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htm

1
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS

A. INTRODUCTION

1A1. Increasing use of hydraulic electrical units are required. Also it is not
power in modern submarines. In the ideal when instantaneous stopping of a
development of the submarine from driving mechanism is demanded, since
pre-war classes, many changes and electric motors have a tendency to
improvements have occurred. One of "overtravel," or "drift," making fine
the outstanding differences is the large control difficult to achieve. A further
variety of submarine devices which are disadvantage in the operation of
now operated by hydraulic power. In electrical units is the noise made by
early classes, there was no hydraulic relays and magnetic brakes in starting
system, and power requirements were and stopping, and by shafting and other
met by means of air or electricity. mechanical power transmission units.
Along with constantly improving
submarine design has gone a constant c. Pneumatic power. Since compressed
extension and diversification of the use air must also be used aboard a submarine
of hydraulic power. for certain functions, this system, which
consists of the compressors, high and low
1A2. Other sources of power pressure air bottles and air lines, provides
available on submarines. Why this another source of auxiliary power.
noticeable trend toward hydraulics? However, pneumatic or compressed-air
Obviously hydraulic actuation is not the power also has definite shortcomings.
only means of transmitting power Pressure drop caused by leakage, and the
throughout the submarine, and the tasks mere fact that air is a compressible
now being done by the hydraulic substance, may result in "sponginess" or
system were originally performed by lag in operation. The high pressure
hand, electricity, or compressed air. necessary for compressed-air storage
increases the hazard from ruptured lines,
a. Hand power. Some equipment on a with consequent danger to personnel and
submarine is still operated exclusively equipment. Another disadvantage of air
by hand, but this practice is rapidly systems is that the air compressors
disappearing. This is because the power require greater maintenance and are
requirements exceed that which manual relatively inefficient.
effort can provide over long periods of
time, and because power operation is d. Comparative advantages of hydraulic
faster and can be remotely controlled, power. Hydraulic systems possess
thus greatly reducing the numerous advantages over other systems

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communication necessary between of power operation. They are light in

crew members. weight; they are simple and extremely
reliable, requiring a minimum of attention
b. Electric power. Since the electrical and maintenance. Hydraulic controls are
plant occupies such a prominent place sensitive, and afford precise
in the submarine power system and controllability. Because of the low inertia
must be used for propulsion in any of moving parts, they start and stop in
event, it would be reasonable to expect complete obedience to the desires of the
that electricity would also be used to operator, and their operation is positive.
operate all of the auxiliary equipment Hydraulic systems are self-lubricated;
as well. consequently there is little wear or
corrosion. Their operation is not apt to be
Electricity is ideally adapted for interrupted by salt spray or water.
submarine equipment that has few or no Finally, hydraulic units are relatively
moving parts, such as lamps, radios, quiet in operation, an important
cooking facilities, and similar devices. consideration when detection by the
But electricity is not so ideal when it is enemy must be prevented.
necessary to move heavy apparatus
such as rudders, and bow and stern
planes, because heavy, bulky

Therefore, in spite of the presence of addition of this third source of power to

the two power sources just described, those available in the modern submarine.
hydraulic power makes its appearance
on the submarine because of the fact e. Comparative summary. If we draw up
that its operational advantages, when a table of the characteristics of the three
weighed against the disadvantages power systems, a comparison will reveal
enumerated for electricity and air in the the superiority of hydraulics for the
preceding paragraphs, fully justify the operation of auxiliary mechanisms.
FACTOR AIR ELECTRICITY HYDRAULICS
Reliability Poor Good Good
Weight Light Heavy Light
Installation Simple Simple Simple
Control Valves Switches and Valves
Mechanism solenoids
Maintenance Constant attention Difficult, Simple
necessary requiring skilled
personnel
Vulnerability High pressure bottle Good Safe; broken
dangerous; broken lines cause
lines cause failure failure
and danger to
personnel and
equipment

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Response Slow for both Rapid starting, Instant starting

starting and slow stopping and stopping
stopping
Controllability Poor Fair Good
Quietness of Poor Poor Good
Operation

B. THEORY OF HYDRAULICS

1B1. Familiarity of hydraulic dentist chairs are raised and lowered

principles. For many centuries, man hydraulically; so is an automobile when
has utilized hydraulic principles to placed on a hydraulic rack for a grease
satisfy common, everyday needs. job. Stepping on the brake pedal in an
Opening a faucet to fill a sink with automobile creates the hydraulic power
water a practical application of which stops the rotation of the four
hydraulics. Water moves through a dam wheels and brings the car to a halt.
in accordance with well-known
principles of fluid motion. There are For an understanding of how a hydraulic
hydraulic principles that explain the system works, we must know the basic
action of fluids in motion and others forprinciples, or laws, of hydraulics, that is,
fluids at rest. of confined liquids under pressure. This
will be made easier, however, if we first
We are chiefly concerned, however; examine the somewhat simpler laws
with that branch of hydromechanics governing the behavior of liquids when
which is called simply Hydraulics and is unconfined, that is, in open containers.
defined in engineering textbooks as the
engineering application of fluid 1B2. Liquids in open containers. a.
mechanics. It includes the study of the Density and specific gravity. The first
behavior of enclosed liquids under characteristic of an unconfined liquid
pressure, and the harnessing of the which interests us is its density. The
forces existing in fluids to do some density of a fluid is the weight of a unit
practical task such as steering a volume of it. The unit of volume
submarine or opening the outer door of normally used in this text is the cubic
a torpedo tube. foot; the unit of weight normally used is
the pound. The standard of density, to
Examples of hydraulically operated which the
equipment are familiar to all. Barber or

densities of all other liquids are gravitational pull upon them is compared
referred, is that of pure water at zero to the gravitational pull upon an equal
degrees centigrade (32 degrees volume of water. Water, therefore, is said
Fahrenheit), and at sea-level to have a specific gravity of 1 and the
atmospheric pressure. specific gravity of any other substance is
its density relative to that of water. Oil
Let us fill a container with a cubic foot has a specific gravity of (50 x 1)/62.4, or
of pure water (see Figure 1-1). We approximately 0.8; that is, its density is
weigh 0.8 of that of water. This explains why oil

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floats on water. Mercury, on the other

hand, has a specific gravity of (845.9 x
1)/62.4 or about 13.5; that is, its density
is 13.5 times as great as that of water;
consequently, it sinks rapidly.

These calculations of the weights of

water, oil, and mercury were made at
zero degrees centigrade (32 degrees
Fahrenheit) and at sea level. At other
temperatures and altitudes, different
results would be obtained. In some
engineering calculations, cubic
centimeters and grams are used instead of
cubic feet and pounds. This does not
affect specific gravity, as the relationship
between the weight of a unit volume of
any other material and of water would be
Figure 1-1. Liquids of different the same no matter what measuring unit
densities. were used.

the contents and find it to be 62.4 b. Force and pressure. A liquid has no
pounds. This is the density of water. shape of its own. It acquires the shape of
Under the same conditions, a similar its container up to the level to which it
volume of oil, such as is used in a fills the container. However, we know
submarine's hydraulic system weighs that liquids have weight. This weight
approximately 50 pounds; therefore its exerts a force upon
density is less than that of water. Under
the same conditions, a cubic foot of
mercury weighs 845.9 pounds; its
density obviously exceeds that of
water.

When we speak of the weight of

substance, we actually mean the force,
or gravitational pull, exerted on the
substance at the earth's surface. Every
material responds to the earth's
gravitational attraction. To express the
relative density, or specific gravity, of
various liquids and solids, the Figure 1-2. Weight of an isolated column
of water.

all sides of the container, and this force pressure, when not otherwise qualified,
can be measured. means pressure in pounds per square
inch.
Let us measure this force in a given
container of water (see Figure 1-2). If the bottom of the container has an area

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of 10 square inches and the pressure on

each square inch is 2 pounds, then the
force exerted by the water on the bottom
of the container is 20 pounds (see Figure
1-3). This is called the total force and is
obtained by the formula:

Total Force = Pressure X Area

The pressure exerted by a liquid on the

Figure 1-3. Weight=Total Force.
bottom of a container is independent of
Theoretically, we isolate a vertical the shape of the container, and depends
column of water whose base is 1 square only on the height and density of the
inch, extending from the bottom of the liquid. In all the dissimilar vessels shown
container to the surface of the liquid. If in Figure 1-4, the pressures are identical
it were possible to weigh this as long as the liquid levels are equal in
height.

What happens if the levels are not equal?

Then we do have a difference in
pressure. Suppose we have two
containers in which the fluid in A is twice
as high as in B (see Figure 1-5). Let us
again assume that we have

Figure 1-4. Equal levels produce equal pressures.

column and we found the weight to be weighed a one-inch square column from
2 pounds, we would be able to say that each container. The column from jar A
the one inch-square column of water weighs 2 pounds and the column from jar
exerts a pressure of 2 pounds per B weighs only 1 pound; therefore the
square inch. pressure in A is

Therefore, for unconfined liquids, that

is, liquids in open containers, the
pressure in pounds per square inch
exerted by the liquid on the bottom of
the container is equal to the weight of
the liquid on each square inch of the
bottom of the container. It must be
emphasized that the weight of the liquid
is here thought of as a force exerted on
the bottom of the container. Expressed Figure 1-5. Unequal levels produce
as a formula, we have: unequal pressures.

Pressure = Force per unit area

In this text, as in general engineering

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practice, it is understood that the word

2 pounds per square inch while the other container we have a pressure of 2
pressure in B is only half of that, or 1 pounds per square inch applied to an area
pound per square inch. of only 5 square inches; and the total
force is again 10 pounds. We see,
therefore, that a high pressure directed
against a small area can be just as
effective as a low pressure directed
against a large area. It follows from this
important law that we are able to reduce
the size of hydraulic units by merely
Figure 1-6. Pressure on submerged increasing the pressures in order to obtain
body increases with increasing depth. the same required working force-one of
the many great advantages offered by
In other words, the greater the depth, hydraulic power for applications where
the greater the pressure will be at that the saving of space is a consideration.
depth. A practical example of the
working of this law is seen when a
submarine submerges. The deeper the
submarine goes, the greater the pressure
exerted on its hull by the surrounding
water (see Figure 1-6).

The difference in liquid pressures at

various levels can also be illustrated in
the following way: If we have a tank
Figure 1-8. Equal total forces from
with openings of equal size at different
unequal pressures.
heights, as shown in Figure 1-7, we find
that the liquid will flow out of the 1B3. Liquids in enclosed systems. Some
lowest opening, where the pressure is of the general properties of liquids in
greatest, with much greater velocity open containers have been described. It
than from the top opening, where the remains to discuss how a liquid will
pressure is lowest. behave when confined, for, example, in
an enclosed hydraulic system.

a. Liquids are practically

incompressible. The following two basic
principles will help to explain the
behavior of liquids when enclosed:

1. Liquids are practically incompressible

in the pressure ranges being considered.
Figure 1-7. Pressure increases with
Stated simply, this means that a liquid
depth.
cannot be squeezed into a smaller space
The importance of this principle of than it already occupies.
hydraulics can be better understood by
2. Therefore, an increase in pressure on
considering its following application.
any part of a confined liquid is

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transmitted undiminished in all directions

Figure 1-8 shows two containers. In one throughout the liquid (Pascal's principle).
container, we have a pressure of 1 For example, if pressure is applied at one
pound per square inch exerted on an end of a long pipe, the liquid, being
area of 10 square inches; the total force practically incompressible, will transmit
is 10 pounds. In the the pressure equally to every portion of
the pipe.

Figure 1-9 shows a simple experiment the piston in the smaller cylinder; and
which illustrates both these principles. again the pressure exerted is 1 pound per
A thin bottle is filled to the top with a square inch. Now, since this pressure is
liquid and tightly corked. A lever is transmitted equally in all directions
pressed against the throughout the confined liquid, an
upward pressure of 1 pound per square
inch will be exerted on the piston in the
larger cylinder; and since this larger
piston has a total area of 10 square
inches, the total force exerted on the
larger piston is 10 pounds. Actually,
what is happening is that an upward force
of 1 pound is being exerted against each
square inch of bottom surface of the
larger piston; and since the area of this
surface is 10 square inches, the total
Figure 1-9. Applied pressure Is exerted force is equal to the downward pressure
equally in all directions. on the small piston (1 pound per square
inch) multiplied by the area of the larger
cork to apply a downward force. If piston (10 square inches); or, 1 (pounds
sufficient pressure is exerted, the bottle per square inch) X 10 (square inches) =
will suddenly shatter into a number of 10 pounds (total force exerted on larger
pieces, showing that: piston). In other words, the ratio between
the force applied to the smaller piston
a) Liquids are practically and the force applied to the
incompressible.
b) The applied pressure is transmitted
equally in all directions at once.

Figure 1-10 illustrates the application of

these principles to a closed hydraulic
system. Two cylinder each having a
base whose area is 1 square inch, are
connected by a tube. The cylinders are
filled with liquid to the level shown, and
a piston with a base of the same area (1
square inch) is placed on top of each
column of liquid. Then a downward
force of 1 pound is applied to one of the
pistons. Since this piston has an area of

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1 square inch, the pressure upon it is 1

pound per square inch; and since the
other piston is of equal area, the same
pressure, 1 pound per square inch, will
be imposed upward upon it.

b. Increase of force with area. We are

now ready to consider a remarkable
fact which follows from the principles
just discussed, and which is illustrated
in a simplified manner in Figure 1-11.
Here a cylinder whose base has an area
of 1 square inch is connected to another
cylinder whose base has an area of 10
square inches. Again a force of 1 pound
is applied to

Figure 1-10. Transmission of equal

pressures to equal areas.

larger piston is the same as the ratio attainable in certain hydraulic devices,
between the area of the smaller piston such as the hydraulic press, and hydraulic
and the area of the larger piston. hoists.
Expressed as a proportion, then, we
have:

Force on larger piston/Force on smaller

piston =
Area of larger piston/Area of smaller
piston
Figure 1-12. Multiple units from a single
This means that the mechanical source of power.
advantage obtainable by such an
arrangement is equal to the ratio Now let us once more consider the
between the areas of the two pistons. arrangement shown in Figure 1-10. Since
the cylinders (and pistons) are of equal
area, pushing the liquid down a distance
of 1 inch in one cylinder will force it
upward a distance of 1 inch in the other
cylinder. In other words, the
displacements of liquid are equal. But, in
Figure 1-11, since the area of the larger
Figure 1-11. Equal pressure cylinder is 10 times as great as that of the
transmitted to larger area. smaller cylinder, pushing the smaller
piston downward
It is this principle, discovered by
Pascal, which makes possible the

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tremendous forces

Figure 1-13. Automobile hydraulic-brake system.

1) Brake pedal; 2) piston; 3) master cylinder; 4) hydraulic line; 5) brake cylinder; 6) brake piston;
7) brake band; 8) wheel; 9) return spring.

a distance of 1 inch will move the larger elementary methods are practical enough
piston upward only 1/10 of an inch. The where small forces or small volumes of
ratio between the displacement of liquid fluid are required. However, more often a
in the smaller cylinder and the far greater passage of energy, more or
displacement of liquid in the larger less continuous in its delivery of fluid, is
cylinder is once again equal to the ratio needed in a system.
between their areas.
In other words, in practice we usually
Therefore, we may say that what the need some device which will deliver,
larger piston gains in force, it loses in over a
distance traveled, so that the amount of
work (force X distance) done by the
larger piston is exactly the same as the
amount done by the smaller piston.

c. Multiple units. It is not necessary to

confine our system to a single line from
the source of hydraulic power.
Hydraulic power may be transmitted in
many directions to do multiple jobs.

Let us connect one cylinder to four

others as in Figure 1-12. Here we apply
a force against the piston in the large
cylinder. The pressure from the large
cylinder is transmitted equally to each

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of the pistons in the other four

cylinders.

This is actually the method of operation

of an automobile hydraulic-brake
system (see Figure 1-13). The foot
pressure on the brake pedal (1)
depresses a piston (2) in the master
cylinder (3). Fluid is forced through the
lines (4) into each of the brake
cylinders (5). At the brake cylinder, two
opposed pistons (6) attached to the
brake shoes are forced outward,
pressing the brake bands (7) against the
inside of the wheels (8) to stop their
rotation by friction. Removal of the
foot pressure allows springs (9) at each
wheel to restore the pistons to their
original positions and returns the fluid
to the master cylinder where it is stored
in preparation for the next braking
operation.

1B4. Pumps. a. Need for pumps. In all

our illustrations, we have seen that in Figure 1-14. Principle of a suction
an enclosed system a working force was pump.
created by the displacement of fluid. A
weight, acting on a piston in one period of time, a definite volume of fluid
cylinder, forced fluid through a line, at the required pressure, and which will
thus moving a piston elsewhere in the continue to deliver it as long as we desire
system. In the hydraulic brake system, it to do so. Such a device is called a
foot pressure on the pedal displaced the pump.
fluid in the master cylinder and forced
it into the brake cylinders to stop wheel b. Basic principles of pumps. A hydraulic
rotation. These pump is a mechanical device which

forcibly moves, or displaces, fluids. leakage to a minimum, since excessive

Various pumping principles are leakage destroys the efficiency of a
employed in the different types of pump. Both the inlet and outlet ports are
hydraulic pumps, but one fundamental equipped with check valves which permit
principle applies to all: a volume of the liquid to flow in one direction only, as
fluid entering the intake opening, or shown by the arrows.
port, is moved by mechanical action
and forced out the discharge port.

The basic principle underlying the

action of a hydraulic pump is illustrated
by the simplified device shown in

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Figure 1-14. The larger chamber, or

reservoir, is connected by a pipe to the
smaller chamber, or cylinder. A piston,
free to slide up or down within this
cylinder, is connected by a piston rod to
a pump handle (not shown). The
reservoir is filled with liquid to the
height shown.

The illustration shows the device in

three different conditions. At A, the
piston is assumed to be resting squarely
on top of the column of liquid, that is,
there is no intervening space between
piston and liquid. At B, the piston has
just been pulled upward by the pump
Figure 1-15. Hand-operated
handle, creating a lower pressure in the
reciprocating pump.
lower half of the cylinder, that is, in the
space now left between the bottom face Assume that the intake side of the pump
of the piston and the top of the column is connected to a supply of liquid. When
of liquid. At C, the pressure of the we move the piston to the right, lower
atmosphere, acting on the surface of the pressure is created in the chamber
liquid in the reservoir, has forced the formed by the piston. Higher pressure on
liquid up into the cylinder, filling the the fluid outside the chamber forces fluid
empty space with a compensating in through the inlet port and fills the
amount of liquid out of the reservoir; chamber. Moving the handle forward in
the level in the reservoir consequently the opposite direction forces the fluid
falls, as shown. out. A check valve at the inlet port
It should be clearly understood that the prevents flow there and, since the fluid
must find an outlet somewhere, it is
illustration (Figure 1-14) greatly
exaggerates the size of the empty space, forced out through the discharge port.
or partial, vacuum, left by the, piston as The check valve at the discharge port
prevents the entrance of fluid into the
it rises in the cylinder. Actually, if a
working model of the illustrated device pump on the subsequent suction stroke.
The back-and-forth movement of the
were to be constructed of glass, no
piston in the pump is referred to as
space of any kind could be observed
reciprocating motion, and this type of
because as the piston rises in the
cylinder, the liquid rushes in practically pump is generally known as a
reciprocating-type piston pump. It may
instantaneously follow the rise of the
have a single piston or be multi-pistoned.
piston.
It may be hand-actuated or power-driven.
c. The reciprocating pump. The The reciprocating piston principle is
simplest practical application of this conceded to be the most effective for
principle is seen in the hand-operated developing high fluid pressures.
reciprocating pump, a simplified version
of which is illustrated in Figure 1-15.
Here the inlet and outlet ports in the
cylinder, or pump body, are both in the
same side of the piston. The piston

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makes a close sliding fit within the

cylinder, reducing

d. The theory of suction. In a discussion operating principle is illustrated, in

of reciprocating pumps, the word simplified form, in Figure 1-16. Here the
suction may be frequently used. Some mechanical action which moves the fluid
writers use it as though it referred to an is furnished by the teeth of the rotary
independent force created in the pump gears. The oil is trapped by the gear teeth
itself. It must be emphasized that and carried by them around the outside
suction is merely an expression of the channels of the pump body. This sucks in
difference between two unequal oil at the inlet port (the left-hand port in
pressures. In this case, the atmospheric the figure), and discharges it at the outlet
pressure, amounting to 14.7 pounds per port (the right-hand port in the figure).
square inch at sea level, acts as a The oil cannot get back through the outer
downward force on the liquid in the channels to the inlet side of the pump
reservoir. because the gear teeth fit too closely
against the pump body. On the other
Raising the piston, that is, pulling it hand, the oil cannot pass back between
away from the surface of the liquid, the gear teeth themselves at the point
creates a partial vacuum, or an area of where they mesh with each other because
lower pressure, between the liquid and they mesh so closely that, in effect, they
the bottom surface of the piston. form a continuous seal at this point.
Therefore a continuous flow of oil is set
Therefore, as the piston moves upward up in the direction shown by the arrows.
in the cylinder, atmospheric pressure This flow continues as long as the gears
forces the liquid in the connecting pipe continue to rotate. Pumps using the gear
to follow the piston. This fact is the principle are popular because of their
basis of a simple pumping operation quiet performance and because their
involving "suction." It also explains simplicity of design results in relative
why there is a limit to the height to freedom from service troubles.
which a suction pump can move a
liquid under atmospheric pressure, since 1B5. Hydraulic fluids. Almost any
the liquid cannot be "pulled" to a free-flowing liquid is suitable as a
greater height by the pump than hydraulic fluid, as long as it will not
atmospheric pressure will push it. chemically injure the hydraulic
equipment. For example, an acid,
For water at sea level this limiting although free-flowing, would obviously
height is theoretically 33 feet, but this be unsuitable because it would corrode
figure is never attainable in practice. the metallic parts of the system.
The imperfections of actual pumps
reduce the limiting height to 25 feet or Water, except for its universal
less, depending on the efficiency of the availability, suffers from a number of
individual pump. serious defects as a possible hydraulic
fluid. One such defect is that it freezes at
For liquids other than water, the a relatively high temperature, and, in
limiting height varies inversely as the freezing, expands with tremendous force,
density (weight per cubic foot) of the destroying pipes and other equipment.
liquid; in other words, the lighter the Also, it rusts steel parts; and it is rather
liquid, the higher atmospheric pressure

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will push it when the liquid is pumped. heavy, creating considerable amount of
inertia in a system of any size.
e. The gear pump. Another widely used
type of pump is the rotary gear pump
whose

Figure 1-16. Rotary gear pump.

10

The hydraulic fluid used in submarine 2. A pump, which supplies the necessary
hydraulic systems is a light, fast-flowing working pressure.
lubricating oil, which does not freeze or
even lose its fluidity to any marked 3. A hydraulic cylinder, or actuating
degree even at low temperatures, and cylinder, which uses the hydraulic energy
which possesses the additional developed in the pump to move the door.
advantage of lubricating the internal
moving parts of the hydraulic units 4. A cut-out valve, by means of which
through which it circulates. the pressure in the actuating cylinder may
be maintained or released as desired.
Since this oil, a petroleum derivative,
causes rapid deterioration of natural 5. A check valve, placed in the return line
rubber, synthetic rubber is specified for to permit fluid to move in only one
use in these systems as packing and oil direction.
seals.
6. "Hydraulic lines," such as piping or
1B6. A simple hydraulic system. On hose, to connect the units to each other.
the basis of the explanation of basic
The supply tank must have a capacity
hydraulic principles just given, it is
possible to construct a simple, workable large enough to keep the entire system
filled with oil and furnish additional oil to
hydraulic system which will operate
some mechanical device. For example, make good the inevitable losses from
leakage. The tank is vented to the
such a system might open and close a
atmosphere; thus atmospheric pressure
door, and hold it in either position for
(14.7 pounds per square inch) forces the
any desired interval.
oil into the inlet, or suction, side of the
a. Basic units of a hydraulic system. pump, in accordance with the principle
Such a system is illustrated in Figure explained in connection with Figure 1-14.
1-17. It necessarily includes the The tank is generally placed at a higher
following basic equipment, which, in level than the other units in the system,
one form or another, will be found in so that gravity assists in feeding oil into
every hydraulic system: other units.

1. A reservoir, or supply tank, The pump is the hand-operated,

containing oil which is supplied to the reciprocating piston type illustrated in
system as needed and into which the oil Figure 1-15.

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from the return line flows.

Figure 1-17. A simple hydraulic system.

11

The surface of the pump piston in is forced into the actuating cylinder at a
contact with the hydraulic fluid has an pressure of 100 pounds per square inch.
area of 1 square inch. This, then, is the working pressure of the
system, the pressure at which fluid is
The hydraulic cylinder (see Figure delivered to the actuating cylinder.
1-18), which is the simplest type of
hydraulic motor, contains a spring- Since the piston in the actuating cylinder
loaded piston, with a piston. rod that presents an area of 2 square inches to the
extends through one end of the fluid -twice as great as the area presented
by the pump piston- the total force acting
against the piston of the actuating
cylinder is 200 pounds, enough to
overcome the resistance of the loading
spring and close the door. To operate the
Figure 1-18. Single acting hydraulic system, the cut-out valve is closed and
cylinder. the pump handle is moved to the right,
drawing in a quantity of oil from the
cylinder. This piston rod, when reservoir ("suction stroke"). Then the
connected to the door, supplies the handle is moved in the opposite direction
mechanical motion which opens and ("pressure stroke"). The check valve to
closes the door. The surface of the the reservoir line closes and the check
piston in contact with the hydraulic valve to the pressure line leading to the
fluid has an area of 2 square inches. actuating cylinder opens, delivering oil to
the actuating cylinder at a pressure of
The cut-out valve is hand-operated. 100 pounds per square inch. The check
When closed, it shuts off the line valve in the actuating cylinder opens,
between the actuating cylinder and the
supply tank, preventing the oil under
pressure in the cylinder from escaping
into the return line; when opened, it
releases this pressure, allowing the
loading spring inside the cylinder to

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expand, and the oil in the cylinder to

escape back into the supply tank.

The check valve (see Figure 1-19) is of

the ball spring type. It is shown in two
positions. At A, fluid entering the
right-hand port under pressure
sufficient to overcome the tension of
the spring has unseated the ball,
allowing oil to pass out through the
other port in the direction shown by the
arrow. At B, lower pressure on the line
entering, the right-hand port has caused
the oil pressure and tension spring to Figure 1-19. Ball check valve.
reseat the ball check, blocking off the
right-hand port, and preventing allowing the oil to enter. The closed
movement of oil in that direction. The cut-out valve prevents the oil from
ball, machined to a smooth finish, fits entering the return line, and the oil,
closely into the seat, making a tight acting against the actuating cylinder
seal. piston with a total force of 200 pounds,
pushes it to the left, overcoming the
b. Operation of the system. Let us resistance of the loading spring and
assume that the force necessary to closing the door.
move the door is 200 pounds. Let us
further assume that the mechanical
advantage of the handle and the
muscular effort applied to it result in a
force of 100 pounds exerted against the
pump piston. Therefore, oil from the
piston

12

The door will remain shut as long as the Automatic pumping will give immediate
cut-out valve is in the closed position. pressure for use at the actuating cylinder
As soon as the valve is turned to whenever it is needed.
OPEN, the piston in the actuating
cylinder is returned to its original In the simplified system, the door was
position by the spring. The door opens. actuated by a single acting cylinder. Oil
Fluid that was locked in the cylinder was kept in or released from the cylinder
will be forced out through the return by a simple "on-and-off" valve. For more
line back to the reservoir. It cannot efficient and positive actuation, this will
return through the pump because of the be replaced by a double acting cylinder
check valve. Back-flow of the fluid (see Figure 1-21). In such a cylinder, the
from the tank into the return line is also piston can move in either direction to
prevented by a check valve. open or close the door. The piston is
locked in the desired position by the
1B7. A power-driven hydraulic hydraulic fluid, which enters either side
system. The door-operating system of the piston as required and remains
illustrated in Figure 1-17 is far simpler there until forced out. Since the flow of
than is usually found in actual service.

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It has the obvious disadvantage that the fluid must be directed to either of two
instantaneous opening of the door is not sides, a valve, which selects the direction
possible because pressure is built up of flow, is installed in the line. This is
slowly by hand pumping. called a control valve. Control valves
vary with the specific application, but
a. Units of a power-driven hydraulic generally they are equipped with four
system. Figure 1-20 illustrates a system ports. Two are connected to the actuating
in which a motor-driven pump is cylinder at either side of the piston. A
substituted for the hand pump, a double third port is the pressure port and
acting actuating cylinder for the spring- receives fluid from the pump. The fourth
loaded single acting cylinder in Figure port returns surplus fluid either back to
1-17, and including a control valve, an the reservoir or elsewhere in the system.
unloading valve, and an automatic relief Figure 1-22 shows a piston-type, or
valve, in addition to the supply tank, or spool-type, control valve, so called
reservoir, and the return line check because of the internal piston, or spool,
valve, which are the same as in the first which, as it slides into various positions
system.

Figure 1-20. Power-driven hydraulic system.

13

inside the valve body, directs the flow in the cylinder is all that is necessary to
of fluid by opening and closing the move the door, and any pressure greatly
desired combination of ports. The in excess of this may damage some of the
grooves permit flow between two of the equipment. To guard against this danger,
ports, while the lands at a relief valve is placed in the pressure
line beyond the pump.

The usual construction of a relief valve

consists of a valve body containing a
valve which is held against a seat by a
spring whose tension can be adjusted for
any desired operating pressure (see
Figure 1-23, A). When the fluid pressure
is greater than the spring tension, the
spring is compressed and unseats the

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valve (see Figure 1-23, B), thus bypassing

the fluid back into the reservoir.

b. Friction, turbulence, and thermal

expansion. Oil, or in fact any liquid
driven at high speed through an enclosed
system, soon rises in temperature. This is
caused by two factors:

1. Friction of the oil against the interior

of the pipe lines, valves, and other parts.
2. Turbulence of the oil itself; for
example, the swirls and eddies caused in
the oil by its coming into contact at
relatively high velocity with internal
Figure 1-21. Double acting hydraulic bends, its sudden emergence into wider
system. or narrower places in the system, and so
forth.
both ends of the spool block off the
remaining ports. Friction is caused by the collision of
individual oil molecules with the solid
NOTE: There are types of spool valves
walls of pipes and other parts.
other than the type shown in Figure
1-22. Turbulence causes another kind of
friction, which is the result of the
In order to have pressure at all times for
collisions of oil molecules with each
the immediate operation of the door,
other. Both kinds of
the power-driven pump turns
continuously. However, a pressure of
100 pounds per square inch

Figure 1-22. Spool-type control valve.

14

friction cause a loss of power through in fairly straight lines. At high rates of
heat. The rise in temperature of the oil flow, the flow becomes turbulent and
is caused by this friction-heat. The heat friction losses increase. Friction and
also causes a thermal expansion of the turbulence losses usually range between
oil. Therefore, both heating and 10 percent and 20 percent of the
expansion inevitably occur whenever developed power. Instead of getting a
hydraulic fluid is pumped continuously 200-pound force to open the door in our

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through the system, even though it is system, we may obtain a force of only
not in use. 160 pounds because of these losses.
Therefore, in conformance with good
c. Power losses. When we compute the hydraulic design, we must either increase
power necessary to operate our system, the pump pressure, enlarge the piston
allowance must be made for power area in the actuating cylinder, or increase
losses which the size of the pipes and passages to
compensate for the loss of energy.

d. Need for a bypass valve in a power-

driven system. Since friction always
increases with rate of flow, it follows that
the greater the rate at which oil circulates
in the system -all other things being
equal- the more the oil will be heated.
Also, the greater the length of the circuit
traveled by the fluid during this free, or
no-load, circulation, the greater the
friction surface and consequent heating.
To reduce both the pressure and the
length of circuit to a minimum, a bypass
valve is provided. This valve returns the
oil from the pressure side of the pump
directly to the reservoir, or supply tank,
without its first having traveled through
Figure 1-23. Principle of the relief the rest of the system. Thus, the bypass
valve. valve in effect "short-circuits" the oil
pressure from the pump, leaving the oil in
cannot be prevented. A pressure of 100
the remainder of the system inactive, and
pounds per square inch acting upon a
reducing the pressure at which the oil
piston whose base has an area of 2
circulates to atmospheric pressure.
square inches should theoretically
provide a working force of 200 pounds. A bypass valve may be operated by hand
However, this is possible only or automatically in the same manner as a
theoretically. relief valve, or by remote control. When
automatic, it is known as an automatic
In practice, as fluid passes through the
bypass or unloading valve. In actual
hydraulic lines, it meets resistance from
practice, an automatic bypass
the inner pipe walls. Some of the energy
arrangement requires more complex
imparted to the oil by the pump is lost
equipment than is shown in Figure 1-23.
in friction. At low rates of flow, the
It is shown here merely in a schematic
fluid will flow
view, greatly simplified for explanatory
purposes.

e. Operation of system using power-

driven pump. Since the power-driven
pump has been turned on and has come
up to its operating speed, hydraulic
power at the working pressure becomes
constantly and instantaneously available.

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The automatic bypass,

15

or unloading valve, and the relief valve in principle from the simple system we
will relieve any pressure greatly in designed and discussed.
excess of this.
Actually a submarine employs not one,
To close the door, the control valve but four separate hydraulic systems:
handle is turned so that fluid under
pressure is directed to the side of the 1. The steering system, which operates
actuating cylinder which is marked d; the rudder.
the movement of the piston closes the
door. It also pushes out the fluid which 2. The stern plane system, which tilts the
has been trapped on the side of the stern diving planes to dive or rise.
cylinder marked o. The expelled fluid
3. The bow plane tilting system, which
reenters the system through the return
tilts the bow diving planes to rise or dive.
line of the control valve and flows back
to the reservoir. To lock the door shut, 4. The main hydraulic system, which
the control valve handle is turned to its operates the following equipment.
neutral position; the door will then
remain shut until the control valve is
a. Flood and vent valves.
moved to the OPEN position.
b. Main air induction valve.
To open the door, the control valve is c. Bow plane rigging.
turned so that fluid enters the actuating d. Windlass-and-capstan in bow.
cylinder at o. This moves the piston
e. Main engine outboard exhaust
back to the d side of the cylinder and
valves (in some installations
forces out the fluid, which was
hydro-pneumatic).
delivered there when the door was
originally closed. The fluid is then f. Torpedo tube outer doors.
returned to the system. g. Emergency power for steering
system if failure occurs.
Observe that the two lines connecting h. Emergency power for bow plane
the actuating cylinder to the control tilting system.
valve have a dual function. Depending
i. Emergency power for stern plane
upon which way the hydraulic fluid is
tilting system.
directed, one side becomes the pressure
line and the other the return line. A j. Periscope hoists.
change in direction reverses their k. Vertical antenna hoist.
functions. l. Sound heads.

During those intervals between opening These functions may vary somewhat
and closing the door, the fluid circulates among different submarine classes. They
between the pump and the reservoir; represent an accurate picture of the
the automatic bypass valve short- usefulness of hydraulics as applied to the
circuits the pressure from the pump, as submarine. Moreover, the functions of
explained above. hydraulics are constantly increasing
because hydraulics has proved to be
1B8. Practical hydraulics on the superior as a source of power. Let us
submarine. In an extremely simplified

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form, we have, just described a basic summarize its advantages:

hydraulic system. In actual appearance
the hydraulic equipment installed a. Lighter weight of units.
aboard a submarine may not closely b. Controllability in small
resemble such basic units. Nevertheless, movements.
the same principles govern both
c. Low inertia of moving parts.
systems.
d. Simplicity.
In a submarine, a single system actuates e. Positive operation.
a multitude of devices and appears to f. Self-lubrication.
be far more complete. Stripped to its
g. Little wear or corrosion.
essentials, each unit is moved by a
hydraulic motor which receives its h. Relatively silent operation.
power in the form of fluid pressure i. System not apt to be disrupted by
from a central pumping plant. The salt spray or water.
liquid moves through pipes and its flow j. Less maintenance.
is directed by valves. Essentially,
therefore, the submarine hydraulic We are now ready in succeeding chapters
system does not deviate to examine each of the systems in detail
to see how each system works and how
to keep it working in the vent of trouble.

16

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