Chapter 1: Digital Systems and Binary Numbers

•Digital age and information age

•Digital computers
–general purposes
–many scientific, industrial and commercial applications
•Digital systems
–telephone switching exchanges
–digital camera
–electronic calculators, PDA's
–digital TV
•Discrete information-processing systems
–manipulate discrete elements of information
 Signal

• An information variable represented by physical quantity

• For digital systems, the variable takes on discrete values
– Two level, or binary values are the most prevalent values
• Binary values are represented abstractly by:
– digits 0 and 1
– words (symbols) False (F) and True (T)
– words (symbols) Low (L) and High (H)
– and words On and Off.
• Binary values are represented by values or ranges of
values of physical quantities
 Digital System

•A digital system is an interconnection of digital modules. To

understand the operation of each digital module, it is
necessary to have a basic knowledge of digital circuits
and their logical function.
•A major trend in digital design methodology is the use of a
HDL to describe and simulate the functionality of a digital
circuit, it is important that students become familiar with
an HDL‐ based design methodology.
 Binary Numbers
• Decimal number Base or radix

… a5a4a3a2a1.a1a2a3… aj
Decimal point Power

 105 a5 104 a4 103 a3 102 a2 101 a1 100 a0 101 a1 10 2 a2 10 3 a3 

Example:

7,329 7 103 3 102 2 101 9 100

•General form of base-r system

an  r n 1  a2 
r n an 1  r 2 a1  r 1 a2 
r1 a0 a1  r 2  am 
r m
Coefficient: aj = 0 to r 1
 Binary Numbers
Example: Base-2 number
(11010.11) 2 (26.75)10
1 2 4 1 23 0 22 1 21 0 20 1 2 1 1 2 2
Example: Base-5 number
(4021.2)5
4 53 0 52 2 51 1 50 2 51 (511.5)10

Example: Base-8 number

(127.4)8
1 83 2 82 1 81 7 80 4 81 (87.5)10

Example: Base-16 number

(B65 F)16 11 163 6 162 5 161 15 160 (46,687)10

 Binary Numbers
Example: Base-2 number
(110101) 2 32 16 4 1 (53)10

Special Powers of 2

210 (1024) is Kilo, denoted "K"

220 (1,048,576) is Mega, denoted "M"

230 (1,073, 741,824)is Giga, denoted "G"

Powers of two
Table 1.1
 Arithmetic operation
Arithmetic operations with numbers in base r follow the same rules as decimal
numbers.
 Binary Arithmetic

•Single Bit Addition with Carry

•Multiple Bit Addition
•Single Bit Subtraction with Borrow
•Multiple Bit Subtraction
•Multiplication
•BCD Addition
 Binary Arithmetic
•Addition •Subtraction

Augend: 101101 Minuend: 101101

Addend: +100111 Subtrahend: 100111

Sum: 1010100 Difference: 000110

•Multiplication
Multiplicand 1011
Multiplier 101
Partial Products 1011
0000 -
1011 - -
Product 110111
Number-Base Conversions

Name Radix Digits

Binary 2 0,1
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
The six letters (in addition to the 10 integers) in
hexadecimal represent: 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15,
respectively.
 Number-Base Conversions
Example1.1
Convert decimal 41 to binary. The process is continued until the integer quotient
becomes 0.
 Number-Base Conversions
The arithmetic process can be manipulated more conveniently as follows:
Number-Base Conversions
Example 1.2
Convert decimal 153 to octal. The required base r is 8.

Example1.3
Convert (0.6875)10 to binary.
The process is continued until the fraction becomes 0 or until the number of digits has
sufficient accuracy.
Number-Base Conversions
Example1.3

To convert a decimal fraction to a number expressed in base r, a similar

procedure is used. However, multiplication is by r instead of 2, and the
coefficients found from the integers may range in value from 0 to r 1
instead of 0 and 1.
 Number-Base Conversions
Example1.4
Convert (0.513)10 to octal.

From Examples 1.1 and 1.3: (41.6875)10 = (101001.1011)2

From Examples 1.2 and 1.4: (153.513)10 = (231.406517)8
 Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers
Numbers with different bases: Table 1.2.
 Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers
Conversion from binary to octal can be done by positioning the binary number into
groups of three digits each, starting from the binary point and proceeding to the left
and to the right.

(10 110 001 101 011 ． 111 100 000 110) 2 = (26153.7406)8
2 6 1 5 3 7 4 0 6
Conversion from binary to hexadecimal is similar, except that the binary number is
divided into groups of four digits:

Conversion from octal or hexadecimal to binary is done by reversing the preceding

procedure.
 Complements of Numbers
 There are two types of complements for each base-r system: the radix complement and
diminished radix complement.
the r's complement and the second as the (r 1)'s complement.

■ Diminished Radix Complement

Example:

For binary numbers, r = 2 and r –1 = 1, so the 1's complement of N is (2n 1) –N.
Example:
 Complements of Numbers
■ Radix Complement
The r's complement of an n-digit number N in base r is defined as rn –N for N ≠ 0
and as 0 for N = 0. Comparing with the (r 1) 's complement, we note that the r's
complement is obtained by adding 1 to the (r 1) 's complement, since rn –N = [(rn 
1) –N] + 1.
Example: Base-10

The 10's complement of 012398 is 987602

The 10's complement of 246700 is 753300
Example: Base-10
The 2's complement of 1101100 is 0010100
The 2's complement of 0110111 is 1001001
 Complements of Numbers
■ Subtraction with Complements
The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M –N in base r can be done as follows:
 Complements of Numbers
Example 1.5
Using 10's complement, subtract 72532 –3250.

Example 1.6
Using 10's complement, subtract 3250 –72532

There is no end carry.

Therefore, the answer is –(10's complement of 30718) = 69282.

 Complements of Numbers
Example 1.7
Given the two binary numbers X = 1010100 and Y = 1000011, perform the subtraction (a)
X –Y and (b) Y X by using 2's complement.

There is no end carry.

Therefore, the answer is
Y –X = (2's complement
of 1101111) = 0010001.
 Complements of Numbers
 Subtraction of unsigned numbers can also be done by means of the (r 1)'s
complement. Remember that the (r 1) 's complement is one less then the r's
complement.
Example 1.8
Repeat Example 1.7, but this time using 1's complement.

There is no end carry,

Therefore, the answer is
Y –X = (1's complement
of 1101110) = 0010001.
 Signed Binary Numbers
 To represent negative integers, we need a notation for negative values.
 It is customary to represent the sign with a bit placed in the leftmost position of the
number.
 The convention is to make the sign bit 0 for positive and 1 for negative.
Example:

Table 3 lists all possible four-bit signed binary numbers in the three representations.
Signed Binary Numbers
 Signed Binary Numbers
■ Arithmetic Addition
The addition of two numbers in the signed-magnitude system follows the rules of
ordinary arithmetic. If the signs are the same, we add the two magnitudes and give
the sum the common sign. If the signs are different, we subtract the smaller
magnitude from the larger and give the difference the sign if the larger magnitude.
 The addition of two signed binary numbers with negative numbers represented in
signed-2's-complement form is obtained from the addition of the two numbers,
including their sign bits.
 A carry out of the sign-bit position is discarded.
Example:
Binary Codes
■ BCD Code A number with k decimal digits will
require 4k bits in BCD. Decimal 396
is represented in BCD with 12bits as
0011 1001 0110, with each group
of 4 bits representing one decimal
digit. A decimal number in BCD is
the same as its equivalent binary
number only when the number is
between 0 and 9. A BCD number
greater than 10 looks different from
its equivalent binary number, even
though both contain 1's and 0's.
Moreover, the binary combinations
1010 through 1111 are not used
and have no meaning in BCD.
 Signed Binary Numbers
■ Arithmetic Subtraction
In 2’
s-complement form:
1. Take the 2’ s complement of the subtrahend (including the sign bit) and add it to
the minuend (including sign bit).
2. A carry out of sign-bit position is discarded.
( A) 
( B ) ( A) ( B )
( A) 
( B ) ( A) ( B )
Example:

(6) (13) (11111010 11110011)

(11111010 + 00001101)

00000111 (+ 7)
Binary Codes
Example:
Consider decimal 185 and its corresponding value in BCD and binary:

■ BCD Addition
 Binary Codes
Example:
Consider the addition of 184 + 576 = 760 in BCD:

■ Decimal Arithmetic
 Binary Codes
■ Other Decimal Codes
 Binary Codes
■ Gray Code
 Binary Codes
■ ASCII Character Code
 Binary Codes
■ ASCII Character Code
 Binary Codes
■ ASCII Character Code
 ASCII Character Codes
•American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (Refer to Table 1.7)
•A popular code used to represent information sent
as character-based data.
•It uses 7-bits to represent:
– 94 Graphic printing characters.
– 34 Non-printing characters
•Some non-printing characters are used for text
format (e.g. BS = Backspace, CR = carriage return)
•Other non-printing characters are used for record
marking and flow control (e.g. STX and ETX start
and end text areas).
ASCII Properties

ASCII has some interesting properties:

Digits 0 to 9 span Hexadecimal values 3016 to 3916 .
Upper case A - Z span 4116 to 5A16 .
Lower case a - z span 6116 to 7A16 .
•Lower to upper case translation (and vice versa)
occurs by flipping bit 6.
Delete (DEL) is all bits set, a carryover from when
punched paper tape was used to store messages.
Punching all holes in a row erased a mistake!
 Binary Codes
■ Error-Detecting Code
 To detect errors in data communication and processing, an eighth bit is sometimes
added to the ASCII character to indicate its parity.
 A parity bit is an extra bit included with a message to make the total number of 1's
either even or odd.
Example:
Consider the following two characters and their even and odd parity:
 Binary Codes
■ Error-Detecting Code

•Redundancy (e.g. extra information), in the form of extra

bits, can be incorporated into binary code words to detect
and correct errors.
•A simple form of redundancy is parity, an extra bit
appended onto the code word to make the number of 1’ s
odd or even. Parity can detect all single-bit errors and
some multiple-bit errors.
•A code word has even parity if the number of 1’ s in the
code word is even.
•A code word has odd parity if the number of 1’ s in the
code word is odd.
 Binary Storage and Registers
■ Registers
 A binary cell is a device that possesses two stable states and is capable of storing
one of the two states.
 A register is a group of binary cells. A register with n cells can store any discrete
quantity of information that contains n bits.
n cells 2n possible states

• A binary cell
– two stable state
– store one bit of information
– examples: flip-flop circuits, ferrite cores, capacitor
• A register
– a group of binary cells
– AX in x86 CPU
■ Register Transfer
a transfer of the information stored in one register to another
one of the major operations in digital system
an example
Transfer of information
•The other major component of a digital system
–circuit elements to manipulate individual bits of information
 Binary Logic
■ Definition of Binary Logic
 Binary logic consists of binary variables and a set of logical operations. The variables
are designated by letters of the alphabet, such as A, B, C, x, y, z, etc, with each
variable having two and only two distinct possible values: 1 and 0, There are three
basic logical operations: AND, OR, and NOT.
 Binary Logic
■ The truth tables for AND, OR, and NOT are given in Table 1.8.
 Binary Logic
■ Logic gates
Example of binary signals
 Binary Logic
■ Logic gates
Graphic Symbols and Input-Output Signals for Logic gates:

Fig. 1.4 Symbols for digital logic circuits

Fig. 1.5
Input-Output signals
for gates
 Binary Logic
■ Logic gates
Graphic Symbols and Input-Output Signals for Logic gates:

Fig. 1.6 Gates with multiple inputs

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