Transf Fases Na Soldagem

POSCO Lectures, 16th February 2008
Application of Phase Transformation Theory to Welding
H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia
Pohang University of Science and Technology
Graduate Institute of Ferrous Technology
Republic of Korea
INTRODUCTION
The evolution of microstructure in steel welds is a perfect example of the application of phase
transformation theory to a complicated problem.
Welding procedures have in the past been developed empirically, with some assessment of
mechanical properties, and by drawing on accumulated experience. This method has been very
successful, as evident in the popularity of the process in virtually all structural engineering
applications. It is usually as an afterthought that the macrostructure and microstructure are
examined with a view to developing a deeper understanding of the weld, at a more gentle pace
when compared against the demands of commercial timetables. This pragmatic approach is
hardly surprising in view of the complexity of the microstructural phenomena associated with
weld deposits and their heat affected zones. Nevertheless, in an ideal world, the microstructure
should take early prominence in the research, especially when there are clear indications that
it limits the achievable properties of the weld.
A rational approach towards the design of welding alloys and procedures, can benefit from
the development of quantitative and reliable models capable of relating the large number of
variables involved (such as chemical composition, heat input and joint design) to the details of
the microstructure (e.g., volume fractions, phase chemistries, particle sizes and distribution). It
is for this reason that the subject of microstructure modelling in steel welds has mushroomed
to a point where it is now possible to obtain reasonable estimates of the influence of variables
such as chemical composition on the deposit characteristics 1 .
A number of reviews have recently been compiled on the subject addressed here (Bhadeshia,
1987; 1990). Space limitations have, however, limited these reviews to rather cursory treatments.
The opportunity is taken here to present an updated, and more comprehensive assessment of
the research on the modelling of weld metal microstructures. Our aim is to make the article
useful for learning, especially for those who do not wish to consult and coordinate the infor-
mation to be found in the large number of research papers on the subject. Although the paper
deals specifically with weld metals, most of the phase transformations concepts should also be
applicable to wrought alloys.
1
Alberry & Jones, 1979, 1982; Ashby & Easterling, 1982; Alberry et al., 1983; Goldak et al., 1984; Ion et
al., 1984; Bhadeshia et al., 1985; Mehrotra et al., 1985; Goldak et al., 1986; Akselsen et al., 1986; Buchmayer
& Cerjak, 1988.
110 Application of Phase Transformation Theory to Welding
SOLIDIFICATION
Pure iron is an exciting element: in its solid state, it has three allotropic forms called austenite
(γ), ferrite and ǫ–iron. The latter has a hexagonal close–packed crystal structure, is the highest
density state of iron, and is only stable at very large pressures. At ambient pressures, ferrite
is stable at temperatures just below the equilibrium melting temperature (in which case it is
called δ) and at relatively low temperatures as the α form. Austenite is the stable form in the
intervening temperature range between the δ and α. As was recognised a long time ago by
Zener and others, this complicated (but useful) behaviour is related to electronic and magnetic
changes as a function of temperature.
The phase behaviour of pure iron does not change radically with the addition of small amounts
of solute, i.e., for low–alloy steels. Lightly alloyed steel weld deposits begin solidification with
the epitaxial growth of delta–ferrite (δ) from the hot grain structure of the parent plate at
the fusion boundary (Davies & Garland, 1975; Savage et al., 1965; Savage & Aaronson, 1966).
The large temperature gradients at the solid/liquid interface ensure that solidification proceeds
with a cellular front (Calvo et al., 1963), so that the final δ–grains are columnar in shape, the
major axes of the grains lying roughly along the direction of maximum heat flow (Fig. 1a).
On further cooling, austenite allotriomorphs nucleate at the δ–ferrite grain boundaries, and
their higher rate of growth along the δ–δ boundaries (and presumably, along temperature
gradients) leads to the formation of columnar austenite grains whose shape resembles that of
the original solidification structure. Since welding involves a moving heat source, the orientation
of the temperature isotherms alters with time. Consequently, the major growth direction of the
austenite is found to be somewhat different from that of the δ–grains (Dadian, 1986).
If the cooling rate is large enough, then the liquid can be induced to solidify as metastable
austenite instead, Fig. 1b. This could happen even when δ–ferrite is the thermodynamically
favoured phase in low–alloy steels (Fredriksson, 1976; 1983). It has been suggested that this
is especially likely when the partition coefficient k = cS /cL is closer to unity for austenite
than for ferrite. cS and cL are the solute solubilities in the solid and liquid phases respectively
(Fredriksson, 1976). The austenite growth rate can in those circumstances exceed that of δ–
ferrite when the liquid is sufficiently undercooled. Solidification with austenite as the primary
phase becomes more feasible as the steel is alloyed with austenite stabilising elements, until the
γ eventually becomes the thermodynamically stable phase.
Solidification to austenite can be undesirable for two reasons; large inclusions tend to become
trapped preferentially at the cusps in the advancing solid/liquid interface and end up at the
columnar grain boundaries (Sugden & Bhadeshia, 1988a). When austenite forms directly from
the liquid, the inclusions are located in the part of the weld which in the final microstructure
corresponds to relatively brittle allotriomorphic ferrite (Fig. 2). This is not the case with δ
solidification since during subsequent transformation, the daughter austenite grains cut across
the δ/δ grain boundaries, leaving the large inclusions inside the grains where they can do less
harm, and perhaps also be of use in stimulating the nucleation of acicular ferrite. The second
reason to avoid γ solidification diffusion rate of substitutional elements is orders of magnitude
larger in ferrite than in austenite, so that any segregation is less likely to persist when the liquid
transforms to ferrite (Fredriksson, 1976, 1983).
Application of Phase Transformation Theory to Welding 111
Fig. 1: (a) Columnar δ–ferrite grains, with austenite (light phase) allotriomorphs growing at
the δ–grain boundaries. (b) Schematic continuous–cooling–transformation diagram illustrating
the solidification mode in low–alloy steels, as a function of the cooling rate. Faster cooling rates
can in principle lead to solidification to metastable austenite.
EVOLUTION OF THE AUSTENITE GRAIN STRUCTURE
Stereology Both the shape and size of the austenite grains is of importance in the evolution of
the final microstructure. The effect of the austenite grain size is two fold: there is firstly the usual
phenomenon in which the number density of austenite grain boundary heterogeneous nucleation
sites increases with the total grain boundary area per unit volume of sample. This amounts to
the classical and well established hardenability variation with austenite grain size. The second,
and more subtle effect, arises from the grain–shape anisotropy. Although the columnar grains of
austenite are very long, the evolution of many aspects of the microstructure within an individual
Fig. 2: (a) Location of large inclusions for solidification as δ–ferrite and as austenite. (b) A
hexagonal prism model for the columnar austenite grains typical of the microstructure of steel
weld metals.
austenite grain is dependent on the mean lineal intercept within that grain. Since the chances
of test lines lying parallel to the longest dimension of the columnar grain are small, the mean
lineal intercept depends mainly on the width of the grain. As will be seen later, this means that
the grain length can often be excluded as a factor in the calculation of microstructure.
The anisotropy of grain structure causes certain complications in representing the grain pa-
rameters in any microstructure model. The morphology can be described approximately by a
uniform, space–filling array of hexagonal prisms,Fig. 2b (Bhadeshia et al., 1986a). An approxi-
mation is that the elongated austenite grains curve as they grow into the weld pool, in response
to the changing orientation of the isotherms. The actual grains are also not of uniform size.
Each hexagonal prism can be represented by its length c and cross–sectional side length a. With
these approximations, the mean lineal intercept L and mean areal intercept A, as measured
from several differently oriented sections are given by (Underwood, 1970):
L = 120.5 ac/(30.5 a + 2c) ≃ 30.5 a (1)
A = 270.5 a2 c/(3a + c) ≃ 270.5 a2 (2)
the approximations being valid when c ≫ a, as is generally the case for weld deposits. By
measuring these quantities, the parameters c and a can be determined. This is unfortunately,
difficult to do, and is not completely necessary for microstructure modelling if some further
reasonable approximations are made (Bhadeshia et al., 1985a; 1986a). The most important
parameter is the quantity a if c ≫ a.The mean lineal intercept measured at random on a
longitudinal section (which reveals equiaxed austenite grain sections) of the weld, is given by
Ll = πa cos{30o }/2. (3)
On the other hand, it has been common practice to define the austenite grain size from the
transverse section of a weld, with the size being measured not at random, but by aligning the
test lines normal to the larger dimension of the grain sections. If it is assumed that the c–axes of
the austenite grains lie in the plane of the transverse section, then the mean lineal intercept Ltn
measure in the transverse section in a direction normal to the major axes of the grain sections
turns out to be identical to Ll , and is a relatively easy quantity to measure.
The approximations involved in the determination of a from Ltn are valid when the weld is
deposited in the flat position. For vertical–up welds, the austenite grains adopt an orientation
in which they do not present very anisotropic shapes in the transverse section, often tending
instead to acquire an equiaxed shape (Evans, 1981; Svensson, 1986). The c–axes of the hexagonal
prisms are then inclined at a relatively shallow angle φ, estimated to be ≃ 66◦ for manual metal
arc welds by Evans (1981), to the welding direction and hence to the plate surface. Consequently,
for vertical–up welds, it can be demonstrated that the mean lineal intercept measured on the
transverse section (with the test lines oriented at random with respect to the grain structure)
is given by
3πβa
Lt = (4)
2 + 4(0.25 + β 2 )0.5
where β = 2cos{30o}/cos{φ} (Bhadeshia and Svensson, 1989a,b).

From the above discussion, it appears that the current methods of measuring the columnar
austenite grain structure via Ltn provide adequate information for microstructure modelling.
It is however anticipated, that as the phase transformation models increase in sophistication,
it will be necessary to think more in terms of the total austenite grain surface per unit volume
of sample (SV ). This parameter will in general require measurements to be made on several
differently orientated planes of section relative to the columnar grains. For a typical weld
microstructure, an approximation of SV based on just Ltn is likely to lead to an error of about
30% (see for example, Bhadeshia et al., 1986a).
Another assumption usually made in specifying the austenite grain structure of welds is that it is
uniform. In fact, because growth begins epitaxially from the fusion surface, the grain structure
changes with distance. Those grains whose fast–growth directions are favourably orientated
with respect to the heat–flow tend to stifle the others as directional solidification proceeds.
Factors Influencing Size It is not possible as yet to predict the austenite grain size (e.g.,
Ltn ) of steel welds; even the factors controlling this grain size are far from clear. It has naturally
been assumed, by extrapolation from grain growth theory, that the nonmetallic inclusions
which are common in steel welds control the grain size by Zener pinning the boundaries. This
analogy is however, not justified since the austenite grains form by the transformation of δ–
ferrite, whereas Zener pinning deals with the hindrance of grain boundaries during grain growth.
The driving force for grain growth typically amounts to just a few Joules per mole, whereas
that for transformation from δ–ferrite to austenite increases indefinitely with undercooling
below the equilibrium transformation temperature. Pinning of δ/γ interfaces cannot then be
effective. A mechanism in which inclusions pin the columnar austenite grain boundaries is also
inconsistent with the shape of these grains, since the motion of the δ/γ interfaces along the
steepest temperature gradients is clearly not restricted; if pinning were effective, the austenite
grains that evolve should be isotropic.
There is some evidence to support the conclusion that the columnar austenite grain size is not
influenced by for example, the oxygen content of the weld (Bhadeshia et al., 1985a, 1986a).
Experiments to the contrary (Harrison & Farrar, 1981) really refer to the reheated weld metal,
where the grain size is related to a coarsening reaction driven by γ/γ surface energy. On the
other hand, there are data which indicate that low weld oxygen concentrations correlate with
large columnar austenite grain sizes (Fleck et al., 1986). There is a possible explanation for
these contradictory results. If it is assumed that in some cases, e.g., when the initial austenite
grain size is extremely fine, the columnar austenite grain structure coarsens during cooling after
solidification. North et al. (1990) have presented evidence to reveal such coarsening. Further
work is needed urgently to clarify these issues.
The columnar austenite grain size must to some extent correlate with the grain size in the
parent plate at the fusion boundary, since solidification occurs by the epitaxial growth of those
grains (Davies & Garland, 1975). However, the relationship cannot be simple, since during
solidification, those grains with their < 1 0 0 > directions most parallel to the direction of
steepest temperature gradient grow rapidly, stifling the grains which are not suitably oriented.
Consequently, the crystallographic texture of the parent plate, and the plane of that plate on
which the weld is deposited, must influence the final austenite grain structure. Clear differences
in the austenite grain structure were found between three welds deposited on mutually per-
pendicular faces of the same sample, in a recent experiment designed to illustrate the influence
of crystallographic texture on the grain size (Babu et al., 1991). More systematic work is now
called for. A corollary is that particles in the parent plate (e.g., carbo–nitrides) may limit the
coarsening of the plate grains at the fusion boundary, and therefore lead ultimately to a smaller
grain size in the fusion zone.
Regression equations are currently used in making crude estimates of the columnar austenite
grain size:
Ltn (µm) = 64.5 − 445.8(wt.%C) + 139(wt.%Si) − 7.6(wt.%Mn)

+16(heat input, kJ mm−1 ) (5)
If these are to be believed, then the alloy chemistry itself has a significant effect on grain
structure, perhaps by influencing the thermodynamics and kinetics of the δ → γ transformation
(Fig. 2b).
THE AS–DEPOSITED MICROSTRUCTURE
A calculation of microstructure requires a detailed description of each phase. For example,

the growth rate of a particle cannot be estimated without a knowledge of the compositions of
the parent and product phases at the interface. The simplest assumption would be to assume
diffusion–controlled growth, in which case, the compositions are, for a binary alloy at least,
given by a tie–line of the equilibrium phase diagram. The formation of the particle may be
associated with the development of elastic strains, especially if the mechanism of transformation
is displacive. These strains lead to a modification of the phase diagram, and might alter the
particle–shape in an effort to minimise the strain energy.
Work on weld metal microstructures has evolved along different lines when compared against
the mainstream of steel research. In an effort to develop microstructure–property relationships,
there has been an exaggerated emphasis on purely microstructural observations. There are
some difficulties with the notation, which is derived largely from morphological observations
rather than from the details of the mechanism of transformation, which are also essential for
quantitative work.
The microstructure obtained as the weld cools from the liquid phase to ambient temperature
is called the as–deposited or primary microstructure. It consists of allotriomorphic ferrite α,
Widmanstätten ferrite αw , acicular ferrite αa , and the so-called microphases, which might in-
clude small amounts of martensite, retained austenite or degenerate pearlite (Fig. 3). Bainite
is also found in some weld deposits, particularly of the type used in the power generation in-
dustry (Lundin et al., 1986). Allotriomorphic ferrite is sometimes called “polygonal” ferrite or
“proeutectoid” ferrite, but polygonal simply means many sided (like all ferrite morphologies)
and Widmanstätten ferrite can also be proeutectoid. Widmanstätten ferrite is sometimes in-
cluded under the general description “ferrite with aligned MAC”, the abbreviation referring to
martensite, austenite and carbide. However, bainite plates can also form in a similar shape,
although their thermodynamic and kinetic characteristics are quite different. From a phase
transformations point of view, the Dubé classification of ferrite grains remains the most useful
to this day (Dubé et al., 1958; Heckel & Paxton, 1961).
The above description is incomplete for multirun welds, in which some of the regions of original
primary microstructure are reheated to temperatures high enough to cause reverse transfor-
mation into austenite, which during the cooling part of the thermal cycle retransforms into a
variety of somewhat different products. Other regions may simply be tempered by the depo-
sition of subsequent runs. The microstructure of the reheated regions is called the reheated or
secondary microstructure.
A detailed classification of microstructure, based on the kind of knowledge needed in its calcu-
lation, is presented in Appendix 1.
ALLOTRIOMORPHIC FERRITE
Kinetics Allotriomorphic ferrite (α) is the first phase to form on cooling below the Ae3 tem-
perature and nucleates heterogeneously at the boundaries of the columnar austenite grains. The
fundamental aspects of allotriomorphic ferrite have been reviewed in detail (Bhadeshia, 1985a),
Fig. 3: An illustration of the essential constituents of the primary microstructure of a steel

weld deposit. The diagram is inaccurate in one respect, that inclusions cannot be expected to
be visible in all of the acicular ferrite plates on a planar section of the microstructure. This
is because the inclusion size is much smaller than that of an acicular ferrite plate, so that the
chances of sectioning an inclusion and plate together are very small indeed.
where many of the original references can also be found. In low alloy steel welds, the bound-
aries rapidly become decorated with virtually continuous layers of ferrite, so that subsequent
transformation simply involves the reconstructive thickening of these layers, a process which
can be modelled in terms of the normal migration of planar α/γ interfaces. The assumption
involved implies that the initial formation of a thin, continuous layer of allotriomorphic ferrite
takes a much smaller time when compared with its subsequent thickening to the final size. The
assumption is supported, at least for low–alloy steel welds, by the fact that the volume fraction
of allotriomorphic ferrite correlates strongly with its growth kinetics Fig. 4. Dallum and Olson
(1989) have demonstrated that the thickness of the allotriomorphic ferrite layer is insensitive
to the initial austenite grain size, at least for the low–alloy steel and heat–treatment conditions
they utilised. A result like this can only be justified if it is assumed that nucleation does not
have a great influence on the overall transformation kinetics.
Given these facts, and assuming that the growth of allotriomorphic ferrite occurs under parae-
quilibrium conditions, then the half–thickness q of the layer during isothermal growth is given
by:
q = α1 t1/2 (6)
where α1 is the one–dimensional parabolic thickening rate constant, and t is the time defined to
begin from the initiation of growth. The parabolic relation implies that the growth rate slows
Fig. 4: (a) Diagram showing the correlation between the calculated parabolic thickening rate
constant (a variable related to the growth rate) and the volume fraction of allotriomorphic fer-
rite obtained in a series of manual metal arc weld deposits (Bhadeshia et al., 1985b), fabricated
using similar welding parameters but with different final weld chemistries. Each point on the di-
agram therefore represents a different alloy composition. (b) An illustration of how the diffusion
distance increases with ferrite layer thickness, this being the root cause of the parabolic thick-
ening kinetics. The shaded regions represent carbon depletion and enrichment (when compared
against the average carbon concentration in the steel) in the ferrite and austenite respectively.
The extent of depletion in the ferrite must exactly equal the enrichment in the austenite, so
that it is inevitable that the diffusion field increases as the ferrite grows, and the reaction slows
down (parabolically).
down as the ferrite grows. It originates from the fact that the total amount of solute partitioned
during growth increases with time. Consequently, the diffusion distance increases with time,
thereby reducing the growth rate (Fig. 4b).
Paraequilibrium is a constrained equilibrium in which the ratio of iron to substitutional solute
concentration remains constant everywhere, but subject to that constraint, the carbon achieves
equality of chemical potential (Hultgren, 1951; Hillert, 1952; Rudberg, 1952). It seems a rea-
sonable assumption given that welds generally cool at a rapid rate. The parabolic rate constant
is obtained by solving the equation:
xγα − x α12
s
π α1

= α1 exp erfc (7)
xγα − xαγ 4D 4D 2D1/2
where xγα and xαγ are the paraequilibrium carbon concentrations in austenite and ferrite re-
spectively at the interface, x is the average carbon concentration in the alloy and D is a weighted
average diffusivity (Trivedi & Pound, 1969; Bhadeshia, 1981b) of carbon in austenite, given by:
Zx
D{x} dx
D= (8)
x − xγα
xγα
where D is the diffusivity of carbon in austenite at a particular concentration of carbon (Fig. 5a).
This equation is strictly valid only for steady–state growth, but Coates (1973) has suggested
that it should be a reasonable approximation for parabolic growth as well, although he did not
justify this. The approximation has recently been verified (Bhadeshia et al., 1986c) for steels
of the type used for welding, by comparing calculations of the parabolic rate constant done
using the D approximation against a more rigorous numerical analysis of the diffusion equation
for one–dimensional diffusion–controlled growth (Atkinson, 1967). A comparison of the rate
constants shows that the two methods lead essentially to the same results (Fig. 5b).
Fig. 5: (a) An illustration of the concentration dependence of the diffusivity of carbon in austen-
ite. (b) Comparison of the parabolic rate constants calculated using a weighted average carbon
diffusivity (approximate method) and a numerical method which properly accounts for the con-
centration dependence of diffusivity during non–steady–state growth (Bhadeshia et al., 1986c)
The calculation of the parabolic rate constants also requires a knowledge of the chemical com-
positions of the phases at the transformation interfaces, and for diffusion–controlled growth,
these compositions can be deduced approximately using the phase diagram which can nowa-
days easily be computed, even for multicomponent steels (e.g., Bhadeshia & Edmonds, 1980).
Some typical kinetic data for allotriomorphic ferrite are presented in Fig. 6. Note that none
of these calculations take account of soft–impingement effects, i.e., the retardation in growth
kinetics due to the overlap of concentration fields of particles growing from different positions,
or because the concentration in the austenite at its furthest point from the ferrite becomes
enriched. It is known (Vandermeer et al., 1989) that soft–impingement has a large influence
on the growth kinetics, and further work is needed to incorporate it into the current weld
microstructure models. The effects should become more prominent as the volume fraction of
ferrite increases, or as the austenite grain size decreases.
That the formation of allotriomorphic ferrite in most welds is dependent largely on the rate of
growth is apparent from the good correlation between α1 and the volume fraction of α obtained
(Bhadeshia et al., 1985b). A better understanding of the role of alloy elements requires a method
for estimating the volume fraction of allotriomorphic ferrite. This can be done by integrating
the thickening of the layers over a temperature range Th to Tl . Allotriomorphic ferrite growth
begins at Th , a temperature which can be estimated using a calculated T T T curve (Bhadeshia,
1982; 1988a), and Scheil’s rule (Christian, 1975) to allow for the fact that the process involves
continuous cooling transformation. It “finishes” at Tl , the temperature where the reconstructive
Fig. 6: Diagram illustrating how the calculated thickness of an allotriomorphic ferrite layer
increases during isothermal transformation, in the absence of soft–impingement effects. Each
curve represents a Fe–1Mn–C wt.% steel with the carbon concentration as indicated on the
diagram.
and displacive C–curves of the T T T diagram intersect (i.e., where displacive transformations
have a kinetic advantage). Thus
Zt1
∂α1 0.5
q= 0.5α1 t−0.5 + t dt (9)
∂t
t=0
where t = 0 at Th and t = t1 at Tl . The second term on the right hand side of this expression
has been neglected in previous analyses – its significance has yet to be determined.
Notice that the expression also relies on the unverified assumption that the compositions of
the phases at the interface instantaneously adjust themselves to the phase diagram as the
temperature is lowered. The volume fraction of ferrite is then given by
2q tan{30◦ }[2a − 2q tan{30◦ }]

vα = (10)
a2
so that the dependence on austenite grain size becomes obvious. This equation is found to rep-
resent the volume fraction of allotriomorphic ferrite extremely well, but only after an empirical
correction by a factor of about 2 – the fraction is always underestimated. There are clearly a
lot of difficulties with the way in which the allotriomorphic ferrite content is at present calcu-
lated, and more work is needed to resolve the difficulties already mentioned before commenting
further. A part of the problem might be related to the assumption that a uniform layer of α is
instantaneously established at Th ; a more elaborate theory capable of dealing with discontinuous
layers of ferrite is available, which for isothermal transformation gives:
− ln{1 − i} = 2SV Ω−1 α1 t0.5 f {ηα1 , IB , t} (11)
where i is the volume fraction of ferrite divided by its equilibrium volume fraction at the trans-
formation temperature concerned (Bhadeshia et al., 1987a). Ω is a normalised supersaturation
given by the ratio (xγα − x)/(xγα − xαγ ), SV is the total quantity of austenite grain surface per
unit volume, η it the aspect ratio of ferrite allotriomorphs formed at the austenite grain surfaces
and f is a function described by Bhadeshia et al. (1987a). Although this expression should be
a better representation of allotriomorphic ferrite kinetics, the grain boundary nucleation rate
IB needed to evaluated the function is not yet available with sufficient accuracy. More work is
necessary in this area of research and generally on the subject of nucleation kinetics.
Fleck et al. (1986) have adopted a different approach based on an Avrami type equation:
vα = 1 − exp{−2SV Gt} (12)
where SV is the austenite grain boundary surface per unit volume and G is the growth rate of
the ferrite. The form of the equation is not correct for α since it implies that the vα can be
unity, but their conclusion that
ln{1 − vα } ∝ 1/d, (13)
where d is the austenite grain size, becomes identical to that of Bhadeshia et al. (1987a) if d
is multiplied by a factor which is the equilibrium volume fraction of α, to take account of the
fact that solute partitions during the growth of ferrite.
Effect of Solidification–Induced Segregation There are two major causes of chemical

segregation in welds, the relatively large cooling rates involved and variations in process pa-
rameters during welding. The latter cannot in general be accurately predicted, but the extent
of segregation due to nonequilibrium solidification can be estimated from the partition coef-
ficient ki which is the ratio of the concentration of element i in the δ–ferrite to that in the
liquid phase. The coefficient can be calculated for the liquidus temperature, and the minimum
concentration to be found in a heterogeneous solid weld is then taken to be ki x. This is the
composition of the solute–depleted region of the weld, since it is assumed that diffusion during
cooling to ambient temperatures does not lead to significant homogenisation (Gretoft et al.,
1986). Carbon, which diffuses much more rapidly than substitutional solutes, is assumed to be
homogeneously distributed in the austenite prior to transformation.
The method for incorporating the effect of substitutional solute segregation into weld mi-
crostructure calculations, is via the influence on the temperature at which the allotriomorphic
ferrite begins to grow (Th ). In general, it is the solute depleted regions which should transform
first to ferrite. Thus, the TTT diagram used for estimating Th should be calculated not from
the average composition of the steel, but using the composition of the solute depleted regions.
This procedure seems to work well, presumably because the major effect of substitutional
solute segregation during the welding of low–alloy steels is on enhancing the nucleation of
allotriomorphic ferrite, and hence on the temperature range Th → Tl (Gretoft et al., 1986;
Strangwood & Bhadeshia, 1987b). The effect of chemical segregation becomes more pronounced
as the level of alloying additions rises.
WIDMANSTÄTTEN FERRITE
The paraequilibrium formation of αw can occur at relatively small driving forces (Bhadeshia,
1981a, 1985b, 1988b), and the strain energy due to its displacive transformation mechanism
is mitigated by the cooperative, back–to–back growth of self–accommodating crystallographic
variants (leading to a small strain energy term of ∼ 50 J mol−1 ). The αw seen using a light
microscope can be visualised as consisting of two mutually accommodating plates with slightly
different habit plane indices, giving the characteristic thin wedge morphology of αw . The shape
of the plate can be approximated by a thin wedge of length z in the major growth direction,
growth in the other two dimensions soon becoming stifled by impingement with the diffusion
fields of nearby plates in a packet. The details of this model, particularly the fact that it
predicts that the volume fraction of Widmanstätten ferrite should be proportional to the plate
length, need to be verified further. At first sight, such a dependence could only arise if the
Widmanstätten ferrite developed into a lath rather than a plate shape.
The lengthening rate G of Widmanstätten ferrite can be estimated using the Trivedi (1970)
theory for the diffusion–controlled growth of parabolic cylinders (Bhadeshia, 1985b). Because
of its shape, and unlike allotriomorphic ferrite, Widmanstätten ferrite grows at a constant rate
as long as soft–impingement (overlap of diffusion fields) does not occur. The calculated growth
rates are found to be so large for typical weld deposits, that the formation of Widmanstätten
ferrite is usually complete within a fraction of a second. Hence, for all practical purposes, the
transformation can be treated as being isothermal (Fig. 7a).
Transformation to Widmanstätten ferrite is taken to begin when that of allotriomorphic ferrite
ceases at Tl ; the volume fraction is given by
vW = C4 G(2a − 4q tan{30◦ })t22 /(2a)2 (14)
where C4 is a constant independent of alloy composition and t2 is the time available for the
formation of Widmanstätten ferrite. Note that the vW depends not only on the austenite grain
size but also on the thickness of the layer of allotriomorphic ferrite which formed earlier. In
fact the situation is more complex, as indicated by the fact that vW hardly correlates with
G (Fig. 7b). Hard impingement with intragranularly nucleated acicular ferrite has to be taken
into account (Fig. 8); this depends on the time tc , which is the time between the cessation of
allotriomorphic ferrite and the onset of acicular ferrite. If the time interval t3 = (2a sin{60o } −
2q)/G required for an αw plate to grow unhindered across the austenite grain is less than tc ,
αw plates can grow unhindered across the austenite grain (i.e., t2 = t3 ), but if not, then
t2 = tc . When an algorithm is included to account for all this, the calculated volume fraction
vW is found to be in good agreement with experiments (Bhadeshia et al., 1985a, 1986b, 1987b;
Gretoft et al., 1986; Bhadeshia & Svensson, 1989a,b).
Fig. 7: (a) The calculated isothermal growth rates of Widmanstätten ferrite in a series of Fe–
1Mn–C wt.% alloys as a function of carbon concentration. Notice that the growth rates are
so large, that the plates could grow right across typical austenite grains within a fraction of a
second. (b) Calculated growth rates of Widmanstätten ferrite for a series of low–alloy steel weld
deposits, illustrating the poor correlation against the volume fraction of Widmanstätten ferrite.
THE NATURE OF ACICULAR FERRITE
“Acicular ferrite” αa is a phase most commonly observed as austenite transforms during the
cooling of low–alloy steel weld deposits (see for example, the reviews by Grong and Matlock,
Fig. 8: (a) Schematic diagrams illustrating the development of microstructure in weld deposits.
The hexagons represent cross–sections of columnar austenite grains whose boundaries first be-
come decorated with uniform, polycrystalline layers of allotriomorphic ferrite, followed by the
formation of Widmanstätten ferrite. Depending on the relative transformation rates of Wid-
manstätten ferrite and acicular ferrite, the former can grow entirely across the austenite grains
or become stifled by the intragranularly nucleated plates of acicular ferrite. This diagram takes
no account of the influence of alloying additions on the austenite grain structure. (b) Actual
optical micrograph illustrating the unhindered growth of Widmanstätten ferrite in a weld de-
posit. (c) Optical micrograph showing how the growth of Widmanstätten ferrite is stifled by the
formation of acicular ferrite.
1986; Abson and Pargeter, 1986; and Bhadeshia, 1988b). It is of considerable commercial im-
portance because it provides a relatively tough and strong microstructure. It forms in a tem-
perature range where reconstructive transformations become relatively sluggish and give way
to displacive reactions such as Widmanstätten ferrite, bainite and martensite.
The transformation has not been studied from a fundamental point of view in any great depth,
and so there are as yet no models which allow the volume fraction va of acicular ferrite to be
calculated from first principles. For this reason, the mechanism of transformation is reviewed
below in some detail. Note that in spite of the dirth of basic work in this area, for many welds
it is nevertheless possible to estimate va via the equation
va = 1 − vα − vW − vm (15)
where vm is the volume fraction of microphases, which in turn can be estimated as in (Bhadeshia
et al., 1985a). The method has been shown to work well for numerous welds, but fails when
the primary microstructure consists of just acicular ferrite and martensite, as is the case in
high strength steel weld deposits (Deb et al., 1987; Svensson & Bhadeshia, 1988; Bhadeshia &
Svensson, 1989c).
The term acicular means shaped and pointed like a needle, but it is generally recognised that
acicular ferrite has in three–dimensions the morphology of thin, lenticular plates (Fig. 9). The
shape of acicular ferrite is sometimes stated to be rod–like, but there is no evidence to support
this. In two–dimensional sections, the acicular ferrite always appears like a section of a plate
rather than of a rod. The true aspect ratio of such plates has never been measured but in
random planar sections, the plates are typically about 10 µm long and ∼ 1 µm wide, so that
the true aspect ratio is likely to be much smaller than 0.1.
Fig. 9: Replica transmission electron micrograph of acicular ferrite plates in a steel weld deposit
(after Barritte).
As the liquid weld pool cools, its solubility of dissolved gasses decreases. Reactions between
these gases and other elements causes the formation of solid particles such as oxides. Those
particles formed in the very hot and turbulent region immediately beneath the arc are mostly
swept out of the pool (Kluken and Grong, 1989). It is the precipitates that form in the lower,
relatively cold region of the pool that become trapped into the solid weld. An arc–weld de-
posit typically contains some 1018 m−3 inclusions of a size greater than 0.05 µm, distributed
throughout the microstructure, although there is a tendency for some of the larger particles to
be pushed towards, and consequently trapped along the solidification–cell boundaries during
the advance of the solid–liquid interface (Sugden and Bhadeshia, 1988a). The mean particle
size of the inclusions important in influencing the microstructure is of the order of 0.4 µm. It
is the interaction of the liquid weld metal with any surrounding gases, together with the use
of strong deoxidising elements such as silicon, aluminium and titanium, and protective slag–
forming compounds which causes the entrapment of complex multiphase nonmetallic inclusions
in the solid at the advancing δ–ferrite/liquid interface. The inclusions have two major effects
on the steel: they serve the desirable role of promoting the intragranular nucleation of acicular
ferrite plates, leading to an improvement in toughness without a loss of strength. But they also
are responsible for the nucleation of voids during ductile fracture, or the nucleation of cleavage
cracks during brittle fracture. Achieving a proper balance between these conflicting factors is
very difficult without a basic understanding of the mechanisms controlling these interactions.
There are now many results which prove that the inclusions responsible for the heterogeneous
nucleation of acicular ferrite are themselves inhomogeneous, as illustrated in Fig. 10 (Ito and
Nakanishi, 1976; Mori et al., 1981; Kayali et al., 1983; Dowling et al., 1986; Mills et al., 1987;
Thewlis, 1989a,b) The microstructure of the inclusions is particularly important from the point
of view of developing a clear understanding of their role in stimulating the nucleation of ferrite.
As an example, it has been reported that the nonmetallic particles found in some submerged
arc weld deposits consist of titanium nitride cores, surrounded by a glassy phase containing
manganese, silicon and aluminium oxides, with a thin layer of manganese sulphide (and pos-
sibly, titanium oxide) partly covering the surface of the inclusions (Barbaro et al., 1988). This
detailed sequence of inclusion formation is not understood and seems to contradict (admittedly
simplistic) thermodynamic arguments. For example, titanium oxide is supposed to be thermo-
dynamically more stable than titanium nitride, and yet the latter is the first to form from the
liquid phase.
The inclusions may therefore be oxides or other compounds but they can under some cir-
cumstances influence the subsequent development of microstructure during cooling of the weld
deposit. Acicular ferrite plates, during the early stages of transformation nucleate on inclu-
sions present in the large columnar austenite grains which are typical of weld deposits (Ito
and Nakanishi, 1976). Subsequent plates may nucleate autocatalytically, so that a one-to-one
correspondence between the number of active inclusions and the number of αa plates is not
expected (Ricks et al., 1982).
The shape change accompanying the growth of acicular ferrite plates has been characterised
qualitatively as an invariant-plane strain (Fig. 11). Other measurements imply that the stored
energy of acicular ferrite is ∼ 400 J mol−1 (Strangwood & Bhadeshia, 1987a; Yang & Bhadeshia,
1987a). Consistent with the observed surface relief effect, microanalysis experiments indicate
that there is no bulk partitioning of substitutional alloying elements during the formation
of acicular ferrite (Strangwood, 1987). A recent study using an atomic resolution microan-
alytical technique (field–ion microscopy/atom–probe) has demonstrated unambiguously that
manganese and silicon do not partition at all between acicular ferrite and its adjacent austenite
(Chandrasekharaiah et al., 1994).
Fig. 10: Scanning transmission electron micrograph of a nonmetallic inclusion in a steel weld
metal. The inclusion surface is very irregular, and it features many phases (after Barritte).
Plates of αa have never been found to cross austenite grain boundaries and the orientation
relationship between αa and the austenite grain in which it grows is always such that a close–
packed plane of the austenite is parallel or nearly parallel to a closest–packed plane of αa , and
corresponding close–packed directions within these planes are within a few degrees of each other
(Strangwood & Bhadeshia, 1987a).
As stated earlier, the growth of acicular ferrite is accompanied by an invariant–plane strain
shape deformation. Since the transformation occurs at fairly high temperatures where the yield
strengths of the phases concerned are relatively low, the shape change may to some extent be
plastically accommodated. This plastic deformation would in turn cause the dislocation density
of the acicular ferrite and of any residual austenite to increase. A recent review on acicular ferrite
(Farrar and Harrison, 1987) has quoted a dislocation density in the range 1012 − 1014 m−2 based
on the work of Tuliani (1973) and Watson (1980), although the details of the measurements
were not mentioned. A study by Yang and Bhadeshia (1990) found the dislocation density
of acicular ferrite in a high–strength steel weld deposit to be about 5 × 1014 m−2 , making a
contribution of approximately 145 MPa to the strength of the phase.
Fig. 11: Nomarski interference contrast micrograph from a surface relief experiment in which
a sample was metallographically polished and then transformed to acicular ferrite in an inert
protective atmosphere (Strangwood and Bhadeshia, 1987).
ACICULAR FERRITE: MECHANISM OF GROWTH
The equilibrium volume fraction of transformation expected as an alloy is cooled from the
austenite phase field into the α + γ phase field is given by the application of the lever rule to a
tie line of the phase diagram. When transformation terminates before this equilibrium fraction
is achieved, the reaction is said to be incomplete. This “ incomplete–reaction phenomenon” can
be taken to be a consequence of the nonequilibrium character of the transformation product.
The acicular ferrite transformation obeys the incomplete–reaction phenomenon, the degree of
reaction tending to zero as the transformation temperature rises towards the bainite–start (BS )
temperature (Bhadeshia & Christian, 1990). At a given temperature, the transformation stops
as xγ reaches the To′ curve (Fig. 12). The To′ curve is the locus of all points where the free energies
of austenite and ferrite (with a certain amount of stored energy) of the same composition are
identical. The evidence all indicates that the growth of acicular ferrite is diffusionless, with
carbon partitioning into austenite after the transformation event.
The experimental data to date indicate that acicular ferrite is essentially identical to bainite. Its
detailed morphology differs from that of conventional bainite because the former nucleates in-
tragranularly at inclusions within large γ grains whereas in wrought steels which are relatively
free of nonmetallic inclusions, bainite nucleates initially at γ/γ grain surfaces and continues
growth by the repeated formation of subunits, to generate the classical sheaf morphology. Aci-
cular ferrite does not normally grow in sheaves because the development of sheaves is stifled
by hard impingement between plates nucleated independently at adjacent sites. Indeed, con-
ventional bainite or acicular ferrite can be obtained under identical isothermal transformation
conditions in the same (inclusion rich) steel. In the former case, the austenite grain size has to
be small in order that nucleation from grain surfaces dominates and subsequent growth then
Fig. 12: Illustration of the incomplete–reaction phenomenon for acicular ferrite formed by
isothermal transformation of a reheated a low–alloy steel weld deposit. The reaction always
stops well before the austenite reaches its equilibrium or paraequilibrium carbon concentration
(after Yang and Bhadeshia, 1987a).
swamps the interiors of the γ grains. For a larger γ grain size, intragranular nucleation on
inclusions dominates, so that αa is obtained (Fig. 13). Hence, the reason why αa in not usually
obtained in wrought steels is because they are relatively free of inclusions and because most
commercial heat treatments aim at a small austenite grain size. It is ironic that bainite when it
was first discovered was referred to as acicular ferrite (Davenport & Bain, 1930), and that the
terms acicular ferrite and bainite were often used interchangeably for many years after 1930;
see for example, Bailey (1954).
Fig. 13: An illustration of the effect of austenite grain size in determining whether the mi-
crostructure is predominantly acicular ferrite or bainite. A small grain sized sample has a rel-
atively large number density of grain boundary nucleation sites and hence bainite dominates,
whereas a relatively large number density of intragranular nucleation sites leads to a microstruc-
ture consisting mainly of acicular ferrite.
There is in addition, a lot of circumstantial evidence which suggests that a reduction in austenite
grain size leads to a replacement of acicular ferrite with bainite (e.g., Imagumbai et al., 1985).
When steels are welded, the austenite grains in the heat affected zone coarsen, the degree
of coarsening depending on the amount of heat input during welding. It follows that when
steels containing appropriate inclusions are welded, the amount of acicular ferrite that forms
in the heat affected zone increases at the expense of bainite, as the heat input and hence the
austenite grain size is increased (Fig. 14a). Eventually, at very large heat inputs, the cooling
rate decreases so much that larger quantities of Widmanstätten ferrite are obtained and there ia
a corresponding reduction in the amount of acicular ferrite. Without the inclusions, the acicular
ferrite content is always very small (Fig. 14b).
Fig. 14: Changes in the microstructure of the heat affected zone of welds, as a function of
the heat input during welding. (a) Steel containing titanium oxide particles. (b) Ordinary steel
without inclusion inoculation. After Chijiiwa et al. (1988).
Acicular ferrite is sometimes considered to be intragranularly nucleated Widmanstätten ferrite,

on the basis of the observation of macroscopic “steps” at the transformation interface, which
are taken to imply a ledge growth mechanism (Ricks et al., 1982). This kind of evidence is,
however, tenuous in the sense that a step mechanism is a mechanism for interface motion, and
carries no implication about the mechanism of transformation. Even martensite may grow by
the movement of coherent atomic steps (Christian & Edmonds, 1984; Bhadeshia & Christian,
1990). Furthermore, the reported observations are weak in the sense that perturbations of
various kinds can always be seen on transformation interfaces between ferrite and austenite.
Such perturbations do not however necessarily imply a step mechanism of growth. Evidence
that the residual austenite is enriched in carbon is also quoted in support of the contention
that αa is Widmanstätten ferrite (Ricks et al., 1982) but as pointed out above, the enrichment
can occur during or after the transformation event is completed.
NUCLEATION OF ACICULAR FERRITE
It has been demonstrated, assuming classical nucleation theory, that inclusions are less effec-
tive in nucleating ferrite when compared with austenite grain surfaces (Ricks et al., 1982). The
primary reason why this turns out to be the case is that with inclusions, the ferrite/inclusion
interfacial energy is assumed to be large (similar to the austenite/inclusion energy), whereas
with austenite grain boundary nucleation, the ferrite can in principle adopt an orientation rela-
tionship which minimises its interfacial energy. Experiments in general confirm this conclusion
since ferrite formation in most weld deposits first begins at the austenite grain boundaries.
Furthermore, larger inclusions are expected to be more effective since the curvature of the
inclusion/nucleus interface will then be reduced. This is again generally consistent with ex-
perimental observations, although the tendency to state a minimum particle size below which
nucleation does not occur is incorrect. It is the activation energy for nucleation which decreases
with increasing inclusion size. The activation energy also depends on the driving force for trans-
formation, so that for any specific steel, the size below which inclusions cease to be significant
nucleation sites must vary with the transformation conditions.
LOWER ACICULAR FERRITE
As discussed in the earlier sections, acicular ferrite and bainite seem to have similar transfor-
mation mechanisms. The microstructures might differ in detail because bainite sheaves grow as
a series of parallel platelets emanating from austenite grain surfaces, whereas acicular ferrite
platelets nucleate intragranularly at point sites so that parallel formations of plates cannot de-
velop. Some of the similarities between bainite and acicular ferrite are (Bhadeshia and Christian,
1990):
1. They both exhibit the invariant–plane strain shape deformations with large shear compo-
nents, during growth. Consequently, the growth of a plate of acicular ferrite or bainite is
confined to a single austenite grain (i.e., it is hindered by a grain boundary) since the
coordinated movement of atoms implied by the shape change cannot in general be sus-
tained across a border between grains in different crystallographic orientations. A further
implication is that plates of acicular ferrite, like bainite, always have an orientation rela-
tionship with the parent phase, which is within the Bain region. This is not necessarily
the case when the transformation occurs by a reconstructive mechanism.
2. There is no substitutional solute partitioning during the growth of either bainite or acicular
ferrite (Strangwood, 1987).
3. Both reactions stop when the austenite carbon concentration reaches a value where it be-
comes thermodynamically impossible to achieve diffusionless growth (Yang and Bhadeshia,
1987b; Strangwood and Bhadeshia, 1987a). Any redistribution of carbon from the super-
saturated ferrite plates occurs after growth. Growth is thus diffusionless, but is followed
immediately afterwards by the rejection of carbon into the residual austenite.
4. Acicular ferrite only forms below the bainite–start temperature.
5. There is a large and predictable hysterisis in the temperature at which austenite forma-
tion begins from a mixed microstructure of acicular ferrite and austenite, or bainite and
austenite (Yang and Bhadeshia, 1987a).
6. The removal of inclusions from a weld deposit, without changing any other feature, causes a
change in the microstructure from acicular ferrite to bainite (Harrison and Farrar, 1981).
7. An increase in the number density of austenite grain surface nucleation sites (relative to in-
tragranular sites) causes a transition from acicular ferrite to bainite (Yang and Bhadeshia,
1987a).
8. The elimination of austenite grain surfaces by decoration with inert allotriomorphic ferrite
leads to a transition from a bainitic to an acicular ferritic microstructure (Babu and
Bhadeshia, 1990).
These and other similarities emphasise the point that bainite and acicular ferrite have the
same growth mechanisms. There is one anomaly. Like conventional lower bainite in wrought
steels, there ought to exist a lower acicular ferrite microstructure, in which the intragranularly
nucleated plates of αa contain plates of cementite inclined at an angle of about 60o to the habit
plane (Bhadeshia & Christian, 1990). The transition from upper to lower bainite is associated
with the point where the rejection of carbon from the supersaturated bainitic ferrite into the
residual austenite becomes sluggish compared with the precipitation of that carbon as carbides
in the ferrite, Fig. 15 (Hehemann, 1970; Takahashi and Bhadeshia, 1990). Consequently, if the
carbon concentration of a steel weld is increased sufficiently, then for similar welding conditions,
the microstructure should undergo a transition form acicular ferrite to lower acicular ferrite.
An experiment designed to test this, using an exceptionally high carbon weld, has successfully
detected lower acicular ferrite (Sugden & Bhadeshia, 1989c), supporting the conclusion that
acicular ferrite is simply intragranularly nucleated bainite. Lower acicular ferrite is only found
when the weld carbon concentration is large enough to permit the precipitation of carbides
from the acicular ferrite, before much of the carbon can partition into the residual austenite.
This means that in reality, lower acicular ferrite is unlikely to be of technological significance in
welds which necessarily have low carbon equivalents. On the other hand, lower acicular ferrite
has recently been detected in a high carbon steel fabricated using a high–power laser welding
technique (Hall, 1990).
SENSITIVITY TO CARBON
It is striking that small variations in carbon concentration can have a major influence on the
microstructure of welds, especially since the average carbon concentration x of a weld is usually
kept very small. It is apparent from Figs. 7 & 9 that the sensitivity of growth kinetics to carbon
becomes larger as the concentration of carbon decreases. These are important observations given
that the general trend is to lower the carbon concentrations even for wrought steels, sometimes
to levels approaching the solubility of carbon in ferrite. The difference in the solubility of carbon
in ferrite (xαγ ) and x is therefore small, and the kinetics of transformation increase rapidly as
the difference decreases, for two reasons. Firstly, the supersaturation term which appears in
most kinetic equations is given by:
Ω = [xγα − x]/[xγα − xαγ ]. (16)
It follows that supersaturation increases as x tends towards xαγ . Secondly, during carbon
diffusion–controlled growth, for example for α and αw , the amount of carbon that has to diffuse
ahead of the interface varies with the difference x − xαγ , and as the latter tends to decrease to
zero, the growth velocity increases sharply.
Hence, the effect of carbon is seen to be largest (Figs. 6,10) when x changes from 0.03 →
0.05 wt.%, when compared with the change from 0.09 → 0.11 wt.%. Changes in mechanical
Fig. 15: (a) Schematic illustration of the mechanism of the transition from upper to lower
bainite. (b) Calculated times for the decarburisation of ferrite plates, as a function of their
initial carbon concentrations. (c) Light micrograph of lower acicular ferrite in an experimental
high–carbon steel weld deposit (Sugden and Bhadeshia, 1989c). (d) Corresponding transmis-
sion electron micrograph illustrating the carbide particles in the acicular ferrite, in the single
crystallographic variant typical of lower bainite in conventional microstructures.
properties are found to mimic this behaviour, the strength of low–carbon steels being particu-
larly sensitive to the carbon concentration (Wilson et al., 1988). This increased sensitivity of
the austenite to ferrite transformation to carbon at lower concentrations leads to a decreased
sensitivity to substitutional alloying elements.
It is interesting that the sensitivity of transformation kinetics to carbon at low concentrations
explains the need recognised widely in industry, for two carbon equivalent formulae to cover
the high and low carbon steels. This analysis also illustrates how physical models can help
ratify empirical experience, and consequently engender confidence in the utilisation of such
experience.
IIW > 0.18 wt.% C

Mn + Si Ni + Cu Cr + Mo + V
CE = C + + + wt.%
6 15 5
Ito − Besseyo < 0.18 wt.% C

Si Mn + Cu + Cr Ni Mo V
CE = C + + + + + + 5B wt.%
30 20 60 15 10
The IIW formula shows much smaller tolerance to substitutional alloying elements than the Ito–
Besseyo equation, because at low carbon concentrations the kinetics of transformations become
so rapid as to permit increased alloying without unduly increasing the hardenability. Fig. 16
illustrates again that the microstructure and mechanical properties change more rapidly at low
carbon concentrations; the calculations are for manual metal arc welds, carried out according
to Bhadeshia et al., 1985a.
Fig. 16: Calculated variations in microstructure and mechanical properties as a function of

carbon concentration in Fe–1Mn–C wt.% steels deposit using manual metal arc welding (1
kJ/mm).
APPENDIX 1
Key Characteristics of Transformations in Steels Table 4 lists the key characteristics

of phase transformations in steels. The nomenclature used for the transformation products
is as follows: martensite (α′ ), lower bainite (αlb ), upper bainite (αub ), acicular ferrite (αa ),
Widmanstätten ferrite (αw ), allotriomorphic ferrite (α), idiomorphic ferrite (αi ), pearlite (P ),
substitutional alloying elements (X). Consistency of a comment with the transformation con-
cerned is indicated by (=), inconsistency by (6=); cases where the comment is only sometimes
consistent with the transformation are indicated by a bullet (•). The term parent γ implies the
γ grain in which the product phase grows. Note that it is not justified to distinguish massive
ferrite from α.
Table 1: Characteristics of solid–state transformations in steels.
Comment α′ αlb αub αa αw α αi P

Nucleation and growth reaction = = = = = = = =
Plate shape = = = = = 6 = 6= 6=
IPS shape change with large shear = = = = = 6 = 6= 6=
Diffusionless nucleation = 6= 6= 6= 6= 6= 6= 6=
Only carbon diffuses during nucleation 6= = = = = 6= 6= 6=
Reconstructive diffusion during nucleation 6= 6= 6= 6= 6= = = =
Often nucleates intragranularly on defects = 6= 6= = 6= 6= = 6=
Diffusionless growth = = = = 6= 6= 6= 6=
Reconstructive diffusion during growth 6= 6= 6= 6= 6= = = =
Atomic correspondence (all atoms) during growth = = = = 6= 6= 6= 6=
Atomic correspondence only for atoms in substitutional sites = = = = = 6 = 6= 6=
Bulk redistribution of X atoms during growth 6= 6= 6= 6= 6= ⊗ ⊗ ⊗
Local equilibrium at interface during growth 6= 6= 6= 6= 6= ⊗ ⊗ ⊗
Local paraequilibrium at interface during growth 6= 6= 6= 6= = ⊗ ⊗ = 6
Diffusion of carbon during transformation 6= 6= 6= 6= = = = =
Carbon diffusion-controlled growth 6= 6= 6= 6= = ⊗ ⊗ ⊗
Co-operative growth of ferrite and cementite 6= 6= 6= 6= 6= 6= 6= =
High dislocation density = = = = ⊗ = 6 6= 6=
Incomplete reaction phenomenon 6= = = = 6= 6= 6= 6=
Necessarily has a glissile interface = = = = = 6= 6= 6=
Always has an orientation within the Bain region = = = = = 6= 6= 6=
Grows across austenite grain boundaries 6= 6= 6= 6= 6= = = =
High interface mobility at low temperatures = = = = = 6= 6= 6=
Displacive transformation mechanism = = = = = 6= 6= 6=
Reconstructive transformation mechanism 6= 6= 6= 6= 6= = = =
Notes Related to Table 4 Nucleation and growth reactions are of first order in the Ehren-
fest classification; in all such reactions, the parent and product phases can coexist, and are
separated by well–defined interfaces. Martensitic transformations, although they can be rapid,

still involve a nucleation and growth process.
It is significant that all of the ferrite crystals which grow in the form of plates cause an invariant–
plane shape deformation which is dominated by shear. The ferrite within pearlite does not have
a plate morphology; Hillert showed some time ago that it is wrong to consider pearlite as
alternating layers of ferrite and cementite – instead a colony of pearlite is an interpenetrating
bicrystal of ferrite and cementite.
Reconstructive diffusion is the flow of matter necessary to avoid the strains characteristic of
displacive transformations. A diffusional transformation may phenomenologically be regarded
as a combination of a lattice change and a recrystallisation of the product phase, reconstructive
diffusion being the flow necessary for the recrystallisation process.
In diffusionless transformations, it is possible to specify (in a localised region at least) how
particular vectors, planes and unit cells of one structure (defined by an imaginary labelling of
the individual atoms) are derived from corresponding vectors, planes and unit cells of the other
structure. This is termed a lattice correspondence and it defines a pure lattice deformation which
carries the original lattice points, or some fraction of these points into points of the new lattice.
When interstitial atoms are present, they may move over large distances during transformation
without affecting the lattice correspondence; this is sometimes loosely expressed by stating
that there is an atomic correspondence for the solvent and substitutional solute atoms but
not for the interstitial atoms. A further relaxation of the condition is to allow the solvent and
substitutional solute atoms to be displaced during transformation among the sites specified by
the lattice correspondence, but not to create new sites or to destroy any specified sites; in this
way the lattice correspondence is preserved but there is no longer an atomic correspondence.
Note that in the classification presented above, the single atomic jumps of interstitial atoms
needed to destroy Zener ordering (which is produced automatically by the Bain correspondence)
are not taken into account.
Even though two crystals may have an identical bulk composition, it may not be concluded that
their compositions at the transformation interface are identical. There are modes of transforma-
tion (e.g., negligible partitioning local equilibrium) where the bulk compositions are predicted
to be identical but where the phases differ in the vicinity of the transformation interface. For
plain carbon steels, there is no difference between equilibrium and paraequilibrium.
The incomplete reaction phenomenon implies that when a reaction can be studied in isolation,
it stops before the phases reach their equilibrium or paraequilibrium compositions when stored
energy terms have been accounted for.
An orientation within the Bain region means a reproducible relation which may be irrational
but is close to the rational NW or KS relations.
Massive ferrite is not classified as a separate morphology since it can be included within allotri-
omorphic or idiomorphic ferrite.
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POSCO Lectures, 16th February 2008

Application of Phase Transformation Theory to Welding

EVOLUTION OF THE AUSTENITE GRAIN STRUCTURE

L = 120.5 ac/(30.5 a + 2c) ≃ 30.5 a (1)

A = 270.5 a2 c/(3a + c) ≃ 270.5 a2 (2)

Ll = πa cos{30o }/2. (3)

where β = 2cos{30o}/cos{φ} (Bhadeshia and Svensson, 1989a,b).

Ltn (µm) = 64.5 − 445.8(wt.%C) + 139(wt.%Si) − 7.6(wt.%Mn)

THE AS–DEPOSITED MICROSTRUCTURE

A calculation of microstructure requires a detailed description of each phase. For example,

Fig. 3: An illustration of the essential constituents of the primary microstructure of a steel

2q tan{30◦ }[2a − 2q tan{30◦ }]

− ln{1 − i} = 2SV Ω−1 α1 t0.5 f {ηα1 , IB , t} (11)

vα = 1 − exp{−2SV Gt} (12)

ln{1 − vα } ∝ 1/d, (13)

Effect of Solidification–Induced Segregation There are two major causes of chemical

vW = C4 G(2a − 4q tan{30◦ })t22 /(2a)2 (14)

THE NATURE OF ACICULAR FERRITE

ACICULAR FERRITE: MECHANISM OF GROWTH

Acicular ferrite is sometimes considered to be intragranularly nucleated Widmanstätten ferrite,

NUCLEATION OF ACICULAR FERRITE

LOWER ACICULAR FERRITE

4. Acicular ferrite only forms below the bainite–start temperature.

Ω = [xγα − x]/[xγα − xαγ ]. (16)

IIW > 0.18 wt.% C

Ito − Besseyo < 0.18 wt.% C

Fig. 16: Calculated variations in microstructure and mechanical properties as a function of

Key Characteristics of Transformations in Steels Table 4 lists the key characteristics

Table 1: Characteristics of solid–state transformations in steels.

Comment α′ αlb αub αa αw α αi P

separated by well–defined interfaces. Martensitic transformations, although they can be rapid,

Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H., (1985b) Mat. Science and Technology, 1, 497–504.

McMahon Jr., C. J., (1987) Innovations in ultrahigh–strength steel technology, eds. G. B.

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