopin, Schumann, Wagner, Verdi, Brahms,
Tchaikovsky, Richard Strauss, Debussy.
Listen to Tape 14 and 19. Both of the selections are parts of a complete work.
Choose one, then find a recording of the entire composition. Richard Strauss
represented romantic realism; Debussy was the leading figure of the impressionist
movement in music. After listening to the complete work and reading the record
182 LISTENING
jacket, try to tell why the term realist or impressionist was applied to the com-
poser you chose.
• Find a recording of another romantic composer. Analyze the work using the MAS.
Contemporary, 1900-Present
More than eighty years after the beginning of this period, it is becoming
inaccurate to call this period the '"contemporary" period, and difficult to deter-
mine what music historians of the future will call it. Composers (as in all periods)
continue to use techniques from previous periods, but revolutionaries have turned
away from traditional techniques to use exaggerated dissonance, polyrhythms.
and nontraditional forms. Jazz has developed in its own right and has also influ-
enced composers who use traditional types of expression. Jazz-influenced popular
music has swept across the earth. Leading composers during this time include
Vaughan Williams. Schoenberg. Ives. Ravel. Stravinsky. Bartok. Webern. Berg.
Prokofiev. Milhaud. Honneger. Orff. Gershwin. Copland. Shostakovitch. Carter,
Cage. Britten, Boulez. Stockhausen.
• Your tape includes a number of contemporary works (3, 5. 6. 7. 8, 10, 15, 18).
Choose three of them and contrast their treatment of the elements of music. If you
heard them without identification, would you know they are from the contempo-
rary period? How would you know?
• Find two works by composers listed above. Analyze them using the MAS. Does
the written material on the record jacket help you listen to the music? Does it deal
with musical or biographical information' 1
SUMMARY
Since you may spend more time listening to music than engaging in any other
activity related to it (singing, playing, moving, creating, reading, writing), your
most important priority may be that you continue to develop listening skills. This
chapter can only suggest ideas for your future development. It is up to you to
move toward the realization of your potential as a listener. A regularly scheduled
trip to a record-lending library, or a budgeted amount for record/tape purchase
will help you develop breadth in your listening activities.
LISTENING 183
MUSIC CHECK
EAP TRAINING TIMBRE
MELODIC DICTATION SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA

INNER EAR STRING
AURAL ANALYSIS VIBRATO
PERFECT PITCH PIZZICATO
RELATIVE PITCH BRASS
TEXTURE MOUTHPIECE
MONOPHONIC VALVES
HOMOPHONIC PISTON
POLYPHONIC ROTARY
FORM SLIDE
FUGUE WOODWIND
SUBJECT REED
ANSWER DOUBLE
COUNTERSUBJECT SINGLE
STRETTO PERCUSSION
DIMINUTION SOUND PRODUCING CHARACTERISTICS

AUGMENTATION AEROPHONES
FRAGMENTATION IDIOPHONES
RETROGRADE MEMBRANOPHONES
INVERSION CHORDOPHONES
PRELUDE MECHANICAL AND ELECTROPHONES
THEME AND VARIATIONS MUSIC LITERATURE
ABA WORLD CULTURES

SONATA-ALLEGRO HISTORICAL PERIODS
EXPOSITION BAROQUE
DEVELOPMENT CLASSICAL
RECAPITULATION ROMANTIC
RONDO CONTEMPORARY
SONATA
MOVEMENTS
184 LISTENING
CODA
Do you remember what kind of musician you were when you began using this
text? What can you perform now that you couldn't then? What have you heard
that was new to you? What have you created that you hadn't tried before? Do you
realize that becoming a musician does not happen passively, that your musical
skills have resulted from conscientious work on your part? You have heard new
things because you took the time to listen. You have created because you were
willing to take the risk of being innovative. You know more about music because
you studied. You can perform music because you practiced performing music.
Music is a splendid reinforcer because it is a subject that provides its own intrinsic
rewards. Your future involvement in musical experiences will help you continue
to expand your musical horizons and strengthen your musical skills.
MUSIC
African Noel
Andante Liberia
"
Sing No - el, sing No - el, No - el No -
«*]'
accelerando
Sing No - el, sing No - el, No - el No - el.
Sing we all No - el, sing we all No - el.
Sing No - el, sing No - el, No - el No - el.
Andante
Keyboard 14
Autoharp 5
185
186 MUSIC
Keyboard 6
Autoharp 3
Guitar 3
Reprinted by permission of the publishers of On the Trail of Negro Folk Songs by Dorothy Scarborough,
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, Copyright © 1925 by Harvard University Press; ©
1953 by Mary McDaniel Parker.
MUSIC 187
Alphabet Song
Now I've said my Tell me what you think of
Baa, Baa Black Sheep
Baa, baa, black sheep, Have you any wool?
Yes, sir, yes, sir, three bags full.
One for my master and one for my dame,

And one for the little boy who lives down the lane.
Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star
Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are

Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky.
Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are.

188 MUSIC
America
Words by Samuel Francis Smith Music by Henry Carey
try. thee, Sweet land

tive thee. Land of
ty, Of thee sing:
free. Thy name love;
where my fa - thers died! Land of the Pil - grims' pride,

love thy rocks and rills, Thy woods and temp - led hills,
ring!
bove.
3. Let music swell the breeze, And ring from all the trees
Sweet freedom's song;

Let mortal tongues awake. Let all that breathe partake,
Let rocks their silence break, The sound prolong!
4. Our fathers' God, to Thee, Author of liberty,

To Thee we sing
Long may our land be bright With freedom's holy light;
Protect us by The might, Great God, our King.
God Save the Queen
1. God save our Gracious Queen! 2. Thy choicest gifts in store O Lord our God, arise,
Long live our noble Queen! On Her be pleased to store Scatter Her enemies
God save the Queen! Long may She reign. And make them fall.
Send her victorious, May She defend our laws Confound their politics,
Happy and Glorious And ever give us cause Frustrate their knavish tricks
Long to reign over us. To sing with heart and voice On Thee our hope we fix.
God save the Queen! God save the Queen! God save us all.
America, The Beautiful
Words by Katharine Lee Bates Music by Samuel A. War
1 . O beau - ti - ful for spa - cious skies. For am - ber waves of grain, For
2.0 beau - ti - ful for pa - triot dream That sees be-yond the years, Thine
pur - pie moun - tain maj • es - ties A - bove the fruit - ed plain!)
A
al - a - bas - ter cit • ies gleam, Un - dimmed by hu • man tears! /
mer - i • ca! A • mer - i - ca! God shed his grace on
crown the good with broth - er-hood From sea to shin - ing sea!
Morn -
ing bells are ring - ing, morn - ing bells are ring - ing, Ding, dang, dong, ding, dang
Alternate words: Frere Jacques

Keyboard 4
Recorder 3
Frere Jacques, frere Jacques, dormez vouz? dormez vouz?
Sonnez les matines, sonnez les matines, din, din, don
din, din, don
Or: Where is Thumbkin?
1. Where is thumbkin? Where is thumbkin? 2. Where is pointer?
Here I am, here I am. 3. Where is tall one?
How are you today, sir? 4. Where is ring one?
Very well, I thank you! 5. Where is pinkie?
Run away, run away. 6. Where's the handful? Here we are.
189
190 MUSIC
You can do the hora with this.

MUSIC 191
192 MUSIC
Bella Bimba
Oh, ev-'ry-bod-y loves to

Ma co-mebal-li bel-la
From Songs We Like © by World Around Songs. Reprinted with permission of the publisher.
The Bird's Song
Ta ta ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ta-a, Ta ta ta-a, Ta ta ta-a.
Keyboard 5
Autoharp 2
Guitar 2
MUSIC 193
Coffee
Germany
C O F FEE, Don't pass the cof - fee cup to
me! Not for chil - dren is that strong, brown Turk-ish drink For it makes you weak and some - what ill, I
think! Don't be caught wak
Used with permission of Hilde Kupfer
CAFFEE
CAFFEE , trink nicht so viel Caffee! Nicht fur Kinderist der
Turkentrank, schwacht die Nerven macht dich blass und krank. Sei
doch ketn Muselman, der ihn nicht lassen kann!
The number over the inserted rest shows the beat necessary to match "Hark to the Singing" when these
songs are used as partner songs.
194 MUSIC
The Cuckoo
o went Pe-ter's flow • ing spring Where the wa • ter s good,

2. Af •
Eas come sun • ny days That will melt all snow;
3. When my maid • en fair, What then can I sire?
And I heard there the cuck -

00 As she called from the wood.
Then I'll mar • ry my maid - en fair, We'll be hap •
py. I know.
a home for her tend •
ing And some wood for the fire.
Refrain Allegretto
^ O ^ G
,
D7
4
G
Ho - le-rah - hi - hi • ah, Ho - le-rah cuck-oo! Ho - le-rah-hi- hi - ah • ho!
From Songs to Keep © by World Around Songs. Reprinted with permission of the publisher.
MUSIC 195
11
ir u r r
Recorder
i
Pitched percussion
M t
7
©
—
Nonpitched percussion
*
t
— t J J
1983, Barry Palmer. Used with permission.

* —
j , ——
j *
i||
196 MUSIC
MUSIC 197
Eency, Weency Spider
Traditional
Lightly
Down came the rain and washed the spi - der out.
Out came the sun and dried up all the rain, And the
een - cy, ween - cy spi - der went up the spout a - gain.
Show the children how the spider (your hands) climbs the waterspout. Turn your hands into rain that
washes the spider out of the waterspout. Then transform them into the sun. Finally, start the spider up the spout
again.
198 MUSIC
El Jarabe
There's a dance that is called the ja ra - be,
D7
It is done with a wide- brimmed som - bre - ro.
Wear-ing chi - na po-bla-naand char • ro, It's a dance from down Mex - i - co way.
A7 D A7 D
-
Ev-'ry - one is so hap -py and care - free, Ev 'ry - one's at fi - es - ta to - day
Reprinted with permission from The Spectrum of Music with Related Arts, Book 4, by Mary Val Marsh,
Carroll Rinehart, and Edith Savage. ©
1983 Macmillan Publishing Company.
China poblana is a woman's dress with a long, full skirt decorated with bright spangles and a white,
squarenecked blouse.
Charro is horseman's garb with silver buttons along the outside leg seams.
MUSIC 199
old pal, Fif-teen miles on the E-rie Ca - nal.
C7 Dm A7
We've hauled some barg • es in our day, Filled with lum - ber, coal and hay,
Gm A7
A7 Dm C7
And you'll al • ways know your neigh - bor, You'll al - ways know your pal
F Gm F C7 F
If you've ev - er nav - i - gat • ed on the E • ne Ca - nal.
2. We'd better get along, old pal, fifteen miles on the Erie Canal,
You can bet your life I'd never part from Sal, fifteen miles on the Erie Canal
Get up there, mule, here comes a lock, we'll make Rome by six o'clock,
One more trip and back we'll go, back we'll go to Buffalo.
The Frogs
Hear the live - ly song of the frogs in yon-der pond,
Get Along Little Dogies
l.As I was a-walk - ing one morn • ing for plea - sure, I spied a cow-punch - er a-
Gm C7 F Gm C7
rid - ing a - long. His hat was thrown back and his spurs were a - jin - gling, And
F _ Gm C7 F Chorus
2. It's early in the spring when we round up the dogies. 3. It's whooping and yelling and driving the dogies,
And mark them and brand them and bob off their tails, Oh, how I wish you would only go on;
We round up our horses and load the chuck wagon, It's whooping and punching, go on, little dogies,
And then herd the dogies right out on the trail. You know that Wyoming will be your new home.
To simplify the accompaniment, substitute C7 chords for the Gm chords.

Go to Sleep
From The Music Book, Book 2, copyright 1981 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Publishers.
Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Good News
Good news, the char - iot's com -in' And I don't want you to leave - a me be - hind.
Hark to the Singing
Germany
Tra la la la la la la la la la la la la la la la la.
Es Tb'nen die Lieder
Es tonen die Lieder, der Fruhling kehrt wieder, es spielet,
der Hirte auf seiner Schalmei, tra la la la la la la la la la la
la la la la la la.
"Hark to the Singing," "Will You Come?" and "Coffee" are all rounds. They are also partner songs; their
harmonic construction is compatible so they can be sung together. The songs were shared by Hilde Kupfer
(West Germany) when describing her "Klangspur in the Treppenstrasse" (Soundtrack in the Street of Steps) in
Kassel, a middle-sized town in Nessen, to music classes at the University of Oregon in 1984. She used them as
a nine-voiced quodlibet (simultaneous performance of several melodies). They are used with her permission.
The English adaptations are by Lois N. Harrison from English translations provided by Hilde Kupfer.
201
.
202 MUSIC
Hold On
(J = 80) U.S.A.
l.When you plow, don't lose your track,_ Can't plow straight and keep a-
Hold on, hold on, Bet-ter keep your hand right on _ that plow, _ Hold on.holdon, hold on.
From Patricia Hackett, The Melody Book, © 1983, p. 90. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Originally a social and religious commentary, "Hold On" was easily adapted to the "Freedom Rider's
Song" by Blacks attempting to desegregate public transportation in the south. Here are some of
those verses:
1 . Paul and Silas bound in jail.
Had no money to go their bail ,
Keep your eyes on the prize,
Hold on . .
2. Free dom's name is mighty sweet.

Soon one day we're gonn a meet .
3. The only chain that man can stand.

Is that chain of hand in hand .
4. We're gonna board that big Greyhound,
Canyin' love from town to town .
Keep your eyes on the prize.

MUSIC 203
Holla Hi, Holla Ho

German
Allegro Words Adapted
C G7 C
Who will go with me to-day 7 Hol-la hi! Hol-la ho! We'll go hik • ing far a-way,
G7 C F C G7
Hoi - la, Hoi - la ho! We will leave in the ear - ly morn. Ho - la hi!
Hoi - la ho! Then come back when the day-light's gone, Hoi - la. Hoi - la ho!
From Joyful Singing, © World Around Songs. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
204 MUSIC
Home on the Range
Aiidantino U.S.A.
F Bb F
a dis - cour • ag-ing word And the skies are not cloud -
y all day.
Refrain:
C7 p G7 C7
Home, home on the range, Where the deer and the an - te-lope play,
F Bb F C7 F
Where sel-dom is heard a dis - cour- ag-ing word, And the skies are not cloud- y all day
2. How often at night when the heavens are bright,
From the light of the glittering stars,
Have I stood there, amazed, and asked as I gazed,
If their glory exceeds that of ours.
3. Where the air is so pure and the zephyrs so free.
And the breezes so balmy and light,
Oh, I would not exchange my home on the range,
For the glittering cities so bright.
4. Oh, give me a land where the bright diamond sand

Flows leisurely down with the stream,
Where the graceful, white swan glides slowly along,
Like a maid in a heavenly dream.

MUSIC 205
Hot Cross Buns
Moderato Traditional
Hot
32
mi
cross
re
buns.
1
do
Hot cross
3
mi
2
re
buns.
1
do
11112222321
One
do
- a
do
- pen ny, two
do
•
do re
- a
re
-
pen
re
-
ny
re
Hot
mi
cross
re
buns.
do
Keyboard 1,2
Recorder 1
Autoharp 1
Guitar 1
206 MUSIC
I'm a Little Teapot

Traditional
Moderato
I'm a lit- tie tea-pot, short and stout. Here is my han - die, here is my spout.
When I get all steamed up then I shout, Tip me o - ver, pour me out!
When singing this song to children, add motions with them. Show the short, stout teapot. Use one arm
for the handle, the other for the spout. Tip the teapot on the last phrase by moving your body so the spout looks
like it is pouring the tea.
MUSIC 207
It's Raining
Traditional
It's rain - ing, it's pour • ing, The old man is snor - ing;
Went to bed and bumped his head, And can't get up in the morn • ing.
Keyboard 7,8
Recorder 4
Kum Ba Yah
(Come By Here)
Slowly
1. Kum yah, my Lord,

2. Some sleep ing Lord.
Oh, Lord, kum ba yah!

3. Someone's praying, Lord, kum ba yah! (three times)

4. Someone's shouting, Lord, kum ba yah! (three times)

5. Someone's singing, Lord, kum ba yah! (three times)

208 MUSIC
Keyboard 3
Recorder 2
The Little Man Who Wasn't There

Music by WilliamS. Haynie
Andantino Words by Hughes Mearns
As I was go - ing up the stair I met a man who was • n't there! He
was - n't there a - gain to - day! I wish, I wish he'd stay a - way!
From The Music Book, K, copyright © 1981 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Publishers. Reprinted by
permission of the publisher.
Lullaby Round
Lul • la -hi] la-by, lul - la - by, lul-la-by,
Sweet - ly sing to lul - la -

by. Lul - la -
by,
lul • la - by. Sweet -

ly sing to lul - la -
by.
210 MUSIC
The Muffin Man

England
l.Oh, do you know the muf - fin man, the muf - fin man, the muf-fin man?
2. Oh, yes I know the muf - fin man, the muf - fin man, the muf-fin man.
G C D7 G
* m • *
Oh, do you know the muf • fin man that lives in Dru Lane?
Oh, yes I know the muf - fin man that lives in Dru ry Lane.
Instrumental arrangement by Ken Spanney.
What other occupations can be reflected in this song?
Oh, do you know the carpenter? schoolteacher? doctor? astronaut?

That lives in Tennessee? Awbrey Park? a big white house? Beaverton?
Use last four measures of melody with instrumental introduction.
Non-pitched Percussion
Claves
Play four times each verse, two times for introduction.
Tambourine
Play twice for each verse, once for introduction.
Triangle
4
Strike on the word YES each time.
MUSIC 211
The Muffin Man
P mp
5
yy A
—
I i
- - T
p f r
P J |
PITCHED PERCUSSION
Glockenspiel 1, (or Chime Bars)
Glockenspiel 4, (or Metallophone)
© 1983 Hermitage Print. Used with permission.

212 MUSIC
The Old Brass Wagon

Allegramante U.S.A.
1. Cir-cle to the left, the old brass wag-on, Cir-cle to the left, the old brass wag-on,
2. Cir-cle to the right, the old brass wag-on, Cir-cle to the right, the old brass wag-on,
Cir-cle to the left, the old brass wag - on. You're the one, my dar -
ling.
Cir - cle to the right, the old brass wag - on, You're the one, my dar - ling.
Old MacDonald Had a Farm
Allegr
With a Chick, chick here, and chick, chick there Here a chick, there a chick,
With a Quack, quack here, and quack, quack, there Here a quack, there a quack,
C G D7 G
Ev-'ry-where a chick, chick. Old Mac-Don -aid

Ev-'ry-where a quack, quack.
Repetition of line one is optional when adding animals. This is a cumulative song. After the sound of i
new animal is sung, all the previous ones are sung in reverse order:
moo, moo
quack, quack
chick, chick
and so on.
MUSIC 213
Orchestra Song
The horn, the horn a - wakes me at morn, The
Keyboard 9
Autoharp 4
Guitar 4
Keyboard 11
Recorder 6
214 MUSIC
C G7 C
4
Trumpet fi\ H J
The trum-pet is sound • ing ti ti ti ti tu tu ti ti ti ti ti tu tu ta. The
Keyboard 13
MUSIC 215
Over the River and Through the Woods
l.O-ver the riv - er and through the wood, To grand - fa - ther's house we
2.O-ver the riv • er and through the wood, And straight through the barn - yard
go; The horse knows the way to car - ry the sleigh Through the white and drift - ed
gate,_ We seem to go ex - treem -
ly slow It is so hard to
snow O-ver the riv - er and through the wood, Oh, how the wind does blow!
wait! O-ver the riv - er and through the wood, Now grand - moth - er's cap I spy!_
It stings the toes

Hur - rah for the fun!
216 MUSIC
Philippine School Song

(Umupo Po)
Philippines
U mu - - po po ka - yo, U mu
- • po po ka yo;
(Oo-moo - poe poe kye - yoe, Oo-moo - poe poe kye yoe;
Ang mun - ting

Ahngmoon - teeng
From Patricia Hackett, The Melody Book, 1983, p. 157. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall,
Translation:
"Have a seat please, dear sir! (twice)
Feel at home, o dear sir,
as you sit in our chair."

MUSIC 217
Xylophone
218 MUSIC
MUSIC 219
Roll Over
Allegro
There were in the bed, and the lit - tie one 'Roll
2. There were in the bed, and the lit - tie one 'Roll
3. -9.
10. There was
lit -
tie one said, night!
Shalom Chaverim
Shal - om, cha-vc-rim! Sha - lom, cha-ve-rim! Sha - lom, sha - lorn!
Le - hit - ra - ot, le - hit - ra - ot, Sha - lom, sha - lom.
Shalom usually is interpreted to mean "peace." It is used as both a greeting and a way of saying
farewell.
220 MUSIC
MUSIC 221
Written by James Meyer as an assignment for Classroom Instruments in 1984 when he was an
undergraduate music education and performance (trombone) major at the School of Music, University of
Oregon. Used with permission.
. ..
222 VoSC
Singing on the Old Camp Ground
Andanie
We're sing - ing, we're sing - ing to-night. We're sing-ing on the old camp - ground,
We're sing - ing ,— sing - ing to - night, we're sing - ing on the old camp - ground.
2. We're clapping ... 5. We're walking . .
3. We're stamping ... 6. We're sleeping . .
4. We're clicking . .
Skin and Bones
Adagissimo
1 . There was an old worn - an all skin and bones, Oo - oo - oo - ooh!

2. One night she thought she'd take a walk, Oo - oo - oo - ooh!
She lived down by the old grave - yard, Oo - oo - oo - ooh! (To verse?.)
She walked down by the old grave - vard, Oo - oo - oo - ooh! (To verse 3)
Coda
3. She saw the bones a-layin' around,
Oo-oo-oo-ooh!
She .vent to the closet to get a broom,
Oo-oo-oo-ooh! (To coda)
Collected, with music and additional new words, by Jean Ritchie, c 1952 Jean Ritchie, Geordie Music
Publishing Co.
MUSIC 223
MUSIC 225
Swing Low, Sweet Chariot
Swing low, sweet char - 1 -

ot Com-ing for to car - ry me home!
Fine
Swing- low, sweet char -

i
• ot, Com-ing for to car - ry me home.
A band_of an - gels com-ing af - ter me Com-ing for to car - ry me home.

226 MUSIC
Ten Little Indians
Traditional
seven lit - tie, eight lit - tie, nine lit - tie In - dians. ten lit - tie In - dian boys.
Sing again; start with ten; sing the numbers backwards. Keyboard 15
Recorder 9
MUSIC 227
This Train
Andante U.S.A.
F
1 . This train is bound for glo - ry, this train;
2. This train won't car - ry sleep - ers, this train;
C7
228 MUSIC
Australia
Arranged by Ken Spanner
G A7 D
3 . 1 3 2 5 3 2
There was a wild co - lo - nial boy Jack Do - lan was his name,
He was his fa - ther's on - ly hope. his moth - er's pride and joy,
And dear -
ly did his par - ents love that wild co - lo - nial boy
2. In sixty-one this daring youth commenced his wild career
With a heart that knew no danger, no foeman did he fear,
He held up the Beechworth mail-couch and robbed Judge MacEvey,

Who trembled and gave up his gold to the wild colonial boy.
3. One day as he was riding the mountain side along,

Listening to the little birds, their pleasant laughing song,
Three mounted troopers came in view, Kelly, Davis and Fitzroy,
They swore that they would capture him, the wild colonial boy.
4. "Surrender now Jack Dolan, you see there's three to one.
Surrender now Jack Dolan, you daring highwayman,"
He took a pistol from his belt, and shook the little toy,
"I'll fight but not surrender," said the wild colonial boy.
5. He fired at trooper Kelly, and brought him to the ground.

And in return from Davis received his mortal wound,
All shattered through the jaw he lay still firing at Fitzroy,
And that's the way they captured him, the wild colonial boy.
MUSIC 229
Arranged by Ken Spanner
/vuR
Pitched Percussion or Recorders
L
m.
R L R L R L,
f
L R L R
Oi
—
pwf j— R L R L R L
L R L L R L L R L L R L
#^ti — ]
L R L R L R
J *
© 1983 Hermitage Print, Doubleview, Western Australia. Used with permission.

230 MUSIC
Will You Come?
Germany
We are still hop ing that you will come soon.
C7 F
Will you come from - ber-am-mer-gau? Will you come from Un - ter -am-mer-gau?
C7 F
ft<
Will you come at all? We are not sure!
Used with permission of Hilde Kupfer.
Heut' Kommt der Hans
Heut' kommt der Hans zu mir, freut sichdie Lies'; ob er aber uber
Oberammergau oder aber uber Unterammergau oder aber uberhaupt

nicht kommt, ist nicht gewiss.
The number over the rest shows the beat necessary to match "Hark to the Singing" when these songs are
used as partner songs.

MUSIC 231
Yankee Doodle
Mind the mu and the step And with the girls be hand -
y.
2. Father and I went down to camp

Along with Captain Gooding;
And there we saw the men and boys
As thick as hasty pudding.
3. There was Captain Washington,

Upon a slapping stallion,
A-giving orders to his men,
I guess there was a million.

232 MUSIC
Yellow Rose of Texas
Moderato U.S.A.
1. There's a Yel - low Rose in Tex - as I'm go • ing there to see,
2. Oh, I'm go - ing back to find her, my heart is full of woe,

MUSIC 233
Hechalutz le 'man hab'tulah;

Hab'tulah le 'man hechalutz
Hashalom le 'man ha'amim;

Ha'amim le 'man hashalom.
Repeat the first two measures as an accompanying ostinato for the melody.
APPENDIX
DISCOGRAPHY
The tape accompanying this book contains selected music to help amplify the
explanations and musical experiences for you. Because this tape is very short in
comparison with the amount of music created through the centuries, it can only be
regarded as an introduction to a variety of listening experiences. Find additional
music to amplify the information presented in this book, particularly when only a
portion of a piece is included on your tape. Seek records and tapes in libraries and
music stores.
To find musical references on the tape efficiently, use an audio cassette tape player
with a counter. Set the counter to "0", then write the number shown on the counter for
each piece as you listen to the entire tape. The time for each selection is written between
the blank for the counter number and the title to help you find the beginning of the pieces.
You will hear the number of each selection spoken immediately prior to each selection.
Side One
1. (1:57) "Response Section." Karen J. Wilson, claves; Mary McKean,

piano; Coleman Sholl, assorted percussion; Timothy M. Roberson, recorder.
(Courtesy of University of the Pacific students, Stockton, CA.)
234
APPENDIX 235
2. (1:07) "Antiphon: Salve Regina." Schola Antiqua. R. John Blackley,

director. (Courtesy of Vanguard Records, a Welk Record Group Company.
VSD 71217)
3. (2:40) "Takes Two to Tango," from The Best of Pearl Bailey. (Courtesy
of Roulette Records, a division of ABZ Music Corp.)
4. (3:42) "Ev'ry Valley Shall Be Exalted," from The Messiah, George
Frideric Handel. William Kendall, tenor; London Handel Orchestra; Martin
Neary, conductor. (Courtesy of Musical Heritage Society.)
5. (2:25) "Sixty-seventh Psalm," Charles Ives. Conservatory of Music,
University of the Pacific, A Cappella Choir, William J. Dehning, conductor.
(Courtesy of University of the Pacific students and Conductor Dehning.)
6. (7:02) "Danse Sacrale," excerpt from he Sacre du Printemps, Igor

Stravinsky. Strasbourg Philharmonic Orchestra; Alain Lombard, conductor.
(Courtesy of Musical Heritage Society.)
7. (1:46) "Country Gardens," from Percy Grainger Plays Grainger.
Player-piano rolls transferred to phonograph discs. (Courtesy of Everest Rec-
ords.)
8. (2:41) "Semper Fidelis," John Philip Sousa. (Courtesy of EMC Produc-

tions)
9. (4:19) "Bring Me Little Water, Silvy," Pete Seeger. (Courtesy of Van-

guard Records, a Welk Record Group Company.)
10. (9:15) "Variations on 'America'," Charles Ives. Andrew Davis, organ.
(Courtesy of Marquis Records of Canada.)
11. "Movement I: Zart und Mit Ausdruck" ("Tenderly with

(3:13)
Expression"), from Phantasiestiicke (Fantasy Pieces), Robert Schumann.
William C. Dominik, clarinet, and Wolfgang Fetsch, piano. (Courtesy of the
artists, faculty members of the Conservatory of Music, University of the
Pacific.)
Side Two
12. (4:23) "Andante," from Concerto in E-Flat Major, Joseph Haydn.
Maurice Andre, trumpet; Bamberg Symphony Orchestra; Theodor Gusc-
hebauer, conductor. (Courtesy of Musical Heritage Society.)
13. (1:53) "Orchestra Song," Austrian. Paul Kimball, horn; Coleman Sholl,
timpani; Karen J. Wilson, clarinet; Edwin C. Powell, trumpet; Jody McComb,
violin; Jean E. Neven, bassoon. (Courtesy of University of the Pacific students.)
14. (2:46) "Til Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks," Richard Strauss. Czech Phil-
harmonic Orchestra; Ondrej Lenrad, conductor. (Courtesy of Musical Heritage
Society.)
236 APPENDIX
15. "The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra." Benjamin Britten.

(0:38)
English ChamberOrchestra; Johannes Somary, conductor. (Courtesy of Van-
guard Records, a Welk Record Group Company. VSD 71189)
16. (2:26) "Triste" (Sonata in F Minor). George Philip Telemann. Andrew
Cordle, bassoon; Christine Daxelhofer. harpsichord. (Courtesy of Orion Rec-
ords.)
17. (5:05 ) "Bravour. Variations on a Theme from Mozart. 'Ah! Vous Dirai-
Je, Maman'." Adolphe Adam. Margaret Denning, soprano; Carol van
Bronkhorst. flute; Joan Coulter, piano. Produced and recorded by Kuop Produc-
tions. Engineered by Doug Huft and Jeff Crawford. (Courtesy of the artists.)
18. "Modere." excerpt from Trio for Piano, Violin and Cello in A
(5:22)
Minor, Maurice Ravel. Klaus Heitz, cello; Yvon Carracilly, violin: Henri
Barda. piano. (Courtesy of Musical Heritage Society.)
19. (4:42) "Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun" (excerpt). Claude Debussy.
Czech Philharmonic Orchestra; Ondrej Lenrad, conductor. (Courtesy of Musi-
cal Heritage Society.)
20. (3:33) "Hallelujah Chorus." from The Messiah. George Frideric

Handel. The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra; London Ambrosian Chorus: Paul
Freeman, conductor. (Courtesy of Musical Heritage Society.)
21. (1:45) "Bird Song," from Indian Music of the Southwest. Recorded by
Linda Boulton. Mojave-Parker, Arizona. Men and women with rattle. (Cour-
tesy of TRF Music, Folkways FW 8850.)
22. (0:43) "Djamu the Dingo." from Songs of Bamyili. Artist: David
Blanatji. a didgeridoo solo. (Courtesy of Aboriginal Artists Agency.)
23. (2:11) "Bungalin. Bungalin. A Love Song." from Songs of Bamyili.
Artists: TjoliLaiwangka, voice; Tom Yorkdjanki. didgeridoo. (Courtesy of
Aboriginal Artists Agency.)
APPENDIX 237
TEMPO MARKS
a tempo, perform at original speed: often used after a ritard
accelerando, quickening
adagissimo, very slow
ADAGIO, Slow
andante, moderately, a walking tempo
andantino, faster than andante
allargando, gradually slower
allegramente, moving faster than andante
allegretto, rather fast
ALLEGRO, fast
assai, very (used after another word)
-etto, diminutive used at end of a word: makes larghetto a little less slow than largo,
makes allegretto a little less fast than allegro, and so on
calando, getting slower and softer
con, with (used before another word, often referring to style rather than tempo), as con
brio, with vigor; con moto, with motion, and so on
grave, heavy, ponderous

-ino, diminutive used at end of a word: makes andantino a little less slow than andante, and
so on
-issimo, suffix meaning ''very": makes lentissimo slower than lento, makes prestissimo
faster than presto, and so on
LARGAMENTE, Very slow

larghetto, less slow than largo
larghissimo, very broad
largo, broad
LENTO, SlOW
meno mosso, steady, but slower than preceding tempo

meno moto, same as meno mosso
moderato, moderate
molto, same as assai (used after another word)
piu, more (used before another word)

piii mosso, steady, but faster than preceding tempo
piu moto, same as piu mosso
poco, a little (used before another word)
=
238 APPENDIX
prestissimo, very, very fast
presto, very fast
rallentando, gradually slower

ritardando, slackening
ritenuto, holding back
rubato, changing in response to music
smorzando, fading away and slowing

string endo, accelerating swiftly
vivace, lively
DYNAMIC MARKS
ALPHABETICAL LISTING
crescendo (cresc), becoming gradually louder, also shown by —

decrescendo (decresc), becoming gradually softer, also shown by
diminuendo (dim.), becoming gradually softer
forte (/), loud
forte-piano ( fp), loud followed immediately by soft

fortissimo ( jQO, very loud
-issimo, very (used at the end of a word)
mezzo, moderately, (used before another word)

mezzo forte ( mf), moderately loud
mezzo piano ( mp), moderately soft
pianissimo ( pp), very soft
piano ( p), soft
piu, more; piu forte makes loud into louder
sforzando ( sf), sudden accent followed immediately by piano
sforzato ( sfz), sudden accent followed immediately by piano
GRADATION OF DYNAMICS
<- softer
jjpp p/) p mp mf f ff fff

louder -*
APPENDIX 239
MUSIC ANALYSIS SHEET
Name of piece
Composer or source
Key Meter
Characteristics of the melody
Special rhythmic characteristics
Chords needed to harmonize
Form
Dynamics Tempo
Style of performance (including accompaniment)
Performance media
Other expressive devices
Creative additions
Special problems
Additional comments
240 APPENDIX
MUSIC ANALYSIS SHEET

ELABORATION
When filling out the MAS, scrutinize the music as carefully as possible. In addition
to filling in the blanks, consider the implications of the analysis. If the music is
influenced by the text, tell about it in "additional comments." That is also the
space to write about any considerations not previously covered, such as com-
parisons with other music, or specific characteristics you have noted in other
musical examples, historical or sociological settings related to the music, informa-
tion about the composer or the use of the music.
In discussing the "characteristics of the melody," describe its shape (move-
ment up or down, or staying the same), intervals (unusual or difficult), range (the
lowest and highest pitches), voice leading (flow of the melody from one note to the
other), and so on. When studying the melody, look up new notes on fingering
charts in the instrument book if you plan to play it.
Analysis of the "rhythmic characteristics" should result in advance practice
of patterns, especially if they are difficult for you. Do patterns repeat? Are they
associated with the same pitches when they repeat? Do sequences appear?
How many different chords are needed to harmonize the piece? Is their
progression repeated during the piece? If you intend to play the piece, turn to
fingering charts for help with new chords. Practice progressions before putting
them with the melody if they are new or difficult.
Analysis of the form saves extra work by helping you recognize sections you
have already analyzed or can perform, and by challenging you to identify parts
differing from previously mastered material that will need attention. Formal analy-
sis can also help you to anticipate differences and so prevent errors.
The tempo and dynamics may or may not be previously assigned in your
music. If they are not, you should decide what is appropriate for the piece. Let
expressive devices influence your interpretation of the style of the composition.
"Style" refers to the combination of the elements of music and the way they are
treated to give characteristics to the music that proclaim its individuality. The
style should reflect the music's historical period, country of origin, composer, and
so on. Just as a jazz vocal solo differs from an operatic aria, so does the way ajazz
from the way an opera singer performs.
vocalist performs vary
"Performance media" refers to the timbre (voices or instruments used to
perform the music). Style and expressive devices should be considered when
choosing the performance media.
Generally, "other expressive devices" refers to musical devices, but it may
also refer to an area especially prepared as a listening arena, a costume worn to
APPENDIX 241
enhance the performance of the music, artwork related to the composition, and so
on.
As you develop confidence in your music making, you should feel in-
creasingly free to add creatively to the music you perform. At first your creativity
may be your own tempo, dynam-
reflected in expressive devices, such as choosing
ics, and instruments; you may reharmonize melodies or create ostinaW,
later,
descants, or countermelodies; then, you may begin to create your own music. The
MAS will help you organize your decisions when you compose as well as when
you analyze other compositions.
If there are special problems with the music, be sure to describe them. The
analysis itself may help you deal with the problems more effectively by identifying
their nature.
RHYTHM SYLLABLE CHART
(tah) Visual and vocal

J ta
J
sa
J> ti (tea)
1 si nji ti ti-i ti alternatives for
n ti ti
j>j j> syn-co-pa
m
tu tu tu ti
j ta-a (tah-ah) — sa-a
ti tu tu
j. ta-a-a
J3J tu tu ti
o ta-a-a-a w sa-a-a
J)
} tu (too) ?su
J. ta-i
J! }
J. J> m 3
m
ta-i ti tri-ple-ti
1 ti ti ti When 3 (triplet sign) is not present,

J. ta-i si
j j>
J. J>J ta-i ti ta ta ti
J J J J J ti ti ti ti-a-a j. j.
j nj J ta ti ti-a ta
j. -i-a-i when used in place of J. J.
meters such as § or § •
242 APPENDIX
9w
APPENDIX 243
244 APPENDIX
ANSWERS
CHAPTER ONE
p. 8 Old MacDonald Had a Farm
Allegro U.S.A.
And on this farm he had some chicks. E • I E • I 0!

And on this farm he had some ducks, E • I • E • I - 0!
p. 8 The answer depends on what you are looking for in the form of the Pearl Bailey selection.
Consider two alternatives:
1. If you are listening for the overall form of the selection on the tape, you may
analyze the piece as having an introduction, followed by a vocal rendition of the song,
followed by an instrumental section, and another similar vocal rendition with a
finally
brief coda (ending) after it. The form
matching this description is intro-Afi-coda.
label
2. If you wish only to analyze the form of the song as sung once through, you should
analyze it as AB. This label refers only to the song without considering the parts of the
selection played by the instruments.
APPENDIX 245
CHAPTER TWO
Notes Rests
whole o
half 6
quarter J
eighth
1
J>
sixteenth } 1
j
Dat -
j
sun
or n * j
Volks
n
wag -en
J
Ford
*
J
Colt
> n
Su • ba -
j
ru
j
Bu -
j
ick
. n *
n
Chev-ro-let
j
Vol - vo
J
Hon •
J . J"] *
da
n
Olds-mo-bile
j
Chrys ler
J
Au -
Jo,/]'
di
n
Pon-ti -
j
ac
n
Ca • dil
j
lac Lin-coln-Mer-cu-ry
246 APPENDIX
-
248 APPENDIX
p. 39 This one (4) shows that there are 3 beats in a measure, and the quarter note gets one count.
p. 39 1 J J J IJ J I J J J I J. II
J.
1 2 3
U123J I
123 J123
J. J I J I J
123
J I J.
1
j nj
2 + 3
i j]
+
j
2
j
3
i jj n\x
123+1 ii
1 1 2 3
J ' » IJ J' IJ J]J IJ » I I

2 3 12 3
p. 40 1 j._J.j J J jTTj j j J II
1231
I I
2 3 1 + 2 + 3 1 2 3
34J^J,J123412 34
I J J J I* J J IJ. *
J J
1 2 1234
i H 1 +
J
2
JJJ 3 1
J
2 3
I J"J J
1 + 2
J
3 1
J
2 3
II
'
t J J1J J IJ J]J * I J J1J J I J J J
1 2 + 3
p. 40 The meter signature ^stands for \. That means there are 2 beats in the measure, and
the half-note gets one beat. If the half-note gets one beat, what will the dotted half-note get?
lit
p. 41 With a meter signature of \,
J = .
J =1/2
5> - 1/4
} - 1/8
APPENDIX 249
§ J J I J J J I J J J J I J J J
i j j ihrnj i j j j j i j j
1 2 1 -uh +-uh 2 1 + 2 + 1 2
-
§ J J J I J J J I J J3J J I J
Sequence
We'll catch a lit - tie fo: put him in a box and
1. Are all the sections in the same key? Yes

2. What key are they in? Key of C
3. What meter signature is used? |
4. Analyze the form of each section. Notate the form with letters under each section. All
AA' except the horn (AA).
5. How many different chords are needed to accompany this piece? 2
6. Compare the placement of chord changes in all the sections. Change in the same
measures for all sections.
7. With what pitch does each section begin? All begin on G.
8. Which of the sections begin with an anacrusis? All do.
i t=t\} j \rrr\i * N mn i j * *
j
1
i
- uh - +
j
-
j
uh 2
j
3
i
3
mn n mn m
1
1
+-uh
uh - +
2
- uh 2 3
i
1 2 - uh + -
si
- uh 3
i
+ 1
j
2
ii
3
i jn l-uh +
tt\
2-uh +
n
3 +
j
4
i/t]
1-uh +
mzn
2 • uh - + uh 3 +
j
4
i
r~nni mu j ii
^
250 APPENDIX
p. 48 Rossini, theme from

"William Tell Overture'
uft 1 +-uh 2 + 2 + uh 1 + uh • 2 + • uh 1 + 2
tu ti tu tu ti tu ti tu tu ti tu-tu ti tu tu ti ti ti
Scarlatti, Sonata in G
p. 50
J. J> J J J. J> J J
hu - kle • ber - ry wa - tch the wind - mill
J. J> J J. J> J
see - the ship ca - tch the ball
J. J> J. J>
cle - an it
p. 50
n\nnn\ni
3 3+ 23
j>\nm
+1+2 1 + 2 + 1 + + + 3
i
nnn\nnn\ni
1+2+3+ 1 + 2 + 3+ 1 + 2 3+
MJinj
1+2
u + 3 1 2
ii
2- c j
1 2
./]!
3+ 4+ 12+34
j. j>j. j*
+
i
jl
12+3+4+ 12
-
3 4
ii
-
>i j. j. j. jj]|j. i j j. j>ij j ij
123 123
i i
123 1 2 + 3+ 123 12 + 3+ 1 23+ 1 23
i j.
12+3+ 12+3
m\i sn\i12 jûmnu.
3+
urn jnu.
3+ 12+3+ 12 3+ 12+3
+ + 1 + 2 + +
\ j>ij. j>j. }\rm j. j>i nr: ;ttj i j j j hi

APPENDIX 251
p. 51 • Put the number of the matching rhythm pattern after the composer's name: Gounod
Schubert 3, Schumann 5, Tchaikovsky 2.
p. 51 • Draw one note to equal these tied notes.
;
©• 0-
p. 51 • Draw two notes to equal these dotted notes.
j. =
j^J j!.JO J. = JJ> „ - o d
J Mbeat, J. = 1% beats.
a lit beats.
•J--
J =2 beats, a J. =3 beats, aj..= 3Vi beats.
= 7 beats.
O = 4 beats, a©. =.6.beats, a o«
= 1/2 beat. = 3/4 beats, aj> = 7/8 beats.

a J]
J-/]. j.. n.). .J--
J- J J. j. - .J-- J J.JO
o-J J, a
o« =
J J.J.J
J>-- MX*
252 APPENDIX
P . 52 • i j
ta
'j>j
si ti ta
'.m/ttjj
si ti ti ti ti ti ta
'
sa
u
ta
'i>j
si ti ta
oim^j
si ti ti ti ti ti ta
'
sa
1.
> j.
ta-i
j>j.
ti ta-i ti
j>i/mj ti ti ti ti ta
*
sa
u.
ta-i
j>j.
ti ta-i
j>i
ti
jm
ti ti ti ti
j
ta
t
sa
i
-i j t
rrn i j j
;>j i
si
j>i j
ti ta
i
si
}rm
ti ti ti ti ti
i j
ta - a
-
sa - a
2.
b
J * JTT3 I J. J> J.
ta sa ti ti ti ti ta-i ti ta -
i J
ta - a
i
sa
N 'fniJ ta si ti ti ti ta
IJ
i
(T) IJ _>
3.
' J
ta - a
*
sa
I J.
ta-i
m\i
ti ti ti ta , !
1
± , (U 1
i- . 1
• l j ;/T3IJ IJ '
si
m \nnn
ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti
i j
ta
>
sa
*
sa
> J.
i
JT] I J.
t
JTj I J.
i
m nn
ti ti ti
i
j-;
ti ti ti ti ti ti
i j
ta
<
sa
*
sa
APPENDIX 253
p. 54 African Noel
The four examples of syncopation are circled.
p. 55 Key ofG: I = G, IV = C, V7 = D 7 .
p. 56 The least definite in the "Alphabet Song" is at the end of the second (B)
cadence
phrase. Its last melodic pitch D, instead of the final sounding key-tone C that ends the
is
first and third (A) phrases; the last chord of the phrase is a G chord instead of the C chord
that finalizes the A phrases.
p. 58 Each phrase of the melody for "Ten Little Indians" is two measures long. The last
cadence seems more final than the others because (1) the last note is held longer; (2) the
pitches before the last one lead into itvery strongly as they leap from the lower D to the
higher G; (3) the harmony of the last two measures uses two chords (one in each measure)
that help give a feeling of final resolution on the last measure.
254 APPENDIX
p. 58 "Auld Lang Syne*' is in the key of G. Its form is ABCB. Notice that the second
measure appears in the A and B phrases. It also appears in the C phrase with only the last
note altered. The first measure of the B phrase is the same as the first and third measures of
the C phrase. Three different chords are used: G, D7, and C. The meter signature indicates
four beats in a measure with the quarter-note getting one beat.
•"Dance in a Circle" is in the key of G. It is a round whose three phrases differ from
each other. Phrase two is sequential to phrase one. Phrase three is completely different.
The recorder and percussion parts that accompany it are ostinatos that repeat indefinitely
and are compatible with all the phrases. Three different chords are used: G, C. and D7. The
meter signature indicates three beats in a measure with the quarter-note getting one beat.
'The Muffin Man" is in the key of G. Its form is AA'. Although the percussion parts
for this piece are ostinatos, the recorder parts are not. They have an introduction and differ
in each phrase. It uses three chords: G, C, and D7. The meter signature indicates four beats
in a measure with the quarter-note getting one beat.
"Polly Wolly Doodle" is in the key of G. Its form is ABCB'. The beginning of the B
phrases are sequential to the beginning of the A phrase. Two different chords are used: G
and D7. The meter signature indicates four beats in a measure with the quarter-note getting
one beat.
The "Shroom Song" is in the key of C. Its form is AA' for each of its four indepen-
dent parts. The parts combine polyphonically. It uses two chords: C and G7. The meter
signature indicates four beats in a measure with the quarter-note getting one beat.
p. 59 The excerpts are from:

1. "The Birds' Song"
2. "African Noel"
3. "Go to Sleep"
4. "Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring" (Bach)
5. First theme, fourth movement, Ninth Symphony (Beethoven)
6. "Jingle Bells"
CHAPTER FOUR
p. 64 In i meter, the _« may be subdivided into
note gets the beat and
In ; meter, the o may be subdivided into 2 «.
note gets the beat and
In £ meter, the w note gets the beat and may be subdivided into 2 »
1
.
In lis meter, the ^ note gets the beat and may be subdivided into 2_)
p. 65 This means that the eighth-note gets one beat. When this happens, the quarter-note
gets 2 beats, the dotted quarter-note gets 3 beats, the dotted half-note gets 6 beats, the half-
note gets 4 beats. How many beats are in each measure? 6
APPENDIX 255
p. 66 The form of "The Wild Colonial Boy" is ABCA.
half - beat
J> one beat
J two beats
J foor beats
.. three beats
J! one and a half beats
p. 67
256 APPENDIX
p. 69 Bach: 3 beats in each measure.

Handel: 4 beats in each measure.
Value in g counting ti
Notes
J. one beat
J J» one beat
J two thirds of a beat
J> one third of a beat
m one sixth of a beat
m
one beat
one beat
one and two-thirds beats
p. 70 % counted in six
J . Oh. give me a home where the buf fa • lo roam, Where the
6 j 1 2 3 4 5 6 |
1 2 3 4 5 6
deer and the an - te - lope play; Where sel - dom is heard a dis
1 2 3 45 6 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 [ 1 2 3 4 5 6
B> F C7 F
cour
1
•
2
ag - ing
3
word,
456 And the
|
skies
12
are not
3
cloud
4
•
y
5
all
6 [
day
1 2 3 4 5 6
|
Chorus p G7
C7
Home, home on the range, Where the deer and the an te-lope
1234 56
•
| 1 2 3 4 5 6 |
1 2 3 45 6
APPENDIX 257
j
258 APPENDIX
Kind of note •Jurffber of beats when

etsthe beat.
} half-beat
J> one beat
J two beats
J. three beats
J' five beats
73 Kindofnotefs) Number of beats when

p.
8 is counted with two
beats in a measure.
m
j j>
one thirdof
one beat
one beat
a beat
j. one beat
j. j» one and a third beat
p. 73 "Over the River and Through the Wood" is in the key of LK

What is its form? ABAC
p. 75 In \:
What kind of note gets one beat? half-note fJj

What kind of note gets half a beat? quarter-note (J)
What kind of note gets three quarters of a beat? dotted quarter-note (J )
APPENDIX 259
p. 75
p. 75 Sometimes âppears in the meter signature instead of \. The meaning is the same.
How many beats are in a measure of this piece? 2 What kind of note gets one beat? J What
d_ What kind of note gets three quarters of a beat? J_ What kind
kind of note gets half a beat?
of note gets one-and-a-half beats? ±_ What kind of note gets one quarter of a beat? i}_ What
kind of note gets three eighths of a beat?
p. 76
J J>-J. J> .U J J.J.
Shoo, Fly
p. 77
feel like a morn • ing

260 APPENDIX
p. 77 D.C. means "Go back to the beginning," al fine means "continue to the end" (fine).
"Somebody" is the ending word.
p. 77 J . J is held for 2Vi beats
p. 77 The tie is a curved line used with notes of the same pitch. It indicates that the sound
carries through the length of as many notes as are tied together with no break in between.
The slur is a curved line used with notes of different pitches. It indicates that there is
no break in sound in moving from one pitch to the next. Recorder players should tongue
only for the initial pitch. Singers carry the vowel of the first word or syllable into the
following pitch.
sing sing
Tie Slur
CHAPTER FIVE
Chromatic scale up
p. 86
Chromatic scale down

4 ®
ate ma®,®
6 different notes are in a whole-tone scale.

APPENDIX 263
CHAPTER SIX
p. 94
p. 95
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8(1) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8(1)
do re mi fa so la ti do do re mi fa so do
ga bcdefjg
la ti
f g a bb c d e f
p. 96
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8(1)
do re mi fa so la ti do
bb c d eb f g a bb
p. 97
.
264 APPENDIX
A major scale
p. 97
p. 98 Analysis of "Lullaby Round"
Sweet • ly sing to lul • la by. Lul la - by,
lul - la - by, Sweet ly sing to lul - la - by.
p. 98 There are four beats in each measure; the quarter note gets one beat.
A dot adds half the original value of the note.
Six measures have this rhythm: J J J
Two measures have this rhythm: J J J J
Only one measure has the dotted rhythm.
p. 99 Measures 3 and 7 are the same; so are 4, 6, and 8 and 5 and 9. Six measures have J J J ;
two
have J JJ J
The form can be described as
introduction (1-2), phrase A (3-5), bridge (6), phrase A (7-9)
or
introduction (1), phrase A repeated (2-5 and 6-9) with the first measure of
both A phrases (2 and 6) being the only parts of the phrase that differ.
APPENDIX 265
p. 100 Analysis of "Philippine School Song"

C
U • mu - po po ka • yo, U • mu - po po ka •
(Oo moo - poe poe kye - yoe, Oo - moo - poe poe kye
Ang mun ting ta ha • nan ay a - ri - in nin yo.

Ahngmoon - teeng tah - hah - nahn aye ah - ree - een neen - yoe.}
p. 100 Note naming
Eb Eb Ab Bb Ab Ab Bb Bb
Cjt Df Ff G* C* Ft DJ Gl
P- 101 Key naming
p. 101
p. 102
p. 102 Keys of Pieces

"Skip to My Lou," F major
"Holla Hi, Holla Ho," C major
"Rocky Mountain," E-flat major
"Kum Ba Yah," D major
"Old MacDonald," G major
"Roll Over," F-sharp major
266 APPENDIX
Key signatures in the treble clef
p. 104
Key signatures in the bass clef
A E C
Key signatures in the treble clef
p. 105
Key signatures in the bass clef

P . 106
F Bb Db
p. 107
p. 108 "Roll Over" is in the key of F-sharp major. It is also in F-sharp pentatonic.
CHAPTER SEVEN
p. in
3rd 6th 2nd 3rd 5th 7th 4th 2nd 4th 7th
5th 5th 3rd 2nd 4th 6th 7th 3rd 6th 2nd 7th 4th octave
APPENDIX 267
268 APPENDIX
p. 114
maj. 2nd, min. 7th maj.3rd, min.6th
KeyofBt Key of D KeyofEb Key of A Key of A !>
p. 115
perfect: prime octave 4th 5th 5th 4th octave prime
dim. 5th dim. 3rd dim. 4th dim. 7th dim. octave dim. 7th dim. 4th dim. 3rd
APPENDIX 269
p. 116 Key of D Key of Bb
p. 116
P4th aug. 4th P5th aug. 5th maj.6th aug. 6th maj.3rd aug. 3n
The intervals above have been augmented by raising their top note. This could also have been
augmented by lowering their bottom note:
aug. 5th aug. 6th aug. 3rd
p. 117 KeyofEb Key of G
p. 117
5th min. 7th octave aue. 7th dim. 5th aug. 4th dim. 3rd M 2nd P5th P5th
p. 118 Key ofJ.

Interval mar. 6th
Key of_E
Interval P5th
270 APPENDIX
APPENDIX
CHAPTER EIGHT
p. 125
p. 127
p. 127
p. 127
p. 129
C Cm El> Bm B dm B^m Cl A^m
p. 129
p. 130
I ii in IV V vi vijO I
tonic supertonic mediant subdominant dominant submediant subtonic tonic
IV vi iii I V vii° I IV
subdominant submediant tonic dominant subtonic sub- super- submediant
mediant tonic dominant tonic mediant
APPENDIX 273
274 APPENDIX
p. 137 The half-steps of the E natural minor scale occur between 2 and 3 and between 5 and 6 .
p. 137
p. 138 Half-steps in the natural minor scale occur between 2 and 3 and between 5 and 6 .
p. 138 The melody for "The Little Man Who Wasn't There" is based on a D natural minor scale.
p. 138
p. 138
F Major
MmmMMm°M
I ii iii IV V vi vii I
APPENDIX 275
p. 139
p. 140 In major keys, chords numbered /, IV, V are major.

In major keys, chords numbered », Hi, vt' are minor.
In major keys, the chord numbered vti is diminished.
p. 140
p. 140 In natural minor keys, chords numbered ///, VI, VII are major.
In natural minor keys, chords numbered i, iv, v are minor.
In natural minor keys, the chord numbered ii is diminished.
276 APPENDIX
p. 141 These chords are used to accompany "Zum Gali Gali": i (m), iv (m).
D harmonic minor
p. 142 Half steps in the natural minor scale occur between 2 and 3, 5 and 6.
Half steps in the harmonic minor scale occur between 2 and 3, 5 and 6, 7 and 8.
An augmented second is found between 6 and 7 in the harmonic minor scale.
p. 142
p. 142
D
m°
i
harmonic minor
ii III
+ mMM°m
iv V VI vii i
p. 142 In harmonic minor keys, chords numbered V, VI are major.

In harmonic minor keys, chords numbered /, iv are minor.
In harmonic minor keys, chords numbered /';',
vii are diminished (ii°, vii ).
In harmonic minor keys, the chord numbered III is augmented (III + ).
p. 142
Dm A§ Dm Em B§ Em Bm Ftf Bm
p. 143
Em
APPENDIX 277
278 APPENDIX
p. 146 The key signature could be either G major (tonic chord: GBD) or e minor (tonic chord:
EGB).
Een • cy, ween cy spi • der went up the wa - ter - spout;
D7 G
Down came the rain and washed the spi • der out.
D7 G
Out came the sun and dried up all the rain, And the
D7 G
een • cy.ween - cy spi - der went up the spout a - gain.
p. 147
then I shout, Tip me o ver, pour me out!

APPENDIX 279
p. 147
measure 1 and 2 3 and 4 5 and 6 7 8

C G7 C D7 G
G7 ' ^ C S ^D7--^
CHAPTER TEN
p. 150
W W W+H W
p. 151 In a pentatonic scale,

whole steps occur between / and 2, 2 and 3, and 4 and 5.
a minor third occurs between 3 and 4.

half-steps occur between (none).
F pentatonic Et> pentatonic

280 APPENDIX
P- 153 "Old MacDonald" is in the key of G pentatonic. Its meter signature tells that there
are four beats in each measure and a quarter-note gets the beat. Its form is AA'BA.
P- 153 The new key for "Old MacDonald" is G-flat pentatonic.
P- 153 "Rocky Mountain" is in E-flat pentatonic. It can be harmonized as if it is in a major

key by using the I and V7 chords.
p. 154 "Rocky Mountain" transposed up a half-step is in E pentatonic.
P- 154 "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" is in G pentatonic.

Its melody contains no C's or F-sharps.
p. 154 "Singing on the Old Camp Ground" is in F pentatonic.
p. 154 "Ifca's Castle" is in the key of F major.
p. 154 "The Old Brass Wagon" is in G-flat pentatonic.
p. 155 "Skin and Bones" is in G pentatonic.
CHAPTER TWELVE
Since you may wish to consult the score of "Hallelujah," measure numbers are used below
along with the words to help identify the texture and the places where it changes.
Measure 4 homophonic entrance of voices (in four parts), "Hallelujah"

Measure 12 monophonic, all voices and orchestra on same melody, "For the Lord
God," etc.
Measure 14 homophonic, "Hallelujah"
Measure 17 monophonic, "For the Lord God"
Measure 19 homophonic, "Hallelujah"
Measure 22 polyphonic, "For the Lord God"
Measure 33 homophonic, "The Kinsdom of," etc.
Measure 41 polyphonic, "And He shall reign," etc.
Measure 51 polyphonic, contrast of women's voices in unison with men's voices in
harmony, "King of Kings"
Measure 58 moving away from polyphonic to homophonic with sopranos sustaining
long tones over alto, tenor, and bass homophonic singing of
"Hallelujah"
Measure 69 polyphonic, "And He shall reign"
Measure 74 moving back to homophonic with tenor sustaining long tones while so-
prano, alto, and bass sing homophonically, "King or Kings"
Measure 78 homophonic with alto suggesting polyphony for one measure, "And He
shall reign," then straight homophonic to the end.
APPENDIX 281
AUTOHARP
AUTOHARP 1:
"HOT CROSS BUNS"
These pictures show alternate ways to hold the autoharp. Cradling it in your arms
gives you greater mobility. Placing it on a table is easier.
• Put the fingers of your left hand on the buttons for the chord-bars. Cross your right
hand over the left to strum the strings from the bottom (fat. long strings) to the top
(thin, short strings.) References to "bottom" or "top" will mean pitch, not loca-
tion, since the location changes, depending upon the method adopted for holding
the instrument. "Bottom" refers to low sounds; "top" refers to high sounds.
• Look at the instrument to see what happens when you push a bar down. The bars
under the chord buttons stop vibration of strings not in the chords. Chord-bars are
not arranged in the same places on all autoharps. Become familiar with the bar
arrangement of your instrument as quickly as possible. Autoharps are made with
different numbers of chords.
This position allows the musician to move around Notice the player s posture and right hand
the room. (Joan Anderson. Lincoln Unified School crossing over left hand.
District)
• Press the G major chord-bar with your left index finger: strum the strings with
your right index finger. If it sounds wrong, perhaps
1. You are not pressing the button firmly enough. Be sure the felts on the lower
side of the bars contact the strings firmly to prevent the unnecessary ones
from sounding. Is the sound better when you press harder with the left hand?
2. The instrument is not in tune. If this is the case, ask for help. A beginning
musician should not be challenged with this task too soon. Learn from an
experienced musician how to tune the autoharp. Be sure to obtain an auto-
harp tuner tan implement similar to the one used by a piano tuner) whose
opening matches your tuning pins.
a. One way to tune the autoharp is to tune the notes named on the body of
the instrument in the order named, using the pitches of a keyboard

instrument as a reference for their desired sound. This procedure is
difficult because it necessitates movement between the keyboard and
the autoharp. as one plays and checks the sound between the two
instruments for each pitch.
b. A more desirable alternative is to begin with the lowest note on your
autoharp. Tune it to match its equivalent on an in-tune keyboard in-
strument. Then tune all the notes with the same name on the autoharp.
referring to the first-tuned low note for the pitch reference. If the low
note was an F. after all the F*s are in tune, follow the same procedure
F chord), and then the C*s (also in the
with the A*s (the next note in the
F chord While tuning the notes of the F chord, press the F chord
i.
button frequently to help you hear if the chord is in tune, and to find the
proper note to tune. (Next-door-neighboring notes that you might mis-
takenly pluck will not sound with the chord button pressed.) Move to
the C chord next. Then tune the remainder of the autoharp pitches by
moving from chord to chord. It is too soon for you to worn' if you do
not understand the above directions about tuning chords. This is one
reason you need help with tuning now. Chords will be gradually intro-
duced in this text.
Use moving quickly from bottom
the fingernail of your right index finger to strum,
(low pitch) to top (high pitch). Hold the G
down as you count 1-2-3—4
chord-bar
and strum on count onh Move >our hand back to the bottom strings quickly
1 .
enough to be ready for the next strum on 1 Allow no break between count 4 and
.
count 1.
As soon you have established a regular chord strum, pluck the B string to give
as
melody note, then sing "'Hot Cross Buns" with the G
the pitch for the beginning
chord accompaniment. When this seems easy, strum on counts 1 and 3 to accom-
pany your singing of the melody.
1
Is your autoharp constructed so you can strum on the right side of the chord-bars'
If it is. strum on the right, listening carefully to the timbre as you do so. Does it
1
sound different from the strum on the left of the chord-bars'
APPENDIX 283
AUTOHARP 2:
"THE BIRD'S SONG"
Strum the autoharp from lowest pitches to highest pressing the G major chord-bar.
Find theD7 chord-bar. Press it with a finger other than the one pressing the G bar.
Because the arrangement of autoharp chords varies from instrument to instru-
ment, take a moment to study the placement of the chords, then put your fingers
comfortably over the chord-bars you will use.
Practice alternating the G and D7 chords.
Pluck B to give your starting pitch. Sing "The Bird's Song," changing chords as
indicated by the symbols above the melody.
Play each chord on the steady beats, moving to a different chord when indicated
by the letter over the melody. When strumming in this fashion, you will play two
G chords, two D7 chords, six G chords, two D7 chords, and so on.
Vary your strum:

1. On beats 1 and 3, use your index finger to play all the strings from bottom to
top. On beats 2 and 4, use your thumb to play all the strings from top to
bottom.
2. Use your index finger to play all the beats from bottom to top.
AUTOHARP 3:
"A-HUNTING WE WILL GO"
Play the G and D7 chords alternately, being sure to press the bars down firmly and
use a different finger for each bar.
What is the name of the new chord in "A-Hunting We Will Go"?

Put another finger on the C chord, then memorize the association of finger with
chord. Which of your fingers will play the G chord, which the D7, and which the
new C chord?
Strum the three chords in the same progression they follow in the piece.
Strum twice in each measure. Remember to continue the chord last named until a
new chord is indicated.
284 APPENDIX
• Sing the melody as you play the chordal accompaniment. Be sure to start singing
on the correct pitch and to keep the rhythm steady and accurate.
• Vary the style of the accompaniment:
1. Strum, using all the strings for beat 1, the upper half of the strings for beat
three.
2. Use alternating up and down strums on all four beats.
3. Strum the same as number 2, but use all the strings for beat 1, and only the
upper strings for beats 2, 3, and 4.
As you become familiar with the autoharp, experiment with different styles
of playing. Chord symbols will be shown only where the chords change. Between
the chord symbols, use your ear to help you determine how often the chord should
be strummed. Frequently, strumming only where the chord symbols are written
produces an accompaniment with too little support for the melody.
AUTOHARP 4:
"HORN" ("ORCHESTRA SONG")
It is possible to use the G chord instead of G7, but using the G7 chord adds more
tension. The G7 demands resolution to the C chord and results in more of a sense
of reaching the proper destination when theC chord is heard. Assign one finger to
C, another finger to G7. Practice so that you can switch comfortably from C to G7
without moving the assigned finger away from its chord-bar. If you are not com-
fortable, try different finger combinations until you are.
• Accompany your singing of the "Horn" with the C and G7 chords. Then accom-
pany your singing of the "Horn" with the C and G chords. Which combination
gives you a stronger sense of harmonic movement?
• Try these different strums as you accompany the melody.

1. Strum the appropriate chord from bottom to top at the beginning of the
measure only.
2. Strum low strings on beat 1, high strings on beats 2 and 3.
3. Strum low strings on beat 1 , middle strings on beat 2 and high strings on beat
3.
4. Strum quickly across all strings from bottom to top on both beats 1 and 3.
Rest on beat 2.
5. Create new strums as you accompany this and other parts of the "Orchestra
Song" after you learn their melodies.
APPENDIX 285
AUTOHARP 5:
"AFRICAN NOEL"
• Find the F chord on your autoharp. Put one finger on it, another finger on the C
chord. Be sure you can alternate chords without moving your fingers away from
their chord-bars.
• Try these strums to accompany the melody of "African Noel":

1. Strum on beat 1 only, using all the strings from the bottom to the top.
2. Strum on both beats using all the strings from the bottom to the top.
3. Strum this pattern in each measure:
J J J
up down up
4. Strum this pattern in each measure:
J J J
up up up direction
low high high range
5. Create a different strum.
AUTOHARP 6:
"THE WILD COLONIAL BOY"
• Put a different finger on the D, G, and A7 chord-bars. Practice the chord progres-
sion alone, then add the melody to it.
AUTOHARP 7:
"ZUM GALI GALI" AND

"ALL THE PRETTY LITTLE HORSES"
If your autoharp does not have the chords needed for the music you wish to play,
transpose it to a closely related key. For example, move from E minor to D minor.
The problem is that autoharps with fifteen or fewer chord-bars may not have
enough minor chords to play in the keys you need even if you try to transpose.
Autoharps with twenty-one chord-bars enable you to play the i, iv, and V7 chords
in four minor keys. It is possible to purchase extra bars for chords not presently
on your autoharp.
286 APPENDIX
By this time you probably realize that the autoharp has definite limitations.
The advantage of the instrument is its accessibility. It is easy for a beginning
musician to use once it is in tune. When you become frustrated with the auto-
harp's lack of chords or its limited style, it is time for you to learn to play another
harmonic instrument that will give you a greater variety of musical options.
GUITAR
GUITAR 1:
"HOT CROSS BUNS"
There are several ways to hold the guitar. Choose the position most comfortable
for you.
Crossed legs without a stand for the left foot. Notice the stand for the left foot. (Terry Mills, University
of the Pacific, guitar faculty)
Use the fingers of your left hand to stop the strings and produce the chord
notes. Use the right hand to strum. Before beginning to play, be sure your instru-
ment is in tune. If you have access to a piano, tune the guitar strings to these notes
on the keyboard.
APPENDIX 287
Low High
Thick strings Thin strings
Bottom Top
Below Above
Reference to "low" or "high" is related to pitch, not the position of the

instrument. No matter how the guitar is held, the low, thick strings are described
as being at the bottom, and below other strings. The high, thin strings are de-
scribed as being on top, above the lower strings. This becomes confusing when
holding the guitar in playing position, since what looks like the highest string emits
the lowest pitch. Refer to the pitch, not the position of the string.
If you do not have access to a keyboard, tune the instrument to itself.
Play an E on a fixed-pitch instrument or a pitchpipe so the guitar can be tuned to

play with other instruments. After you have tuned the low E, press a finger firmly
on the low E string just below the fifth fret. (When describing fingered notes, also
refer to pitch, not position. "Below" the fifth fret means toward the tuning pegs,
even when the guitarist seems to be holding the fingerboard in such a way that the
finger placement seems to be "above." Remember, the longer the string, the
lower the sound. The finger placed "below" the makes the string longer,
fifth fret
with a lower sound than a string with a finger placed "above" (toward the body of
the guitar) the fifth fret.
Fret Numbers
285 A= ==N3'X
• Compare the sound of this fingered |

stopped) string with the open A string just
above. The two strings should sound exactly the same. If the sounds are not the
same, adjust the tuning of the open A until it matches the fingered E.
• Next, finger the A string just below the fifth fret.
The sound of that stopped string should be the same as the sound of the open
D above.If the two strings do not agree, change the open D until it matches the
fingered A sound.
• Continue to tune therest of the strings. All will be fingered below the fifth fret to
match the open string above except the G. which must be fingered below the 4th
fret to match the open B.
At first, strum only the four highest strings on the guitar. This will enable
you to begin with simplified fingering for your first chord. Place the fourth finger
of your hand just below the third fret on the high E string. Although other
left
fingers may seem stronger and so better able to hold the string down, use the
fourth finger so it is in place for the time you play the complete chord and need
that finger. Consistently place the finger as close to the fret as possible without
touching it. If the string is placed halfway between two frets or close to the one
below, the string may buzz because it is not being stopped firmly by the fret
above.
APPENDIX 289
In the diagram above, which is a conventional guitar-fingering diagram, x means

the string is not to be played and o means the string is to be played open, without a
finger stopping it. The numbers above the diagram identify the strings from I (high
E) to 6 (low E).
Brush your right thumb (or a pick) across the top four strings (D-G-B and fin-
gered E.) Play the G chord on count 1 as you say 1-2-3-4.
These pictures show the sequence for using a thumb brush strum.
1
•if"
Thumb brush preparation: thumb on bass string, fingers prepared to brush.
tWiijj^Vt »\\\\\\\ \ \
Thumb completes stroke.
Completion of finger stroke; thumb and fingers clear of strings.

290 APPENDIX
• As soon as this seems easy, pluck the B string to give you the starting pitch for
,,
"'Hot Cross Buns. Sing the song as you strum on count 1 . Practice this until it is
easy for you to strum and sing.
• Strum on counts 1 and 3 to accompany your singing. When this is easy for you,
practice the complete fingering for the G chord, strumming on all the strings.
If you have access to a baritone ukulele instead of a guitar, use the fingering
and tuning instructions for the top four strings of the guitar. The baritone ukulele
1. is smaller than the guitar.

2. does not have the bottom two strings of the guitar.
3. is lighter in weight.
4. is generally less expensive.
Size comparison of baritone ukulele and guitar.
(Hope Harrison, Klamath Falls Union High School)

APPENDIX 291
GUITAR 2:
"THE BIRD'S SONG"
• Strum the G chord using the top four strings.
This is the fingering for the D7 chord using the top four strings:
D7
6 5 4 3 2 1
Be sure to place the fingers as close to the fret above as possible.
• Practice moving from the G chord to the D7 chord.
• When you can change from G to D7 fluently, sing the melody and play the chords
to accompany it, changing them as indicated in the music for "The Bird's Song."
• Be sure to repeat the same chords rhythmically until a new chord letter tells you to
change to the next chord.
• When this seems easy, try changing from the complete G chord, using six strings,
to the D chord, using four strings.
G D7
As a preliminary exercise, move each finger alone:

second finger from the A string, second fret, to G string, second fret.
APPENDIX 293
GUITAR 3:
Play the G and D7 chords in the order in which they appear in the notation for "A-
Hunting We Will Go." When you come to the new chord (C), stop and practice
placing your fingers as shown in this chart.
Practice moving your fingers from the G chord to the C chord and back again.
If it is helpful to you, practice moving one finger at a time from its position in the G
chord to its position in the C chord.
Practice moving your fingers from the G chord to the C chord to the G chord to the
D7 chord to the G chord. Strum eight steady beats on each chord before changing
to the next one.
G C G D7 G
ooo AR° ooo xxo ooo

Play the chords in the order they follow for "A-Hunting We Will Go."
Strum twice in each measure as you play the chord progression for the piece
again. Remember to continue the chord last named until a new chord is indicated.
Sing the melody as you play the chordal accompaniment. Be sure to keep the
rhythm steady and accurate even if it means you must sing the song very slowly at
first.
Try to quicken your tempo until you are singing and playing as fast as is indicated
by the tempo marking.
GUITAR 4:
This is the fingering for the G7 chord.
G7
<2
How does it differ from the G chord?

You can use the G chord in the "Horn" if you wish, but it will not give the
feeling of harmonic tension that the G7 gives. It is also easier to move from G7 to
C than it is to move from G to C.
The C chord will establish its tonality more firmly if the lowest string is not
played. This allows the root of the chord (the fingered C on the A string) to sound
as the lowest note of the chord. Use the fingered G on the low E string as an
alternate bass.
Practice moving from the C chord to the G7 chord many times before you use that
progression to accompany the melody of the "Horn" in correct rhythm.
Compare the sound of the C-G7-C progression with the sound of the C-G-C
progression.
Practice these strums to accompany the "Horn" and the other parts of the "Or-
chestra Song":
1. Strum once in each measure.

2. Pluck the roots (lowest notes) of the chords (fifth string for the C chord, sixth
string for the G7 chord) with your thumb on beat 1. (The single notes
plucked are C and G, the roots of the C and G7 chords.) Strum the rest of the
strings on beats 2 and 3.
3. Pluck the roots of the chords with your thumb on beat 1. Strum two eighth-
notes (up, down) on beat 2 and one quarter-note (up) on beat 3.
APPENDIX 295
pick
j n
strum
j
P tit
4. Create an original strum.
GUITAR 5:
"AFRICAN NOEL"
The new chord for "African Noel" is F.
" A R
• Practice moving from C to F before using these chords as the accompaniment for
"African Noel."
• Play these strums as you sing the melody:
1. Strum on beat 1 only.
2. Pluck the root of the chord on beat 1 , strum the rest of the chord on beat 2.
The root is:
string 5 for the C chord

string 4 for the F chord
string 6 for the G7 chord
3. Pluck the root of the chord on beat 1. Strum two upward eighth-notes on
beat 2 using the rest of the notes in the chord.
4. Create another strum.

296 APPENDIX
GUITAR 6:
"THE WILD COLONIAL BOY'
Learn these new chords to accompany the melody for "The Wild Colonial Boy.
• Play the D, G, and A7 chords in the order they are used for "The Wild Colonial
Boy." Play eight beats for each chord at first, then four, then two.
GUITAR 7:
GUITAR CHORD CHART
The left column of chords shows fingerings for major chords. The third column
from the left shows dominant seventh chords. The other columns show fingerings
to add as the chords are demanded by music you will learn in the future.
X means: Don't play the string.
R shows the string sounding the root of the chord.

A shows the fifth of the chord, often used in alternation with the root.
—v shows the finger laid flat across the strings (barre).
APPENDIX 297
298 APPENDIX
KEYBOARD
KEYBOARD 1:
"HOT CROSS BUNS"
Because many different kinds of keyboard instruments may be available to you

(such as piano, electric organ, electric piano, synthesizer, pipe organ), this section
will be called "Keyboard" to indicate the inclusion of these varied instruments
and their similar capabilities.
The large printed keyboard included in this text is not intended to substitute
for a real instrument, but it may help you when you are not near a sounding
keyboard.
Victor Steinhardt, University of Oregon, School of Music, piano faculty.
This picture shows how you should sit when playing a keyboard instrument.
The speed of comes only after much practice!!
the hands
Sit in front of the middle of the keyboard. If the instrument has a name over
the keyboard, it will almost always help show the location of the middle. Put your
music for "Hot Cross Buns" on the rack in front of you.
APPENDIX 299
Keep your fingers curved as if you are holding a tennis ball.
Notice the black keys in sets of twos and threes alternating for the whole
length of the keyboard. Locate the set of three blacks to the right of the center of
the keyboard. To play "Hot Cross Buns," you will use the white keys just to the
right of the set of three black keys: G, A, B.
• Putyour right thumb on G, your second finger on A, and your third finger on B.
Combine what you have learned about the pitches and the rhythm to play "Hot
Cross Buns."
1
300 APPENDIX
KEYBOARD 2:
"HOT CROSS BUNS"
• Find the set of three black notes to the left of the center of the keyboard.
Eta II III II 111 I
I TT I TtT Trl T?T I T T T 1

Left Hand X
G will be in the same relative location as it was when you used it for the melody,
but now you will use the left hand to play it an octave (eight notes) lower. Put your
little finger (5) on G, your middle finger (3) on B. and your thumb (1) on D. Notice
the finger numbers for the left and right hands are for the thumbs, 5 for the little
1
fingers, etc.
• Use 5-3-1 of your left hand to play G. B. D together without allowing your other
two fingers to play the keys under them. You are now playing a G chord.
• Practice playing the G chord on count 1 as you say 1-2-3-4 several times.
• As soon you can do this easily, instead of counting, sing "Hot Cross Buns"
as
accompanying yourself by continuing to play the G chord on the first count. Play a
B to give yourself the starting melody pitch.
• As soon as you can, accompany your singing by playing the chord on beats 1 and
3.
• Next, use the keyboard to put the melody for "Hot Cross Buns" (right hand) and
the G chord harmony (left hand) together.
APPENDIX 301
KEYBOARD 3:
"LADY COME'
You will need all the fingers of your right hand to play the melody for "Lady,
Come." Put your fingers on the keyboard as this picture shows. Keep your hand
in position so each note has its own finger.
When you
mmm can play the melody with accurate rhythm, return to Chapter 3.
KEYBOARD 4:
"ARE YOU SLEEPING?"
• Begin to play "Are You Sleeping?" with your right hand in the same position you
used for "Lady, Come." Put your thumb on G; have one white key under each of
your other fingers. When you get to the beginning of measure 5, get ready to
change the position of your hand. Put your fourth finger (instead of your fifth
finger) on D. Use your fingers over the notes indicated in the picture below,
stretching the thumb over to the G at the end of the measure.
• Practice changing from measure 4 to 5 until the change from the fifth to the fourth
finger on the high D is smooth. Rather than changing position again for the other
new note, low D (just above middle C), use the thumb of your left hand on that
note, being ready to insert it rhythmically in the last two measures.
L.H. | R.H.
• Practice the last two measures several times before playing the piece from the
beginning.
• Practice the melody of "Are You Sleeping?" with correct rhythm until you can
play it well. When you are ready, return to Chapter 3 for a discussion of the
harmony of this piece.
KEYBOARD 5:
"THE BIRD'S SONG"
This piece uses a chord progression that includes the G and D7 chords. Because it
is easier (and the voice leading is better) to move from G to D7 by staying on
common tones and moving from the notes of the G chord to the closest notes of
the D7, the latter will not be used in root position (name of the chord as its bottom
note). The relationship of the notes to each other in the rearrangement of the D7
chord, results in the D7 being called a D5 chord.
G D5 G
• Use your left hand to play several G chords as you did for "Hot Cross Buns."
• To change from the G chord to the D§, move your fifth finger from the G to the F-
sharp (black note just below the G.) Practice playing G to F-sharp with your fifth
finger.
APPENDIX 303
Instead of using your third (middle) finger in the chord, play C with your
second finger. Practice playing B to C several times using your third and second
fingers.
When changing from G to D5, your thumb should stay the same. It will play D in
both chords.
L.H.
Practice changing from G to Ds using the separate finger movements described

above all at the same time.
When you can change from G to them as accompanying chords

fluently, play
while you sing the melody for "The Bird's Song." Change the chords as indicated
in the music.
When you can sing the melody and change the chords with accurate rhythm, play
the melody with the right hand and the chords with the left handat the same time.
Instead of trying to play the low D where it occurs in the melody with the right
hand, use the left-hand thumb.
304 APPENDIX
KEYBOARD 6:
• Review the G and D& chords by playing them several times.
What is the name of the new chord in "A-Hunting We Will Go"° What is the
chord played just before the new chord'1
For the same reasons that you have used the D7 chord in the § position, you
will use the C chord in the 5 position. The figures S indicate the relationship of the
upper notes to the lowest one as notated here:
In the change from the G chord to the C chord, the fifth finger of the left hand will
remain on G. This is called a common tone because it appears in both chords.
Instead of moving the third finger from the B (of the G chord), use the
second finger to play C in the new chord.
• Practice chansine from B. third finaer. to C. second finser.
TT
-
LH
while the fifth finger plays the G.
- -W It
APPENDIX 305
Move the thumb (first finger) from D to E.
Combine the movements you have practiced above to change from the G chord to
the Ct chord.
G Dj G C4 G D5 G
As soon as you can play the chord changes smoothly, sing the melody in rhythm
and change the chords without interrupting the rhythm. Be sure to start singing on
the correct pitch.
Play the melody and harmony together with accurate rhythm.
KEYBOARD 7:
"IT'S RAINING"
The most efficient way to play a keyboard instrument is to place your hand over
most of the notes in the pattern to be played. If you leave your right hand with the
thumb on G, where it has been for previous pieces, it will be difficult to hop down
for the low E. Instead, put your third finger on G. This enables you to play the E
with your thumb and still have the fourth finger free to play A.
KEYBOARD 8:
"IT'S RAINING"
Although you will use the C chord to accompany this melody, it will be used in
root position,
with the C on the bottom, rather than the % position you have used before.
"3"
Note that the C chord in root position and the C chord in 4 position contain the
same notes; they are arranged differently. Since "It's Raining" is in the key of C,
that key is more firmly established when its key chord is used in root position.
The same fingers of the left hand will be used to play the C chord in root
position that were used to play the G chord, 5-3-1. Put finger 5 on the C, 3 on E,
and 1 on G. Play C, E, G together without allowing fingers 2 and 4 to depress the
notes under them.
APPENDIX 307
KEYBOARD 9:
The finger movement from the C chord to the chord is the same as the move-
ment you used when moving from the G chord to the chord. Unlike the
chord, which has one black key, the Gf chord has all white keys.
Change from the C chord G6 chord. If you experience difficulty in moving

to the
all them separately: finger 5 from C to B, then finger 3
the fingers at once, practice
on E to finger 2 on F. Finger stays on G. When your fingers can execute these
1
separate moves fluently, execute them together.
KEYBOARD 10:
"DRUM" ("ORCHESTRA SONG")
Place your hand with your right thumb on middle C and finger 5 on G.
308 APPENDIX
KEYBOARD 11:
"CLARINET" ("ORCHESTRA SONG")
Shift your right hand back to the position you used for "It's Raining" with your
thumb on E. Play F with finger 2.
s
Play the "Clarinet" using another set of fingers:
The weakest finger in keyboard playing often is finger 4. To strengthen that
finger, play the "Clarinet" with finger 5 on the G, finger 3 on the E and finger 4 on
the F.
KEYBOARD 12:
"VIOLIN" ("ORCHESTRA SONG")
• Shift your hand position again to play the "Violin." This time put finger 1 of the
right hand on G and finger 4 on C.
• At the beginning of measure 3, stretch your hand so finger 5 can play high F, 3 can
play D, and 2 can play B. Keep your thumb on G.
—u
At the beginning of measure 4, hop quickly to play C with finger 3. The hop is
necessary because finger 3 is also used for the last note of measure 3. Conscien-
tiously use the fingerings suggested so you don't use the keyboard like a "hunt
and peck" typist.
APPENDIX 309
WMM\
o - —
KEYBOARD 13:
"BASSOON" ("ORCHESTRA SONG")
Begin to play the "Bassoon" with finger 5 on G. At the beginning of measure 2,

stretch from finger 2 on D to finger 1 on low G without moving your hand. Practice
keeping your hand in a stable position.
To free a finger for the A at the beginning of measure 3, hop from finger 5 on the G
just after low G, to finger 4 on the last G in that measure.
310 APPENDIX
• Hop again from finger 1 on the last note in measure 3 to finger 1 on the first note in
measure 4, then stretch so finger 5 can play C an octave higher.
• At the beginning of measure 5, use a cross-over fingering for the first time. Play the
F at the end of measure 4 with finger 1, then cross finger 3 over and have finger 1
ready immediately to play middle C.
The other fingerings in this piece repeat what you have already tried. Be sure to
read the fingering marked over the melody.
KEYBOARD 14:
"AFRICAN NOEL"
The movement from the C chord to the FS chord in "African Noel" is the same
you used to move from G to C4 in "A-Hunting We Will Go." Move from E, finger
3, to F, finger 2. Play G with finger 1, then shift finger 1 to A. Leave finger 5 on C.
• Practice moving your fingers from the C to the F chord until it becomes easy.
Then play the chord progression as it appears in "African Noel."
APPENDIX 311
C C f| C C F4 C Gj C
When you are ready, sing the melody with the chordal accompaniment.
KEYBOARD 15:
"TEN LITTLE INDIANS"
Since this piece is in the key of G, be sure to make F a sharp (tt) every time it
appears in the melody. F-sharp is the black key to the right of the F.
KEYBOARD 16:
C-sharp is the black key to the left in the set of two blacks on the keyboard. The C-
sharps used in this piece are middle C-sharp and the C-sharp an octave above
middle C-sharp.
The numbers above the notation for "The Wild Colonial Boy" are for your
fingering.Use both hands to play the melody. Place your hands on the keyboard
like this to use the suggested fingering for both hands:
312 APPENDIX
Shift your right hand at the beginning of the phrase starting with "Of poor."
Shift back to the first right-hand position for the last phrase.
KEYBOARD 17:
The new chords for "The Wild Colonial Boy" are D and Af.
• Play the D chord using this left-hand fingering.
Rather than playing the G chord in its root position as you have done before, use a
different position to make its place in the chord progression easier to play.
APPENDIX 313
• Play the chord progression for "The Wild Colonial Boy" without singing the
melody until you can move your fingers easily from one chord to the next.
KEYBOARD 18:
"ZUM GALI GALI"
The moving from chord I to chord IV4 is similar in major and minor
finger action in
keys. The difference is in how much to move each finger.
The little finger of the left hand (5) stays the same when moving from the E
minor chord to the inverted A minor. The third finger of the left hand plays G in
the E minor chord; the second finger plays A in the A minor chord (a whole step
away). The thumb (1) plays B in the E minor chord, then moves to C in the A
minor chord (a half-step away).
L.H. E minor chord to inverted A minor chord.
Compare the movement from I to IV in minor keys with that same move-
ment in major keys.
KEYBOARD 19:
"ALL THE PRETTY LITTLE HORSES"
The chord progression in "All the Pretty Little Horses" from E minor to A minor
is the same as described in Keyboard 18. The progression from E minor to B5 is
similar to the I to V5 progressions you have played in major keys. The difference
is the distance from the third to the second finger. In a minor key, it is a whole
step.
Finger 5 moves down a half-step. Finger 3 gives way to finger 2 a whole step
higher. Finger 1 stays on the same note.
314 APPENDIX
When you get to the G chord at the beginning of the third line, move your
hand up to play it in root position; then move back to the E minor chord in root
position.
RECORDER
RECORDER 1:
"HOT CROSS BUNS"
• Hold your soprano recorder as these pictures show. Use your left hand to cover
hand to cover the bottom holes.
the top holes; your right
Note position of mouthpiece. Recorder: left hand covers top holes.

(Tim Roberson, San Andreas School)
• Before blowing into the instrument, say "ti-ti-ti-ti." When you do this, you are
using your tongue to interrupt the flow of air. To produce your first recorder
sound:
1. Close no holes with your fingers.

2. Put the mouthpiece between your lips.
APPENDIX 315
3. Without touching the mouthpiece with your tongue, initiate the sound using
the same action you did when you said "ti-ti-ti-ti."
4. Blow gently.
Initiation and interruption of air flow using the tongue is called tonguing. For now,
tongue the beginning of each note you play.
To play "Hot Cross Buns," you

must learn the fingering for three notes:
B-A-G. These three notes require your
thumb to cover the hole in the back of
your recorder. To play B, use the thumb
and index finger of your left hand.
To play A, add the second finger of your

left hand to the B fingering.
To play G, add the third finger of your

left hand to the A fingering.
316 APPENDIX
• Practice playing B-A-G until your tongue and fingers coordinate. Practice these
exercises.
• When you have mastered the exercises, and can remember the fingering for each
note, play the melody for "Hot Cross Buns.'*
• Take care of your recorder:
The plastic recorder (recommended for beginners) is easy to care for. Fre-
quently give it a mild soapand water bath followed by a clear water rinse.
Always wash it between uses by different players.
Never wash wooden recorders. They must be dried carefully after each use
with a special swab or delicate, absorbent cloth attached to a cleaning rod.
RECORDER 2:
"LADY COME"
Review the fingering for the three notes you used in "Hot Cross Buns." Find
those notes in "Lady, Come."
Here are fingerings for two new notes you will need in this piece:
h!gh D
Practice playing the new notes in these exercises.

APPENDIX 317
Locate the new notes in "Lady, Come."
Practice the melody for "Lady, Come" using the correct rhythm.
RECORDER 3:
"ARE YOU SLEEPING?"
Practice playing from high D to E.

318 APPENDIX
• Practice playing from G to low D.
• Play "Are You Sleeping" with accurate rhythm. Play it slowly at first if you have
trouble remembering the new notes. Even when you play it slowly, try to keep the
relative rhythmic values of the notes.
RECORDER 4:
"IT'S RAINING"
The only new note in "It's Raining" is low E.

APPENDIX 319
• Play it in these exercises before playing it rhythmically as part of the melody.
RECORDER 5:
"DRUM" ("ORCHESTRA SONG")
The new note in the "Drum" is probably the most difficult note you will play on
the recorder because it requires you to close all the holes of the instrument. Use
your finger cushions to completely stop the air from escaping. Blow gently. Prob-
lems with playing low C generally result from:
1. Over-blowing (using too much air).
2. Partial closure of holes.
This is the lowest note on the soprano recorder.
LA
• Practice these exercises.
320 APPENDIX
RECORDER 6:
"CLARINET" ("ORCHESTRA SONG")
The new note for the "Clarinet" is
another difficult one because it does not

follow a predictable fingering pattern if
you are playing a Baroque (English) so-

prano recorder.
If you are not sure if your recorder
is Baroque or German, look at the holes

on the front of the instrument. Count
down from the top. If hole number five is
larger than hole four, use the Baroque
fingering. If hole four is larger, or if the
holes seem to be the same size, use the
German fingering. Use your ear to deter-
mine if the fingering produces a pitch
that is in tune.
If you are playing a German so-
prano recorder, this is the fingering for
F.
If you are playing a Baroque so-

prano recorder, the F fingering for the
German recorder will produce a note
that is out of tune. To get the best intona-
tion, add an extra finger to flatten the
pitch. Use your right ring finger to cover
the two small holes circled below.
APPENDIX 321
Some Baroque recorders require

the addition of two fingers to produce the
best intonation. Use your right ring fin-
ger to cover the two small holes as

shown above, and your right little finger
to cover the set of two small holes below
them. Use your ear to select the correct
fingerings to help you play the notes in
tune.
Before playing the "Clarinet," practice playing these exercises until you can
produce the F readily.
RECORDER 7:
"VIOLIN" ("ORCHESTRA SONG")
1
The only new note in the "Violin' is high F. Play it with the same fingering you
used for low F except for a half hole with the thumb to make it sound an octave
higher.
322 APPENDIX
• Before playing the "Violin" part using the correct rhythm, practice these
exercises.
Slurs are created on the recorder by using the tongue less frequently. In
previous pieces you have been asked to begin each note using your tongue as if
you were saying "ti". When you see a slur in your music from now on, tongue the
first note of the slur, such as the B over "ring," then move your fingers for the
following note, but do not tongue that note.
When playing the four notes over "love-," tongue the high F, then change
your fingers for the D, B, and G, but do not tongue them. Keep a steady stream of
air going to play the notes, but do not interrupt the airstream with the tongue. If
you slur correctly, you should produce a legato effect.
• Practice these exercises:
RECORDER 8:
"BASSOON" ("ORCHESTRA SONG")
You cannot play the new note for the "Bassoon" part on the recorder. The very
low G below the range of this instrument. When you encounter music written
is
with some notes below the range your recorder can play, try to devise substitu-
tions. In this case, substitute the second line G for the G below the staff. Play the
piece as written except for the two places where you will change the G's.
instead of
• Practice these exercises to help you with the "Bassoon":

APPENDIX 323
RECORDER 9:
"TEN LITTLE INDIANS"
This is the fingering for F-sharp.
• Before you play the whole piece with correct rhythm, practice these exercises:
RECORDER 10:
"HOME ON THE RANGE"
Remember the fingering necessary to play F in tune on the Baroque recorder. In

the key of F it is sometimes more efficient and just as much in tune to use this
fingering for B-flat:
324 APPENDIX
It is when going from low D to B-flat, or when moving back and

especially useful
forth between B-flat and F. (Another fingering for B-flat is found on the fingering
chart, Recorder 12.)
If you have trouble with low C, check to make sure that all your fingers are
covering the holes. Be careful not to over-blow. Decrease the expulsion of your
breath to see if you are better able to set the note you want.
As you continue to play the recorder, be curious about alternate fingerings.
The fingering chart {Recorder 12) does not give all possible fingerings. You may
find alternate and cross-fingerings to suit certain musical purposes by experiment-
ing with the sounds you can produce on the instrument. Listen carefully to see if
the sounds are in tune. Don't be afraid to find alternatives.

The soprano recorder you have played is one of many different members of
the recorder family. Longer instruments produce lower sounds.
Recorder family from top down: garklein flotlein, sopranino, soprano, alto, tenor.
Missing from picture: bass, grossbass, subbass.
RECORDER 11:
This fingering is for low C-sharp. Be sure to blow gently and cover all the holes
except the one illustrated.
APPENDIX 325
Practice playing from D to C-sharp until you can produce C-sharp easily.
This is the C-sharp fingering one octave higher than the one you just played.
Practice playing from D to C-sharp until you can produce C-sharp easily.
Find two notes in "The Wild Colonial Boy" that are below the playing range of
the soprano recorder. Circle these notes. In both cases, when playing this piece,
either leave out the low A, substituting an eighth-rest, or play a C-sharp in its
place. The latter alternative will change the melodic line and is probably the least
desirable of the two.
326 APPENDIX
APPENDIX 327
€°b c c c c c c c c •€ c
•
c •
• • • • •• • •
• • • • • •• •
• • • • •
• • •• • •
•
i
VOICE
Are you surprised to find a voice section in the instrument section of this book? If
so, your surprise may be caused by your exposure to references differentiating the
voice from other "instruments." According to the 1970 edition of the Harvard
Dictionary of Music (Willi Apel, Harvard University Press, p. 413), instrumental
music is "music performed on instruments, as opposed to music performed by
voices." In contrast, the 1954 edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musi-
cians (ed. by Eric Blom, St. Martin's Press, Inc., Vol. IX, p. 43) says that
"singing is primarily that branch of the art of music of which the human voice is
the instrument." Grove's (1954, Vol. IV, p. 487) further defines instruments as the
"tools by means of which we manipulate the raw materials of music." The 1980
Grove's quotes Hornbostel as saying "for purposes of research everything must
count as a musical instrument with which sound can be produced intentionally,"
but the article is then completed with no reference to the voice as being one of
ZZ3 -^-ÊNO
these producers I The Mew Grave Dicrionarj of Music and Musicians, ed. by
Stanley Sadie, Macnnilan. L980. Vol. IX. z ~J2~ in :hat same edition of Grove 5.
.
v in .'antier ;ails the voice "Tie nest suntie md rfexibie of musical instruments"
(VaL XVTL p. 33S).
Tms -iecaon is included in the instrument section because the voice is per-
:•: v :ie aimer i nusicai nsmmem. .":
:. ir.r natcned vith discussions n
lie e :: is ir; ne :oer nsrriment.: because :.-:e-.;:nc ingernas ire icr iee:ie?: z\>
the singer. Tins section is in narrative form and is intended to be used by teachers
me x.ment:-; is ..s lesiracie for their particular emphases. The musical experience
of the student is well served if opportunities for participation using the voice are
neenrcrateu •eauiariy
Singing can and should be a wonderful, natural form of human expression. It
is a very pergonal :ne \ student playing a recorder can thrust the instrument
aside with a casual comment about it squeaking: it is not part of the student. The
voire, on the other land, is difficult to disassociate from the singer: it cannot be
:a:-:;iail' lisownea. >
:ices tern -ecresent vie ve ire is peocie In trier :c
mm' t :ur ..nama voice, lse t. In trier to gam confidence, sing with and for
other peapie.
Ta improve /our voice lean proper breathing Techniques, correct vowel
Placement, use of consonants, appropriate tone quality, sensitive use of ex-
rres i iiements, precise mtonahon. and general musical accuracy.
To gam confidence, sing as much as possible. Practice techniques suggested
below as you listen, carefully ta your voice. Seek opportunities to sing with other
reccie \3 you unprove. mizfor other people. You may wish to begin with a very
N
inrxr.;:u..' t a-iiie-ce .;;cn i:: i .mail ;niiu. »or :my vil 1 youngster lppreciate
you. bur you can to be enjoyed
also help the child sense that singing is something
by everyone. Don't worry about whether or not your friends appreciate your
r
cice Encourage item \: una v.«; ieeo t '.na:
= = LATHING
Breath is the ruei mat maaes the voice function. It moves from the lungs to the
ar :.: vnere 1 :as .e*: :ei veen iexibte xai ;.oris. tausmg "nem to vibrate md
produce ne y.nna. iingmg Tom the throat with mistreatment of the vocal cords is
Likely to result in laryngitis or serious damage.
• Lie down an the icor iar :n /our back. Reiax for a few minutes and daydream
about something other than the breathing process. After a few minutes, notice
now ne tan icor manges your body Alignment. Take several deep breaths. Put
/our tanas :n ne lower part of your chest. Notice how your chest cavity expands
as you inhale. Also note that your shoulders do not move up and down. If you
APPENDIX 329
were asked to take a deep breath standing up, the chances are that you would suck
your lower chest in and raise your shoulders. Neither of these movements helps
you breathe. When inhaling, the idea is to fill your lungs, not compress them. It is
likely that you will breathe more naturally when lying on the floor.
• Continue to breathe deeply while observing the action of your lungs on your lower
chest. If they are expanding properly, you can feel the rib cage expanding also.
After the next deep breath, use your hands to help expel the air from your lungs;
force the air out rapidly, being aware of the action of your muscles in getting rid of
it. The most important muscle is the diaphragm, a large muscle under the chest
cavity. Can you expel the air rapidly, using your muscles with no help from your
hands?
Be careful! Don't carry anything to extremes when dealing with your voice.
If you are tense or uncomfortable when singing, see a voice teacher for an indi-
vidual diagnosis as to what the problem(s) may be.
Learn to breathe so the tone you produce is well supported. Become con-
scious of the mechanism that deals with the intake and expulsion of air. Still lying
on the floor, take a deep breath, then sing "coo" and hold the vowel as long as
you can. As you sing it, be aware of the breath supporting your tone; it is the
foundation upon which your successful singing experiences are built. If you seem
to be running short of breath, gently push with your hands on either side of your
lower chest cavity to help your muscles support the tone. For variety, sing
"who," "too," and "moo."
When you feel that you understand the breathing process and can use your
breath to support the words you sing in a relaxed way, then try the same exercises
while standing. Be sure the shoulders remain still, the lower chest expands with
the intake of air, and the lungs contract as they expel the air. Carry the body
alignment you had while lying on the floor into the carriage you assume while
standing. Good posture is essential for singing well. Be careful that stereotypes of
posture do not influence your singing posture. You cannot breathe properly if you
continuously concentrate on holding your abdomen in. Good singing posture is
responsive to the demands of the breathing mechanism; the lungs must expand
and contract.
If you sing when seated, use the best posture possible: back straight, seat on
the front half of the chair, feet flat on the floor.
VOWELS
Singing differs from speaking because the sung vowels are elongated on variable
pitches. Sing a few words with attention to the vowels. Sing the word "go."
Notice that "o" is the sound you sustain. Sing the word "see." Sing the "s"
330 APPENDIX
sound alone, then the "ee" sound alone. Try to change the pitch of these letters as
you sing them. Compare the sound of the sustained "s" sound with the "ee**
sound as you try to change the pitch. Although you can change the pitch of the
"s," it does not contribute to the musical sound in the same way as the "ee."
To determine the correct placement of vowels when singing, try a variety of
pronunciations. Depending on the interpretation of the text, the pitch of the word,
the musical approach to it, and the individual voice, each of those vowels will
have many varied sounds. Sustain the vowel "e." While you hold it, experiment
with variations on the "e" sound:
1. Change the shape of your mouth.

2. Put the "e" up in your nose.
3. Drop your jaw.
Notice how many shadings of "e" you were able to produce. Experiment
with other vowels. See how much variation you can get with each of them while
still striving to maintain their particular identity. In general, singing a vowel in the
back of the throat is the least desirable placement. The most desirable placement
of the vowel
1. Maintains the identity of the vowel.

2. Enables the singer to produce it with no tension.
3. Helps the singer to produce good tone quality.
• Choose a favorite song. Sing it slowly, concentrating on the sounds of the vowels
for each word.
• Sing the same song again. This time, sing the entire song using the sound of only
one vowel (no consonants). Repeat the song using a different vowel each time you
sing As you do this, concentrate on maintaining the same vowel sound through-
it.
out. Can you do it? Do different pitches of the melody influence your capability
for maintaining any of the vowel sounds?
Singing a song through with a vowel that is especially comfortable for your
voice is a good way to warm up for a singing session.
CONSONANTS
Although the vowels carry the singing sound, the consonants are necessary for
articulation. Choose a comfortable pitch and on that pitch sing "e-o-a-o" listening
carefully to the vowel sound. Now add the consonants so you are singing "sweet
potato." Articulate the consonants sharply, moving immediately through them to
APPENDIX 331
reach the sustained vowel. Choose other words to articulate on one sustained
pitch.
Use the sustained vowel sound, and the swiftly articulated consonant on varied
pitches such as:
Hel lo
Choose a comfortable range for this activity. Concentrate on pleasing tone quali-
ty, proper breathing, succinct articulation. Improvise on pitch-word combinations
that sound good to you.
As you work with consonants, you will become aware thatsome of them
(such as T, K, F, P) cannot be articulated on pitch. Others (such as D, G, L, M, N)
can be pitched. Under some circumstances (as when M or N is used for hum-
ming), the pitched consonants are effectively used to sustain the sound. More
often, they serve only to terminate the vowel sound. Even though the pitched
consonants may be short, when used to terminate the sustained vowel, they
should be sung at the same pitch as the preceding vowel.
• Choose another familiar song. Sing it slowly, concentrating on clean articulation

of the consonants and quick movement to the sustained vowel(s) of each word.
TONE QUALITY
Each voice has its own unique timbre or tone quality, with the possibility of
producing many variations on the basic sound. Correct breath support will enable
the singer to produce a clear tone. Vowel placement helps the singer produce the
type of quality most desirable and appropriate for the music being performed.
Singers turn to voice teachers to help them produce the best quality possible for
their particular instrument. Singers are influenced, too, by recordings epitomizing
the quality most appropriate for the literature to be performed.
EXPRESSIVE ELEMENTS
Sensitive use of the expressive elements is crucial for vocal interpretation of

music. In addition to timbre (see tone quality above), variety in tempo and dynam-
ics helps the singer express shades of meaning either associated with the text or
intrinsic to the music.
332 APPENDIX
INTONATION
Singing in tune, or using good intonation, means that the singer is precise in
producing correct pitches. Inexperienced singers may be unable, at first, to match
pitches; they may be unable to sing a recognizable melody. Most people who are
willing to try, and are able to get help from a sympathetic teacher, can improve
their ability to sing correct pitches.
Learning to sing with good intonation may be a series of successive approx-
imations in which the singer gradually gains skill with in-tune singing. A singer
who sings under the pitch is said to sing "flat." One who sings higher than the
pitch is said to sing "sharp." A necessary part of learning to sing in tune is the
development of the singer's ear, that is, the singer's ability to discriminate be-
tween right and wrong or flat and sharp pitches through paying attention to the
sound and then adjusting the voice appropriately.
MUSICAL ACCURACY
General musical accuracy will include some of the items discussed above (such as
singing in tune, using expressive elements accurately, and so on), but it includes
still more components of music. The musical singer must be able to integrate all
musical elements to produce accurate and expressive music. The singer's rhythm
must demonstrate pulse, understanding of meter, correct patterns. Melodic con-
cepts of phrasing must also utilize appropriate dynamics and tempo. The singer
must be aware of the harmonic structure of the selection and fit the vocal line
accurately into its place as part of the total harmony. Understanding of form
works with the other elements to demonstrate appropriate variety while maintain-
ing the integrity of the entire composition.
RANGES
Do you know the classification of your voice? The common way of identifying
voices after they have changed from children's to adult voices, is to put them in
categories of high or low male or female voices. The highest voice is the soprano,
the next lowest the alto, then the tenor, and finally the bass. The ranges of these
voices overlap considerably. Identification of voices should be done by quality as
well as range, but this factor is often obscured by other considerations that may
seem more pertinent at the time the voice classification is made:
1. The choir needs people in the "x" section.
2. The singer can read a harmony part.

APPENDIX 333
3. Friends want to sit in the same section of the choir.
4. The range seems to be where the singer feels most comfortable.
If you are interested in finding the proper classification of your voice, contact a
skilled voice teacher or choir director for an analysis of your vocal instrument and
its potential.
These ranges are approximate. Ranges associated with voices vary with*
training, experience, and desire to expand the extremes of the range. The tenor
part is usually written in the treble clef, but it is actually sung an octave lower than
written. Tenor parts should show an "8" under the clef sign to indicate that they
are to be sung an octave lower. In common practice, tenor scores frequently do
not include the "8." It is assumed that musicians understand the octave
transposition.
Soprano Alio Tenor
^ f Hi - i4
Many adults say that they cannot sing high notes. That is generally an
inaccurate statement, made because the voice has been used infrequently, or
perhaps used improperly. The will to expand the singing range, coupled with
proper breath support and much practice, is conducive to extension of the vocal
range.
Rock singers often demonstrate a wide vocal range. Some of the male sing-
ers have developed their falsetto voices so they can sing from a bass through a
soprano range. The falsetto is used to sing pitches not normally within the male
singer's natural range. To use the falsetto, the singer vibrates only part of the
vocal chords, adding higher pitches to perform wide-ranging melodic material.
SOLO AND UNISON SINGING
As you develop your singing voice, sing solos. This will help you focus on your
sound, its quality, and, most important, your intonation (ability to sing in tune).
Sometimes you will want to sing your solo literature with other people. Group
singing of melodies is called unison singing. Although you may enjoy unison
singing, convince yourself that you can sing the songs alone also. Even if you are
an inexperienced singer, it is not too early to think about the mood, the style, and
the unique characteristics of the music to which you can apply your individual
expressive interpretation. Use pieces from this text if you do not have solos in
mind.
In every case, if you need help with the melody, teach it to yourself by
playing it on your melody instrument. There may be a few difficult intervals you
334 APPENDIX
need to play to help your voice sing accurately. Strive to read vocally as well as
instrumentally. If the key is too high or too low, transpose it to a comfortable
singing range when necessary. Try different keys to challenge yourself to expand
your range. When you find a key for a particular song that is good for your voice,
note the starting pitch and give it to yourself on an instrument or pitchpipe each
time before you begin to sing.
SINGING IN HARMONY
An added attraction of group singing is the potential for members of the group to
sing in harmony Your musicianship is strengthened when you

as well as in unison.
develop the ability to hold a harmony part on your own. Do not try to sing
harmony until you can sing melodies accurately.
Some of the easiest harmonies are created vocally through singing rounds.
Sing the rounds listed below first as unison songs, then in harmony, with different
singers beginning the melody when the singers who started first reach the circled
numbers shown above the melody. Four numbers above the melody mean that
there can be up to four different singers or groups of singers joining the harmony
when the first singers reach those four different places.
If you have not yet studied all the songs listed below, delay singing them
until they are introduced in the text so their particular musical problems are
explained before you try them as rounds.
"Are You Sleeping" "Lady, Come"

"The Bird's Song" "Lullaby Round"
"The Frogs" "Shalom Chaverim"
"Ifca's Castle" "Summer Is A-coming in"
Sing a round that is not explained in the text, "Dona Nobis Pacem."
The ostinato provides another way to add harmony to a melody in a com-
paratively easy fashion. The first two measures of "Zum Gali, Gali" form an
APPENDIX 335
attractive ostinato. Sing the melody while other musicians sing or play the os-
tinato. It many times as necessary to end with the melody.
should be repeated as
The "Orchestra Song" treats voices like instruments, giving them each their
own distinctive part to sing. Sing one of the orchestra parts by yourself while
friends try other orchestral parts.
Once certain individual songs are learned, they can be combined to create*
harmony as partner songs. At first, to increase your confidence, sing "Hark to the
Singing," "Will You Come?" and "Coffee" together with their words. As you
gain confidence, substitute syllables for the words. If all the singers use a uniform
syllable, such as "tu," a simulated orchestral effect can be achieved that is more
attractive than the jumble of many unrelated words. Songs can only be used as
partner songsif their chord changes occur in the same places, if they are in the
same key, and if there is compatibility between the melodies.

The "Shroom Song" gives you an opportunity to sing in four part harmony.
Tell Me Why
Chromatics (tones that do not belong in the key) add a different flavor to
harmony. Half-steps are not easy A harmony part above the
to sing, so be careful.
melody is sometimes called a descant. If you have trouble singing the descant,
play it on the recorder or piano to get the sound in your ear.
The rule for accidentals (signs used to show chromatic alterations) is that
they are good only for the measure in which they appear: The bar-line cancels
them. In actual practice, music printers usually put the sharp, flat, or natural in the
next measure even though the key signature indicates the correct note. An exam-
ple of this occurs in measures 3 and 4, line 2, of "Tell Me Why." The B-natural in
the third measure should automatically return to B-flat in the fourth measure, but
the music printer has inserted the flat sign as a reminder. The reminder may be put
in parentheses 0>).
336 APPENDIX
VOCAL MUSIC READING
Reading music with your voice may be

more difficult than reading with an in-
strument. If you wish to improve your

vocal reading, try solfege (so-fa sylla-
bles). Excellent sightreaders have
learned to read using the syllables alone,
or coupling them with hand signs. The
Kodaly method of vocal reading, based
on a combination of syllables and signs,
is used in many parts of the world. Musi-
cians who have used this combination

successfully derive value from the phys-
ical coupling of the hand sign with the
syllable label of the sound they both
represent.
do N
Apply the syllables and the hand signs to pieces you have already sung so the
combination will represent sight and accurate sound. Then, apply the syllables to
new you are singing in a major key, do will be the name of the key. If
material. If
you are singing minor key, la will be the name of the key. Although fixed do is
in a
used in parts of the world (where do is C and never changes), you will use the
moveable do. The placement of do changes, or moves, to the tonic of whatever
major key is used; la moves to the tonic of whatever minor key is used.
Memorize the hand signs and their corresponding syllables.

APPENDIX 337
Write the syllables under the notes in these pieces:
"The Frogs" "Home on the Range"

"Hold On" "Ifca's Castle"
Choose two other pieces and write the syllables under their notes.
Sing the pieces whose syllables you have written; use the corresponding hand
signs as you sing the syllables.
VOCAL IMPROVISATION
Much fine singing is done extemporaneously. Groups that encourage creative

singing form around campfires, in churches, in jazz ensembles, sometimes in
classrooms. Once you have the sounds of harmony in your ear, apply them to
harmonizations of your own creation that you think will add to the music.
Creative singing is done by soloists also. Vocal jazz singers display great
virtuosity in singing solos of their own design related to the chord progressions
being played by the combos with which they sing. Before and during Bach's time
(1685-1750) soloists were expected to embellish (ornament) the melodies they
sang.
Listen to Margaret Dehning embellishing a tune you know (Tape 17).
Sing the tune Margaret Dehning sang. After you sing it the way it is written, sing it
again with changes of your own making. Sing it a third time with different
changes.
Describe the variations you made on the melody. Share them with a class member
to help both of you enlarge your creative vocabularies.
Singing is an attractive human activity. Persist in developing your vocal skill
to maintain it as part of your enjoyable association with music-making. One

advantage of singing is that the instrument is always nearby.
338 APPENDIX
MUSIC CHECK
PROPER BREATHING SINGING IN UNISON
ELONGATION OF VOWELS SINGING IN HARMONY

ARTICULATION THROUGH CONSONANTS ROUNDS
APPROPRIATE TONE QUALITY OSTINATOS
EXPRESSIVE ELEMENTS APPLIED TO SINGING DESCANT
ACCURATE INTONATION CHROMATICS
VOCAL RANGES ACCIDENTALS
SOPRANO EFFECT OF BAR-LINE
ALTO REMINDER
TENOR SO-FA SYLLABLES
BASS HAND SIGNS
FALSETTO VOCAL IMPROVISATION
SOLO SINGING
APPENDIX 339
TERMINOLOGY REVIEW
ACCELERANDO aCCel.
Gradually getting faster.
ACCENT >
The stress placed on notes.
ACCIDENTALS jj \> \ x \>\>
Sharps, flats, naturals, double-sharps, double-flats placed before notes rather than in
the key signature.
AEROPHONES
Instruments that produce sound by the vibration of air.
ANACRUSIS
A partial measure with which a piece begins. The strong beat is not on the beginning
note(s).
ARIA
A song or elaborate air often associated with opera or oratorio.
AUGMENTED
Made larger. A musical theme will take more time because its notes will be made
longer. An augmented interval or chord will be larger than normal.
AURAL ANALYSIS
Determination of the nature of music through listening.
BAR
A measure of music. I
BAR-LINE
Divides music notes into convenient counting groups (measures or bars).
BAROQUE
Historical period, 1575-1750.
BASS CLEF *J ° :
Also called F-clef. Appears at beginning of staff to show location of note F on fourth
line.
BEAT
The underlying, evenly spaced pulse providing a framework for rhythm.
BINARY FORM
Piece of music with two sections (AB).
BLUE NOTES
Flatted notes normally associated with jazz.
CADENCE
The conclusion of a musical idea, most often associated with complete or incomplete
harm onic resolutions.
CHORD *) : \\ ..jÊ
Three or more notes that are generally sounded together, but that can also function
with notes sounding successively (a broken chord).
CHORD PROGRESSION
Series of chords.
CHORDOPHONES
Instruments that make sound with vibrating strings.
340 APPENDIX
CHROMATIC
Notes that are a half-step away from each other; note(s) outside the major or minor
organization of the composition.
CLASSICAL
CLEF y — — ==-
Sign that locates notes on the staff. Normally appears at the beginning of the staff.
CODA
An ending section to a piece of music.
COMPOUND METER
Meter in which the beat is divided into three rather than two.
COMPOSITION
Act of creating and writing music; or the piece of music itself.
CONCERTO
Musical work for orchestra with soloist(s).
CONSONANCE
Combination of pitches that does not demand resolution.
CONTEMPORARY
Historical period, 1900-present.
~====
crescendo cresc. or ^ZZ1
Gradually getting louder.
DA capo
Go back to the beginning of the piece and play or sing again.
D. C.AL FINE
Go back to the beginning and play or sing through to Fine.
DIMINISHED
Made smaller. A musical theme will take less time because its notes will be made
shorter. A diminished interval or chord will be smaller than normal.
diminuendo dim. or
Gradually getting softer.
DISSONANCE
Combination of pitches that demands resolution.
DOT J. J. .) J73
After a note, indicates note is to be held half as long again.
DOUBLE-BAR LINE
End of piece, or end of section. =fl
DOUBLE-DOTTED J. J_ Ji ;
Two dots to the right of a note head. The first dot elongates the note by half, the
second dot elongates it by a quarter. The double-dotted note is three quarters longer
than its original value.
DOUBLE FLAT ^
The note that follows the double flat is one whole step lower in pitch than it is without
the double flat.
DOUBLE SHARP *
The note that follows the double sharp is one whole step higher in pitch than it is
without the double sharp.

DYNAMICS
Gradations of louds and softs.
APPENDIX 341
ELECTROPHONES
Instruments that make sound with some form of electrical assistance.
ENHARMONIC ^? f" b ° ^ tf
^
The pitch is the same, but the appearance of the notes, scales, chords, or intervals
are different.
FERMATA
Pause or hold; alter count at point indicated so note or rest beneath the fermata is
held longer than usual (at the discretion of the conductor or performer).
FINE
The end.
flat !>
Play or sing indicated note one half-step (semitone) lower than usual pitch.
FORM
Plan or structure showing order and balance of composition.
FORTE /
Loud.
FORTISSIMO //
Very loud.
FUGUE
A highly developed polyphonic composition.
HALF STEP
The smallest interval commonly used in Western music; the distance between any
two adjacent notes on a keyboard. Synonym for semitone.
HARMONY
The simultaneous sounding of at least two different pitches.
HOMOPHONIC
Texture caused by chordal support of a melody.
IDIOPHONES
Instruments made of sonorous material that produce sound through some type of
striking action.
IMPROVISATION
Spontaneous creation of musical material often related to given composition or chord
progression.
INNER EAR
Musical imagination that enables musical recreation without overt sound.
INTERVAL
The difference in pitch between two notes.
INTRODUCTION
A short section acting as a beginning of a composition to show the key, tempo, meter,
and dynamics before the main melody is introduced.
INVERSION
Transfer of the lowest note of an interval or chord to the next highest octave.
KEY SIGNATURE
Found at the beginning of each line of notation, indicates the sharps or flats to be
used throughout the composition.
LEDGER LINE(S)
Line(s) added above or below the staff to extend the written note range.
342 APPENDIX
LEGATO
Smoothly join notes.
MAJOR SCALE
A successive array of notes. In one octave, whole steps (whole tones) occur between
all consecutive pitches except steps 3 and 4 and steps 7 and 8, which are separated by
half steps (semitones).
MEASURE
Units of musical time found between a bar line and the one that follows it; sometimes
called a bar.
MELODY
A succession of musical pitches arranged in a rhythmic pattern.
MEMBRANOPHONES
Instruments whose sound is made by a vibrating skin or membrane.
METER SIGNATURE
Numbers placed at the beginning of a composition's notation. The top number tells
the number of beats (counts) per measure; the bottom number tells the kind of note
that gets one beat (count). Also called time signature.
M.M.
Malzel's metronome, gives steady beat that can be adjusted to show tempo
indications.
MINOR SCALE
Scale with whole steps between all consecutive notes except for the following: half-
steps between 2 and and 5 and 6 (natural); or 2 and 3,

3, 5 and 6, and 7 and 8, and an
augmented second between 6 and 7 (harmonic); or 2 and 3, and 7 and 8, going up, and
6 and 5, and 3 and 2, going down (melodic).
MONOPHONIC
Melody with no harmony.
MOVEABLE DO
A system of sight-singing for which do is always the key note of the composition.
MOVEMENT
Section of a large musical composition.
NATURAL SIGN l|
Takes away the effect of a flat or sharp sign.
octave » °
The interval between a note and its nearest namesake, eight letter names away.
OCTAVE SIGN 8 va.
Sign above indicates passage is to sound one octave higher; below, one octave lower.
The number 16 indicates two octaves higher or lower.

OSTINATO
An obstinately repeated pattern.
PATSCHEN
Thigh slap.
PENTATONIC
Uses five pitches.
PERFECT PITCH
Ability to identify and produce pitches accurately with no outside help.
APPENDIX 343
PHRASE
A portion of a melody sensed as a musical entity. Can be compared to a sentence,
phrase, or clause as used in language.
pianissimo pp
Very soft.
PIANO p
Soft.
PICK-UP
Same as anacrusis.
PITCH
How high or low the sound is; a measure of the frequency of vibration.
PITCH SYLLABLES
Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, Ti.
pizzicato pizz.
Pluck instead of bow.
POLYPHONIC
Texture formed by simultaneously sounding melodies.
RALLENTANDO rail.
Gradually getting slower.

RECITATIVE
Vocal style used especially in opera and oratorio to advance understanding of the
story or to provide narrative.
RELATIVE MAJOR AND MINOR
Use of the same key signature for a major key and a minor key, their keynotes being
separated by a minor third: For example, G major and E minor both have one sharp.
RELATIVE PITCH
Given a starting pitch, determine subsequent pitches by relationship to that starting
pitch.
=___^
REPEAT SIGN II
'
=fl
Repeat music between this sign and beginning of composition, or where there is a
repeat sign with two dots on the opposite side.
ROMANTIC
RONDO
A musical form in which the main theme alternates with secondary themes: ABACA,
ABACABA, or the like.
ROUND
A song whose phrases are compatible so that voices can enter singing the same tune
at different predetermined places and produce harmonious polyphonic texture.
RHYTHM
The time-pattern made by notes of varying length.
RHYTHM SYLLABLES
"Ta," "ti," "tu," and so on.
ROOT POSITION
The chord is arranged by thirds with the name of the chord as the lowest note.
SCALE
A consecutive arrangement of notes in a predetermined pattern.
344 APPENDIX
SEMITONE
See half step.
SEQUENCE
Repetition of a melodic pattern in which the melodic shape and rhythm remain the
same, but the pitch changes.
fw. B a
SEVENTH CHORD .V H 8
In addition to the three notes on the root, third, and fifth, a fourth note is added to the
chord. The added note is a seventh up from the root.
SHARP It
Play or sing indicated note one half step (semitone) higher than usual pitch.
SLUR
Used with two or more notes of different pitches. Play all notes under or over the slur
legato.
STACCATO f J
Dot used under or over a note. Indicates the pitch should be short, detached. Not to
be confused with dot to the right of the note.
STAFF
Five parallel lines on which pitches are notated.
STRESS MARK
See accent.
STYLE
Combination of elements of music and the way they are treated to give charac-
teristics to the music that proclaim its individuality.
SYNCOPATION
Dislocation of expected pattern of strong and weak beats.
TEMPO
Speed at which music is performed.
TERNARY FORM
Composition constructed in three sections (ABA); the second section contrasts with
the first and third, which are the same or very similar.
TETRACHORD
Four notes of a scale. *)'H ° "
TEXTURE
Relationship of horizontal and vertical musical lines described by the terms mono-
phonic, homophonic and polyphonic.
THROUGH-COMPOSED
Song with new music for each stanza as opposed to strophic in which the same music
is used for each stanza.
Curved line joining two or more notes on the same pitch. Hold note for duration of
both notes with only one attack at the beginning of the first note.
TIMBRE
Tone color or quality of sound.
APPENDIX 345
TIME SIGNATURE
See meter signature.
4 Three beats (counts) to a measure; a quarter note gets one beat (count).
k Six beats (counts) to a measure; an eighth note gets one beat (count).
2 Two beats (counts) to a measure; a half note gets one beat (count).
TREBLE CLEF
Appears at the beginning of a staff to show the note G on the second line from the
bottom. Also called G-clef.
TRIAD
Chord containing three notes.
3
"
TRIPLET
Three notes in the time normally taken by two notes.
UPBEAT
Same as anacrusis.
VIBRATO
Small pitch changes caused by shaking motion of the hand on string instruments or
small variation of pitch produced vocally.
WHOLE STEP
An interval made up of two half steps. Also called a whole tone (made up of two
semitones).
WHOLE TONE
See whole step.
MUSIC INDEX
"African Noel," 53-56, 57, 120, 185, 285, 295, "Bravour, Variations on a Theme from Mozart," 6,
310-311 165, 173, 337
"Ah ! Vous dirai-je, Maman," 56 "Bring Me Little Water, Silvy," 6, 25
"A-Hunting We Will Go," 38^3, 186, 283-284, "Bungalin Bungalin," 159, 180
293, 304-305
"All the Pretty Little Horses," 145, 186, 285,
313-314
"Alphabet Song," 56-57, 120, 165, 186, 337 "Coffee," 172, 193, 201, 335
"America," 150, 165-167, 170-171, 188 "Concerto in A Minor," 54
"America the Beautiful," 120, 171, 189 "Concerto in E-flat Major," 10, 48
American Indian Song, 58, 179, 180 "Coronation March from Le Prophete," 72
"Andante," 176, 181 "Country Gardens," 7, 24, 62, 182
"Are You Sleeping?" 33-35, 120, 160, 189, "Cuckoo," 70-71, 120, 194
301-302, 317-318, 334
"Artza Alinu," 140, 190
"Auld Lang Syne," 58, 191
Australian Aboriginal, 61, 159, 179, 180 "Dance in a Circle," 58, 195
"Dance Sacrale," 7, 10, 61, 182
"Die Meistersinger," 54
"Djamu the Dingo," 61, 179, 180
"Baa, Baa Black Sheep," 187, 337 "Dona Nobis Pacem," 120, 196, 334
"Ballet Music, Faust," 50
"Barcarolle, Tales of Hoffman," 65
"Bella Bimba," 76, 192, 120
"Bird Song," 179, 180 "Eency, Weency Spider," 146-147, 197
"Bird's Song," 35-37, 192, 283, 291-292, "Eine Kleine Nachtmusik," 52
302-303, 334 "El Jarabe," 74-75, 198
347
348 MUSIC INDEX
•Erie Canal," 145-146. 147, 199 'March from Aida," 72

'Ev'ry Valley," 5-6, 18, 62, 181 'Marriage of Figaro," 40
'Minuet in F." 45
'Minuet in G," 98
'Minuet No. 1," 54
'Fifth Symphony," 70-71 •Modere," 10. 49, 135, 174, 182
•Flight of the Bumblebee," 85 'Muffin Man," 58, 210-211
'Frere Jacques," 189
'Frogs," 71-72, 120, 159-160, 200, 334, 337

'Fur Elise." 90
Nocturne in E Major," 99
"Get Along Little Dogies," 150, 200

"Go to Sleep," 150, 152-153, 160, 201 "Old Brass Wagon," 154, 160, 212
"God Save the Queen," 170, 188 "Old MacDonald," 8, 153, 212
"Good News," 42^4, 201 "On the Beautiful Blue Danube," 39-40
"Grand Galop Chromatique," 86 "Orchestra Song," 4, 6, 44-53, 213-214, 335
Gregorian chant, 3-6, 61, 172, 180 "Bassoon," 49-53, 309, 322
"Clarinet." 6, 46-47, 308, 320-321
"Drum," 46, 47, 307, 319
•
Horn," 5, 44-46, 47, 284, 294-295, 307
"Hallelujah from Messiah." 4, 173, 181 "Trumpet," 47
"Happy Farmer," 51 "Violin," 48-49, 308, 321-322
"Hark to the Singing, 172, 193, 201, 230, 335 "Over the River and Through the Wood," 72-73,
"Hold On," 145, 202, 337 215
"Holla Hi, Holla Ho," 132-133, 203 "Overture to Dido and Aeneas," 99
"Home on the Range," 64, 70, 204, 205, "Overture to the Marriage of Figaro," 76
323-324. 337
"Hot Cross Buns," 26-31. 32. 34, 150, 205,
281-282, 286-290, 298-300, 314-316
"Pastoral Symphony from the Messiah," 69
"Pease Porridge Hot," 14-15
"Phantasiestucke," 10, 47, 62, 177
"Ifca's Castle," 150, 154, 205, 334, 337 "Philippine School Song," 99-100, 216
"I'm a Little Teapot," 147, 206 "Polly Wolly Doodle," 58, 217
"It's Raining," 43, 44, 150, 207, 305-306, "Prelude in A Major," 99
318-319 "Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun," 61, 89, 174,
175. 177. 181
"Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring," 69

Response Section, 3, 16-17, 217
"Rite of Spring," 7, 10, 61
"Rocky Mountain," 153-154, 218
"Kum Ba Yah," 120, 133, 207 "Roll Over," 108-109, 153, 219
"Row, Row, Row Your Boat," 96
"Lady, Come," 31-33, 34, 160, 208, 301,

316-317, 334 "Sailor's Dance," 76
"Liebestraum," 68 "Semper Fidelis," 4, 9, 25, 67-68, 175. 182
"Little Man Who Wasn't There," 137-140, 208 "Shalom Chaverim," 135-136, 160, 219, 334
"Lullaby Round." 98, 209, 334 "Shoo, Fly." 76-77, 220
MUSIC INDEX 349
•Shroom Song," 58, 220, 335 'Variations on America," 165, 173, 182
'Singing on the Old Camp Ground," 154, 160, 222
'Sixty-seventh Psalm," 7, 9. 147, 182

'Skin and Bones," 155, 160, 222
'Skip to My Lou," 133, 223 "Well-Tempered Clavier," 173
'Sonata in G," 48 "Where Is Thumbkin?" 189
'Summer Is A-coming In," 75, 224, 334 'Wild Colonial Boy," 65, 70, 228-229, 285, 296v ,
'Surprise Symphony," 147 311-313, 324-325

'Swan Lake," 51 'Wild Horseman," 67
'Swing Low, Sweet Chariot," 154, 160, 225 'Will You Come," 172, 201, 230, 335
'Symphony No. 40 in G minor," 174 •William Tell Overture," 48
'Takes Two to Tango," 5-6, 182 'Yankee Doodle." 75, 166. 231
'Tell Me Why," 226, 335 •Yellow Rose of Texas." 75, 120-121, 232
'Ten Little Indians," 57-58, 226, 311, 323 "Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra," 46, 63,
'This Train," 77, 227 135, 177, 182

'Til Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks," 46, 176, 181
'Triste," 24, 63, 135, 177, 181
'Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star," 165-167, 187, 337

Zart und mit Ausdruck," 10, 47, 62, 177
"Zum Gali Gali," 140-141, 233, 285, 313,

334-335
'Unfinished Symphony," 39, 50
GENERAL INDEX
Accidentals, 89-91, 335 Binary, 8
Adam, 56 Blue notes, 77

Aerophones, 178 Boulez, 182
Afro-American, 77 Brahms, 181
Alternative harmonizations, 166-167 Britten, 182
Alto clef, 22
Anacrusis, 38
Answers, 244-280
Appendix, 234-345 Cadences, 7-8, 56, 141
Aria, 164 Cage, 182
Autoharp, 281-286 Carter, 182
Chopin, 99, 181

Chord numbers, 55
Chord progression, 6, 44, 46, 127, 132-133
Bach, 69, 173, 181 Chordophones, 178-179
Bailey, Pearl, 5-6, 8 Chords, 6, 31, 123-134
Baritone ukulele, 290 broken, 123
Bar-line, 27-28 diminished, 129
Baroque, 181 inversions, 126-127
Bartok, 182 inverted, 123, 126-127
Beam, 13 major, 123-127
Beat, steady, 2^4, 9, 14, 17 minor, 128-129

Beat, strong, 4 modulate, 130
Beats, 27 names, 125, 128, 129-130
Beethoven, 70-71, 90, 98, 174, 181 resolution, 126, 130
Berg, 182 Roman numerals, 124, 130

Berlioz, 181 root positions, 123-127
351
352 GENERAL INDEX
Chords (cont.) Duration, 5, 9

seventh, 125-126, 130-131 Dynamic marks, 238
triads, 123,-125 Dynamics, 1, 9-10, 25*
voice leading, 126
Chromatic, 85-86, 335
Circle of fifths, 106
Clarinet, 10 Ear-training, 169-179
Classical, 181 Echo song, 33-34
Clef, 19 Electrophones, 178-179
bass, 19, 21 Elements. 1-11
C-clef, 22 constituent, 1
F-clef, 19, 21-22 dynamics, 9-10

G-clef, 19, 21-22 expressive, 1
treble, 19-21 form, 7-8

Compound meter, 67 harmony, 6-7
Concerto, 44, 48 melody, 5-6
Conducting patterns, 62 pitch, 5
Consonant, 6-7 rhythm, 1—4

Constructing key signatures, 102 tempo, 9
Contemporary, 182 timbre, 10
Contrast, 5 Enharmonic, 83-84, 117
Copland, 182 Equal/unequal, 1-2, 4
Creating, 156-168
alternative harmonizations, 166-167
environmental sound composition, 157-159
improvisation, 160-165 Falsetto, 97, 333
language-based, 162-165 Fermata, 61, 70-71
poetry, 164-165 Fine, 74, 154
question and answer, 162-164 First and second ending, 108-109
rap, 162 Fixed do, 31
ostinatos, 159-161 Flag, 13
variations, 165-167 Flat key signatures, 100-101
Flats, 26, 28, 82-83, 89-91

Form, 1, 5, 7*
Fugue, 173
D. C. al fine, 74. 154
Debussy, 89, 181
Dehning. Margaret, 337
Descant, 335 Gershwin, 182
Direction, 5 Gounod, 50-51
Discography, 234—236 Grainger, Percy, 7, 24
Dissonant, 6-7 Guitar, 286-297
Dotted notes, 38, 44, 49-53, 76 Guitar chord chart, 296-297
Double bars, 53, 55
Double dotted notes, 44, 51-52

Double flat, 89-91
Double sharp, 89-91 Half-steps, 84-85, 87-88
D. S. al Fine, 154 Handel, 69, 173, 181
Duple meter, 61-62 Hand signs, 336
'These terms appear consistently throughout the book Page numbers are included only for their initial
appearances.
GENERAL INDEX 353
Harmonics, 10 steps, 6
Harmony. I,
6" Introduction. 34—35
horizontal. 6. 172-173 Inversions. 111-117. 123
vertical. 6, 172-173 Ives, Charles. 7. 173. 182
Haydn. 10, 48. 147. 181

Head, 13
Highness. 18
Homophonic, 6, 172-173 Jazz, 77, 182
Honneger. 182
Hornbostel. Erich von. 178-179
Kendall. William. 5
Keyboard. 79-91. 298-314
Idiophones, 178 Keyboard picture
Improvisation, 149-150. 155, 158, 160-161. 337 with letter names. 242
Inner ear. 170 without letter names. 243
Instruments Keynote. 135-136
aerophones, 178 Key signature. 26, 28
brass, 10, 174, 175-176, 179 Kodak. 336
French hom. 44—46
trumpet, 44
chordophones. 178-179
electrophones, 178-179 Ledger lines, 19, 22-24
idiophones, 178 Legato. 44. 48
mechanical. 178-179 Letter names, 19, 95-97
membranophones, 178 Line, 20
percussion, 3. 16-17. 161-162, 174, 177-178, 179 Listening, 169-183
timpani. 44 ear-training. 169-179
string, 10. 174-175, 179 aural analysis, 171-179
violin. 44 melodic dictation, 170-171

woodwind. 10. 174. 176-177, 179 music literature. 179-183
bassoon, 44 cultures, 180
clarinet. 44 periods. 180-182

Intervals. 6. 110-122 Liszt. 68. 86
augmented, 116-117 Literature, music, 169. 179-182
compound, 119 Long short. 1-2. 4. 12
diminished, 115-116, 117 Lower neighbors. 166
enharmonic, 117 Lowness. 18
general, 110-111
inversions. 111-117
hearing. 119-120
memory aids, 120 Maelzel's metronome (M.M.), 24
major and minor. 113-115, 117 Major scales and key signatures. 92-109
measuring. 117-119 key signatures, 100-108
known keys, 117-118 circle of fifths, 106-108
specific. 118-119 constructing. 102-106
perfect, 114-115 flat. 100-101
skips. 6 order of flats, 1C4-106
specific. 111-117. 121 order of sharps. 102-104
"These terms appear consistently throughout the Page numbers are included only for their initial
appearances.
354 GENERAL INDEX
Major scales and key signatures {com.) Patterns, rhythm. 3-4, 16-17
key signatures (com.) Pentatonic. 149-155

sharp. 101-102 accompaniment. 150
scales. 92-100 identification, 150
Measure. 2^-28 improvisation. 149-150. 155
Mechanical. 178-179 scales. 150-152
Melody. 1. S* Perfect pitch. 170. 171
Membranophones, 178 Phrases. 7-8. 44
Mendelssohn. 99. 181 Pick-up. 38
Meter. 2-4, 61-78 Pitch, 5, 18
Meter signature. 27-29. 62, 78 Pitch names. 20-24
Meyerbeer, 72 Pizzicato. 174
Middle C. 23 Polyphonic. 6. 172-173
Milhaud. 182 Position. 5. 18
Minor scales and key signatures. 135-148 Prokofiev. 182
circle of fifths. 144-145 Purcell. 76. 99. 181
harmonic. 141-142
melodic, 143
natural. 136-141
relative. 135-136 Rameau. 54
Mnemonics. 20-21 Range. 5
Modulate. 130 Ravel. 10. 182
Monophonic. 6. 172 Read. 12, 336-337
Movable do. 31 Recitative. 164
Mozart. 40-41, 45, 52, 56. 76, 173. 174. 181 Recorder. 314-327
Music Analysis Sheet (MAS), 73-74, 172, 239-241 Recorder fingering chart, 326-327
Regular irregular. 1-3. 61
Relative pitch, 171
repeat, 17, 53, 55
Natural. 89-91. 128-129 Repetition. 5
Notation. 12-25, 26-60 Resolution, 126
Note values. 12-13 Rest values, 13-14
Numbers, pitch. 30, 95-97, 121 Rhythm. 1. 5. 12. 18'
Rhythm drills, 17
Rhythm patterns. 27
Rhythm syllable chart. 241
Octave. 23, 82 Rhythm syllables. 15-17. 30

Octave sign. 23-24 Rimsky-Korsakov. 85
Offenbach, 65 Romantic. 181-182
Order of flats. 104-106 Rondo. 174
Order of sharps. 102-104 Rossini. 48
Orff, 161-162. 182 Rounds. 6. 334
Ostinaio. 4. 159-161. 334-335
Sachs. Curt. 178-179

Partner songs. 172, 335 Scales, 92
Passing Tones. 166 Scarlatti. 48. 181
Patschen. 63 Scat singer. 161
These terms appear consistently throughout the Page numbers are included only for their initial
appearances.
GENERAL INDEX 355
Schoenberg, 181 Tie, 40, 53-54

Schubert, 39, 41, 50-51, 181 Timbre, 1, 10. 44, 174-179*
Schumann, 10, 51, 67, 181 Timpani, 46, 177-178

Score, 159 Tone quality, 10
Seeger, Pete, 6 Transpose, 140, 152-153, 154, 155, 285
Semitones, 84-85, 87-88 Transposed, 5

Sequence, 31, 32, 37 Triple meter, 61-63
Sets (steady beat), 2 Triplet, 71-72
Seventh chords, 125-126, 130-131 Trumpet, 10
dominant, 36-37
Sharp key signatures, 101-102
Sharps, 26, 28, 82-83, 89-91
Shostakovich, 182 Upbeat, 38
Simple meter, 64 Upper neighbors, 166
Sing, 34-35, 95-97
Slurs, 40, 44, 48, 54
Solfege, 30-31, 121, 336-337
Song analysis, 73-74 Variations, 56-57, 165-167
Sousa, 67-68 Verdi, 72, 181
Space, 20 Vibrato, 174
Staccato, 44 Violin, 10
Staff, 13, 18 Virtuosity, 48

Stem, 13 Visual, 12-25
Stockhausen, 182 Vivaldi, 54, 181
Strauss, Johann Jr., 39-41 Voice, 327-338
Strauss, Richard, 181 breathing, 328-329

Stravinsky, Igor, 7, 10, 182 consonants, 330-331
Strong/weak, 1-2, 4 expressive elements, 331
Style, 159 improvisation, 337
Syllables, pitch, 30-31, 95-97, 121, 336-337 intonation, 332

Symphony orchestra, 174—179 music reading, 336-337
Syncopation, 53-54, 76-77 musical accuracy, 332
ranges, 332-333
singing in harmony, 334-335
solo and unison, 333-334
Tchaikovsky, 51, 181 tone quality, 331
Telemann, 24, 181 vowels, 329-330
Tempo, 1, 9, 24* Voice leading, 126
Tempo marks, 237-238
Tenor clef, 22
Terminology review, 339-345
Ternary, 8, 173-174 Wagner, 54, 181
Tetrachord, 92-94, 96-97, 107 Webern, 182
Texture, 6, 173 Whole steps, 86-89
Theme and variations, 57, 165, 173 Whole-tones, 86-89
Through-composed, 158 Williams, Vaughan, 182
"These terms appear consistently throughout the book. Page numbers are included only for their initial
appearances.
gettingstartedinOOharr
gettingstartedinOOharr
gettingstartedmOOharr
DISCARD
i
ITHDRAWN f OR
GETTING
STARTED IN
MUSIC LOIS N. HARRISON '
in Music emphasizes the development of concepts and

Getting Started
through musical involvement by mature students with little Or no
skills
background in music. It helps readers understand and apply varied musical

concepts including beat, meter, syncopation, melodic direction, form and
mode. This innovative text is accompanied by a sixty minute audio cassette
that is designed to reinforce aural development.
Author Lois N. Harrison clearly presents fundamentals such as note values,

pitch names, key signatures, scales, chords, intervals, and teaches music
analysis using rhythm, melody, harmony, form, tempo, dynamics, and
volume also features performance sections for voice,
timbre. This practical
keyboard, autoharp, and recorder. It provides options for increasing
guitar,
the reader's involvement through listening, singing, and playing melodic
and harmonic instruments.
Content highlights include:
Elements of Music • Notation: Visual Representation of Music • Using

Notation • Meter • The Keyboard
• Major Scales and Key Signatures •
Intervals •Chords • Minor Scales and Key Signatures • Pentatonic •

Creating Music • Listening • and more.
PRENTICE HALL, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632
ISBN -13-35 mi-

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What are the main topics covered in the book?

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How does the book teach musical concepts?

GETTING

University of the Pacific

PRENTICE HALL, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

Charlestown Branch Library

© 1989 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

Printed in the United States of America

Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London

Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico

Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro

FOR GETTING ME STARTED IN MUSIC.

CHAPTER 1 ELEMENTS OF MUSIC 1

Introduction of constituent and expressive elements of music: rhythm, pitch (mel-

CHAPTER 2 NOTATION: VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF MUSIC 12

Written symbols related to the elements of music as used in music reading.

CHAPTER 3 USING NOTATION 26

Song analysis based on elements of music, application of musical concepts,

Development of metrical understanding through concentration on songs with dif-

CHAPTER 5 THE KEYBOARD 79

CHAPTER 6 MAJOR SCALES AND KEY SIGNATURES 92

Construction and use of major scales and key signatures.

CHAPTER 7 INTERVALS 110

Analyzing, naming, and writing general and specific intervals.

CHAPTER 8 CHORDS 123

Naming, constructing, inverting, and using major, minor, diminished, augmented

CHAPTER 9 MINOR SCALES AND KEY SIGNATURES 135

Construction and use of minor scales and key signatures.

CHAPTER 10 PENTATONIC 149

Construction and use of pentatonic scales including improvisation.

CHAPTER 11 CREATING MUSIC 156

Suggestions for engaging in different types of creative musical behavior.

CHAPTER 12 LISTENING 169

Continuation of emphasis on listening with concentration on two aspects: ear-

Selections alphabetically arranged

Tempo marks 237

Dynamic marks 238

gradation of dynamics 238

Music analysis sheet 239

Rhythm syllable chart 241

Keyboard pictures 242

Terminology review 339

MUSIC INDEX 347

GENERAL INDEX 351

instrument section of the Appendix.

The main goals of the text are to help the student

4. Participate in aesthetic experiences.

5. Increase involvement in music through singing and playing of melodic and

Getting Started in Music is organized with a variety of provisions for musical

5. A teacher's manual available on request from the publisher. This supplementary

group participation with a teacher's help is recommended. Teachers are needed to

help students ascertain correct musical and written reponses.

resources are used.

with a series of short humming sounds.

murmur murmur kachoo kachoo

murmur murmur kachoo kachoo