Chapter

2 Rectifier Circuits

2.1 EXPERIMENTS IN RECTIFIERS

2.1.1 Aim of the Experiment
To construct the following circuits, observe respective waveforms, and make relevant measurements:
a. Half-wave rectifier
b. Full-wave rectifier (using centre-tapped transformer)
c. Full-wave rectifier (bridge type) using semiconductor diodes

2.1.2 Apparatus and Components

1N 4001 diodes, resistors, capacitors, inductors, 230-V/12-V, 1-A transformer, dual-beam oscilloscope
(DBO), multimeters, moving-iron meters, etc.

2.1.3 Design Steps for Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

In this section, we give the design of the full-wave bridge rectifier. The designs of the half-wave and full-
wave (CT) rectifiers follow similar steps and are given in the Appendix.
Specifications
• Input voltage available : 230-V AC, 50 Hz
• Output DC voltage VO(DC) required : 12 V
• DC load current IL required : 50 mA
Step 1: Design of the Power Transformer
The DC output voltage of a full-wave rectifier (FWR) is given by the expression
VO(DC) = 2Vmax/p
where Vmax is the maximum value of the required secondary voltage. Given VO (DC) = 12 V
Vmax = 12p/2 = 18.85 V
Thus, we find that the secondary transformer must supply an AC peak value of 18.85 V. The required
turns ratio of the power transformer, therefore, is __
n = (N2/N1) = (V2/V1) = 18.85/230÷2 = 0.058
 Rectifier Circuits 43

1N 4001
DBO 240 W DBO IL
1N 4001
IL
230-V AC DBO DBO
230-V 240 W
DBO
1N 4001
1N 4001

Fig. 2.2 CT FWR Fig. 2.3 Bridge FWR

Vi
Vmax

VOHWR (a) Input AC waveform

Vmax

0 q
(b) Output DC waveforms of HWR
VOFWR
Vmax

0
q
0 p 2p 3p 4p 5p 6p
(c) Output DC waveforms of FWR

Fig. 2.4 Waveforms associated with HWR and FWR

After the waveforms are observed, we measure their peak amplitudes on the DBO. It can be seen
that the input and output amplitudes are more or less the same because the voltage drops across the DC
resistance of the transformer and the dynamic forward resistance of the diode are usually negligible in
comparison with the load resistance RL.
From Fig. 2.4 (b), we compute the DC and RMS values of the output voltage of the HWR, respectively,
using the expressions:
VO(DC)-HWR = Vmax/p
VO(rms)-HWR = Vmax/2
44 Laboratory Experiments and Workshop Practice

Similarly, these values for the FWR are, respectively,

VO(DC)-FWR = 2Vmax/p__
VO(rms) - FWR = max/÷2
However, we can also measure the DC voltages accurately using a moving-coil DC voltmeter.
Similarly, the RMS values can be measured accurately by using a moving-iron (RMS-reading)
voltmeter. For these measurements, true RMS-reading digital voltmeters (DVMs) are also currently
available in the market, which are more accurate and inexpensive than the corresponding analog meters.
It is therefore advisable to use these digital meters. One problem that may arise is that they are very
accurate at lower frequencies (say, 50 to 1000 Hz); however, they may not operate at frequencies
higher than 1000 Hz. In such cases, it is advisable to choose a DVM or DMM (digital multimeter) that
can operate at much higher frequencies (in the range of a few MHz). The DC and RMS values of the
circulating current can also be measured using the DMM. Currently, we have dual-beam oscilloscopes
with flat LCD screens, which are capable of performing as oscilloscopes as well as DMMs.

2.2 BRIDGE RECTIFIER WITH CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER

2.2.1 Design Steps
Specifications
• DC output voltage : 12 V
• DC load current : 50 mA
• Ripple content : 0.01
The expression for ripple factor of a capacitor-input
__
filter bridge rectifier is given by
r = 1/4÷3 f CRL
where f is the applied frequency, C is the capacitor to be designed, and RL is the load resistance. Also,
RL = VO(DC) /IL = 12 V/0.05 A = 240 W
Substituting RL = 240 W and f = 50 Hz in the expression
__
for the ripple factor, we get
C = 1/4÷3 × 50 × 240 × 0.01 = 1202.8 mF
Choose C = 1500 mF/25 V (as the maximum output DC voltage VO (DC) = 12 V, the voltage rating of C
may be fixed as 2 × VO (DC) ª 25 V).
The other design aspects, viz., that of designing the transformer and selecting the diodes, remain the
same as in Section 2.1.

2.2.2 Bridge Rectifier with L-Section Filter

Specifications
• DC output voltage : 12 V
• DC output current : 50 mA
• Ripple content : 0.01
 Rectifier Circuits 45
Design Steps
The expression for ripple factor of an L-section filter circuit
r = 1/8.5 w2 LC
where L = value of the inductor, C = value of the capacitor, and w = angular frequency of the power
supply. The critical inductance
LC = RL/3w
where RL = load resistance. Given
RL = VO(DC)/IL = 12 V/50 mA = 240 W
and f = 50 Hz, we obtain by computation
LC = 240/3 × 2p × 50 = 0.25 H
From this, we find that the actual inductor used must have a value > LC. Since L > 0.25 H, a standard
choke of 1 H/1 A is used as the inductor. Now, substituting the values of r and L we get the value of
capacitor C = 120 mF / 25 V.

2.2.3 Bridge Rectifier with p-Section Filter

Specifications
• DC output voltage : 12 V
• Diode current : 50 mA
• Ripple content : 0.01
Design Steps
The expression for the ripple factor of a p-section
__
filter is given by
r = ÷2 /w3 C2LRL
Substituting for r, w and RL __
C2L = ÷2 /(0.01) (2p × 50)3 × 240 = 19 × 10–9
Choosing L = 1 H, and letting C1 = C2 = C, from the above equation, we get the value C = 138 mF.
Therefore, we choose a nearest higher value of C = 200 mF.

2.2.4 Transformer Design

Consider the design of the L-C filter given above. Here, the power transformer T, inductor L, and the
diodes are all assumed to have DC resistances. Let
• The DC resistance of the transformer secondary winding = 20 W
• The forward dynamic resistance of diodes = 10 W
• The DC resistance of the inductor = 20 W
• Then, the total resistance R in series with the inductor = 20 + 10 + 20 = 50 W
The maximum value of the transformer secondary voltage
p p
Vmax = __ [VO(DC) + ILR] = __ (12 + 0.05 × 50) = 22.78 V
2 2
Therefore, RMS value of the secondary voltage
46 Laboratory Experiments and Workshop Practice
__
Vrms = Vmax/÷2 = 16.1 V
Selecting a small factor-of-safety, we assume that the transformer may supply an RMS secondary
voltage of 25 V. Therefore, we choose a 230-V/25-V transformer with a current rating of 2IL = 1 A. The
same transformer may be used with the p-section filter.

2.2.5 Experimental Procedure for Half-Wave / Full-Wave Rectifier

with Filters
The above experiments are repeated with C, L and p filters. In all these cases, we observe the respective
waveforms and measure the output DC and RMS voltages as well as currents. We also compute the ripple
factor in each case and compare it with the specified value to see whether our designs have met the given
set of specifications. The various rectifier experimental set-ups and corresponding output waveforms are
shown in Figs. 2.5 to 2.8. All the the diodes used are of the 1N 4001 type.
Vi
Input AC
Vmax

q
1N 4001

DBO 1500 μF 240 W DBO

VO Filtered DC
Vmax C charging C discharging

2p 3p 4p 5p q
0 p 6p
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.5 (a) Set-up of HWR with C-filter; (b) Waveforms of HWR with C filter

50 mA
1N4001
12 VAC DBO 240 W DBO 1N4001

12 V 240 W
1500 m F

1500 μF 1N4001
12 VAC DBO
1N4001

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.6 (a) C-T FWR with C filter; (b) Bridge rectifier with C filter

2.3 SIMPLE ZENER-VOLTAGE REGULATOR

2.3.1 Aim of the Experiment
To construct a simple Zener-voltage regulator and obtain its various regulations.
 Rectifier Circuits 47

Vi Input AC
Vmax
L

50 mA q

–Vmax
12 V
1500 mF 240 W
VO Output (variable) DC
Vmax

0
q
0 p 2p 3p 4p 5p 6p
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.7 (a) FWR with L-C filter; (b) Waveforms of FWR with L-C filter

2.3.2 Apparatus and Components

As per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 2.8.
0-200 mA 0-200 mA
110 mA 100 Ω/3 W
+ − + −
IT + IL
IZ 0-200 mA
+ + − +
RL
20-31 V 0-50 V VI VO 0-20 V
+
− − −
0-20 V VZ
10 V/2 W
−

Fig. 2.8 Simple Zener-voltage regulator

2.3.3 Design Steps

Specifications
• Input voltage : 20-V AC (minimum)
• Output voltage : 10-V DC
• Load current : 10 mA to 100 mA (variable)
Step 1: Choice of the Zener Diode
Here, since the required output voltage VO = 10 V, we select a Zener diode with a breakdown voltage
of 10 V. This diode must have an IZ min = 10 mA and an IZ max = 100 mA. Also, the power rating of the
Zener-diode is calculated from the expression
VZ IZ = 10 V × 100 mA = 1 W
Therefore, we choose a 10-V/2-W Zener diode.
 Rectifier Circuits 49

[
DVO
Line regulation = ____ × 100%
DVI ]IL = constant

where DVI is the change in the input voltage and DVO is the corresponding change in the output voltage,
when the load current is held constant and the input voltage is changed. The line regulation is sometimes
called the input-regulation factor SV.

[DVO
Load regulation = ____ × 100%
DIO ]VI = constant

where DIO and DVO are the respective changes in the output current and voltage for a change in the load
resistance, when the input voltage is kept constant. Load regulation is also called output resistance ro.
For the ideal case, ro = 0, as the circuit must deliver power to the load without getting itself loaded.

2.4 EMITTER-FOLLOWER REGULATOR

2.4.1 Aim of the Experiment

To construct an emitter-follower voltage regulator and find its regulation characteristics.

2.4.2 Apparatus and Components

As shown in Fig. 2.9.

2.4.3 Design Steps

Specifications
• Input voltage : 20 V to 30 V DC (variable)
• Output voltage : 10-V DC (approximately)
• Load current : 10 mA to 100 mA (variable)
• Output impedance ro : As low as possible
However, it can also be seen from the figure that
VO = VZ – VBEQ
where VZ = Zener voltage, and VBEQ = base-emitter bias of T. Assuming that desired output voltage
VO = 10 V, we find that the Zener diode must have a voltage of 10 + 0.6 = 10.6 V. However, it is difficult
to get a Zener diode of 10.6 V in the free market. So, we assume a Zener diode of 10 V and find that the
output in this case is of 9.4 V only. We obtain the load resistance
RL = VO/IL = 9.45/50 mA = 188 W
Assume a Zener-diode current of 10 mA (to ensure the active-region operation of the Zener diode).
If SL 100 (with bmin = 40) is chosen, then its base current IB = IL/b = 50 mA/40 = 1.25 mA. This makes
IR = IB + IZ = 10 + 1.25 = 11.25 mA. Assuming that the unregulated input is 30 V,
(VI – VZ) (30 – 10)
R = ________ = _________ = 941 W = 1.77 kW
IR 11.25 mA
50 Laboratory Experiments and Workshop Practice

2.4.4 Experimental Procedure

Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.9. Then, we first check the base-emitter voltage of the SL 100
transistor. If it is found to be in the range of 0.6 V to 0.7 V, the circuit will function properly. However, if
it is different from this range, the circuit need not function properly. In that case, we change the 1.8-kW
potentiometer and bring the base-emitter voltage of the transistor to about 0.65 V.

+ – + –

0-100 mA 0-100 mA
1.8 kW

SL 100
+
VI 0-30 V +
20 V-30 V
10 V
–
+ – +
188 W
0-20 mA VO 0-30 V
– –

Fig. 2.9 Emitter-follower regulator

We expect the output voltage to be approximately 10 − 0.65 = 9.35 V. The current meters should
read the expected currents of 50 mA (total current), 10 mA (Zener current) and 40 mA (load current),
respectively.
Now, vary the input voltage between 20 V and 30 V in 1-V steps and note down the corresponding
output voltages. Tabulation is made as shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 RL fixed at 188 W Table 2.3 VI fixed at 10 V

Trial VI VO Trial VO IL

1 20 V 9.4 V 1 9.4 V 40 mA
2 21 V . 2 . .
3 22 V . 3 . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .

The experiment is repeated by setting the input at 10 V and varying the 188-W load resistance. The
experimental observations are then made as shown in Table 2.3.
The respective regulation factors can now be calculated using the formulae given below:

[
VNL – VFL
Voltage regulation = ________ × 100%
VFL ]
where VNL is the no-load output voltage (i.e., output voltage when the load current IL = 0), and VFL is the
full-load output voltage (i.e., output voltage when the load current is the maximum).
52 Laboratory Experiments and Workshop Practice

= 45 + 5 = 50 V. Also, VI min = 5 + 5 = 10 V. These then represent the maximum and minimum values of
input voltage that permits regulation by the circuit designed.
Step 2: Selection of Load Resistance RL
We have
RL = VO /IL
Substituting values
RL = 10/50 mA = 200 W/2 W.
Step 3: Design of the DC Amplifier
In our problem, we have IE2 = 61 mA, and bmin of SL 100 = 40. Therefore, we get IC1 = IB2 = 61/40
= 1.5 mA Since BC 107 is capable of handling this current easily and safely, we use BC 107 as T1.

Step 4: Design of RA¢ , RB¢ and RC

Let us assume that the current IR2 through R1 and R2 be IR2 = IL/50. The large dividing factor of 50
is chosen to avoid excessive drain from the load current. This current also must be able to supply the
required base current of T1. In order to supply this base current, and avoid excessive loading effect on lR2,
we choose IR2 >> IB1, the base current of T1. Using these, and substituting values, we get
IR2 = 50 mA/50 = 1 mA
Note that IR2 >> IB1 in this case, since
IB1 = IC1/bmin = 0.015 mA (1.5 mA/100)
Thus, the above choice of IR2 is justified. If this is not the case, recalculations must be made so that
these conditions are met with.
Now, to design the bias resistors, we find that
R1 + R2 = Vo/IR2
where VO is also the voltage across R1 and R2. Substituting values, we obtain
R1 + R2 = 10 V/1 mA = 10 kW
For proper biasing adjustments, we choose a pot such that
R1 + R2 = RA + RB + RC
where RA and RC are randomly fixed as 1 kW each (some low value), so that
RB = R1 + R2 − 2 kW
Substituting values
RB = 8.2-kW pot
By choosing a potentiometer of value much larger than RA and RC, we can adjust the base voltage of
T1 to keep it in the active region. Also
VR1 = VZ + VBE1Q
where VZ = Zener voltage, and VBE1Q = active base-emitter voltage of T1. Usually, we choose the Zener
diode such that
Vz = VO /2
Step 5: Design of Zener-biasing Resistor RZ
We have VZ = 10/2 = 5 V. Therefore, choose a Zener diode having a breakdown voltage of 5.1 V. From
Fig. 2.15 we find that
 Rectifier Circuits 53
VRZ = VO – VZ
where VRZ is the voltage across the Zener-biasing resistor RZ. Now, we find that RZ = VRZ /IZ. Substituting
values, we have RZ = (10 – 5) V/10 mA = 470 W (nearest standard value).
Step 6: Design of R
Resistor R is to supply the base current of T2 and the collector current of T1. This is computed as
R = VR /I = VR /2IC1
where VR = voltage at point X, and I = IC1 + IB2 is the current through R. Now,
VR = VBE2Q + VO
where VBE2Q = base-emitter voltage of T2 = 0.65 V. Substituting values, we get
VR = 10 + 0.65 = 10.65 V
Now,
VR = VI min – (VO + VBE2Q)
Substituting values
VR = 15 – (10 + 0.65) = 4.35 V
Therefore,
R = 4.35 V/3 mA = 1.5 kW (nearest standard value).
For better regulation, we require the current I to be a constant. This is because, only if I is constant, IB2
will decrease as IC1 increases, and vice-versa. To make I constant, we replace R with a constant-current
source.

2.5.4 Design of the Constant-Current Source

To design a constant-current amplifier, we have the required collector current
IC3 = 3 mA (= IC1 + IB2)
Since IC3 = 3 mA, the values of R5, R4 and RE can be computed as
R5 = 12 kW/3 = 3.9 kW, R4 = 68 kW/3 = 22 kW, RE = 1 kW/1.5 = 330 W
where we have used the values of the SA (i.e., 12 kW, 68 kW, and 1 kW).

2.5.5 Design of Fold-Back Current-Limiting Circuit

Design Steps
Fold-back protection is obtained by connecting a resistor RS = 1 W in series with the load and transistor
T2. The power rating of this resistor is
PRS = 2 IL2 RS = 2 × 50 × 50 × 10–6 × 1 = 5 mW
Hence, choose a 1-W/1-W resistor as RS. We have, from the fundamental theory of fold-back protection,
the equation for load current
1–B
IL = IS + _____
BRS
where IS is the load current under short-circuit condition, and feedback factor B = R6/(R6 + R7). We have
IL = 50 mA, and RS = 1 W. For fold-back circuit, we must have IS < IL. Assuming IS = 25 mA, we get
the value of
B = 0.025 = R6/(R6 + R7)
 Rectifier Circuits 55
The voltage regulations can now be computed using the expression:

[VNL – VFL
]
Voltage regulation = ________ × 100%
VFL
where VNL is the output voltage when the load current IL = 0 (i.e., output open-circuited), and VFL is the
output voltage when the load current is the maximum.
To obtain the line regulation, we keep the load current at a constant value and then vary the input
voltage and notice the corresponding output voltage. Notice that to keep load current IO at constant
value, we need keep the load resistance RL constant at the designed value of 240 ohms. The results are
tabulated as shown in Table 2.5. The line regulation, also called the input-regulation factor SV, can then
be computed using the expression

[DVO
Line regulation = ____ × 100%
DVI ]
IL = constant

where DVI is the change in the input voltage and DVO is the corresponding change in the output voltage,
when the load current is held constant and the input voltage is changed.

Table 2.5 Computation of line regulation

Trial RL IO VI VO

1 240 . . .
2 240 . . .
3 240 . . .
. . . . .
.

Finally, to obtain the load regulation, we keep the input voltage VI constant at some specified value,
and then vary the load resistance and notice the corresponding value of output voltage. The results are
tabulated as shown in Table 2.6. The load regulation can then be computed using the expression

[DVO
Load regulation = ____ × 100%
DIO ]VI = constant

where DIO is the change in the output current for a change in the load resistance, and DVO is the

corresponding change in the output voltage, when the input is held constant. This is also called output
resistance ro. For the ideal case, ro = 0, as the circuit must deliver power to load without getting itself
loaded.

Table 2.6 Computation of load regulation

Trial VI RL IL = IO VL = VO

1 . . . .
2 . . . .
3 . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
 Rectifier Circuits 57
2.9 Construct an emitter-follower regulator to meet the following specifications:
Input voltage : 20 V - 30 V DC (variable)
Output voltage : 8 V DC (approximately)
Load current : 10 mA to 500 mA (variable)
Output impedance ro : As low as possible
Obtain the line, load and voltage regulations in this case.
2.10 Construct a series-voltage to meet the following specifications:
Input voltage : 20 V - 30 V DC (variable)
Output voltage : 10 V DC (approximately)
Load current : 10 mA to 500 mA (variable)
Output impedance ro : As low as possible
Obtain the line, load and voltage regulations in this case.