Techniques of Guidance

UNIT 5 TECHNIQUES OF GUIDANCE

Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Techniques of Guidance
5.4 Non-standardized Techniques
5.4.1 The Questionnaire
5.4.2 Observation
5.4.3 Sociometry
5.4.4 Autobiography
5.4.5 Rating Scales
5.4.6 Anecdotal Record
5.4.7 Case Study
5.4.8 Cumulative Record
5.4.9 Interviews
5.5 Standardized Techniques
5.5.1 Aptitude Tests
5.5.2 Achievement Tests
5.5.3 Interest Inventory
5.5.4 Personality Tests
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
5.7 Unit-end Exercises

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Children come into the world genetically endowed with all their human potential
for growing, developing and learning. You, as a parent or teacher have an exciting
opportunity as you become part of a team of adults interacting with young children
and stimulating the development of their human potential through careful and
thoughtful guidance techniques. A child’s natural endowment requires a rich
environment with thoughtful nurturing and guidance if the human potential
contained in each child is to reach full bloom in order to contribute fully to
improve the quality of human life.

Guidance is one of the means employed by educationists to develop the human

potential. The child learns from a teacher not only mastery over a subject, but
also values, attitudes and habits.

5.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit, you should be able to:
• explain the term techniques of guidance;
• describe the major techniques of guidance;
• enlist different non-standardized and standardized techniques of guidance;
• identify non-standardized and standardized techniques of guidance;
5
Techniques and Procedures • use different techniques of guidance in school settings; and
• discuss the techniques of guidance in education.

5.3 TECHNIQUES OF GUIDANCE

Guidance is the help given by one person to another in making choices and
adjustments and in solving problems. Guidance aims at aiding the recipient to
grow in independence and ability to be responsible for one’s own self. It is a
service that is universal – not confined to the school or the family. It is found in
all sectors of life – in the home, in business and industry, in government, in
social life, in hospitals and in prisons; indeed it is present wherever there are
people who need help and who provide help.

The techniques which are generally employed by guidance workers for collecting
basic data about a person are either standardized or non-standardized ones. The
non-standardized techniques are case study, interview, ratingscales, questionnaire,
observation, sociometry, biography, cumulative record, and anecdotal records.
The standardized techniques are tools of measuring interests, intelligence,
aptitudes and personality traits. Both the categories of techniques are used in
getting primary data. All the techniques are useful. The only consideration which
the guidance worker should keep in mind is that the techniques employed should
give reliable and objective information. Standardized tests of intelligence, interests
and aptitudes provide reliable and valid information. They are reusable, less
time consuming and can be scored easily. Non-standardized techniques used in
the study of human beings are also helpful, and sometimes give more useful
information than that given by standardized tests. For example, autobiography
which is a non-standardized technique does provide clues and insights into the
emotional problems of a person as well as hopes and aspirations. Similarly, case
study helps the counsellor in understanding the whole individual.The use of a
technique, however, depends upon what the guidance worker wants to get out of
it.

5.4 NON-STANDARDIZED TECHNIQUES

Non-standardized techniques are commonly employed for individual analysis
by counsellors in various settings. These techniques provide a broader, varying
and more subjective approach to data gathering and interpretation for human
assessment. We shall now discuss various non-standardized techniques of
guidance.

5.4.1 The Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a list of questions to be answered by an individual or a group
of individuals, especially to get facts or information. It should be elaborated to
match with other techniques. Questions are designed to get information about
conditions and practices about which the respondents are presumed to have the
knowledge. The questions in a questionnaire are basically of two types – the
closed and the open type. In the open type, questions require the individual to
think and write. For example, what is your favourite sport? The closed type
question requires the answer in the form ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or in a limited number of
given categories. The open type questionnaire is time consuming and requires
6
special skill in interpreting the responses. The closed type questionnaire can be Techniques of Guidance
easily scored, interpreted and is more objective.
i) Closed-ended Questions
• Gender Male/Female
• How often do you watch Discovery Channel on TV?
Every day/once in a week/Occasionally/Never
ii) Open-ended Questions
• Which types of programmes do you like to watch on TV?
• What steps would you like to take to improve science teaching in your
school?
Questions should be few in number and simple to be understood and answered.
They should directly cover the point of information.
This technique has its limitations. However, it is very often used to obtain factual
data.

5.4.2 Observation
In this technique behaviour is studied through observation by a trained observer.
The effectiveness of the technique depends upon the skillfulness of the observer.
The observer is expected to observe well defined behaviours free from biases
and prejudices.

Observational techniques are useful in the study of students and individuals but
their usefulness depends upon the manner and purpose with which they are
conducted.

5.4.3 Sociometry
The purpose of this technique is to study the nature of social relationship of
individual within a group. It offers an opportunity to identify personality problems,
especially in isolates and the rejected. Isolatesare students who remain alone
with no relationships in the class. Rejected students are disliked by other students.
The technique is a useful source of information for appraisal of social behaviour
of students.

There are usually three types of sociometric techniques: (i) the nomination (ii)
the social acceptance and (iii) the ‘who’s who’ or ‘guess who’. In the nomination
techniques the student is asked to select and name his/her peers in terms of some
criterion suggested by the teacher. For example, the teacher may ask students to
name three best friends in the class. In the social acceptance technique, levels of
social relationship are stated and the student is asked to express his/her sociometric
choice. In the ‘Guess who’ technique, brief descriptions of various types of
students are provided and they are asked to guess who in the class matches with
the description. For example, one of the statements may be ‘The boy is always in
trouble with his parents’, who?

The sociometric data are presented in the form of a sociogram which shows
attractions and repulsions within a group and helps the teacher and the counsellor
in discovering the problems of students in relation to the group.
7
Techniques and Procedures 5.4.4 Autobiography
You might have read autobiographies of great personalities. An autobiography is
a description of an individual in his/her own words. As a guidance technique for
studying the individual, it gives valuable information about the individual’s
interests, abilities, personal history, hopes, ambitions, likes, dislikes, etc. In
guidance, structured autobiographic items are given to the individual and he/she
is asked to write them out. The autobiographical material thus obtained is verified
by various other means. Since feelings, values and attitudes cannot be measured
by any other technique, autobiography appears to be the one technique for
appraising these characteristics.

5.4.5 Rating Scales

In this technique presence or absence or a behaviour or trait in a person is rated
in terms of quantity and quality. You might be rating your students’ performance,
handwriting, habits and many other aspects in your day-to-day teaching. For
example, Ashok has done better than Meena in Mathematics but Meena scored
the highest in Hindi. Ram is taller than Shyam but Shyam is taller than Nitesh.
The world ‘rate’ means judging somebody or estimating the value of something.
The guidance worker, who has observed the individual in many situations, gives
his/her judgments. In a rating scheme each student is judged on the same general
traits and judgments are expressed in the form of a scale on which are marked
‘very poor – poor – average – good – very good’. For contrast and convenience
these ratings are shown graphically on profiles.

A rating scale is a selected list of ‘words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, following

which an observer records a value or rating based on some objective scale of
values’. It is a special kind of checklist in which the items or characteristics
checked are rated quantitatively or qualitatively according to the degree of
presence or absence of a trait, the degree or perfection of a skill or the degree of
completion of a task.

In a rating scale, the characteristics are rated according to given number of points.
The points are in terms of grades or numbers. For example, meeting strangers
may present a serious problem to one individual and no problem at all to another.
Between these two extremes, the seriousness of the problem may differ from
one individual to another. The ratings may be qualitative or quantitative. For
example, seriousness of the problem may be rated as below:
Qualitative Rating Quantitative Rating Grading
Never a problem 0 E
Seldom a problem 1 D
Occasionally a problem 2 C
Fairly serious problem 3 B
Serious problem 4 A

Characteristic situations in which rating scales are used given below. These are
the situations when no other technique gives reliable and valid measurements of
the individual’s characteristics seeking educational or vocational guidance.

8
1) Areas which cannot be objectively measured. Techniques of Guidance

2) Rating scales are used to supplement the information collected by

standardized psychological tests. For example, a test of achievement is
administered to a class of students. The test results can be verified with the
help of ratings the class teacher has given to them.
3) In situations when the guidance worker wants to collect information about
many things and many students in a short-time, teacher’s ratings could be
obtained.
4) In situations when the construction of standardized toolsfor studying the
individual require special expertise, money and time, information can be
obtained through rating scales which are relatively easy to prepare.
5) In guidance and counselling when self-analysis and self-evaluation by the
client is needed. Self-rating scale provides useful information for self-analysis
which leads to better self-understanding.
Limitations of Rating Scales
1) Rating scale is an observational technique and has its limitations like other
observational techniques. Unless the guidance worker understands clearly
the purpose of rating, the data obtained from ratings are not dependable.
2) Rating scales require necessary expertise and understanding on the part of
the observers and any one is not suited for this job.
3) Ratings by some raters are too low while by others they are too high. With
proper care this shortcoming can be removed.

Types of Rating Scales: Some of the frequently used rating scales include: (a)
descriptive, (b) graphic, (c) forced choice, (d) the paired comparison, and (e)rank
order.

a) Descriptive Rating Scales: These are used to assess a personality trait, an

attitude or behaviour of a person. The following is an example of a descriptive
rating scale to assess the behaviour of an individual. In the first column you
have a number of phrases describing varying degrees of helpfulness arranged
in order which may be descending or ascending.
Always Usually Occasionally Never
i) Helpful to others - - - -
ii) Does what he is asked - - - -
iii) Likes to try new things - - - -
iv) Likes to go on trips - - - -

The above is an example of a rating scale for systematic appraisal of real

life behaviour. The observer selects the phrase that applies or comes closer
to describing the trait under consideration.

b) Graphic Rating Scale: In a graphic rating scale an attempt is made to

characterize degrees of a trait by brief description. The line showing the
presence of a trait in an individual is divided into 3, 5 or 7 points.
9
Techniques and Procedures An example of graphic rating scale is given below which measures
persistence of effort.
1 2 3 4 5
Gives up at Leaves after Tries to do Keeps trying Never leaves,
the slightest making some everything inspite of persists till the
difficulty trials inspite possible and repeated goal is
of difficulties then gives up failures achieved

The teacher places a mark at a point which describes the trait possessed. A
check mark may be placed in between if necessary.

c) The Choice Method: Forced choice rating scale forces the rater to choose
between two alternatives such as True or False. The two alternatives appear
to be similar, nevertheless only one statement reflects the presence or absence
of the trait. The rater is forced to make a choice. A number of such statements
are given and the rater has to choose only one of the two from each pair.

When the rater chooses A or B, his/her exact opinion is sought.

d) The Paired Comparison Rating Scale: These scales use as points of

reference certain typical students known by those being rated and then a
comparison is made. An example follows: Students Shashi, Prabha and
Roshan are typical students. The first is highly cooperative, the second is
average, the third never cooperates with others. The trait measured is the
degree of cooperation.

Never cooperates Cooperates Always ready to

like Roshan like Prabha cooperate like Shashi

e) Rank Order Method: In this method a group of students are ranked

according to a certain trait by as many teachers separately as who teach
them. Then an average rank is obtained for each student.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
1) List any three limitations of a rating scale.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2) List the different types of rating scales. Describe any one of them in
brief.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
10
5.4.6 Anecdotal Record Techniques of Guidance

An anecdotal record contains short descriptive accounts about some events

regarding a student. Every account is a report of a significant episode in the life
of a student. It is a simple statement of an incident deemed by the observer to be
significant with respect to a given student. When such reports describing, on the
spot, some incidents are recorded so that they may be of some significance, they
are collectively known as an anecdotal record.

An anecdote may be compared to a snapshot of an isolated incident of the

behaviour of the student, which suggests some special significance. Just as a
camera catches the pose of an individual at a given time, similarly the anecdote
should report exactly the behaviour observed. If we accept the uniqueness of the
individual as a basic principle of guidance, this word snapshot is of immense
significance to us for guidance purposes. An individual’s behaviour is always in
response to some felt need. For example, desire for affection or threat to his/her
security may cause him/her to show certain strange behaviour. A teacher should
note it down at once, i.e. he/she should have a word snapshot.

Such word snapshots written by as many teachers as they meet individual students,
in as many situations as possible, give a true picture of the students’ behaviour
pattern or his/her personality.

Maintaining anecdotal records: An anecdotal record is the result of observation

by a teacher about the specific behaviour of the student in a situation. It is written
down to get a better understanding of the student because the teacher may forget
the incident if it is not written down. The teacher writes down what s/he observes
and does not give any remarks. S/he may describe the behaviour and say something
by way of comment or s/he may describe the behaviour and suggest possible
remedial measures.

What to observe: A proforma is supplied to each teacher to note down his/her

observation. It contains date, place, incident and remarks on the proforma
supplied. Directions to the teachers are given indicating that they must record
the child’s behaviour, by making their statements descriptive and specific to
avoid vague/general remarks. Their descriptions should be statements of what
happened, for example, came late by half an hour without an excuse for previous
day’s absence, did not obey instructions and showed defiance.

Areas to be noted down:Haphazardly noting down bits of information serves

no purpose. Hence, in the proforma supplied, areas are clearly marked, on which
observations are to be made. An anecdotal record is a record with a purpose. For
example, a boy’s interest in industrial work may be exhibited by his article on
the visit to a local factory. A girl’s interest in a literary magazine may be indicative
of her literary taste. A teacher can find many such occurrences in the life of his/
her students, of which he/she has to make a note. For example, a boy’s comment
on a radio newscast is a good item for an anecdotal record if he is interested in
studying the text for current history. A girl’s comment on some recent scientific
invention may show her interest in science. An anecdotal record is of special
interest in understanding social and emotional behaviours. If a boy is found sitting
alone when all are rejoicing and making merry in a holiday excursion, shows
that he has some emotional problems.
11
Techniques and Procedures Longitudinal Approach: Only those anecdotal records are of any help to the
guidance worker, in which behaviours of an individual are described over a long
period of time. Longitudinal anecdotal records maintained from the nursery school
to the high school are very useful. The anecdotal record file should not contain
irrelevant material. The file should be scrutinized from time-to-time and irrelevant
material may be removed. Anecdotal records pertaining to all aspects of life
should be maintained.

Every teacher in the school should be provided with forms to write down the
incidents about students as and when they occur. A few basic considerations to
be kept in mind are given below:
1) The form should be short and informal.
2) Reports should be of some significant episodes. The episode described should
show a marked tendency from the norm of the individual or the group.
3) The anecdotes should be written about all students and not just about the
high achiever or the problematic ones i.e., stereotypes.
4) The anecdotes should be the reports of the actual observations and written
just after the events.
5) A single incident is of no value.
6) Both positive and negative incidents of behaviour should be noted down.
7) We should know what to look for, where to look for and how to record.
Uses of anecdotal records
1) Anecdotal records supply useful information about the individual’s
personality characteristics, reactions to different situations, interests in
studies/vocation and interpersonal relationships. They give a realistic picture
of students’ personality.
2) Anecdotal records are of special value in indicating social and emotional
situations.
3) Anecdotal records are very useful in fields where formal measurements are
very difficult. For example, in judging sociability, social alertness, social
behaviour, attitudes, acceptance of personal responsibility and work habits.
4) A healthy teacher-pupil relationship is established when teachers are asked
by the school organization to write down anecdotal reports.
5) Systematically kept anecdotal records provide an exceedingly valuable
information to the counsellor.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
3) Write any three considerations you would like to keep in mind while
maintaining anecdotal records of students.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

12
...............................................................................................................
5.4.7 Case Study Techniques of Guidance

A case study is defined as a collection of all available information – social,

physiological, biographical, environmental, vocational – that promises to help
explain a single individual. A case study is a comprehensive collection of
information gathered using different tools and techniques of data collection. It is
the most important technique and the best method of studying the whole
individual. Its purpose is to say positively and with confidence that, as far as
possible, all sources of information have been tapped and all kinds of data have
been gathered about the client. In case study, information about the individual is
so organized and combined into a whole that the individual studied is viewed as
a dynamic one trying to adjust to the environment in which he is. The main
object behind a case study is to observe the individual as a whole.

Behind a case study there is always a large developmental view. The counsellor
is interested not only in diagnosing the problem and suggesting suitable remedies,
but s/he is also interested in bringing about a better adjustment. A detailed case
study is conducted for bringing about a better adjustment of the person who is
the subject of investigation. The counsellor looks for the strengths and weaknesses,
abilities and disabilities to plan possible ways of development and proper growth
of the individual.
Facts to be collected in a case study
A case study about a person presents basic information on the following topics:
a) the physical, socio-economic and cultural environment
b) the history and present status of the family
c) personal history of the individual.
a) The physical, socio-economic and cultural environment:The physical
environment includes the neighbourhood in which the individual has grown
up and now lives, rural/urban, working/middle class surroundings, living in
own/rented/makeshift home, small/large house etc. The socio-economic
environment refers to the society in which the individual is brought up and
its condition regarding material prosperity. Are the people among whom
the individual lives farmers, businessmen, or professional people? Does
the community provide playground facilities and youth activities?

Cultural environment – What are the ways of life, ideals and points of view
of those among whom one lives? Are they well educated and prosperous?

b) Family: Many diverse information about the family has to be collected to

understand the characteristics of the individual being studied.
What isthe status of health and physique of the family members – father,
mother, brothers and sisters? Are most of these members active, lethargic,
strong or frail?
What is the educational or occupational status of the family members? What
are their special abilities or disabilities?
Is there harmony in the family or is it a broken family? Does the individual
get proper care and security? What has been the attitude of the parents
towards the individual – affectionate, indifferent, dominating or interfering?
13
Techniques and Procedures What about the emotional adjustment of the family members? Are they
moody, cheerful, short tempered, aggressive, timid, reserved, or uninhibited?
Is there any conflict in the family?

What about the social status of the family? Is it a progressive family? Is the
family well accepted or isolated in the community? Has it fallen into disrepute
or is held in high esteem?

c) Personal history of the individual under study: The study of the individual
is to be made in a similar way as done under family history.

Individual’s physical health – Has the physical growth been normal as shown
by height, weight measurements or by age, of walking, talking and reaching
puberty? Has there been some illness or physical defects, for example, those
of hearing and vision? Is the individual by appearance active, vigorous or
ailing? What are the findings of the medical check-ups?

Individual’s abilities – Has the individual been given tests of intelligence?

What is his ability? Has his mental development been normal or has he
developed certain faculties earlier than normal? Has he done well or poorly
at school?

Emotional development – Is he emotionally mature or unstable? Does he

show strong antagonism, jealousy or affection? Is he timid, anxious, worried,
nervous or withdrawing? Is he bad-tempered or hard to control? Is he good-
natured and overconfident?

Social development – What is his position in the family? Is he the only

child, a favoured child or the eldest child? How does s/he get along with
siblings? How does s/he get along with his classmates? Is s/he shy or retiring?
Is s/he a leader, follower or isolate? Is s/he a bully who uses his/her strength
or power to hurt others? Does s/he show manners which are disliked by his/
her companions? Is s/he in the habit of antagonizing others?

Ideals and attitudes - Is s/he a person who believes in ideals? Has s/he
sophisticated tastes? Has s/he ever been a delinquent? Hass/he ever created
troubles at home, in the school and in the community?

Above stated are some of the many details which should be secured before
the case is diagnosed. The data about the individual so collected should be
interpreted keeping in view the total picture. Keeping in mind all the
information collected about the environment the family and his/her own
development, an appraisal is made of the total person. An explanation is
given as to what has made him/her what s/he is and recommendations are
offered as to what should be the most appropriate action in the light of these
findings.

Difficulties in making a case study – Making a case study is not easy. It is

too complicated and time consuming. It may also become too subjective if
the person who prepares the case study is not skilled. Preparing a complete
case study for each child is also not feasible in the classroom. A teacher may
take up one or two cases for studying them.

14
 Techniques of Guidance
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
4) List the three main topics/headings you would collect information in a
case study technique.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

5.4.8 Cumulative Record

It is a record of information concerned with the appraisal of an individual student.
The information which is obtained periodically through various sources,
techniques, tests, interviews, observations, case study and the like, is assembledin
a summary form on a cumulative record card, so that it may be used when the
student needs advice for the solution of some educational or vocational problem.

The cumulative record has been defined as “a method of recording, filing and
using information essential for the guidance of students”. A cumulative record
card supplies information on points such as the following:
a) Personal: (i) name, (ii) date of birth, (iii) place of birth, (iv) sex, (v) colour,
(vi) residence.
b) Home: (i) names of parents, (ii) occupations of the parents, (iii) parents
alive or dead, (iv) economic status, (v) number of siblings, older or younger,
(vi) language spoken at home.
c) Test scores: (i) general intelligence, (ii) achievement, (iii) other test scores,
and (iv) personality traits.
d) School attendance: (i)days present or absent each year, (ii) schools attended
with dates.
e) Health:record of physical disabilities, vaccination record, diseases suffered
from.
f) Miscellaneous: (i) vocational plans, (ii) extracurricular activities, (iii)
employment during studies, and (iv) counsellor’s note.
If we analyse the items recorded on a cumulative record card, we find that only
such items are included as are recorded in a case study. Data collected through
non-standardized techniques like checklists, questionnaires, autobiographies do
not find a place in the record card file. It must be remembered that recording and
filing of information are not as important as using the information.
Need and Importance of Cumulative Record
The cumulative records about students provide useful information to teachers,
counsellors and administrators. The need and importance of cumulative records
in guidance are given below:
15
Techniques and Procedures Importance in Guidance
i) The basic principle and assumptions of guidance take into consideration
individual differences. Every individual differs from the other in some
psychological character, quality or trait. For example, no two individuals
are alike. They differ from each other as far as interests, aptitudes and abilities
are concerned. Cumulative records reveal such individual differences and
indicate the nature and amount of professional assistance needed by
individual students at various stages of their development.

ii) The cumulative record is a permanent history of the educational development

of the individual student. It indicates his/her attendance, health, achievement
and various other aspects of school life. Hence it is useful in analyzing the
future needs of the individual student and proper educational and
occupational guidance can be offered on the basis of his needs. For example,
if it indicates the weaknesses in the physical development of the student,
steps to remove those weaknesses can be suggested.

Importance in Teaching
i) The cumulative record of an individual student indicates if the achievements
are in proportion to his/her mental abilities. If the student is under achieving
he/she can be guided as to what steps he/she should take to remedy the
defect.
ii) The cumulative records of different students help the teacher in classifying
students in accordance with scholastic aptitudes and mental abilities.
iii) The cumulative records of different students of a class help the new teacher
in understanding the needs of students.
iv) They are diagnostic tools to analyse a behaviour problem or an educational
one. For example, why is a student backward in academic performance?
What steps can be taken to remove his/her backwardness?
v) Cumulative records indicate to teachers about students who need individual
attention.
vi) Cumulative records help the teachers in writing reports about individual
students, and the principal in writing a character certificate most objectively.
vii) Teachers can locate children needing special help and adjust the teaching
accordingly.
viii) For making case studies the cumulative record is very useful to teachers,
because there is some similarity of items collected.
Importance to Administrators – Cumulative records give enough information
to the juvenile courts, probation officers for understanding the delinquent
behaviour of a student.

The cumulative record is needed by teachers/counsellors for the same reason as

that a cumulative record is maintained by a physician. Records maintained over
a long period of time tell the story of growth and deterioration of the client.

16
Characteristics of a Good Cumulative Record Techniques of Guidance

The following are the characteristics of a good cumulative record:

1) Information gathered should be complete, comprehensive and adequate so

that valid inferences may be drawn. It should be more comprehensive than
the progress report. Since the record is a permanent history of the educational
growth of a student it should give all types of relevant information needed
by a teacher or a guidance worker. For example, it should indicate the
vocational plans, the vocational choices, the assets and liabilities of the
student needed in vocational guidance.

2) Information recorded should be true and valid. Any information received

second-hand may have limited validity and reliability. Before preparing a
comprehensive model of a cumulative record, for example, for a high school
student who needs the guidance for a job, it should be decided what items
are needed for such a schedule. Like other tools of measurement, a cumulative
record can be valid only when it measures what it intends to measure.

3) Information to be reliable should be collected by a number of teachers and

then compiled. The reliability of a cumulative record depends upon the
caution with which information on different aspects of student growth are
gathered and assembled. All information so collected should come as a result
of personal contact with the student, not by one teacher but by a number of
teachers, who come in close contact with the student. Information received
second-hand should be verified.

4) A cumulative record should be re-evaluated from time-to-time.

5) A cumulative record should be objective and free from personal opinions

and prejudices. If bias, likes and dislikes enter in the collection of data, the
record will be unreliable.

6) It should be usable. A cumulative record may be card type, folder type or

booklet type. The folder type cumulative records are more popular because
they permit the inclusion of comprehensive information about the student.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
5) Discuss in brief the importance of cumulative records in teaching.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
17
Techniques and Procedures 5.4.9 Interviews
An interview is a conversation with a purpose. The purposes for which interviews
are arranged are introductory, fact finding, evaluative, informative and therapeutic
in nature. Another characteristic is the relationship between the interviewer and
the interviewee. The occasion should be used for a friendly informal talk. The
interviewee should be allowed to talk in a permissive atmosphere with confidence
and freedom.

Different Types of Interviews

Interviews differ with respect to the purpose that is kept in view. If the purpose is
to select a candidate for a post, it is an employment interview, but if the purpose
is to gather some facts or verify them it will be called a fact finding interview. So
interviews are classified on the basis of purpose. Interviews are categorized also
on the basis of the nature of relationship between the interviewer and the
interviewee. If in the interview the dominating figure is the counsellor, it is a
counsellor centered interview and if it is the client, then the interview is client
centered. The following are the major types of interviews:
1) An Employment Interview: The purpose behind such an interview is to
assess the fitness of a person for the job. The interviewer talks too much
and the interviewee too little. He simply answers the questions asked.
2) A Fact Finding Interview: The purpose of a fact finding interview is the
verification of facts and data collected from other sources.
3) Diagnostic Interview: The purpose of a diagnostic interview is remediation.
An effort is made by the interviewer to diagnose the problem of the
interviewee and find out symptoms. Necessary information is collected to
help the interviewee in solving a problem.
4) Counselling Interview: The purpose of a counselling interview is to provide
an insight, a suggestion, or a piece of advice to the interviewee. The
counselling session begins with the work of collecting information and
proceeds with guidance and finally ends with psychological treatment of
the problem.
5) Groups versus. Individual Interviews: When several persons are
interviewed in a group such an interview is known as a group interview, but
basically all group interviews are individual interviews because it is not the
group that is interviewee. The purpose behind a group interview is collecting
information and the knowledge of common problems facing the group. In
the individual interview the emphasis lies on the problems faced by the
individual.
Carl Rogers holds a divergent view about an individual interview. He says
that in an individual interview it is not the problem faced by the individual
which lies in the centre. The focus is on the individual himself/herself. The
aim of an individual interview is not to solve one problem, but to help the
interviewee to grow so that s/he may cope with the present and with problems
that may arise in future in a better integrated manner.
6) Authoritarian Vs. Non-authoritarian Type: In the authoritarian types of
interview, the client and his/her problems are submerged and the interviewer
18
 dominates the interview because of the elevated position that he holds. The Techniques of Guidance
non-authoritarian rejects the authoritarian role. The interviewee may still
regard the interviewer as a man of authority, but the interviewer does not
act as an authoritarian. S/he accepts the feelings of the client and does not
reject them. S/he uses a variety of techniques during the interview such as
suggestion, persuasion, advice, reassurance, interpretation and giving
information.
7) Directive Vs. Non-directive Interviews: In the directive interview the
interviewer directs, shows the path through advice, suggestion, persuasion
or threat. But in a non-directive interview it is assumed that the interviewee
has the capacity to grow and develop. S/he has complete freedom to express
his/her feelings and emotions. The interviewer does not try to probe into the
past of the client, makes no suggestion. S/he does not try to re-educate or
change the client.
8) Structured Vs. Unstructured Interviews: In the structured interview a
definite set of questions is predetermined. The interviewer confines himself/
herself to pre-decided questions in the interview. In a structured interview
definite questions are asked. In an unstructured interview there is no such
restriction. The interviewer is free to give expression to his/her ideas. The
subject to be discussed is not determined in advance. The unstructured
interview sometimes provides information which on the face of it, may
appear to be trivial, but is extremely useful when an interpretation is made.
General Principles of Interview in Counselling Situation
The following are the guidelines to make an interview successful:
1) Interview situation should offer a good listening by one who has greater
experience and training.
2) The counselee should feel the need of interview and counselling.
3) The counsellor should have all relevant data about the client before he starts
counselling.
4) A rapport should be established between the counsellor and the counselee.
It is a sort of personal relationship of mutual trust and respect based on the
feelings of confidence and security.
5) Interview should start with cordial and pleasant greetings and should not
indicate that one has authority over the other.
6) Discussion should be restricted to issues at hand.
7) When the counselee expresses himself/herself, s/he should be accepted. The
counsellor will gain nothing by antagonizing or embarrassing the counselee.
8) Interview should aim at helping the counselee gain insight into the problem
and reach conclusions.
9) The counselee should be allowed to take the lead in making decisions.
10) The interview should end with a constructive note.

19
Techniques and Procedures Advantages of an Interview
An interview is a non-standard technique used for studying the individual.
Interview is commonly used in counselling. It is a technique without which no
counselling is possible. It is a valuable technique for obtaining information, giving
information to a group, selecting a new employee and helping the individual in
the solution of an adjustment problem.

The following are the advantages of interview as a technique of guidance and

counselling:

1) It is a widely used technique in guidance because it has certain advantages

which are not possessed by other techniques of guidance. For example,
personal data can be more easily collected in much shorter time by using
this technique.

2) It is very flexible. It is useful in almost all situations and with people having
different backgrounds.
3) It serves a variety of purposes. You may determine your purpose and have
an interview for that purpose.
4) It has a great therapeutic value. An interview establishes a face-to-face
relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee. The direct
relationship gives a great insight into the problem faced by the client.
5) Interview is helpful in diagnosing a problem. It is very helpful in revealing
the causes of a problem faced by the client. Hence some psychologists regard
interview a very useful technique for diagnoses and remediation.
6) The face-to-face contact gives very useful clues about the client’s personality.
The facial expressions, gestures, postures convey meaning and reveal feelings
and attitudes indirectly.
7) Interview is useful to the client also because it enables him to think about
the problem and about his ‘self’. It is the most useful situation in which the
client gets a better understanding of his ‘self’, his abilities, skills, interests
and also of the world of work, its opening and their requirements.
8) Interview provides a choice to the client and the counsellor to exchange
ideas and attitudes through conversation.

Limitations of Interview as a Technique

1) An interview is a subjective technique. It lacks objectivity in the collection
of data about the client. The bias and the prejudices of the interviewer enter
his/her interpretation of the data collected through an interview.
2) The personal bias makes the interview less reliable and valid.
3) The results of an interview are very difficult to interpret.
4) The usefulness of an interview is limited. The success of an interview
depends on the personality qualities of the interviewer, his/her preparation
for the interview and the way in which s/he interviews. If the interviewer
monopolises talking or does not listen patiently to what the client says, the
interview loses value.
20
 Techniques of Guidance
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
6) List any five non-standardized techniques you would like to use in your
school.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

5.5 STANDARDIZED TECHNIQUES

There are four types of standardized tests. These include achievement, interest,
aptitude and personality testing. There is some overlap in these categories,
especially in interest and personality. Let us examine these one by one.

5.5.1 Aptitude Tests

Aptitude may be defined as a trait that characterizes an individual’s ability to
perform in a specific area or to acquire the learning necessary for performance in
a given area. It presumes an inherent or natural ability that can be developed to
its maximum through learning or other experiences. However, it cannot be
expanded beyond a certain point, even by learning. In theory, then, an aptitude
test measures the potential of one to achieve in a given activity or to learn to
achieve in that activity.

Aptitude tests may potentially be used by counsellors and others because (1)
they may identify potential abilities of which the individual is not aware; (2)
they may encourage the development of special or potential abilities of a given
individual; (3) they may provide information to assist an individual in making
educational and career decisions or other choices between competing alternatives;
(4) they may serve as an aid in predicting the level of academic or vocational
success an individual might anticipate; and (5) they may be useful in grouping
individuals with similar aptitudes for developmental and other educational
purposes.

Special Aptitude Tests – You might have seen or heard about clerical aptitude
test, numerical ability test, etc. Special aptitude tests usually refer to those that
seek to measure an individual’s potential ability to perform or to acquire
proficiency in a specific occupation or other type of activity. Tests that measure
special aptitude are sometimes referred to as single aptitude tests because they
only secure a measure for one specific aptitude. Counsellors, most frequently
use standardized tests to measure a single aptitude in areas of mechanical, clerical,
or artistic abilities. Single aptitude tests have also been developed for use in
various graduate and professional schools. Aptitude tests are also available for
particular school subjects.
21
Techniques and Procedures Vocational Aptitude Batteries – Multiple aptitude tests typically consists of a
series of subtests that relate in varying combinations to a series of occupations
or occupationally related activities. Commonly used multiple aptitude batteries
are the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB); the Differential Aptitude Battery
(DAT); the Flanagan Aptitude Classification Test (FACT); and the Academic
Promise Test (APT).

Scholastic Aptitude Test – Scholastic or academic aptitude tests measure one’s

potential for performing in academic situations. Such tests are those that comprise
the SAT and PSAT batteries have much merit in so far as predicting academic
performance at higher educational levels. However, a more appropriate label
would be academic achievement, because they tend to predict future academic
achievement on the basis of past learning, rather than on the basis of natural
ability.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
7) Name-three types of aptitude tests.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

5.5.2 Achievement Tests

You have been using these tests to assess student’s performance in school subjects.
All unit, semester and terminal examination tests are nothing but achievement
tests. These tests focus on skills or abilities that are traditionally taught in the
schools. Therefore, achievement tests may be defined as tools designed to measure
the degree of student learning in specific curriculum areas common to most
schools, such as Mathematics, English usages, etc.

Achievement tests are used as learning measures of (1) the amount of learning,
(2) the rate of learning, (3) comparisons with others or with achievement of self
in other areas, (4) level of learning in sub-areas, and (5) strengths and weakness
in a subject matter area because of their extensive use and relatively easy task of
identifying appropriate context measures.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
8) Write the importance and need of achievement tests in school in brief.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
22
5.5.3 Interest Inventory Techniques of Guidance

You might have observed in your class that some students show more inclination
in math, while others in computers, some in literary activities, in paintings, etc.
Interest is a behaviour orientation towards certain objects, activities or
experiences. It is an expression of our likes and dislikes, or our attractions and
aversions. An individual chooses the most acceptable, suitable alternative out of
many, go after preferred objectives, activities, etc., and consequently derives
satisfaction, success and happiness out of the activities selected.

Interests are related to general ability, special aptitudes and values in various
ways. Linguistic and scientific interests are positively correlated with intelligence,
technical interests are related to mechanical aptitude and business interests are
related to the tendency to stress material as opposed to theoretical, social or
aesthetic values and so on.
Interest testing is done to achieve some purpose i.e.
i) To provide teachers and counsellors with information regarding the students
preference and aversions which will help them acquire better understanding
of students and their problems.
ii) To help the students to identify and clarify their interests in terms of the
demands of varied courses and careers and choose work and experiences
consistent with their interests.
iii) To enable teachers, counsellors and parents to know the kinds and intensity
of the student’s interests and assist him to prepare his educational and
vocational plans consistent with his interests.
iv) To help channelize the energies of the youth in appropriate directions.
v) To help in the selection of the right person for the right work, and thus save
frustration, unhappiness and disappointment in the lives of the individuals
and increase productive capacity of individuals.

Methods of Measuring Interests

We can measure the interests of individuals by the following methods:
1) Observation: We may observe manifest interests. What an individual actually
does is a good indication of what his interests are.
2) Claims of the Counselee: We can know the interests by knowing the
expressed interests of the individual, in a subject, activity, object or vocation.
Verbal claim can be an indicator of his/her interests.
3) Use of Instruments: We may assess interests using an instrument like
Michigan Vocabulary Test on the grounds that if the individual is really
interested in something, s/he will know the vocabulary involved in that
area.
4) Use of Inventories: We may determine the pattern of an individual’s interest
from his/her responses to lists of occupations and activities. Interest
inventories provide information about the student’s preferences which are
more stable than the verbally claimed interests. The latter are too often
influenced by his/her limited and faulty knowledge of occupations. This
23
Techniques and Procedures technique is by far the most common means of assessing interests and is
commonly used.
Advantages of Interest Inventories
Interest inventories are useful in many ways:
1) They are well-adapted to vocational counselling – The student expects his/
her interests to be considered. The interpretation, when given, carries
considerable force because the student can see that s/he is looking at himself
in a mirror, that s/he is only receiving an analysis of what s/he himself /
herself has said.
2) They are useful for the counsellor too as they are less fraught with emotional
significance. The subject can discuss the interest scores with the counselor
freely.
3) They are helpful devices for the counselee too – Students do not mind
revealing their interests and are eager to have a report of their scores. A
promise to interpret scores is an excellent, non-threatening gambit to entice
the student into the counsellor’s office.
4) They are economic – They can be given to a group; interpretation of profiles
can be carried out in group discussion.
5) They provide excellent preliminary information either to further group study
of careers or to individual counselling.
6) They assist counsellor in dealing with many other student problems.
Limitations of Interest Inventories
There are certain limitations to be found in interest inventories.
i) Many students fail to show through their responses to interest inventories
strong likes and dislikes or clearly defined preferences.
ii) The inventories can have validity only with persons whose likes have been
long and varied enough to have provided them with experiences of the kind
which will enable them to choose between alternatives presented by each
item in the inventories. These inventories are, thus, more useful with mature
than immature students.
iii) Vocational choice or success cannot be predicted on the basis of even clearly-
defined patterns shown by the inventories alone. Ability, training and
opportunity for training – all need to be considered. Interest test results
cannot be over-emphasised.

Estimating Interests
One way of assessing the interests is to ask the individuals what they like to do.
The other way is to analyse the activities that a person performs. The third method
of assessing interests is by the use of interest tests and inventories. There are
many instruments now in use and majority of them deal with occupational interest.

1) Kuder Interest Inventories: There are various forms, versions and editions
of the Kuder Interest Inventories. They help in the measurement of interests
from different angles and are designed for different purposes. The items in
24
 the Kuder inventories are of the forced-choice triad type. For each of three Techniques of Guidance
activities listed, the respondent indicates which s/he would like the most
and which s/he would like the least.
The following forms of Kuder Interest Inventories are quite common:
i) The Kuder Vocational Preference Record – It provides 10 interest
scales plus a verification scale for detecting carelessness,
misunderstanding and the choice of socially-desirable but unlikely
answers. The interest scales include: Outdoor, Mechanical,
Computational, Scientific, Persuasive, Artistic, Literary, Musical,
Social Service and Clerical. Forced-choice triad items are used. The
respondents indicate which of the three activities they would like most
and which least. The scores are obtained not for specific vocations but
for 10 broad interest areas.
ii) Kuder General Interest Survey (KGIS) – It has been developed as a
revision and downward extension of the Kuder Vocational Preference
Record. It is designed for grades 6 to 12. It employs simpler language
and easier vocabulary. It is a revision of the Strong Vocational Interest
Blank (SVIB).
iii) Kuder Occupational Interest Inventory (KOII) – The occupations
covered by this inventory vary widely in level, ranging from baker and
truck driver to chemist and lawyer.

2) Strong Vocational Interest Blanks (SVIB) – It is based on the assumption

that a person who has the interest patterns typical of successful people in a
given occupation will enjoy and find satisfaction in that occupation.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
9) Write any two advantages and limitations of interest inventories.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

5.5.4 Personality Tests

Personality is inclusive of everything about one’s physique, socio-emotional and
personal characteristics. Therefore, personality is the sum total of an individual
behaviour in social situations.
Purpose of Personality Testing – Personality testing is necessary to achieve the
following purposes:
i) It helps the students in proper educational and vocational choice. Personality
plays an important role in individual, personal, educational and vocational
25
Techniques and Procedures adjustment and success. It is, therefore, important to diagnose the individual’s
personality pattern to see whether he possesses the traits which are likely to
contribute significantly to his adjustment to the course or career he is
choosing.

ii) It helps the individual in resolving emotional conflicts. Personality diagnosis

becomes essential when the difficulty the individual encounters in making
proper adjustment with the educational and occupational choices, lies in
emotional conflict about which the client has no knowledge. When the cause
of the individual’s mental conflict is diagnosed, it may be possible for him
to solve his problem in his own way.

iii) It helps the teacher and the counsellor. Personality testing through various
techniques will help the teacher and counsellor to get this information and
help the individual on the basis of this information.

iv) It helps the employer in proper selection of the personnel.

v) It helps the clinical psychologist. A clinical psychologist can use personality

assessments to help choose the best therapy for his clients.
Techniques of Testing Personality
A number of techniques are used for testing personality. The techniques are:
• Interview
• Observation
• Self Ratings and Personality Inventories
• Checklists
• Rating Scales
• Situational Tests or Behavioural Tests
• Projective Techniques
• Anecdotal Records
• Autobiography
• The Daily Diary
Interview, observation, rating scales, anecdotal records and autobiography have
already been discussed under Non-standardized Techniques of Guidance in
Section 5.4. The other techniques are described here.

Checklists:An important approach to the study of personality is by developing

an inventory of the felt problems of students. They have been used as aids in
counselling or in surveying the concerns of the student body. For the second
purpose they may be filled out anonymously. A problem checklist or inventory
consists basically of alist of problems which are common to a population of the
age being studied. The student doing the inventory indicates which of these
problems are bothering him although a student, for a variety of reasons, may not
be willing to admit that a problem is concerning him, these checklists, if
interpreted properly, furnish interesting and helpful data for counsellors. They
may reveal unsuspected problems and in many cases, their hidden causes. Their
greatest value is as a basis for a counselling interview.
26
Projective Technique: In contrast to the previous measurement techniques, the Techniques of Guidance
global approach to the appraisal of personality attempts to study personality as a
whole. This method is often called the projective technique because the individual
is stimulated to project his/her personality into the test exercises. The stimuli
used in projective techniques attempt to arouse responses that are a projection of
the innerself or motives and personality traits that are usually hidden and often
even unsuspected by the individual himself. The subject may be asked to respond
to series of pictures, inkblots, or similarly ambiguous stimuli. The interpretation
of the responses requires a long period of training and should be done only by
those who are specially qualified.

Self Rating and Personality Inventories (Paper and Pencil Personality Tests):
An individual’s written account of the past behaviour, feeling and wishes can be
a good source of information about his/her personality. Self-ratings can be done
through personality inventories and paper and pencil tests. Both of these serve
as an excellent basis for interviews later.

Limitations of Paper and Pencil Personality Tests

i) Majority of the questions in these inventories deal with personal matters.
ii) Subject’s unconscious resistance also affects his responses to a great extent.
It is very difficult to get valid and correct information.
iii) Suggestion is another important factor which tampers with validity. Our
recollections of emotionally toned experiences are liable to be false.
Moreover, it is quite easy that suggestive questioning may lead us to accept
experiences as our own which never really occurred.
iv) The influence of temporary mood, optimism, worry, etc. might also affect
test responses.

Situational or Behavioural Test

It is a test in which the behaviour of the individual is evaluated in action by
judges or by his peers or he is confronted with the situations related to his/her
own life, in response to which he gives expression to his feelings for other persons.
The subject reveals some of his/her personality traits through his preference for
or against certain contacts with others and through his/her spontaneous methods
of dealing with life-situations that confront him. Psycho-drama and socio-drama
are the two techniques of this type.

According to Jennings, “Socio-drama” is an intensive, vivid, living through

experience of common concern to the group members’ experience which may
have been cut short in life and blocked from full expression, leaving unresolved
buried emotional impact. The process aids the individual in mobilizing his
resources for behaving spontaneously and discovering his potentialities of
expression. Psycho-drama involves the “staging of a situation in which selected
members of the group are the spectators.

As the word psycho-drama implies, the individual has to play a role spontaneously
in a specified situation. His/her behaviour is observed by trained observers. It is
assumed that individuals project their inner feelings and conflicts in the role
they play.
27
Techniques and Procedures The Daily Diary
The daily diary maintained by students can also serve as a device for the
measurement of personality. The diary, being of a very personal nature, can contain
the record of such events, thoughts and feelings as are of great importance to the
student. The diary, if properly maintained and made, can serve as a useful medium
of throwing light upon many aspect of the personality of the individual. It, being
an hour by hour record of the individual, is valuable for showing the general
pattern of a student’s life, the activities in which s/he is currently engaged regularly,
and some of his/her special interests.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
10) Briefly describe any two purposes of personality testing. List any five
techniques of testing personality.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

5.6 LET US SUM UP

The aim of all guidance is to assist the learners to acquire sufficient understanding
of themselves and of their environment to be able to utilize most intelligently
the educational opportunities offered by the school and the community. Guidance
is the assistance given to individual in making intelligent choices and adjustments
in their lives. The ability to make wise choices is not innate; it must be developed.
The fundamental purpose of guidance is to develop in each individual up to the
limit of his/her capacity the ability to solve his/her own problems and to make
his/her own adjustments. The techniques which are generally employed by
guidance worker for collecting basic data about the individual are either
standardized or non-standardized. The non-standardized techniques include
interview, ratings, questionnaire, observation, sociometry, biography, cumulative
record, anecdotal records. The standardized techniques are tools of measuring
interests, intelligence, aptitudes and personality traits.

5.7 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1) Administer a questionnaire on a subject suitable for secondary students,
to10 students of secondary levels. Go through their responses. Write a report
highlighting the need and importance of questionnaire in school education.

2) Discuss in detail the use of achievement and aptitude test in classroom

teaching. Give suitable examples.
28