Soil Water Plant Relationship SS-602 3 (3-0)

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SOIL WATER PLANT RELATIONSHIP

SS-602 3(3-0)

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INTRODUCTION

Soils are the natural media that support the growth and activities of many kinds of plants,
animals and micro-organisms which play a vital role for the existence of life on earth. Soils are
generally comprised of four major components;

1. Mineral or inorganic material

2. Organic material or organic matter

3. Soil Water

4. Soil Air

These soil component seldom behave independently rather interacted to affect plant growth. For
example, mineral and organic soil component function to provide not only anchorage but also
essential plant nutrients to growing plants. Moreover, organic matter by binding mineral particles
into cluster increases structural stability, thereby influencing almost all physical and chemical
properties of soil that are important for plant growth point of view. Likewise, soil moisture and
air are important component of soil. Soil moisture provide the plant with moisture but
simultaneously controls the presence of oxygen in the soil. Water is also an important component
of plant growth as large quantities of water are required to satisfy evapotranspiration
requirements of growing plants. Water together with dissolved nutrients makeup the soil solution
from which plants get their food. The relationship of plant with soil and water are complex and
each depend on other for growth and conservation of soil and water. Imbalance in these
structured ecosystem can result in the reorganization of plant and animal community to the
extent that entire ecosystem will change. Anticipated increase in global temperature and
increased air pollution are predicted to have significant effect on soil composition and water

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availability which, in turn affects the survival and growth of natural and agricultural plant
community.

This course is an attempt to give the students a basic knowledge how the relation of soil and
water can affect the plant growth in natural and agricultural setting.

FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES OF WATER

1. Water together with dissolved nutrients forms the soil solution from which plants get
nutrients required for their growth and development.
2. Water helps to maintain turgor pressure of plant cells required for cell growth and
expansion.
3. Water is an integral component of photosynthetic relation through which plants make
their food.
4. Large quantities of water are required to satisfy evapotranspiration requirement which is
vital to maintain body temperature in addition to the movement of water and nutrients.
5. Water serves as a universal solvent because of its capacity to dissolve salts due to its
dipolar nature.
6. Water is very important for soil formation due to its involvement in different weathering
processes like hydrolysis, hydration, carbonation and hydraulic action etc.
7. Optimum supply of water helps to maintain biological activities in soil which play a vital
role in sustaining soil health and food quality.
8. Water can also play a significant role in controlling physical and chemical properties of
soil such as soil aeration, soil strength, soil tilth, soil temperature, soil consistency and
nutrients sorption/ desorption.

Water is an important component of plant cell and constitutes about 80-90% of the fresh
weight of herbaceous plant parts and over 50% of the fresh weight of woody plants. Water
provides turgidity to cell and tissues which enables them to maintain their forms and best
position to get light. In addition, water is involved in many plant growth processes which
cannot occur adequately under water stress.

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ROLE OF WATER IN GROWTH AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
PROCESSES

Almost every plant process is affected directly or indirectly by water supply. Some of growth
related processes are discussed below;

1. Germination
2. Growth
3. Photosynthesis
4. Respiration
5. Transpiration
6. Stomata opening and closing
7. Flowering and Fruiting
8. Fruit ripening and Dormancy

1. GERMINATION:

The resumption of growth by embryo and development of young plant from the seed is
called germination. The first process that occur during germination is the uptake of water by
the seed. This uptake is due to the process of imbibition. The extent to which imbibition
occur is determined by the composition of seed, permeability of seed coat to water and
availability of water in the growth medium. When water is imbibed the seed colloids, mostly
proteins in the seed swell and exert considerable pressure called imbibition pressure. This
pressure is of great significance in the process of germination as it may lead to the breaking
of seed coat and thus facilitating the germinating seedling and also to some extent making
room in the soil for seedling. Moreover, water is involved in the hydration and activation of
enzymes which break the stored food into simpler compounds and mobilize to the growing
point of developing embryo.

2. GROWTH:

The development of seedling into mature plant involve growth by cell division and cell
enlargement as well as differentiation of new organs such as leaf, stem, flower and roots.
After germination seedling absorb a large quantity of water and the growing points of root

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and shoot apexes are stimulated to mitotic activity. Water maintain the cytoplasm of dividing
cells in hydrated state to enable them to carryout normal metabolic activities connected with
cell division and cell multiplication which are followed by cell elongation. The cell
elongation mainly resulted from the uptake of water and resultant turgor. Water deficiency
reduces mitotic activity of dividing cells due to the dehydration of their cytoplasm, reduced
cell elongation due to reduction in turgor and both of these ultimately reduce plant growth.

3. PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

The process occurring in plants during which certain carbohydrates are synthesized from
water and CO2 in the presence of light with the release of O2.

Water reduces CO2 to form simple carbohydrates and its bounded oxygen is released as free
oxygen gas. Since, photosynthesis provides the base for the existence of life and water is the
integral component of photosynthesis thus water plays a vital role for the existence of life on
this planet by providing raw material for photosynthesis which generates the food and
regulates the balance between two life sustaining gases that is CO2 and O2.

4. Respiration:

It is the opposite of photosynthesis and is defined as oxidation of organic substances within the
cell and is accompanied by the release of energy.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2+ 6H2O+ 637 Kcal

The energy released during respiration is used for performing various cellular works in plant
cells. The degree of hydration of protoplasm is one of factor affecting the rate of respiration. For
example, in hydrated cells containing up to 90% water the respiration rate is high. On the other
hand, in ripened seed moisture content is 10-20%, degree of cell hydration is very low resulting
in low respiration rate.

5. Transpiration:

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Transpiration is the loss of water in the form of vapors from the plant surface. About 98% of
total water absorbed by plant root is lost from plants through transpiration. Transpiration is
considered as necessary evil but some regarded it as important as photosynthesis and respiration
because it plays an important role in the absorption and movement of water and solutes besides
regulating the plant body temperature.

6. Stomatal opening and closing:

Stomata are minute/tiny pores which occur mostly in epidermis of leaves. Stomata are
surrounded by two distinctive epidermal cells called guard cells. Stomata are used for the
crossing of gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen and water vapors which have great
physiological significance. Water content in guard cells maintains their turgidity and is involved
in the opening and closing of stomata and hence regulating the entry of carbon dioxide,
departure of oxygen and water vapors. Under water deficit, guard cells lose their turgidity either
partially or fully depending upon the strength or intensity of water stress. Consequently, many
physiologically important processes such as photosynthesis, transpiration, absorption of water
and nutrients will negatively be affected.

7. Flowering and Fruiting:

When plants enter the reproductive phase many physiological changes take place, some of these
are transfer of stimulus from leaves to epical meristems which changes the vegetative buds to
floral buds, mobilization of carbohydrates, nitrogen and growth hormones to the developing
flower and fruits, enlargement in cell wall of maturing fruits, increase in metabolic activities
within the cell to meet the high energy requirement during the initiation of flowering and the
ripening of fruits. Water has a direct or indirect effect on physiological processes as water stress
at reproductive stage may seriously affect flowering, fruit set and fruit development. Under
severe water stress there is often acute flower shedding and fruit drop.

8. Fruit ripening and dormancy:

Water is also one of the factor directly or indirectly involve in other processes such as fruit
ripening, tuber and bulb formation, seed or bud dormancy by taking part in various chemical and
physiological processes.

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ROLE OF WATER IN SOIL FUNCTIONING

1. Soil Formation
2. Soil Fertility
3. Regulating soil temperature

1. Soil Formation:

Soil is the production of parent material and development of different horizons. Water plays a
vital role in both steps of soil formation (production of parent material and horizon development)
since, parent material is produced by the processes of weathering and water is involved in almost
in all weathering processes (hydration, hydrolysis, dissolution, carbonation, wetting and drying,
crystallization and biological weathering and hence, can significantly affect the weathering rate,
production of parent material and consequently the formation of soil. Furthermore, horizons are
developed as a result of biological activities and adequate supply of water is very essential for
normal functioning of soil microbes. So, under water stress condition soil formation is negatively
affected due to the impact of water on weathering and development of horizons.

2. Soil Fertility:

Water can affect soil fertility and nutrient supply in following ways;

 Water together with dissolved nutrients make the soil solution from which plants get their
food required for plant growth.
 Water is involved in the movement of nutrients from soil to root surface particularly
through mass flow.
 Water can also affect soil fertility and nutrient supply by affecting microbial activities,
decomposition of organic matter and adsorption/ desorption processes in soil.

3. Regulating Soil Temperature:

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Water helps to regulate soil temperature due to its high specific heat which keeps the soil cool in
summer and warm in winter.

PROPERTIES OF WATER

Water is a substance which may be called as fluid of life because life is not possible without
water .it has unique chemical and physical properties which enable it to play a vital role in
various plant growth processes and soil water plant relationship. Therefore, it is important to
study the nature and structure of water which enable it to have specific properties of great
biological significance.
Nature and structure of water:
water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen individual water molecule comprises of 2
hydrogen and 1 oxygen atom the hydrogen and oxygen atom are bonded together covalently
(each hydrogen atom shares a single electron with oxygen) and arranged in a V shaped structure
at an angle of 104. 52A0 . Consequently, side of water molecule on which hydrogen atoms are
located tend to be electropositive while oxygen side is electronegative, resulting in a strong
dipole effect in water. As a result hydrogen bonding arises from attraction of hydrogen in one
water water molecule to the oxygen of adjacent water molecule giving rise to a three dimensional
structure.Since, water has strong dipole movement and is very weekly ionized hence it is a good
solvent moreover, ionic compounds of any salt have greater attraction for water molecules that is
why water is a universal solvent.
Hydrogen bonding:
It is a phenomenon by which hydrogen atom act as a link between water molecules. Because of
high electronegativity of oxygen atom in water molecule it exerts some attraction for hydrogen
atom in the neighbouring water molecule. Hydrogen bonding accounts for polymerization of
water as well as relatively high boiling point, heat of vaporization, specific heat and surface
tension.
Cohesion and adhesion:
Hydrogen bonding accounts for two basic forces responsible for water retention and movement
in soil. Attraction of water molecules to each other is known as cohesion while attraction of

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water molecules for solid surface is known as adhesion. By adhesion some water molecules are
held tightly with soil solid surface in turn these tightly held water molecules attract other water
molecules by the force of cohesion. Together the forces of cohesion and adhesion make it
possible for the soil to retain water and control its movement and use.

Surface tension:
It is the measure of force necessary to break the liquid surface or it is the energy associated with
the open surface of a liquid. If this energy is higher we require more energy to break the surface
and surface tension will be greater but if this energy is low, then we require less energy to break
it meaning that it has low surface tension. Its unit is Nm-1 or Dynes/cm.
Consider a water body (water in a container) water molecules which are present beneath the
surface are equally attracted by its neighbouring water molecules in all directions however, at the
surface of liquid water molecules are attracted downward by due to cohesive forces while
upward by the force of attraction between water molecules and air layer. The downward
cohesive forces are stronger than the force of attraction of air layer for the water molecules. The
net effect is an inward force at the surface that cause water molecules to behave as if its surface
is covered with a stretched elastic membrane. Water has greater surface tension because surface
water molecules are held together tightly by hydrogen bonding which resist breakage of a
surface. Surface tension is involved in the rise of water in a capillary tube, soil pores and plant
cells because surface tension provides tensile strength required for ascent of sap within the
conductive tissue of plants. The high surface tension of water also enables it to move closer to
the surface of soil and making it available for plants. Due to higher surface tension of water some
animals/birds can stand walk or even run on water without breaking it.
Capillarity:
The phenomena by which surface of liquid in a narrow tube is elevated or depressed depending
upon the relative attraction of liquid molecules for each other and for those of solids.
capillarity is due to two forces:
1. Attraction forces of water for solids walls of the tube through which it moves
2. Surface tension of water which is mainly due to attraction of water molecules for each
other

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The phenomenon of capillary can be observed by placing one end of a narrow glass tube in
water. The water rises in the tube and smaller the tube bore or diameter higher will be the water
rise and vice versa. The water molecules are attracted to the walls of the tube by the force of
adhesion and start moving up in the tube in response to this attraction, inturn these water
molecules attract other water molecules by the force of cohesion and consequently a water
column will be developed within the tube. This upward movement of water will continue until
weight of water in the tube counterbalance the cohesive and adhesive forces. The height of rise
of water in capillary tube is inversely proportional to the tube diameter and directly proportional
to the surface tension which is largely determined by cohesive forces between water molecules.
Polarity:
The quality Inherent in a body that exhibit opposite properties/charges in opposite parts or
directions. The condition having poles is known as polarity.
Water is a polar molecule meaning that there is uneven distribution of electron density because
the oxygen atom is larger than hydrogen atom electrons spend more time near oxygen
consequently water has partial negative charge near oxygen and partial positive charge near
hydrogen atom .The property of polarity helps to explain that how water molecules interact with
each other. Due to polarity each water molecule is coupled with neighbouring water molecule.
The hydrogen end(+ive end) of one water molecules attracts the oxygen end(-ive end) of another,
resulting in a chain like polymer.Polarity also accounts for a number of other important
properties of water for example it explains why water molecules are attracted to electrostatically
charged ions cations like sodium potassium calcium magnesium become hydrated through their
attraction to the oxygen end of water molecule likewise negatively charged ions chloride nitrate
sulphate are attracted towards the hydrogen end of water molecule that is why water encourages
the dissolution of salt and considered as universal solvent.

Specific heat:

Amount of heat that must be observed or released per unit of a substance to change its
temperature by 1 degree centigrade. water is most common compound on the earth more than
70% of the Earth is covered by water. Water possesses highest specific heat among common
liquids that is 1000 calorie. Water can absorb or release large amount of heat with only slight
change in its own temperature. Due to high specific heat water stabilizes air temperature by

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absorbing heat from warmer air and releasing heat to cooler air. Water is responsible for
prevention of temperature fluctuation that are outside the range suitable for life. It is the high
specific heat of water which makes climate of coastal areas mild throughout the year.

Heat of vaporization:

Quantity of heat required to convert 1 unit of liquid into vapors is called heat of vaporization.
The heat of vaporization of water is much higher than other liquids. Evaporation of water from
soil surface requires 582 kilo calories for every kilogram of water to vaporize this high heat of
vaporization of water is the result of high intermolecular attraction forces of water (cohesion)
since, evaporation of water from soil or living surface requires a great deal of heat energy
therefore, evaporation and transpiration removes considerable heat from evaporating surface/
transpiring surface and causes cooling effect. Thus low temperature of wet soil is due to high
specific heat and high heat of vaporization.

Heat of fusion:

It is the number of calories required to convert 1 gram of solid at freezing point into 1 gram of
liquid. For water it is 80 calories. It is greater than most of the osther liquid except ammonia
having 108 calories.

Heat conductor:

Water is very much better heat conductor than any other common liquid. Consequently, the heat
it absorbs is readily distributed and tends to equalize temperature not only in internal or external
environment but also in cells within the plant and animal bodies.

Water as a solvent:
The component of solution in which solute is dissolved is known as solvent. Water is best
known solvent as much more substances can dissolve in water than any other solvent. Salt
dissolve in water, readily ionize because water molecules have opposite charges on opposite
directions, thereby attract the salts ion with greater force of attraction compared to between
themselves and dissolve them completely. Due to this property of water nutrients and gases are
dissolved in water, enter the plant cells and move from cell to cell and organ to organ. The

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permeability of most cell wall and cell membranes to water result in continuous liquid phase
extended throughout the plant in which translocation of solutes of all kinds occurs.
Water as a Regent:
water serves as reactant or reagent in many important processes like photosynthesis and
hydrolysis.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL WATER

Soil water can be classified into 4 classes;

Gravitational water:
Water that exist or retain in macropores and moves freely through these pores of soil under the
force of gravity. It is of little use because it stays in soil for very short period of time. This water
is undesirable to plants because it occupies macropores reduces soil air and causes suffocation. It
is present in soil at water potential greater than -0.1 bar and is always in acces of field capacity.

Field capacity:
The content of water retaining in soil 2 to 3 days after soil has been saturated with water and free
drainage has been practically ceased. At field capacity water is held in soil at water potential -
0.1to -0.3 bar.

Capillary water:
Water existing in liquid state in micro pores and capillary pores is known as capillary water. It is
the major source of water for plant growth it is present in soil at water potential -0.3 to -31 bar.
However, plant can use capillary water upto - 15 bar.

Hygroscopic water:

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Water that is held very tightly with soil solids at a water potential lower than -31 bar. It is
essentially non liquid and can move only in the form of vapours higher plants cannot absorb
hygroscopic water. However, some microbial activity has been observed in soils having only
hygroscopic water.

Classification of water with respect to plants or biological point of view

Available water:
The portion of water retained in soil Reservoir that can be used by plants to sustain their life is
called available water. For field soils the available water is estimated as the difference between
soil water content at field capacity and permanent wilting point. Hence, field capacity represents
maximum possible amount of water available to plants.

Permanent wilting point:


It is the lower limit of available water beyond which water is adsorbed so strongly that plants
cannot absorb it fast enough to meet their water requirements. It is generally the soil water held
at less than 15 bar. It is defined as the largest water content of soil at which plants growing in
that soil will wilt and fail to recover when placed in humid chamber, that water content is called
permanent wilting point.

Unavailable water:
Water held at water potential less than -15 bar and bound to soil particles so tightly that is not
available to plants is known as unavailable water.

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SOIL WATER ENERGY CONCEPT
Retention and movement of water in soil, its uptake and translocation in plants as well as its loss
to atmosphere all our energy related phenomenon. Soil water has two types of energy that is
kinetic energy and potential energy.

Kinetic Energy: It is the form of energy due to movement of water molecules within soil as
water moves slowly in soil its kinetic energy is usually considered negligible.

Potential Energy: It is the form of energy due to position of water in soil and is the principle
form of energy which determine the state and movement of water within the soil. Difference in
energy state of water from one point to another within the soil is called free energy. Free energy
of water is always expressed relative to energy condition of water in a standard reference state.

Reference State:
The first step in describing the energy state of water is to define the reference state then we can
measure the energy required to reach a given state of water from the reference state which
always has a zero energy level. The reference state must have following characteristics;
1. It is pure
2. It is free no adsorption at soil matrix
3. It has pressure equal to atmospheric pressure
4. It is at same temperature as that of soil water

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5. An arbitrary reference elevation must be set at a specific height

Factors affecting free energy of water

Matric forces: The attraction of soil solid for water provides matric forces that markedly reduce
the free energy of water. Clay soils have charged particles, offers more metric forces
consequently, absorption of water will be high in clay soil that result in significant reduction in
free energy of water. It is the lower matric force in sandy soil which contributes to greater
movement of water compared to clay soil.

Osmotic forces: The attraction of salt ions for water results in osmotic forces which tend to
reduce free energy of water in soil solution.

Gravitational forces: The gravitational force tend to pull water downward . The energy of soil
water at a given elevation is thus higher than that of soil water at same lower elevation. Such a
difference in free energy of water causes water to flow.

Soil water potential: Difference between free energy of soil water and that of pure water in a
standard reference state is called soil water potential. Free energy of pure water in a standard
reference that must be higher than soil water since free energy of pure water in standard
reference state considered 0. The value less than zero is negative. That is why water potential is
denoted by negative sign. The water potential in soil varies depending upon matric forces
osmotic forces and gravitational forces. Water which is present in direct contact with soil solid
experiences greater matric forces and has less water potential compared to water molecules
present in outer layer of water film around the soil particles.

Characteristics of soil water potential

1. Relative: it is a relative quantity meaning that it is measured between two points.

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2. Negative: it is usually negative.
3. Continuity: it is a continuous entity without any abrupt disturbance.
4. Driving force: it is the driving force or it serve as driving force that moves water from one
point to another within the soil.
5. Variability: it is highly variable even over short distance.
6. Dynamic: it is a highly dynamic entity .

Components of soil water potential

Soil water potential is the result of combined effect of adhesive forces of soil matrix to water
(matric potential), the effect of dissolved substances (osmotic potential) and the pressure exerted
by overlying column(pressure potential). It is denoted by psy Ψ.
Ψw= Ψm + Ψs+ Ψp
In non salty well drained soil water potential is almost equal to matric potential. An additional
effect of position of water such as being elevated) compared to reference state is known as
gravitational potential in that case total water potential is Ψt= Ψw+ Ψg

Matric potential: It is the portion of soil water potential that results from adhesive forces of soil
matrix for water . It is due to size and shape related properties of soil solids particularly the
surface area and charge density. In unsaturated soil matric potential is always negative while in
saturated soil it is equal to zero. Matric potential exerts its effect on soil water movement.
Difference between matric potential of two adjoining zones of soil encourage the movement of
water. Water moves from moist zone (high free energy, high water potential) to dry zone (low
free energy, low water potential). Matric potential has no role in water movement.

Osmotic or solute potential: The part of soil water potential which is due to the dissolved
substances in soil. Being bipolar in nature water molecules in the close proximity of cation and
anion of dissolved solute get attracted towards them. As a result, the activity of water molecules

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is reduced and consequently the water potential is reduced. The osmotic effect is not of much
significance in case of water flow within the soil but it is of much significance in case of water
movement from soil to plant.

Pressure potential or hydrostatic potential: It is defined as the water potential exerted by


overlying saturated column of water on a specific. point within the soil. It is equal to height of
water above the specific Point. Pressure potential is positive and equal to height of water column
when the point of interest is below ground water level when pressure potential is positive it is
called piezometric head or submerged potential. Matric potential exist in unsaturated soil while
pressure potential exist in saturated soil.Therefore, matric and pressure potential is mutually
exclusive. Under specific soil water potential condition soil has either matric potential or
pressure potential but never both.

Overburden potential or envelope potential: The pressure exerted by overlying solid material
on soil water is known as overburden potential.
The overburden potential is usually significant in swelling soils and is mostly positive in rigid
soil (non swelling) it is almost equal to zero the actual swelling on wetting in clay soil depends
upon the depth of soil layer. Surface soils swell freely upon wetting while deeper layers are
prevented to swell by overlying soil material which is known as overburden or envelop potential.
Generally, it is not possible to separate matric potential from overburden potential in unsaturated
soil.

Air pressure potential or pneumatic potential: The part of soil water potential which is due to
the pressure of air column above the soil water.

Gravitational potential: The part of total soil water potential which is due to difference in
elevation of the reference pool of pure water and that of soil water is known as gravitational
potential. Since, soil water elevation is usually chosen to be higher than that of reference pool
therefore, gravitational potential is usually positive. It is independent of soil properties and it is
only due to position of water in soil.

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MOVEMENT OF WATER THROUGH SOIL

There are three types of water movement within soil


1. Saturated water flow
2. Unsaturated water flow
3. Vapour movement

Saturated Water Flow: It is the movement of water under saturated soil condition and is mainly
determined by two major forces;
1. Hydraulic force
2. Hydraulic conductivity

Hydraulic force: It is the driving force that controls water movement through soil under
saturated condition. It originates from gravity. It is the ease with which soil pores permit water
movement.

Unsaturated Flow: It is the movement of water in soil through capillary pores. Unsaturated flow
depends upon two factors;
1. Hydraulic conductivity
2. Driving force

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Driving force in case of unsaturated flow is generally the matric forces. Unsaturated flow is
inversely proportional to matric forces. Water flows from wet region (low metric forces) to dry
region (high matric forces).

Vapour Movement: Water vapours move from one point to another in response to the
difference in vapour pressure. Thus water vapors moves from moist soil where soil air is nearly
saturated with water vapours high vapour pressure to a dry soil where vapour pressure is
somewhat lower. likewise, if the temperature of one part of uniformly moist soil is decreased the
vapour pressure will decrease and water vapours will tend to move toword cooler part. Heating
will have an opposite effect. The vapour movement in soil is very small and has limited practical
significance to meet crop water requirement however, in a dry soil vapour movement may be
considerable significance in supplying moisture to drought resistant plants.
HOW PLANTS ARE SUPPLIED WITH WATER

Two major phenomena are generally responsible for plant access to water.

1. Capillary movement of soil water to plant roots


2. Growth of plant roots into moist soil

Capillary movement: When plant rootlet absorb water they reduce moisture content and thus
result in reduction in water potential in immediate surroundings of plant roots. In response to this
lower water potential, water tends to move towards plant roots. The rate of water movement
depends on
1. Magnitude of potential gradient
2. Hydraulic conductivity of soil
Total distance that water covers by capillarity on day to day basis maybe only few centimetres.
This would lead one to believe that capillary movement is not significant mean of enhancing
moisture uptake by plants. However, if roots have penetrated much of soil volume movement
over greater distance may not be necessary. Even during the period of hot dry weather when
evapotranspiration rate is high. Capillary movement can be imported mean for providing water to

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plants. It is of practical significance during the period of low moisture content when plant root
extension is minimized.

Growth of plant roots to moist soil: Capillary movement of water is complemented by rapid
rate of root extension which ensures that new route soil contact is constantly being established
such a root penetration maybe rapid enough to meet most of water needs of a plant growing in
soil at optimum moisture. The primary limitation of root extension is a small proportion of soil
with which roots are in contact at anytime, even though root surface is considerable roots soil
contact commonly accounts for less than 1% of total soil surface area. This suggests that most of
water must move from soil to plant roots. It is suggested that complemented operation of
capillary and root extension is more effective to move water from soil to plant roots as compared
to their individual effects.

WATER ABSORPTION BY PLANT ROOTS


Water enters the plant roots most rapidly in apical part of roots and root hairs. The more mature
regions of plant roots are relatively impermeable to water and hence is less active in water
absorption. The transport of water from soil to plant roots and to atmosphere takes place in
following three steps;
1. Water is first absorbed from soil by root hairs and other epidermal cells in or near the
root zone of young root tissue
2. Lateral conductance across young root tissue epidermis pericycle into xylem duct and
vertical conductance within xylem vessel into leaves
3. Passage of water across leaf tissue through the process of transpiration into atmosphere

MECHANISM OF WATER ABSORPTION

There are two mechanisms of water absorption


1. Passive absorption
2. Active absorption

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Passive Absorption: In passive absorption uptake of water by plants is generally controlled by
transpirational pull generated at leaves surface due to loss of water into atmosphere. As water
transpired from leaves surface it reduces water potential of leaf cells and generating a force of
pull.
Transpirational pull causing the water to move into these cells from the adjoining areas of xylem
veins. Removal of water from that area in xylem veins reduces its water potential and
consequently water moves from surrounding regions to that area along the water potential
gradient. This reduction in water potential is transmitted through continuous water column of
xylem cells and their saturated cell walls down to the root system. Reduction in water potential
in root system produces a gradient along which water moves from root surface across intervening
tissue into xylem. Under these conditions water can be regarded as moving through the plants as
a cohesive column pulled by transpirational pull developed in the transpirational surface of leaf
cells.
In summary, during passive water absorption suction force originally generated at leaf surface
moving down through a continuous column of water and transmitted to root system and is
responsible for the absorption of water from soil.

Active Absorption: Absorption of water by plant roots due to activity of living roots and usually
involving the expenditure of energy is known as active absorption of water. When there is high
concentration of salts in soil, due to adsorption of water molecules to salt ions water potential of
soil solution becomes low as compared to root cells. As a result, water movement from soil to
root decreases. Under these conditions plant roots have to synthesise and accumulate different
osmolytes (Proline, glycine batane, sucrose and mannitol) into root cell sap. Due to accumulation
of these osmolytes in the root cell sap water potential within cell sap decreases and water starts
to move from soil to plants along water potential gradient. The rate of inward movement of water
depends on the difference of water potential between plant roots and soil solution. The greater of
osmolye in root cell sap there will be reduction in water potential within the cell sap and
subsequently higher will be the movement of water from soil to plant roots. Since active
absorption of water involves the expenditure of energy (34 mol ATP/mol of mannitol, 41mol
ATP/mol of proline, 50 mol ATP/mol of glycine betane and 52 mol ATP/mol of sucrose) which
is diverted from plant growth processes and thus leading to significant reduction in plant growth.

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Therefore, plants avoid active absorption of water and it has negligible practical importance in
water economy under normal soil condition.

FACTORS AFFECTING WATER ABSORPTION

Absorption efficiency of roots: Effectiveness of roots to absorb water and nutrients depends
mainly on the extent and permeability. Plant species differ greatly with respect to root depth, root
spread, amount of branching and presence of root hairs and consequently root surface in contact
with soil. Larger the volume of soil occupied by root system larger will be the volume of water
available to plants and longer the plant can survive without replenishment of groundwater by rain
or irrigation. The plants with extensive root system can tolerate moisture stress more than the
plants having shallow root system. Since, under dry land condition soil moisture is generally at
more soil depth, plants with extensive and deeper root system can utilize this moisture for their
survival. Moreover, the root system consists of roots at
various stages of development from newly formed tips to
fully matured roots which have lost their
epidermis and cortex and enclosed in a layer of suberized
tissue. Obviously, young roots are more active and
permeable to water as compared to old roots. Therefore, the rate of absorption of water by
unsuberized actively growing young roots will be more
than the older and suberized roots.

Availability of water and soil type: In soils water is readily available to plants between field
capacity and permanent wilting point. However, water availability in soil varies greatly with
storage capacity of soil which mainly depends on soil texture, amount and type of clay minerals
and organic matter content of the soil. The soils with finer texture greater amount of clay
minerals particularly 2:1 type clay minerals (smectite, montmorilonite, vermiculite) and higher
amount of organic matter have greater water holding capacity as compared to soil course in
texture, low in clay minerals and poor in organic matter. Obviously, plants growing in soil

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having low storage capacity such as sandy soil will readily deplete available water compared to
the fine textured soil. On the other hand, if water content of soil exceeds the field capacity air is
displaced from soil making the root activities sluggish leading to significant reduction in water
absorption by plants. In contrast if water content of soil drops much below the field capacity
(permanent wilting point) water begins to be held into soil very tightly by matric forces and
consequently water absorption by roots decreases significantly.

Concentration of soil solution: Absorption of water from soil to plant roots is also affected by
the amount of salt content in soil solution. Higher salt content of soil solution, lower will be the
absorption of water by plant roots due to unfavourable water potential in the rhizosphere. When
the concentration of salts in soil solution increases then the cell sap or root cells water potential
in soils becomes low as compared to the water potential within the cell sap. Under these
conditions water starts to move from plant roots to soil along the water potential gradient and
ultimately plant will die due to dehydration.

Transpiration: It is the loss of water from plant surface particularly leaf surface. Within limits if
plants are placed under conditions that cause them to tranpire rapidly and if soil water is
available the rate of water intake will be higher due to greater transpirational pull created on the
leaf surface and transmitted downward to roots and resulted in greater absorption of water.
Under the conditions of reduced availability of water in soil and higher transpiration water
absorption legs behind transpiration and ultimately leading to wilting of plants. Various
environmental factors that may indirectly affect water absorption of plants through affecting
transpiration rate are;
1. Radiation
2. Humidity
3. Temperature
4. Wind velocity

Soil Temperature: Absorption of water by plants generally reduces with reduction in soil
temperature. In most plant species however the magnitude of this effect varies with plant species.

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In general plants native to warm climates for example cotton and watermelon undergo a greater
reduction in water absorption when soil is chilled (low soil temperature) compared to those
which are habitats of cooler climate. It has been estimated that warm climate plants can absorb
only 20% as much water at 10 degree centigrade as at 25 degree centigrade while cool climate
plants can absorb 75% at lower temperature compared to high temperature. Various causes of
low water absorption at low soil temperature maybe
1. decrease in root growth
2. Increase in viscosity of water which is twice near zero degree centigrade then at 25 degree
centigrade
3. Increased resistance to water movement into roots due to less permeability of cell membrane
4. Decrease in metabolic activities of cell at low temperature

Soil Aeration: Absorption of water by plant roots of most plant species proceeds more rapidly
in well aerated soils compared to poor aerated soils. In poorly aerated soils, concentration of
oxygen reduces while that of carbon dioxide increases. Saturation of soil with water is the most
common reason of poor aeration and reduction of water absorption by plants. Under poor
aeration root activities are more affected due to lack of oxygen rather than excess of carbon
dioxide. The efficiency of oxygen within soil reduces the permeability of plant roots to water and
consequently absorption of water by plants decreases. Generally, the first effect of flooding is the
reduction of roots permeability to water which decreases water absorption by plants and results
in wilting under more severe conditions. Moreover, poor aeration may reduce the volume of
plant roots or may cause their death and consequently decreases the plant capacity to absorb
water from soil.

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Nutrient Movement To Plant Roots OR Nutrient Movement From Soil To
Plant Roots
Before taken up by plants the nutrients must reach from soil to root surface. It takes place by
three processes.
1. Mass Flow
2. Diffusion
3. Root interception

Mass Flow: it is the transport of soil solution containing nutrients to plant roots caused by
water potential gradient developed due to loss of water through transpiration or evaporation.
Contribution of mass flow to carry nutrients to plant roots varies with following factors

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1. Nutrient in consideration and its concentration in soil solution
2. Water consumption or requirement of plants.
3. Plant species and plant age
4. Time of the day and season
5. Soil moisture content

Diffusion: it is the transport of nutrients to root surface along the concentration gradient. P, K,
S, Fe and Zn move through diffusion.
Concentration gradient develops in root zone due to absorption of nutrients by plant roots. As a
result of nutrient absorption by plant roots the concentration of particular nutrient in the
immediate vicinity of plant roots become low, consequently that particular nutrient will move
from bulk soil to plant roots. The transport of nutrients to plant roots through diffusion is high
when plant uptake exceeds nutrients supply through Mass flow.
Depletion zones develop along the root surface depending upon following factors
1. Uptake by roots
2. Replenishment of soil
3. Mobility of ion by diffusion

Root interception: It refers to the exchange of Ions between root surface and soil minerals
surface through the physical contact between root and soil. Hydrogen ions adsorbed on root
surface may be exchanged with potassium ions held on the solid soil particles by oscillation. The
ions attached to soil and root surface oscillate to a certain volume when their oscillation volume
overlaps, they exchange their sites. Hydrogen ions goes to the soil surface while potassium ions
goes to the root surface. The quantity of nutrients that can come in direct contact with plant roots
is the amount in the volume of soil equal to volume of root. Rhodes can contact 1-3% of
available soil nutrients but normally 1%. Root interception can be increased by mycorrhizal
infection which increases the root surface by extending hyphal threads. It has been reported that
surface area of plant roots can be increased up to 10 folds by mycorrhizal infection. Fungal
hyphae can extend upto 10 cm into soil surrounding roots. Calcium and magnesium mostly
moves through root interception.

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Factors affecting nutrient movement to plant roots
Factors affecting nutrient movement to plant true fruits can be grouped into three categories.
1. Nutrient related factors
 Nutrient under consideration
 Concentration of nutrient in soil solution
 Form of nutrient in soil
2. Plant related factors
 Plant species and varieties within species
 Plant age
 Root type
 Presence or absence of root hairs
 Root length
 Root induced changes in rhizosphere
3. Soil related factors
 Soil texture
 soil structure
 Soil aeration
 soil temperature
 pH
 Eh
 Organic matter
 Microbial activities
 Soil moisture

ION OR SOLUTE UPTAKE BY PLANTS


Absorption of salts by plants takes place through an immediate contact of plant roots with the
soil solution. Absorption of salts takes place in following steps.
1. movement of Ions from soil to plant roots
2. Accumulation of ions in the root surface
3. Radial movement of Ions from root surface to xylem
4. Translocation of Ions from Roots to shoot

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Factors Affecting Ions/ Salts/ Solute Absorption (take notes for detail of these factors)
 Plant Species
 Extent of root system
 Metabolic activities in root tissues
 Internal concentration of salts
 Internal concentration of sugars
 Hydrogen ion concentration
 Respiration
 Aeration
 Temperature
 Light
 Soil Moistures Content
 Concentration and composition of external solution
 Interaction between ions

ION UPTAKE MECHANISM


Ion uptake is the process in which mineral nutrients enter the cellular material following the
same pathway as that for water. Nutrients may be taken up by plants by two mechanisms.
1. Passive uptake
2. Active uptake

1. Passive Uptake: It is the absorption of mineral nutrients by plants along the concentration
gradient without direct expenditure of metabolic energy. Passive absorption is not affected by
temperature and metabolic inhibitors.
There are 4 theories lying under passive absorption/uptake.

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1. Mass flow theory
2. Contact exchange theory
3. Carbonic acid exchange theory
4. Donnan equilibrium theory

Mass Flow Theory :


According to this theory ions are absorbed by the roots along with mass flow
of water under the effect of transpiration. An increase in transpirational pull increases the uptake
of Ions by roots.thus, mass flow of Ions through root tissue occur due to transpirational pull in
the absence of metabolic energy.

Contact Exchange Theory: According to this theory ions adsorbed on colloidal particles get
absorbed to the roots in exchange for hydrogen ions previously adsorbed on the roots. Ions
adsorbed on the colloidal particles oscillate within a small space, when a two particles(root and
soil) are close enough the oscillation space of an ion adsorbed to another particle overlaps.
Thus, exchange of Ions may take place between soil particles and plant roots. For example
potassium ion is adsorbed on the colloidal particle while the hydrogen ion is adsorbed on the
plant roots, when oscillation space of both ions overlap, exchange of ions occur and hydrogen
ions will go to colloidal particle while potassium ion to plant roots.

Carbonic Acid Exchange Theory: The soil solution provides a medium for the exchange of
Ions between the root and colloidal particles. Carbon dioxide released during respiration forms
carbonic acid by reacting with water of soil solution. This carbonic acid is then dissociated in
soil solution to form hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ions. Hydrogen ions adsorbed to colloidal
particles exchanges for cations such as potassium ion, which are released into soil solution from
there they may diffuse to plant roots and are taken up by plants.

Donnan Equilibrium Theory: Cell membrane is composed of macromolecules of proteins and


lipids that have different functional groups like carboxylic group and phosphate group from

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which positively charged particles like proton dissociates, leaving the macromolecules with net
negative charge. Thus, the membrane is usually negatively charged. The negative charge so
produced are not diffusible because they are within the membrane structure. These negatively
charged membrane are called donnan phase. As a result of net negative charge on the membrane
structure the cations like potassium will tend to diffuse through the membrane because of electric
potential difference.
The cations will finally come to equilibrium with the fixed the negative charges of the
membrane. This equilibrium is called donnan equilibrium.

2. Active Ion uptake: The active transport of Ions from the outer space of cell to the inner space
generally occurs against the concentration gradient and hence requires metabolic energy. This
energy is obtained from the metabolism of cell. During active and transport the carrier proteins,
picks up an ion from one side of the membrane and discharges it on the other side. This picking
up and discharge of an ion by carrier protein require energy. This energy is obtained from the
hydrolysis of ATP. ATP changes to ADP and energy released is used to change conformation of
carrier protein so that the ion is picked up on one side of the membrane and released on the other.
After discharge of an ion carrier protein is set back to pick up an other ion. The carrier protein
may carry one ion inward and exchange it with another ion at the inner surface of the
membrane, so that other ion is carried by the same protein carrier outward.

REDISTRIBUTION OF IONS IN PLANT BODY


The continued movement of salt ions into leaves along transpirational pull results in an increase
of salt content during growing season. Not all of salt which enter a given leaf will retain in that
leaf, some of the salt ions are exported/transported back into stem from where they are
transported into other parts of the plant.
Redistribution of salts with in plant body seems to be controlled largely by metabolic activities
of various parts of the plant.salt ions tend to be moved from older leaves to younger leaves,
reproductive structure and metabollically active regions before the fall of older leaves. Similar
transportation of salt ions out of flower petals just before the abscission(fall) occurs. The
redistribution of salt ions mainly occur through xylem and phloem.

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ADAPTATION OF PLANTS TO DROUGHT STRESS (Take Notes)
SOIL PLANT ATOMSPHERE CONTINUM SPAC (Take Notes)

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