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For other uses, see Amygdala (disambiguation).

Amygdala

Location of the amygdalae in the human brain

Subdivisions of the amygdala

Details

Identifiers

Latin corpus amygdaloideum

MeSH D000679

NeuroNames 237

NeuroLex ID birnlex_1241
 TA A14.1.09.402

FMA 61841

Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy

[edit on Wikidata]

Human brain in the coronal orientation. Amygdalae are shown in dark red.

The amygdala (/əˈmɪɡdələ/; plural: amygdalae; also corpus

amygdaloideum; Latin from Greek, ἀμυγδαλή, amygdalē, 'Almond', 'tonsil'[1]) is one of two
almond-shaped groups of nuclei located deep and medially within the temporal lobes of
the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans.[2] Shown in research to perform a primary
role in the processing of memory, decision-making and emotional responses (including fear,
anxiety, and aggression), the amygdalae are considered part of the limbic system.[3]

Contents

 1Structure
o 1.1Hemispheric specializations

 2Development

o 2.1Sex distinction

 3Function
 o 3.1Connections

o 3.2Emotional learning

o 3.3Reward

o 3.4Memory modulation

 4Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity

o 4.1Sexual orientation

o 4.2Social interaction

o 4.3Aggression

o 4.4Fear

o 4.5Alcoholism and binge drinking

o 4.6Anxiety

o 4.7Posttraumatic stress disorder

o 4.8Bipolar disorder

o 4.9Political orientation

 5See also

 6Further reading

 7References

 8External links

Structure[edit]

Subdivisions of the mouse amygdala

The regions described as amygdala nuclei encompass several structures with distinct
connectional and functional characteristics in humans and other animals. [4] Among these nuclei
are the basolateral complex, the cortical nucleus, the medial nucleus, the central nucleus, and
the intercalated cell clusters. The basolateral complex can be further subdivided into the lateral,
the basal, and the accessory basal nuclei.[3][5][6]

MRI coronal view of the right amygdala

Anatomically, the amygdala,[7] and more particularly its central and medial nuclei,[8] have
sometimes been classified as a part of the basal ganglia.
Hemispheric specializations[edit]
There are functional differences between the right and left amygdala. In one study, electrical
stimulations of the right amygdala induced negative emotions, especially fear and sadness. In
contrast, stimulation of the left amygdala was able to induce either pleasant (happiness) or
unpleasant (fear, anxiety, sadness) emotions.[9] Other evidence suggests that the left amygdala
plays a role in the brain's reward system.[10]
Each side holds a specific function in how we perceive and process emotion. The right and left
portions of the amygdala have independent memory systems, but work together to store,
encode, and interpret emotion.
The right hemisphere is associated with negative emotion. It plays a role in the expression of fear
and in the processing of fear-inducing stimuli. Fear conditioning, which occurs when a neutral
stimulus acquires aversive properties, occurs within the right hemisphere. When an individual is
presented with a conditioned, aversive stimulus, it is processed within the right amygdala,
producing an unpleasant or fearful response. This emotional response conditions the individual
to avoid fear-inducing stimuli.
The right hemisphere is also linked to declarative memory, which consists of facts and
information from previously experienced events and must be consciously recalled. It also plays a
significant role in the retention of episodic memory. Episodic memory consists of the
autobiographical aspects of memory, permitting you to recall your personal emotional and
sensory experience of an event. This type of memory does not require conscious recall. The right
amygdala plays a role in the association of time and places with emotional properties. [11]

Development[edit]
There is considerable growth within the first few years of structural development in both male and
female amygdalae.[12] Within this early period, female limbic structures grow at a more rapid pace
than the male ones. Amongst female subjects, the amygdala reaches its full growth potential
approximately 1.5 years before the peak of male development. The structural development of the
male amygdala occurs over a longer period than in women. Despite the early development of
female amygdalae, they reach their growth potential sooner than males, whose amygdalae
continue to develop. The larger relative size of the male amygdala may be attributed to this
extended developmental period.
In addition to longer periods of development, other neurological and hormonal factors may
contribute to sex-specific developmental differences. The amygdala is rich in androgen receptors
– nuclear receptors that bind to testosterone. Androgen receptors play a role in the DNA binding
that regulates gene expression. Though testosterone is present within the female hormonal
systems, women have lower levels of testosterone than men. The abundance of testosterone in
the male hormonal system may contribute to development. In addition, the grey matter volume
on the amygdala is predicted by testosterone levels, which may also contribute to the increased
mass of the male amygdala.
In addition to sex differences, there are observable developmental differences between the right
and left amygdala in both males and females. The left amygdala reaches its developmental peak
approximately 1.5–2 years prior to the right amygdala. Despite the early growth of the left
amygdala, the right increases in volume for a longer period of time. The right amygdala is
associated with response to fearful stimuli as well as face recognition. It is inferred that the early
development of the left amygdala functions to provide infants the ability to detect danger. [12]In
childhood, the amygdala is found to react differently to same-sex versus opposite-sex individuals.
This reactivity decreases until a person enters adolescence, where it increases dramatically at
puberty.[13]
Sex distinction[edit]
See also: Neuroscience of sex differences
The amygdala is one of the best-understood brain regions with regard to differences between the
sexes. The amygdala is larger in males than females in children ages 7–11, [14] in adult humans,
[15]
and in adult rats.[16]
In addition to size, other functional and structural differences between male and female
amygdalae have been observed. Subjects' amygdala activation was observed when watching a
horror film and subliminal stimuli. The results of the study showed a different lateralization of the
amygdala in men and women. Enhanced memory for the film was related to enhanced activity of
the left, but not the right, amygdala in women, whereas it was related to enhanced activity of the
right, but not the left, amygdala in men. [17] One study found evidence that on average, women
tend to retain stronger memories for emotional events than men. [18]
The right amygdala is also linked with taking action as well as being linked to negative emotions,
[19]
which may help explain why males tend to respond to emotionally stressful stimuli physically.
The left amygdala allows for the recall of details, but it also results in more thought rather than
action in response to emotionally stressful stimuli, which may explain the absence of physical
response in women.

Function[edit]
Connections[edit]
The amygdala sends projections to the hypothalamus, the dorsomedial thalamus, the thalamic
reticular nucleus, the nuclei of the trigeminal nerve and the facial nerve, the ventral tegmental
area, the locus coeruleus, and the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus.[5] The basolateral amygdala
projects to the nucleus accumbens, including the medial shell. [20][21]
Coronal section of brain through intermediate mass of third ventricle. Amygdala is shown in purple.

The medial nucleus is involved in the sense of smell and pheromone-processing. It receives
input from the olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex.[22] The lateral amygdalae, which send impulses
to the rest of the basolateral complexes and to the centromedial nuclei, receive input from the
sensory systems. The centromedial nuclei are the main outputs for the basolateral complexes,
and are involved in emotional arousal in rats and cats.[5][6][23]
Emotional learning[edit]
Main article: Emotion and memory
In complex vertebrates, including humans, the amygdalae perform primary roles in the formation
and storage of memories associated with emotional events. Research indicates that, during fear
conditioning, sensory stimuli reach the basolateral complexes of the amygdalae, particularly the
lateral nuclei, where they form associations with memories of the stimuli. The association
between stimuli and the aversive events they predict may be mediated by long-term potentiation,
[24][25]
a sustained enhancement of signaling between affected neurons. [26] There have been studies
that show that damage to the amygdala can interfere with memory that is strengthened by
emotion. One study examined a patient with bilateral degeneration of the amygdala. He was told
a violent story accompanied by matching pictures and was observed based on how much he
could recall from the story. The patient had less recollection of the story than patients with
functional amygdala, showing that the amygdala has a strong connection with emotional
learning.[27]
Emotional memories are thought to be stored in synapses throughout the brain. Fear memories,
for example, are considered to be stored in the neuronal connections from the lateral nuclei to
the central nucleus of the amygdalae and the bed nuclei of the stria terminalis (part of
the extended amygdala). Of course, these connections are not the sole site of fear memories
given that the nuclei of the amygdala receive and send information to other brain regions that are
important for memory such as the hippocampus. Some sensory neurons project their axon
terminals to the central nucleus.[28] The central nuclei are involved in the genesis of many fear
responses such as defensive behavior (freezing or escape responses), autonomic nervous
system responses (changes in blood pressure and heart rate/tachycardia), neuroendocrine
responses (stress-hormone release), etc. Damage to the amygdalae impairs both the acquisition
and expression of Pavlovian fear conditioning, a form of classical conditioning of emotional
responses.[26]
The amygdalae are also involved in appetitive (positive) conditioning. It seems that distinct
neurons respond to positive and negative stimuli, but there is no clustering of these distinct
neurons into clear anatomical nuclei.[29][30] However, lesions of the central nucleus in the amygdala
have been shown to reduce appetitive learning in rats. Lesions of the basolateral regions do not
exhibit the same effect.[31] Research like this indicates that different nuclei within the amygdala
have different functions in appetitive conditioning. [32][33]Nevertheless, researchers found an
example of appetitive emotional learning showing an important role for the basolateral amygdala:
The naïve female mice are innately attracted to non-volatile pheromones contained in male-
soiled bedding, but not by the male-derived volatiles, become attractive if associated with non-
volatile attractive pheromones, which act as unconditioned stimulus in a case of Pavlovian
associative learning.[34] In the vomeronasal, olfactory and emotional systems, Fos protein show
that non-volatile pheromones stimulate the vomeronasal system, whereas air-borne volatiles
activate only the olfactory system. Thus, the acquired preference for male-derived volatiles
reveals an olfactory-vomeronasal associative learning. Moreover, the reward system is
differentially activated by the primary pheromones and secondarily attractive odorants. Exploring
the primary attractive pheromone activates the basolateral amygdala and the shell of nucleus
accumbens but neither the ventral tegmental area nor the orbitofrontal cortex. In contrast,
exploring the secondarily attractive male-derived odorants involves activation of a circuit that
includes the basolateral amygdala, prefrontal cortex and ventral tegmental area. Therefore, the
basolateral amygdala stands out as the key center for vomeronasal-olfactory associative
learning.[35]
Reward[edit]
Glutaminergic neurons in the basolateral amygdala send projections to the nucleus
accumbens(NAc) shell and core. Activation of these projections drive motivational salience. The
ability of these projections to drive incentive salience is dependent upon dopamine receptor D1.[20]
[21]

Memory modulation[edit]
The amygdala is also involved in the modulation of memory consolidation. Following any learning
event, the long-term memory for the event is not formed instantaneously. Rather, information
regarding the event is slowly assimilated into long-term (potentially lifelong) storage over time,
possibly via long-term potentiation. Recent studies suggest that the amygdala regulates memory
consolidation in other brain regions. Also, fear conditioning, a type of memory that is impaired
following amygdala damage, is mediated in part by long-term potentiation. [24][25]
During the consolidation period, the memory can be modulated. In particular, it appears that
emotional arousal following the learning event influences the strength of the subsequent memory
for that event. Greater emotional arousal following a learning event enhances a person's
retention of that event. Experiments have shown that administration of stress hormones to mice
immediately after they learn something enhances their retention when they are tested two days
later.[36]
The amygdala, especially the basolateral nuclei, are involved in mediating the effects of
emotional arousal on the strength of the memory for the event, as shown by many laboratories
including that of James McGaugh. These laboratories have trained animals on a variety of
learning tasks and found that drugs injected into the amygdala after training affect the animals'
subsequent retention of the task. These tasks include basic classical conditioning tasks such as
inhibitory avoidance, where a rat learns to associate a mild footshock with a particular
compartment of an apparatus, and more complex tasks such as spatial or cued water maze,
where a rat learns to swim to a platform to escape the water. If a drug that activates the
amygdalae is injected into the amygdalae, the animals had better memory for the training in the
task.[37] If a drug that inactivates the amygdalae is injected, the animals had impaired memory for
the task.
Buddhist monks who do compassion meditation have been shown to modulate their amygdala,
along with their temporoparietal junction and insula, during their practice.[38] In an fMRI study,
more intensive insula activity was found in expert meditators than in novices. [39]Increased activity
in the amygdala following compassion-oriented meditation may contribute to social
connectedness.[40]
Amygdala activity at the time of encoding information correlates with retention for that
information. However, this correlation depends on the relative "emotionalness" of the information.
More emotionally arousing information increases amygdalar activity, and that activity correlates
with retention. Amygdala neurons show various types of oscillation during emotional arousal,
such as theta activity. These synchronized neuronal events could promote synaptic
plasticity (which is involved in memory retention) by increasing interactions between neocortical
storage sites and temporal lobe structures involved in declarative memory.[41]

Rorschach test blot 03

Research using Rorschach test blot 03 finds that the number of unique responses to this random
figure links to larger sized amygdalae. The researchers note, "Since previous reports have
indicated that unique responses were observed at higher frequency in the artistic population than
in the nonartistic normal population, this positive correlation suggests that amygdalar
enlargement in the normal population might be related to creative mental activity." [42]

Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity[edit]

Early research on primates provided explanations as to the functions of the amygdala, as well as
a basis for further research. As early as 1888, rhesus monkeys with a lesioned temporal cortex
(including the amygdala) were observed to have significant social and emotional deficits.
[43]
Heinrich Klüver and Paul Bucy later expanded upon this same observation by showing that
large lesions to the anterior temporal lobe produced noticeable changes, including overreaction
to all objects, hypoemotionality, loss of fear, hypersexuality, and hyperorality, a condition in which
inappropriate objects are placed in the mouth. Some monkeys also displayed an inability to
recognize familiar objects and would approach animate and inanimate objects indiscriminately,
exhibiting a loss of fear towards the experimenters. This behavioral disorder was later
named Klüver-Bucy syndrome accordingly,[44] and later research proved it was specifically due to
amygdala lesions. Monkey mothers who had amygdala damage showed a reduction in maternal
behaviors towards their infants, often physically abusing or neglecting them. [45] In 1981,
researchers found that selective radio frequency lesions of the whole amygdala caused Klüver-
Bucy syndrome.[46]
With advances in neuroimaging technology such as MRI, neuroscientists have made significant
findings concerning the amygdala in the human brain. A variety of data shows the amygdala has
a substantial role in mental states, and is related to many psychological disorders. Some studies
have shown children with anxiety disorders tend to have a smaller left amygdala. In the majority
of the cases, there was an association between an increase in the size of the left amygdala with
the use of SSRIs (antidepressant medication) or psychotherapy. The left amygdala has been
linked to social anxiety, obsessive and compulsive disorders, and post traumatic stress, as well
as more broadly to separation and general anxiety.[47] In a 2003 study, subjects with borderline
personality disorder showed significantly greater left amygdala activity than normal control
subjects. Some borderline patients even had difficulties classifying neutral faces or saw them as
threatening.[48] Individuals with psychopathy show reduced autonomic responses to instructed
fear cues than otherwise healthy individuals.[49] In 2006, researchers observed hyperactivity in the
amygdala when patients were shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations.
Patients with severe social phobia showed a correlation with increased response in the
amygdala.[50] Similarly, depressed patients showed exaggerated left amygdala activity when
interpreting emotions for all faces, and especially for fearful faces. This hyperactivity was
normalized when patients were administered antidepressant medication. [51] By contrast, the
amygdala has been observed to respond differently in people with bipolar disorder. A 2003 study
found that adult and adolescent bipolar patients tended to have considerably smaller amygdala
volumes and somewhat smaller hippocampal volumes.[52] Many studies have focused on the
connections between the amygdala and autism.[53]
Studies in 2004 and 2006 showed that normal subjects exposed to images of frightened faces or
faces of people from another race will show increased activity of the amygdala, even if that
exposure is subliminal.[54][55] However, the amygdala is not necessary for the processing of fear-
related stimuli, since persons in whom it is bilaterally damaged show rapid reactions to fearful
faces, even in the absence of a functional amygdala. [56]
Recent research suggests that parasites, in particular toxoplasma, form cysts in the brain of rats,
often taking up residence in the amygdala. This may provide clues as to how specific parasites
may contribute to the development of disorders, including paranoia.[57]
Future studies have been proposed to address the role of the amygdala in positive emotions,
and the ways in which the amygdala networks with other brain regions. [58]
Sexual orientation[edit]
Recent studies have suggested possible correlations between brain structure, including
differences in hemispheric ratios and connection patterns in the amygdala, and sexual
orientation. Homosexual men tend to exhibit more feminine patterns in the amygdala than
heterosexual males do, just as homosexual females tend to show more masculine patterns in the
amygdala than heterosexual women do. It was observed that amygdala connections were more
widespread from the left amygdala in homosexual males, as is also found in heterosexual
females. Amygdala connections were more widespread from the right amygdala in homosexual
females, as in heterosexual males.[59][60]
Social interaction[edit]
Amygdala volume correlates positively with both the size (the number of contacts a person has)
and the complexity (the number of different groups to which a person belongs) of social
networks.[61][62] Individuals with larger amygdalae had larger and more complex social networks.
They were also better able to make accurate social judgments about other persons' faces. [63] The
amygdala's role in the analysis of social situations stems specifically from its ability to identify
and process changes in facial features. It does not, however, process the direction of the gaze of
the person being perceived. [64][65]
The amygdala is also thought to be a determinant of the level of a person's emotional
intelligence. It is particularly hypothesized that larger amygdalae allow for greater emotional
intelligence, enabling greater societal integration and cooperation with others. [66]
The amygdala processes reactions to violations concerning personal space. These reactions are
absent in persons in whom the amygdala is damaged bilaterally. [67] Furthermore, the amygdala is
found to be activated in fMRI when people observe that others are physically close to them, such
as when a person being scanned knows that an experimenter is standing immediately next to the
scanner, versus standing at a distance.[67]
Aggression[edit]
Animal studies have shown that stimulating the amygdala appears to increase both sexual and
aggressive behavior. Likewise, studies using brain lesions have shown that harm to the
amygdala may produce the opposite effect. Thus, it appears that this part of the brain may play a
role in the display and modulation of aggression. [68]
Fear[edit]
There are cases of human patients with focal bilateral amygdala lesions, due to the rare genetic
condition Urbach-Wiethe disease.[69][70] Such patients fail to exhibit fear-related behaviors, leading
one, 'Patient S.M.', to be dubbed the "woman with no fear". This finding reinforces the conclusion
that the amygdala "plays a pivotal role in triggering a state of fear". [71]
Alcoholism and binge drinking[edit]
The amygdala appears to play a role in binge drinking, being damaged by repeated episodes of
intoxication and withdrawal. [72] Alcoholism is associated with dampened activation in brain
networks responsible for emotional processing[clarification needed], including the amygdala.[73] Protein
kinase C-epsilon in the amygdala is important for regulating behavioral responses
to morphine, ethanol, and controlling anxiety-like behavior. The protein is involved in controlling
the function of other proteins and plays a role in development of the ability to consume a large
amount of ethanol.[74][75]
Anxiety[edit]
There may also be a link between the amygdala and anxiety.[76] In particular, there is a higher
prevalence of females that are affected by anxiety disorders. In an experiment, degu pups were
removed from their mother but allowed to hear her call. In response, the males produced
increased serotonin receptors in the amygdala but females lost them. This led to the males being
less affected by the stressful situation.
The clusters of the amygdala are activated when an individual expresses feelings of fear or
aggression. This occurs because the amygdala is the primary structure of the brain responsible
for fight or flight response. Anxiety and panic attacks can occur when the amygdala senses
environmental stressors that stimulate fight or flight response.
The amygdala is directly associated with conditioned fear. Conditioned fear is the framework
used to explain the behavior produced when an originally neutral stimulus is consistently paired
with a stimulus that evokes fear. The amygdala represents a core fear system in the human
body, which is involved in the expression of conditioned fear. Fear is measured by changes in
autonomic activity including increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, as well as in simple
reflexes such as flinching or blinking.
The central nucleus of the amygdala has direct correlations to the hypothalamus and brainstem –
areas directly related to fear and anxiety. This connection is evident from studies of animals that
have undergone amygdalae removal. Such studies suggest that animals lacking an amygdala
have less fear expression and indulge in non-species-like behavior. Many projection areas of the
amygdala are critically involved in specific signs that are used to measure fear and anxiety.
Mammals have very similar ways of processing and responding to danger. Scientists have
observed similar areas in the brain – specifically in the amygdala – lighting up or becoming more
active when a mammal is threatened or beginning to experience anxiety. Similar parts of the
brain are activated when rodents and when humans observe a dangerous situation, the
amygdala playing a crucial role in this assessment. By observing the amygdala’s functions,
people can determine why one rodent may be much more anxious than another. There is a direct
relationship between the activation of the amygdala and the level of anxiety the subject feels.
Feelings of anxiety start with a catalyst – an environmental stimulus that provokes stress. This
can include various smells, sights, and internal feelings that result in anxiety. The amygdala
reacts to this stimuli by preparing to either stand and fight or to turn and run. This response is
triggered by the release of adrenaline into the bloodstream. Consequently, blood sugar rises,
becoming immediately available to the muscles for quick energy. Shaking may occur in an
attempt to return blood to the rest of the body. A better understanding of the amygdala and its
various functions may lead to a new way of treating clinical anxiety. [77]
Posttraumatic stress disorder[edit]
There seems to be a connection with the amygdalae and how the brain processes posttraumatic
stress disorder. Multiple studies have found that the amygdalae may be responsible for the
emotional reactions of PTSD patients. One study in particular found that when PTSD patients are
shown pictures of faces with fearful expressions, their amygdalae tended to have a higher
activation than someone without PTSD.[78]
Bipolar disorder[edit]
Amygdala dysfunction during face emotion processing is well-documented in bipolar disorder.
Individuals with bipolar disorder showed greater amygdala activity (especially the
amygdala/medial-prefrontal-cortex circuit).[79] [80]
Political orientation[edit]
 Amygdala size has been correlated with cognitive styles with regard to political thinking. A study
found that "greater liberalism was associated with increased gray matter volume in the anterior
cingulate cortex, whereas greater conservatism was associated with increased volume of the
right amygdala." These findings suggest that the volume of the amygdala and anterior cingulate
gyrus may be associated with an individual's ability to tolerate uncertainty and conflict. [81]

See also[edit]
 Amygdala hijack
 BELBIC

 List of regions in the human brain

 Triune brain

 Intercalated cells of the amygdala

Further reading[edit]
 Amygdala Joseph E. LeDoux, Scholarpedia, 3(4):2698. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.2698

What Part of the Brain

Controls Emotions?
 The limbic system

 Fear

 Anger

 Happiness

 Love

 Bottom line

Overview
The brain is a very complex organ. It controls and coordinates everything
from the movement of your fingers to your heart rate. The brain also plays
a crucial role in how you control and process your emotions.
Experts still have a lot of questions about the brain’s role in a range of
emotions, but they’ve pinpointed the origins of some common ones,
including fear, anger, happiness, and love.

Read on to learn more about what part of the brain controls emotions.

Where do emotions come from?

The limbic system is a group of interconnected structures located deep
within the brain. It’s the part of the brain that’s responsible for behavioral
and emotional responses.

Scientists haven’t reached an agreement about the full list of structures that
make up the limbic system, but the following structures are generally
accepted as part of the group:

 Hypothalamus. In addition to controlling emotional responses,

the hypothalamus is also involved in sexual responses, hormone release,
and regulating body temperature.
 Hippocampus. The hippocampus helps preserve and retrieve
memories. It also plays a role in how you understand the spatial
dimensions of your environment.

 Amygdala. The amygdala helps coordinate responses to things in

your environment, especially those that trigger an emotional response.
This structure plays an important role in fear and anger.

 Limbic cortex. This part contains two structures, the cingulate gyrus
and the parahippocampal gyrus. Together, they impact mood,
motivation, and judgement.
What part of the brain controls
fear?
From a biological standpoint, fear is a very important emotion. It helps you
respond appropriately to threatening situations that could harm you.

This response is generated by stimulation of the amygdala, followed by the

hypothalamus. This is why some people with brain damage affecting their
amygdala don’t always respond appropriately to dangerous scenarios.

When the amygdala stimulates the hypothalamus, it initiates the fight-or-

flight response. The hypothalamus sends signals to the adrenal glands to
produce hormones, such as adrenalineand cortisol.

As these hormones enter the bloodstream, you might notice some physical
changes, such as an increase in:

 heart rate
 breathing rate

 blood sugar

 perspiration

In addition to initiating the fight-or-flight response, the amygdala also

plays a role in fear learning. This refers to the process by which you develop
an association between certain situations and feelings of fear.

What part of the brain controls

anger?
Much like fear, anger is a response to threats or stressors in your
environment. When you’re in a situation that seems dangerous and you
can’t escape, you’ll likely respond with anger or aggression. You can think
of the anger response and the fight as part of the fight-or-flight response.

Frustration, such as facing roadblocks while trying to achieve a goal, can

also trigger the anger response.

Anger starts with the amygdala stimulating the hypothalamus, much like in
the fear response. In addition, parts of the prefrontal cortex may also play a
role in anger. People with damage to this area often have trouble
controlling their emotions, especially anger and aggression.

Parts of the prefrontal cortex of the brain may also contribute to the
regulation of an anger response. People with damage to this area of the
brain sometimes have difficulty controlling their emotions, particularly
anger and aggression.

What part of the brain controls

happiness?
Happiness refers to an overall state of well-being or satisfaction. When you
feel happy, you generally have positive thoughts and feelings.

Imaging studies suggest that the happiness response originates partly in

the limbic cortex. Another area called the precuneus also plays a role. The
precuneus is involved in retrieving memories, maintaining your sense of
self, and focusing your attention as you move about your environment.

A 2015 study found that people with larger gray matter volume in their
right precuneus reported being happier. Experts think the precuneus
processes certain information and converts it into feelings of happiness. For
example, imagine you’ve spent a wonderful night out with someone you
care about. Going forward, when you recall this experience and others like
it, you may experience a feeling of happiness.

What part of the brain controls

love?
It may sound strange, but the beginnings of romantic love are associated
with the stress response triggered by your hypothalamus. It makes more
sense when you think about the nervous excitement or anxiety you feel
while falling for someone.

As these feelings grow, the hypothalamus triggers release of other

hormones, such as dopamine, oxytocin, and vasopressin.

Dopamine is associated with your body’s reward system. This helps make
love a desirable feeling.

A small 2005 study showed participants a picture of someone they were

romantically in love with. Then, they showed them a photo of an
acquaintance. When shown a picture of someone they loved, the
participants had increased activity in parts of the brain that are rich in
dopamine.

Oxytocin is often referred to as the “love hormone.” This is largely because

it increases when you hug someone or have an orgasm. It’s produced in the
hypothalamus and released through your pituitary gland. It’s associated
with social bonding as well. This is important for trust and building a
relationship. It can also promote a feeling of calmness and contentment.

Vasopressin is similarly produced in your hypothalamus and released by

your pituitary gland. It’s also involved in social bonding with a partner.
The bottom line
The brain is a complex organ that researchers are still trying to decode. But
experts have identified the limbic system as one of the main parts of the
brain that controls basic emotions.

As technology evolves and scientists get a better glimpse into the human
mind, we’ll likely learn more about the origins of more complex emotions.