HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA

Access, Equity, Quality

Obadya Ray Shaguri

EAN World Congress Scholar 2013

1
Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 3

2. An Overview of Higher Education in India .......................................................................................................... 5

3. A Brief Review of Under Represented Groups in India ................................................................................ 10

4. Role of the Indian Government and Private Sector in Higher Education ......................................................... 13

Indian Government........................................................................................................................................... 13

Private Sector ................................................................................................................................................... 13

5. Issues in Furthering Access to Higher Education .............................................................................................. 16

Measures to Improve Access to Quality Education .......................................................................................... 20

6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 22

The information in this publication is intended to provide only general outline of the subject covered. It
should neither be regarded as comprehensive nor sufficient for decision making, nor should it be used in the
place of professional advice. OBADYA RAY SHAGURI accepts no responsibility for any loss arising from any
action taken or nor taken by anyone using this material.

2
1. Introduction 1

The efficacy of education in human development can never be understated. Education is

fundamental to every constituent of the society irrespective of gender, physical, racial, economic,
geographical, cultural, or linguistic differences. Education is a Nation’s Strength. A developed nation
is inevitably an educated nation.

India as a developing nation has been systematically progressing on the educational front since its
independence and has seen an appreciable surge in reaching out to all the classes of its society. The
improvement on the country’s economic front, the up scaling of communication technology and the
advent of the internet, have vastly leveraged the promotion of education across all verticals. The
accelerated growth of the educational sector in last decade is a sparkling testimony to this fact, with
facts and figures showing an unprecedented improvement of education in India.

The ‘Right to Education Act’ which stipulates compulsory and free education to all children within
the age groups of 6-14 years, has brought about a revolution in the education system of the country
with statistics revealing a staggering enrolment in schools over the last four years. The educational
movement has been receiving tremendous government support through comprehensive planning in
its various five year plans. Additionally the active involvement of the private sector has begun to
demonstrate significant reach and improvement in the Indian education system.

The involvement of private sector in higher education has seen drastic changes in the field. Today
over 60% of higher education institutions in India are promoted by the private sector. This has
accelerated establishment of institutes which have originated over the last decade making India
home to the largest number of Higher Education institutions in the world, with student enrolments
at the second highest.

While the focus of the government has largely been on school education, in the context of post
secondary and higher education, consistent and quality growth however has become debatable. An
overwhelming demographic divide still persists in the access to quality higher education with several
communities still remaining under represented, contradicting the very objective of equity within the
social growth of the country.

However the government has been making tremendous efforts to do away with this divide through
several initiatives and by encouraging public private partnerships in promotion of quality higher
education. The remarkable progress in the last five year plan i.e. the 11th five year plan (2007-2012)
in the Gross Enrolment Ratios - GER testifies to the fact. The government in the current i.e. the 12th
five year plan (2012-2017) has made ambitious plans and has proposed initiatives to ensure reach of
quality higher education to every nook and corner of the country. Though there are several
formidable challenges that need to be addressed in promotion of higher education in India, the

1
Limitations - The current study bears certain inadequacies in appropriate portrayal of its theme owing to unavailability of
precise and updated information. The study moderately borrows from existing data and material available to the author,
where sometimes the accuracy of the source is in question. The figures represented in the study at times are from unclear
sources. Further the parameters of the length of the study constrain the author from offering a more expansive view.

3
initiatives undertaken by the government, active PPPs, the role of the industry and voluntary bodies
and support from external agencies is certain to aid the realisation of these plans making higher
education more accessible.

4
2. An Overview of Higher Education in India
India’s higher education system stands third in size in the world after the US and China with nearly
26 million students in over 45,000 institutions in the country. In the last decade the country has
witnessed a particularly high growth rate in student enrolment at a CAGR of 10.8% and institutions
at 9%. The University Grants Commission (UGC) which enforces its standards is the main governing
body at the tertiary level and advises the government, coordinating between the centre and the
state. Accreditation for higher learning is monitored by twelve autonomous bodies established by
the UGC.

Indian higher education has been progressing at a fast pace adding over 20,000 colleges and about 8
million students between the ten year period 2001 - 2011. As of 2011, Indian higher education
system is spread over 42 central universities, 275 state universities, 130 deemed universities and 90
private universities. Additionally 5 institutions were established functioning under the State Act,
along with 33 Institutes of National Importance. Nearly 33,000 institutions function as Government
and Private Degree Colleges which also include 1800 exclusive women's colleges.

Today the number of private higher education institutions stands at 64% and enrolments at 59%
from the total number of institutions and enrolments in the country. This is a significant jump from
the statistics of the decade before where private institutions stood at 43% enrolments at 33% and is
an obvious index to an improving educational system through private participation.

The current emphasis in Indian higher education has been mostly on science and technology.
Distance learning and open education also are an essential feature of the Indian higher education
system. Indira Gandhi National Open University run by the Indian government is attributed to be the
largest university in the world by number of students with over 3.5 million students from across the
globe. Premium institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), Indian
Institutes of Management (IIMs), National Institute of Technology (NITs) and Jawaharlal Nehru
University have attained global acclamation for their high standard of education. About 8000
students are enrolled annually by the IITs and the alumni have made significant contributions to
both the growth of the private sector and the public sectors of India.

While figures convey a positive picture of the growth of higher education, in terms of Gross
Enrolment Ration – GER, India remains at a dismal 16% against the global average of 26%. Though
the government has undertaken several initiatives for inclusion of all communities in its educational
front its success has largely been questionable. Delivery of quality higher education has become a
severe shortcoming in governance with several issues posing an overwhelming challenge.

At the end of the eleventh five year plan 2007-2012, India has achieved a Gross Enrolment Ration –
GER 17.9% upward from 12.3% from the beginning of the plan period. The twelfth five year plan of
the Indian government for 2012-1217 envisages several revolutionary initiatives to exponentially
improve the quality and reach of higher education across the length and breadth of the country.

5
(Statistics as of 2012)

6
7
8
Vocational Education
Vocational education and training institutes (ITI/ITC) in India have substantially increased in
number over the past two decades

The capacity in ITI/ITC account for 43% of the total capacity in vocational education and training
institutes in India

9
3. A Brief Review of Under Represented Groups in India
Our country suffers from several inequalities in education and employment based on caste, ethnicity
and even gender. Since the beginning of Indian history, its society has been plagued by the caste
system and to date precious little has been achieved against any movement towards its elimination.
Although strongly identified with Hinduism, the caste system has been carried over to other religions
on the Indian subcontinent, including small groups of Muslims, Buddhists and Christians. The upper
castes historically look down upon the lower castes involving them only in base jobs and this divide
continues even now. The lower castes have always been under represented across all sectors forcing
successive governments to take initiatives to bridge the divide in the form of reservations in
education and employment to help them overcome their socially perceived backwardness.

The primary objective of the Indian reservation system is to increase the opportunities for enhanced
social and educational status of the underprivileged communities and thus enable them to take their
place in the mainstream of Indian society. This has resulted in the categorization of Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes, (ST/ST/OBCs). The central government
stipulates a total reservation of 49.5% reservations for these communities which however varies
from state to state with some states such as Tamil Nadu having as much as 69% reservations.

On a close scrutiny of general statistics of employment in India, one cannot fail to observe that in
most instances the higher level positions which contain fewer numbers continue to be held by upper
castes whereas at the lower end of the hierarchy where the numbers are large, it is inevitably the
lower castes. In central government services, reservations for SCs and STs have been operational for
a few decades, and this has resulted in a rise in SC representation in all four categories of central
services. However, upper castes continue to disproportionately occupy the more prestigious Class I
services, while SCs/STs/OBCs have been relegated to jobs lower in the hierarchy.

Furthermore, the cumulative percentage of SC/ST employees in Central government services

continues to be below their percentage in the general population.

POSITION TOTAL EMPLOYEES SC EMPLOYEES % OF SC

EMPLOYEES
Professor 1155 2 0.17
Associate Professor 1774 6 0.34
Assistant Professor 1491 35 2.35
Research Associate 257 3 1.17
Grade A, Non - Teaching 756 26 3.44
Grade B, Non - Teaching 1525 49 3.21
Grade C, Non - Teaching 9001 414 4.60
Grade D, Non - Teaching 10635 2368 22.27
Representation of Scheduled Castes in Education institutions.
[Excludes Indira Gandhi National Open University, for which figures were not available]
Source: National Commission for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes

10
 In the context of representation in higher education, enrolment from Muslims has not demonstrated
a proportionate rise beyond under graduate levels while they remain 14% of Indian population. As a
point of reference, West Bengal which has a sizeable Muslim populace has only 10 out of 1,000
opting for post graduate education in males and only 2 out of 1,000 in females. This is in stark
contrast to Hindus with 30 in 1,000 males whereas it is 32 in 1,000 females.

There exists a significant difference in the GER of urban and rural India

 GERs in rural India have increased from 3.95% in 1983-84 to 7.5% in 2004-05 while in urban India GERs have
increased from 17.68% to 23.79%
 Though GER in rural India has increased the gap between GERs in rural areas has only widened

Women from all communities in urban India have shown remarkable participation in higher
education while those from rural areas still remain at a pitiable distance. Members who hail from
physically handicapped sections, the socially destitute, and certain nomadic communities also are
poorly represented in higher education in India.

The GERs for females is very low especially in rural India

11
While GERs for females has increased significantly there has been an increase in the disparity in
GER for females in rural and urban areas by 6.38% from 1983 – 84 to 2004 – 05

The GERs for males also varies significantly between rural and urban India

While GERs for males has increased at a slower rate, there has been a decline in the disparity
between GER in rural and urban areas from 1983–84 to 2004–05 by 0.68%

There is a significant difference in GERs of various communities

Source: UGC Higher Education in India 2008; 11th Five Year Plan Volume II * 2004-05

The GERs for SCs, STs and OBCs is very low as compared to the other communities in the
Indian higher education segment

12
4. Role of the Indian Government and Private Sector in Higher
Education

Indian Government
Higher Education in India at the undergraduate level and above is controlled and monitored by the
University Grants Commission. Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous
institutions established by the University Grants Commission. Since the onset of Indian
independence all the governments at the centre have been focusing heavily on education. Most five
year plans, more significantly the last and the current i.e. the 11th and the 12th plans have made
significant contributions and provisions for improving reach and quality of education across the
country.

For many years it has been researched and found that one of the key causes of fewer enrolments in
higher education is a shortcoming of financial strength across under represented masses. To
overcome this overwhelming challenge the government has enabled several financial schemes
through easy student loans, scholarships and financial schemes. A few states have embarked on fees
reimbursement schemes at certain lower income levels. Over the last decade these schemes have
vastly helped in improving enrolments significantly.

Though the government has been responsible for an impressive growth in the number of institutes
and enrolment, several challenges such as low and inequitable access, dearth of quality faculty,
inadequate infrastructure and low quality research, need to be addressed. Today, India’s prime
concern is the creation of an employable workforce to harness its demographic dividend to the
maximum extent. To attain this objective the country needs an education system which can deliver
quality in terms of skilled and employment ready workforce, while focusing on world-class research
and innovation.

The Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017) confronts the challenges facing India’s higher education
system and has proposed several initiatives to resolve them. These include increased funding for
disadvantaged groups, imbibing cutting-edge technologies, faculty improvement programmes,
improved governance and provision of incentives for advanced research. The Government has laid
out plans to achieve enrollment of 35.9 million students in higher education institutions, targeting a
GER of 25.2%, through these initiatives towards the end of the plan period. It also intends to
improve the quality of the system significantly, while encouraging the co-existence of multifarious,
research-centric, teaching and vocation-focused institutions.

Private Sector
The government of India has been actively promoting the participation of the private sector in
promoting the reach of higher education. Over last two decades, a growing Indian economy has led
to spectacular demand for educated and skilled labour. To match the manpower needs of an
accelerating economy, private players have sprung up unstoppably to complement government
education institutions. Over the past few decades, it has actually been the private sector that has
been driving capacity-creation in Indian higher education. This has leveraged tremendous growth of

13
the education sector especially within the last fifteen years and has enabled India to become the
third largest education system in the world. Today the share of the private sector in education
institutions is around 64%, while enrolments are over 53% of the total education system in the
country.

The private sector has tremendously eased the pressure on the government in provision of higher
education. India's spending on higher education is just 0.6% of the GDP (Ernst & Young-FICCI 2009)
which is significantly less than the US, the UK or China's spend on a per-student basis. In India a
major part of the public expense is incurred on wages and maintenance through allocation to the
UGC which is around 40%. Only meagre spending is done on curriculum development, research or
technology. Very few institutions such as the IITs and the IIMs stand out as portals of excellence. This
weakness on the government front has created opportunity for the private sector to become a
formidable force in leveraging higher education.

Observing a spurt on private participation in higher education the Indian government over the last
15 years has been lowering its expenditure on the sector obliging most universities to choose self-
financing options. This unfortunately have been seen as a money spinner for most state run
universities who exploit the opportunity of earning financial resources by affiliating colleges without
effectively monitoring quality. This has been so rampant in South India where some universities have
affiliated around 800 to 900 colleges each.

Though institutes running general courses in Arts and Sciences have been traditionally in higher
numbers, the last ten to fifteen years have seen a surge in the private sector in streams such as
engineering, IT and communication technology, management education and vocational training. The
volume of private institutes in pharmacy and engineering is nearly around 90 per cent. These figures
demonstrate that private education is the norm rather than an exception and higher education
through private players is now an irreversible trend in India.

The overwhelming participation of the private sector in higher education has given a fillip to the
under-represented communities who now have better access to education. While the role of the
private sector in Indian higher education is undeniable, it is also a painful trend with more and more
venturing into the stream with the sole intention of profiteering by disregarding stipulative norms
and severely compromising on quality on several fronts. This has adversely affected the delivery and
sustenance of quality with the end result that most students are no better after their higher
education than they were before. While the role of private participation in delivering higher
education is quite appreciable, it behoves upon both the government and the individual players to
comprehensively understand the responsibility they carry in shaping the direction of the country.

14
15
5. Issues in Furthering Access to Higher Education
With the urban and the rural divide having significantly narrowed due to the onset of technology,
communication and better infrastructure over the last two decades, there has been an appreciable
improvement in the reach of better higher education to several under-represented groups across
the country. However the need of the hour is a provision of high quality education across all sectors
to match the requirements of a growing Indian economy. The suffering of the under-represented
communities has not been appreciably alleviated as unemployment, inflation, low income and lack
of adequate access to quality education continue to plague them.

Poor Infrastructure – This shortcoming is perhaps the chief of all in delivery of quality education.
While focus on the urban segment has been heavy, the same is not replicated in most of the rural
areas. Establishment of quality higher education institutes in the rural sector has not been
significant, which is a serious deterrent for the rural community in general.

Inadequate faculty – The student teacher ratio on the whole is at a lamentable state. While it is still
lower in the urban areas, the rural areas take the brunt of the scene with the ratios being at very
high rate.

Unqualified or untrained faculty - Even as the woes of inadequate faculty remain, a major part of
the ones who are present to impart higher education are woefully unequipped in terms of either
qualifications or experience or proper training.

Inappropriate or over load in curriculum – The curriculum of most higher education courses is very
infrequently updated even as the world sees a continuously changing scenario in industry manpower
requirements. This has caused a crass divide between the industry expectations and the college pass
outs who are poorly equipped with the right technical, business or social skills to be employed.

Lack of financial resources – Most under-represented communities face a lack of financial strength
to pursue any reasonably high quality of education. While successive governments have declared

16
financial aid for many economically weaker sections for higher education, many communities are
denied the advantage due to complex processes.

Public expenditure on scholarships has been declining over the years

However an extremely low percentage of graduates in India avail student loans (2005)

Education loans in India have a very high rate of interest as compared internationally (2005)

17
Ineffective Monitoring – Higher education requires constant monitoring from the regulatory bodies
through periodic inspections and performance measurement methodologies. There are no
appropriate parameters to measure performance indexes once faculty are employed and this has
given rise to severe inconsistency in the delivery of quality education.

Social differences between classes – This constraint has been historically a damaging element in
healthy social relationships. While the upper classes look down upon the lower classes, the lower
classes are de-motivated from continuing their higher education. This divide is more rampant in the
northern states of India by comparison with the south.

Poor government funding – With government funding in higher education receding over the years,
many institutes themselves suffer, barely managing to survive. In such a scenario employees are
more focused on sustaining themselves rather than deliver quality education.

As compared to the central government, expenditure on higher education by state governments

has increased at a slower pace

Total state government expenditure on higher education

(INR billion)

18
 Fundamental challenges of access, equity and quality

ACCESS
Availability of suitable
number of institutions
across region to fulfill
demand

QUALITY
Provision of suitable
EQUITY infrastructure,
Equal oppourtunity trained faculty and
for all sections of effective pedagogy in
society to participate higher education
in higher education institutions aimed at
delivering expected
outcomes

India’s GER shows significant variability across regions:

 In the states in ranges from a low of 5.7 in Bihar to ahigh of 15.1 in uttaranchal
 In the union territories it ranges from a low of 1.9 in Daman Diu to a high of 33.2 in Delhi

19
Measures to Improve Access to Quality Education
The Indian government has made ambitious plans to achieve a threefold increase in terms of
number of institutions and enrolments by the end of the current five year plan. While this does seem
achievable, there are issues which must be retrospectively and holistically measured and diligently
handled so that the results may fall within the projected framework. In addition the government
must put in place an effective monitoring system to ensure foolproof results in its endeavour to
make quality higher education within the reach of all and more so to the under-represented
communities.

Making a realistic financial plan – This is imperative for the government before setting any
unrealistic goals as financial planning becomes the key factor in achievement of all objectives. Any
mismatch between budgets and targets will lead to unsuccessful results.

Infrastructure Development – While urban infrastructure has definitely seen progress, the rural
sector still lies in dismal neglect over a larger proportion. The government must ensure proper
physical access to these communities and emphasize on construction of higher education
institutions in closer proximity to villages. Further ample focus must be given to development of
technology to enable education through Information Technology.

Provision of adequate trained and qualified faculty – Student Teacher ratio must be brought up to
an ideal level and all faculty must possess adequate qualifications and training before taking up
education. Periodical refresher training is an indubitable necessity to ensure adherence to
performance standards. While updating curricula the faculty must be acquainted with the newer
studies and technologies to keep them abreast and conduct proper delivery.

Eliminate Ethnic inequalities – Caste must be removed from focus and only economic backwardness
must be made criteria for extending government support to all communities. Several individuals
from the traditionally down trodden groups, even after having richly benefitted from government
support continue to exploit the opportunities provided, preventing the real oppressed groups from
any significant benefits.

Promote use of Internet and Communication Technology – Adequate emphasis must be placed on
improvement of internet and communication technology as it enables easier access to information
and educational content and facilitates better education than traditional methods.

Enable better funding for institutions – Government must provide sufficient autonomy and funding
for all institutions with an effective monitoring mechanism to ensure appropriate infrastructure,
facilities and aids to impart quality education.

Improve financial schemes reach – This can be a shot in the arm to the weaker sections as the
promise of higher education becomes closer. Traditionally backward sections have shirked away
from higher education owing to their inability to bear the costs of higher education. But with
genuine and easily available government financial aid, education becomes much more accessible

20
across communities. Though there is ample funding on the government agenda, the complexities
involved in obtaining finances makes them inaccessible to most lower groups.

Remove overlapping of authority - Regulatory bodies function across parameters often overlapping
authority, affecting the delivery of quality education. Since education is a subject of both the central
and the state governments, there are frequent conflicts in several areas of education. The
government must resolve such complexities and ensure proper delegation of authority for smoother
functioning.

Make curriculum industry oriented – The higher education system must provide for updating of
curriculum over regular frequencies to help learning match industry requirement. This way
employability skill would be better and so do the prospects.

Other measures - In addition to these, governments must encourage Public Private Partnerships in
higher education and also involve the industry actively through comprehensive CSR (Corporate
Social Responsibility) activities. The role of civil society in widening access to higher education may
also be an area of thrust. A comprehensive study on access to under-represented communities may
be conducted every alternate year and progress recorded for comparative references. Exhaustive
studies also are required on higher education programmes of developed countries and their systems
replicated to the Indian context.

21
6. Conclusion

India has historically been a nation divided on social, ethnic and economic fronts. Successive
governments have attempted to analyse and overcome the divide but have not made much
headway chiefly owing to political compulsions. With the onset of higher technology, easier access
to communication and information technology, the divide has shown definitive signs of narrowing
down even though only to a marginal extent. The government and the private sector will continue to
play a key role in improving the reach of good quality education to all the corners of the country.

Most of the under-represented communities today are able to access better education at
elementary and higher levels. However the ancient system of social divide as a whole remains
unshakably strong and continues to resist change howsoever economy or technology attempts to.
Still it is appreciable that several policy initiatives undertaken by the government are continuing to
demonstrate better efficacy and gradual success. The turn of the twenty first century has brought
about a revolution in technology and with it have tremendous changes been made across the
education system of the country. Though the community divide exists still and perhaps will continue
to do so, it is shown that equity in higher education and a healthy economy is not at too far a
distance.

22
Game changers Key challenges Key recommendations
Financial Very low per capita spends on higher Encourage private sector investment in
Innovations education leading to significant paucity of education through the development of
funds for expansion and quality innovative PPP models.
enhancement. Introduce performance based funding by
Inadequate exploration of alternative the Government.
revenue streams by HEIs. Rationalise tuition fees structures and
support the same with the creation of a
strong education financing mechanism.
Poor coverage of scholarships and Build an enabling environment to generate
student loan schemes to support needy alternate sources of revenue by HEIs.
students and enable tuition fee
rationalisation.

Innovative use of Lack of ICT infrastructure in HELs and low Improve ICT infrastructure in HEIs through
Information and technology/people readiness. PPP models and incentivise adoption of ICT
Communication in pedagogy.
Technology Poor quality of digital content, especially Develop mechanisms for development and
in regional languages. fee distribution of high quality content
across languages.
Improve connectivity across HEIs and create
a national repository of digital content.

Reinvigorating Poor standard of research across Indian Incentivise research in universities, while
higher education institutes. creating an enabling environment in terms
of lesser teaching hours for researchers,
Lack of qualified faculty, limited funding greater budgets and access to better
for research as well as poor linkages infrastructure.
between academic institutions and Increase the number and quality of doctoral
industry/Government R&D labs. students through the launch of innovative
programs, provision of attractive
fellowships and enhanced industry
collaboration.

Thrust on Low penetration of VET due to limited Improve oversight structure for VET,
Vocational relevance and poor outcomes. facilitating greater industry involvement
Educational and providing greater alignment with
Training Multiple regulatory bodies and lack of market needs.
linkage of VET with the mainstream Facilitate mobility between VET and
education system. mainstream education through a system of
credit transfer.
Support private sector vocational education
through accreditation and recognition
mechanism.

Regulator’s Multiplicity of regulators with Create a single independent agency for

Framework overlapping roles regulating higher education and simplify
the regulatory framework.
Uneven entry barriers leading to a Reduce entry barriers for reputed players,
skewed development of the system by facilitating entry of high-quality foreign
universities and private universities through
Limited transparency, low autonomy and the PPP mode.
poor quality control systems. Improve transparency and disclosure in the
system.

23