ISSN-2220-1181

SOUTH AFRICAN SOCIETY

OF ANAESTHESIOLOGISTS (SASA)

The Management of High Spinal

Anaesthesia in Obstetrics:
Suggested Clinical Guideline in
the South African Context
Southern African Journal of Anaesthesia and Analgesia 2016; 22(1)(Supplement 1):S1-S5
South Afr J Anaesth Analg
ISSN 2220-1181 EISSN 2220-1173
Open Access article distributed under the terms of the © 2016 The Author(s)
Creative Commons License [CC BY-NC-ND 4.0]
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 SASA GUIDELINES

The management of high spinal anaesthesia in obstetrics:

suggested clinical guideline in the South African context
[This is a Guideline published by the South African Society of Anaesthesiologists (SASA) through the efforts and work of the
Obstetric Anaesthesia Special Interest Society (OASIS), a Special Interest Group of SASA]

G van Rensburga, D van Dyka, D Bishopb, JL Swaneveldera, Z Farinab, AR Reeda, RA Dyera

a
Department of Anaesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, University of Cape Town
b Department of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care, University of KwaZulu-Natal

Introduction anaesthesia in obstetrics in South Africa. The recommendations

are specifically and deliberately designed to be user-friendly
Spinal hypotension during Caesarean section is common,
and simple, in order to ensure their acceptance in the clinical
requiring intervention in ≥ 50% of cases. The precipitating causes
setting. The provision of cardiac and respiratory support is the
and management have been extensively researched.1 Isolated
overarching principle. The challenge is that these are often
spinal hypotension should be distinguished from high spinal
required simultaneously.
anaesthesia at Caesarean section, which is a rare, but potentially
devastating complication. The exact clinical presentation is not This guideline aims to assist clinicians who are inexperienced
well understood. The Third National Audit Project of the Royal in the administration of obstetric anaesthesia, isolated
College of Anaesthetists in the UK, as well as Swedish and French from experienced clinicians, and stationed in resource-poor
audits, failed to define this emergency condition clearly.2–4 environments.
An early UK publication suggested an incidence of 1 in 5 334
It hopes to address:
in elective Caesarean sections, while the incidence rose to 1
in 3 019 in emergency cases.5 An incidence nearer to 1% was • The minimum equipment that should be available, i.e.
suggested in a Danish study, albeit in subjects who had received equipment immediately at hand, and readily available
prior labour epidural analgesia.6 It was suggested in another equipment.
study that high spinal anaesthesia may be more common • The minimum pharmacological agents that should be
when administered after an unsuccessful epidural top-up.7 An available, i.e. pharmacological agents immediately available
overall decrease in mortality relating to spinal anaesthesia in for injection, and readily available pharmacological agents.
South Africa was cited in the Saving Mothers 2011-2013: Sixth
• The identification of high spinal anaesthesia.
report on confidential enquiries into maternal deaths in South
• The management of high spinal anaesthesia. A tiered response
Africa. Unfortunately, details on the proportion of deaths due
from the clinician is envisaged. He or she should rapidly
to high spinal anaesthesia were not reported. Although the
establish the extent of cardiorespiratory support required, and
reporting doctors frequently referred to the events surrounding
the maternal deaths as “high spinal anaesthesia”, clearly some institute management accordingly.
of them were from uncontrolled hypotension, and not high Definitions
motor block. The quality of information in the notes precluded
judgement in other cases. Overall, 105 deaths were directly Definitions are as follows:
attributable to anaesthesia, which comprised 2% of the maternal • High spinal anaesthesia: Intrathecal anaesthesia, where a
mortality.8 level of motor block ensues such that cardiovascular and
respiratory embarrassment develops, seriously jeopardising
This document addresses the deficiency of an official set of
patient safety.
guidelines to aid the clinician in the management of high spinal
anaesthesia in obstetrics. The intention is to supplement existing • Uncontrolled spinal hypotension: A rapid decrease in systolic
teaching and contextualise this life-threatening complication. blood pressure after the administration of spinal anaesthesia,
This information should also assist with the classification of which may lead to loss of consciousness and cardiac arrest.
complications of obstetric spinal anaesthesia, and the facilitation • Equipment immediately at hand: This refers to equipment that
of appropriate, timeous treatment. Improved data collection must be opened from its packaging and be within immediate
would help to establish the true incidence of high spinal reach of the clinician.

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The management of high spinal anaesthesia in obstetrics: suggested clinical guideline in the South African context 3

• Readily available equipment: This refers to equipment that Rationale

need not be opened prophylactically, but can be opened
The rationale behind this is that the rapid loss of the airway in
immediately should the need arise.
a patient population predisposed to difficult intubation and
• Pharmacological agents immediately available for injection: consequent hypoventilation and hypoxia, is believed to be the
Drugs prepared in syringes, as per the South African Society of major contributor to morbidity and mortality in this scenario.
Anaesthesiologists infection control guidelines.
Pharmacological agents
• Readily available pharmacological agents: These drugs need
not be drawn up, but should be available to be drawn up Pharmacological agents immediately available for
immediately when the need arises. injection

Equipment The pharmacological agents described in this section should be

available prior to the commencement of neuraxial anaesthesia.
Equipment immediately at hand They should not be sourced only after the development of
The equipment described in this section should be available cardiorespiratory derangement.
prior to the commencement of neuraxial anaesthesia.
Agents immediately available for injection are as follows:
Equipment that should be immediately at hand is as follows: • One cardioaccelerator: Atropine 0.5 mg, prepared in a 5 ml
• An appropriately sized face mask. syringe as 0.1 mg/ml; or ephedrine 50 mg, prepared in a 10 ml
syringe as 5 mg/ml.
• A gum elastic bougie or an introducer.
• Phenylephrine 10 mg in 200 ml (50 ug/ml), then 500 ug drawn
• An oropharyngeal airway of an appropriate size, selected prior
up in a 10 ml syringe.
to the administration of anaesthesia.
• Muscle relaxant: Suxamethonium 100 mg, drawn up in a 2 ml
• Equipment to deliver positive pressure ventilation by face
syringe.
mask or endotracheal tube, i.e. a working bag connected to an
anaesthesia workstation or Ambu® bag. Readily available pharmacological agents
• Two laryngoscopes with working lights and blades of differing Agents that should be readily available are as follows:
sizes which are interchangeable.
• An induction agent: Preferably etomidate.
• Suction with an adequate length of tubing to reach the
• Adrenaline: Adrenaline 1 mg. Do not routinely draw up
patient, and a patented Yankauer® nozzle.
adrenaline in low-risk cases because this predisposes to a
• A dedicated syringe to inflate the cuff of the endotracheal potentially fatal drug error.
tube, should intubation become necessary.
• Colloid: 130/0.4 (6%) hydroxyethyl starch is preferable, but
Readily available equipment crystalloid is acceptable.

Equipment that should be readily available is as follows: Rationale

• Endotracheal tubes: One of the most appropriate size for the The rationale behind this is that the haemodynamic status can
patient, and one of size 6.0 mm internal diameter. deteriorate quickly, and is not always reversible by a single
• Strapping: Nonallergenic tape to secure the endotracheal tube. intervention that allows the clinician immediate control.

Table 1: A tiered approach to the identification of high spinal anaesthesia

Symptoms Respiratory system Cardiovascular system Diagnosis

A weak cough, or early signs of dyspnoea • RR ≥ 12–15 per minute Hypotension and no High spinal anaesthesia is
• SpO2 ≥ 95% bradycardia* unlikely
• Function is at
• preoperative status

Progressive dyspnoea • RR: 12-15 per minute Hypotension, and no Early signs of high spinal
Weak hand grip strength (C8/T1) • SpO2 ≤ 95% bradycardia* anaesthesia
Can’t touch nose (C5/C6) • Function diminished
Ineffective cough

Unable to speak • Hypoventilation Hypotension ± bradycardia* High spinal anaesthesia is likely

• SpO2 ≤ 90%
• Function poor

Unable to speak • Apnoea Hypotension + bradycardia* High spinal anaesthesia is

established

RR: respiratory rate, SpO2: oxygen saturation

* bradycardia is a heart rate ≤ 60 beats/minute

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4 Southern African Journal of Anaesthesia and Analgesia 2016; 22(1)(Supplement 1):S1-S5

Identification of high spinal anaesthesia • Ongoing vigilance: Ongoing vigilance is necessary with respect
to deteriorating haemodynamic status and the resolution
A tiered approach to the identification of high spinal anaesthesia
of respiratory failure. Typically, the respiratory status rapidly
is described in Table 1.
recovers so that the patient can usually be extubated at the
The following points are to be borne in mind. It should be end of the Caesarean section.
recognised that hypoventilation, defined by a significantly • Advice: Advice should be sought on ongoing care as soon as
decreased respiratory rate and tidal volume, may be precipitous. possible.
Should the clinical conditions deteriorate quickly, the clinician
Key principles
need not wait for apnoea or bradycardia to develop to regard
the situation as established high spinal anaesthesia. 1. Though rare in obstetrics, the clinician should always be
prepared for high spinal anaesthesia.
Management of high spinal anaesthesia
• This includes ensuring that certain equipment is
A tiered response (Table 2) is envisaged, as this often allows immediately at hand, and certain further equipment is
inexperienced clinicians to confirm their diagnosis and readily available.
immediately provide support as necessary, rather than await • This also includes drawing up certain drugs and having
cardiorespiratory collapse and only then initiate cardiopulmonary others readily available.
resuscitation. 2. Early recognition of high spinal anaesthesia is crucial.
In the event of likely high spinal anaesthesia, where both 3. Respiratory support should be initiated immediately after
systems are simultaneously and rapidly deteriorating, intubation prompt administration of ephedrine.
and ventilation should be undertaken immediately after the 4. After tracheal intubation, run adrenaline by infusion if cardiac
prompt administration of ephedrine. Ephedrine is favoured over output is not immediately restored.
phenylephrine in this situation because cardiac deafferentation 5. Avoid propofol and thiopentone for tracheal intubation in
is more likely in the situation of high spinal anaesthesia than in this situation.
simple spinal hypotension. 6. Do not place the patient in the anti -Trendelenburg position.
7. Continue to monitor for haemodynamic instability and
Management after tracheal intubation is as follows:
respiratory recovery.
• Ventilation: Administer tidal volumes at 7 ml/kg ideal body
8. Call for help and advice. Either a trained nurse or another
weight. Keep the peak airway pressure ≤ 30 cmH2O, and titrate
doctor should be in theatre at all times.
the fraction of inspired oxygen to maintain oxygen saturation
≥ 95%. References
• Haemodynamic support: Ephedrine boluses should be 1. Langesæter E, Dyer RA. Maternal haemodynamic changes during spinal
5-10 mg, and phenylephrine boluses 50-100 ug as required. anaesthesia for caesarean section. Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2011;24(3):242–248.
2. Cook T, Counsell D, Wildsmith J. Major complications of central neuraxial block:
• Hypnosis: Provide hypnosis by means of volatile agents as report on the Third National Audit Project of the Royal College of Anaesthetists.
usual for Caesarean section under general anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth. 2009;102(2):179–190.

Table 2: Management of high spinal anaesthesia

Diagnosis Respiratory system Cardiovascular system

High spinal anaesthesia is Reassure the patient and monitor the patient for signs of deterioration
unlikely

Early signs of high spinal Provide face mask oxygen at 100% Feel the patient’s pulse, and monitor heart rate and
anaesthesia blood pressure

Call for help

High spinal anaesthesia is Provide gentle positive pressure ventilation with a • Bradycardia: Ephedrine 10 mg intravenously, and run
likely tight-fitting face mask (100% O2), including cricoid colloid freely
pressure (if this does not impair ventilation). Reassure • No bradycardia: Fluid only
the patient • Monitor the patient closely for deterioration, and
titrate vasopressor and fluid

High spinal anaesthesia is Provide rapid sequence tracheal intubation and • Ephedrine 10–20 mg intravenously
established ventilation after the administration of a small dose of • In the absence of the immediate return of an
etomidate or isoflurane if face mask oxygen is being adequate cardiac output, run 500 ml hydroxyethyl
provided, and suxamethonium 1 mg/kg. starch freely, containing 1 mg adrenaline
Do not not use propofol or thiopentone in this situation

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The management of high spinal anaesthesia in obstetrics: suggested clinical guideline in the South African context 5

3. Moen V, Dahlgren N, Irestedt L. Severe neurological complications after central 7. Kinsella S. A prospective audit of regional anaesthesia failure in 5080 Caesarean
neuraxial blockades in Sweden 1990-1999. Anesthesiology. 2004;101(4):950–959.
sections. Anaesthesia. 2008;63(8):822–832.
4. Auroy Y, Benhamou D, Bargues L, et al. Major complications of regional
anesthesia in France. Anesthesiology. 2002;97(5):1274–1280. 8. National Committee for Confidential Enquiry into Maternal Deaths. Saving
5. Shibli K, Russell I. A survey of anaesthetic techniques used for caesarean section mothers 2011-2013: Sixth report on confidential enquiries into maternal deaths
in the UK in 1997. Int J Obstet Anesth. 2000;9(3):160–167.
in South Africa. Department of Health: Province of KwaZuluNatal [homepage on
6. Visser WA, Dijkstra A, Albayrak M, et al. Spinal anesthesia for intrapartum
the Internet]. 2014. c2016. Available from: http://www.kznhealth.gov.za/mcwh/
Cesarean delivery following epidural labor analgesia: a retrospective cohort
study. Can J Anesth. 2009;56(8):577–583. Maternal/Saving-Mothers-2011-2013-short-report.pdf

Acknowlegements

This printed copy of the SASA Guidelines is funded by an educational grant from
Adcock Ingram Critical Care. The content of this guideline is the result of the independent
input of the SASA Working Group and was in no way influenced by the grant provider
or any other company.

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Notes

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The management of high spinal anaesthesia in obstetrics: suggested clinical guideline in the South African context 7

Notes

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