Understanding by Design Handbook PDF

Jay McTighe and Grant Wiggins
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

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Stage 1: Identify Desired Results (Modules 4-6)
MODULE4: Identifymg Enduring Understandings - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 69
MODULE5: From Topics and Skills to Understandings - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 85
MODULE6: Framing Units Around Essential Questions - - - - - - - - - - - - - 107
Stage 2: Determine Acceptable Evidence (Modules 7-11)

MODULE7: Evidence of Understanding - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 125
MODULE8: Transforming Understandings into Performances - - - - - - - - - - 133
MODULE9: Designing Performance Tasks - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 139
MODULE10: Designing Scoring Rubrics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 161
MODULE11: Anchoring Unit Designs - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 177
Testing and Peer Review (Modules 20-21)

MODULE20: Testing Designs Against Standards - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 241
MODULE21: Peer Review - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 263
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Figure 1.1: The Six Facets of Understanding . . . .34 Figure 4.1: Framework for Establishing
Figure 1.2: Relationship Among Knowledge, Skill, Curricular Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
and Understanding (Graphic Figure 4.2: Establishing Curricular Priorities
Representations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 (Assessment Course) . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Figure 4.3: Establishing Curricular Priorities
Figure 2.1: Stages in the Backward Design (Nutrition Unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 Figure 4.4: Establishing Curricular Priorities
Figure 2.2: Unit Design in a Larger Context . . . . .40 (American Revolution Unit) . . . . . . . .77
Figure 4.5: Targeting Possible Understanding
Figure 3.1: Identify Desired Results Using the Filters (Government Unit) . .78
(Directions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .SO Figure 4.6: Targeting Possible Understandings
Figure 3.2: Determine Acceptable Evidence Using the Filters (Apples Unit) . . . . . .79
(Directions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 Figure 4.7: Targeting Possible Understanding
Figure 3.3: Performance Task Blueprint Using the Filters (Satire Unit) . . . . . .80
(Directions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Figure 4.8: Targeting Possible Understanding
Figure 3.4: Plan Learning Experiences and Using the Filters (Scientific Method
Instruction (Directions) . . . . . . . . . . .53 Unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Figure 3.5: Unit Cover Page (Nutrition Unit) . . . .54
Figure 3.6: Identify Desired Results Figure 5.1: Enduring Understandings:
(Nutrition Unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Overarching and Topical . . . . . . . . . .87
Figure 3.7: Determine Acceptable Evidence Figure 5.2: Skills Compared to Understanding . .89
(Nutrition Unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 Figure 5.3: From Topics to Understandings (Civil
Figure 3.8: Performance Task Blueprint War Unit and Nutrition Unit) . . . . . .93
(Nutrition Unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 Figure 5.4: From Topics to Understanding
Figure 3.9: Blueprint for Other Evidence (Friendship Unit and Weather Unit) . .94
(Nutrition Unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 Figure 5.5: From a Skill or Process to
Figure 3.10: Plan Learning Experiences and Understanding (Swimming Course
Instruction (Nutrition Unit) . . . . . . . .59 and Persuasive Writing Unit) . . . . . . .95
Figure 3.11: Guide for the Backward Design
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
V
T H E U N D E R S T A N D I N G B Y D E S I G N H A N D B O O K
Figure 5.6: From a Skill or Process to Figure 10.1: Naive Versus Sophisticated
Understanding (Scientific Method Understanding (Persuasive Writing
and Metric Conversion Unit) . . . . . . .96 Unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,167
Figure 5.7: From Content to Topical Figure 10.2: Analytic Rubric for Understanding . ,168
Understanding (Statistics and Figure 10.3: Descriptors for an Understanding
Data Analysis Unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97 Rubric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Figure 5.8: From Topical to Overarching Figure 10.4: An Analytic Rubric with Two
Understanding (Friendship Unit) . . .98 Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Figure 5.9: Web Links: Linking Concepts to
Form Generalizations (Statistics Figure 11.1: Two Models for Anchoring a Rubric ,178
and Data Analysis Unit) . . . . . . . . . . .99
Figure 13.1: A Comparison of Uncoverage
Figure 6.1: Essential Questions: Overarching and Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .190
and Topical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,115 Figure 13.2: Coverage Versus Uncoverage
Figure 6.2: Brainstorming Overarching and (Part 1) (Examples) . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Topical Questions (Insects Unit) . . . .116 Figure 13.3: Coverage Versus Uncoverage
Figure 6.3: Brainstorming Overarching and (Part 2) (Examples) . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
Topical Questions (Nutrition Unit) . ,117
Figure 6.4: Generating Essential Questions Figure 14.1: Techniques to Check for
Using the Facets (Civil War Unit) . . .118 Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
Figure 6.5: Generating Essential Questions
Figure 5.1: Unit Design Considerations Using
Using the Facets (Nutrition Unit) . . .119
WHERE (Nutrition Unit) . . . . . . ,213
Figure 7.1: Continuum of Assessment Methods .126
Figure 6.1: Generating Entry Questions
Figure 7.2: Curricular Priorities and Assessment
(Nutrition Unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,127
Figure 6.2: Questioning for Understanding . .220
Figure 7.3: Considering a Range of Evidence
(Literature Unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131 Figure 17.1: Teaching Types . . . . . . . ..... . .226
Figure 8.1: Transforming Targeted Understanding Figure 18.1: Using a Story Structure
into Possible Performances (History (Ecosystems Unit) . . . . . . . . . . . ,230
Unit on the 1960s) . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
Figure 8.2: Performance Verbs Based on the Figure 19.1: Using a Flow Chart for Task
Facets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,136 Analysis (Thanksgiving Meal) . . . ,236
Figure 19.2: Using a Flow Chart for Task
Figure 9.1: Constructing a Performance Task Analysis (Russian History Unit) . .237
Scenario (Mathematics Unit) . . . . . .147
Figure 9.2: Possible Goals for Performance Figure 20.1: Design Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148 Figure 20.2: Test 1 (Stage 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,250
Figure 9.3: Possible Student Roles for Figure 20.3: Test 2 (Stage 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,251
Performance Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 Figure 20.4: Test 3 (Stage 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Figure 9.4: Possible Audiences for Figure 20.5: Test 4 (Stage 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
Performance Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150 Figure 20.6: Test 5 (Stage 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,254
Figure 9.5: Possible Products and Figure 20.7: Test 6 (Stage 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,255
Performances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151 Figure 20.8: Performance Task Blueprint
Figure 9.6: Performance Assessment Ideas (Example of a Validity Problem) . .256
Based on the Facets . . . . . . . . . . . . .152 Figure 20.9: Test 7 (Stage 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,257
Figure 9.7: Assessing Understanding Using the Figure 20.10: Test 8 (Stage 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,258
Facets (Part 1) (Topic: Assessment) .153 Figure 20.1 1: Test 9 (Stage 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,259
Figure 9.8: Assessing Understanding Using the Figure 20.12: Test 10 (Stage 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Facets (Part 2) (Topic: Assessment) . ,154 Figure 20.13: Test 11 (Stage 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Figure 20.14: Test 12 (Stage 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262
vi
Worksheet 1.1: Clarifylng Understanding . . . . . . .33 Worksheet 6.1: Brainstorming Essential
Worksheet 1.2: Relationship Among Knowledge, Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Skill, and Understanding . . . . . . .35 Worksheet 6.2: Brainstorming Overarching
and Topical Questions . . . . . . . .121
Worksheet 3.1: Unit Cover Page . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 Worksheet 6.3: Generating Essential Questions
Worksheet 3.2: Identify Desired Results . . . . . . .62 Using the Facets . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Worksheet 3.3: Determine Acceptable Evidence . .63
Worksheet 3.4: Performance Task Blueprint . . . .64 Worksheet 7.1: Considering a Range of
Worksheet 3.5: Blueprint for Other Evidence . . .65 Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..132
Worksheet 3.6: Plan Learning Experiences and
Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 Worksheet 8.1: Transforming Targeted
Understanding into Possible
Worksheet 4.1: Establishing Curricular Performances . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Worksheet 4.2: Targeting Possible Underst andings Worksheet 9.1: Prompts for Constructing a
Using the Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . .83 Performance Task Scenario . . . .155
Worksheet 9.2: Possible Goals for Performance
Worksheet 5.1: Identifylng Overarching and Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
Topical Understandings . . . . . . . 100 Worksheet 9.3: Planning Matrix for a
Worksheet 5.2: From Topics to Understandings .101 Performance Task Scenario . . . .157
Worksheet 5.3: From a Skill or Process Worksheet 9.4: Assessing Understanding
to Understanding . . . . . . . . . .102 Using the Facets (Part 1) . . . . . .158
Worksheet 5.4: From Content to Topical Worksheet 9.5: Assessing Understanding
Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . .103 Using the Facets (Part 2) . . . . . .159
Worksheet 5.5: From Topical to Overarching
Understandings . . . . . . . . . . . .104 Worksheet 10.1: Naive Versus Sophisticated
Worksheet 5.6: Web Links: Linking Concepts to Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
Form Generalizations . . . . . . . .105 Worksheet 10.2: A Holistic Rubric Frame . . . . . .173
vi i
Worksheet 0.3: An Analytic Rubric Frame . . . . ,174 Worksheet 4.2: Anticipating

Worksheet 0.4: An Analytic Rubric Frame for Misunderstandings . . . . . . . . . .206
the Facets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175 Wo rksheet 4.3: Uncovering
Misunderstandings . . . . . . . . . .207
Worksheet 12.1: Engaging Design . . . . . . . . . . . .185
Worksheet 12.2: Effective Design . . . . . . . . . . . .186 Worksheet 15.1: Unit Design Considerations
Worksheet 12.3: Engaging and Effective Using WHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Worksheet 16.1: Generating Entry Questions . . .221
Worksheet 13.1: Coverage Versus Uncoverage
(Part 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195 Worksheet 18.1: Using a Story Structure . . . . . . ,231
Worksheet 13.2: Coverage Versus Uncoverage
(Part 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 Worksheet 2 1.1: Individual Review Form for a
Worksheet 13.3: What Needs Uncovering? . . . . .197 Unit Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
Worksheet 21.2: Group Review Form for a
Worksheet 14.1: Misunderstandings and Unit Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
Misconceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
viii
Many individuals, far too numerous to mention, have helped us develop and re-
fine the ideas and materials in this handbook over the last few years. First, we
thank the hundreds of educators who gave us vital feedback and guidance as they
worked with early versions of the template and worksheets. Jane Milley and the
districts in the Cranberry Partnership were especially helpful in making these ma-
terials more practical and user friendly We sincerely appreciate the reviews and
recommendations provided by Bob Izzulino, Bob Jervis, H.B. Lantz, Joe Mills, Dan
Nuzzi, Beverly Pish, and James Reidl. Discussions with these experienced and
thoughtful educators helped sharpen our thinking and improve this handbook. We
learned a great deal from studyng other curriculum and assessment design mate-
rials and, in particular, acknowledge the fine work of the Project Zero group at
Harvard University and the Maryland Assessment Consortium.
Special thanks are due to the members of the Understanding by Design cadre
for their tireless efforts on behalf of this project: John Brown, Hilarie Davis, Lynn
Erickson, Bill O’Rourke,Fran Prolman, Eleanor Renee Rodriguez, and Elliott Seif.
Whether through their critiques of draft material, their assistance in workshops, or
their recommendations of training ideas and support materials, this was a group
that truly deserves the name “critical friends.” In particular, we are indebted to
ix
Lynn and Elliott, who gave countless hours of helpful criticism and advice. Their
input has resulted in greater precision of language, clarity of examples, and atten-
tion to scaffolding to support educators in learning and applymg the ideas of
Understanding by Design. We gratefully acknowledge ASCD and the Pew Charitable
Trusts for supporting the work of this talented development team.
Like the book, Understanding by Design, this handbook would never have come
about without the material support and enthusiasm provided by Sally Chapman at
ASCD. Sally did more than provide helpful feedback and direction for the design
team-she was the first to have a vision of a comprehensive set of materials and
services to support Understanding by Design, and the confidence in the authors to
underwrite the various strands of the project. We are very grateful.
We are also thankful to Margaret Oosterman and Gary Bloom for their ability
to fashion an unwieldy manuscript into a beautiful, well-edited, and well-designed
final package. Margaret and her editorial colleagues deserve a special commenda-
tion for their patience and good-natured understanding in dealing with the unend-
ing changes and refinements that are the hallmarks of the authors. The manuscript
is better for their talents and patience.
Finally, we once again thank our families for tolerating the endless phone calls,
trips back and forth between Maryland and New Jersey, and the hours spent on the
road using these materials. We trust that they again-understand.
X
Jay McTighe serves as Director of the Maryland Assessment Consortium, a state
collaboration of school districts working together to provide professional devel-
opment and to create and share performance assessments. McTighe has also been
involved with school improvement projects at the Maryland State Department of
Education. He has worked as a classroom teacher, resource specialist, and direc-
tor of a state residential enrichment program. He has published articles in a
number of leading educational journals and books, and is coauthor of Assessing
Learning in the Classroom (McTighe & Ferrera, 1998). McTighe can be reached by
e-mail at jmctigh@aol.com.
Grant Wiggins is the President and Director of Research for the Center on
Learning, Assessment, and School Structure (CLASS), a not-for-profit educational
organization in Pennington, New Jersey CLASS consults with schools, districts,
and state education departments on a variety of reform issues; organizes national
conferences and workshops; and develops video, software, and print materials on
assessment and curricular change. Wiggins is the author of two books, Educative
Assessment and Assessing Student Performance. His many articles have appeared in
journals such as Educational Leadership and Phi Delta Kappan. He can be reached
by e-mail at gmggins@classnj.org or at CLASS, 65 S.Main St., Pennington, NJ
08534.
xi
B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
Stage I: Stage 2: Stage 3:

Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning Experiences
A B Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instruction
B B Essential Questions D B Performance Tasks H B Sequence of Learning
C B Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint (D) Experiences and Instruction
E B Quizzes, Tests, Prompts
F B Unprompted Evidence
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, G)
Like two sides of a coin, The Understanding by Design Hundbook is the natural com-
panion to the book Understanding by Design (ASCD, 1998). Understanding by Design
provides the conceptual foundation for a theory of understanding that is based on
six facets of understanding. The book discusses the logic of a backward design
approach to planning curriculum, assessment, and instruction; criteria for selecting
matters of understanding; design standards for quality control; and misconceptions
and misunderstandings. The handbook offers the practical side-a unit planning
template, worksheets, exercises, design tools, design standards and tests, and a peer
review process for learning and applying the ideas in Understanding by Design.
OVERVIEW
The handbook was developed to assist educators interested in designing units and
courses of study that focus on developing and deepening students’ understanding.
It is also intended to serve as a resource for undergraduate- and graduate-level
coursework and inservice professional development. We believe that various users,
including teachers (elementary through graduate level), school-based administra-
tors, curriculum directors, subject matter specialists, staff developers, and assess-
ment-evaluation personnel, will find valuable ideas and resources within it.
Much of the explanatory text in the handbook comes from the book
Understanding by Design. But a sharp-eyed reader of both the book and the hand-
book will notice differences. The handbook was written on the heels of numerous
workshops. Feedback from workshop participants, as well as critique sessions with
our colleagues, have led to refinements in how we label, explain, and analyze key
ideas-for the better, we think. Our own work has been iterative, in other words,
just as we say unit design work must be. We trust that these text revisions enhance
the understanding and usefulness of the Understanding by Design theory
Tabs
To offer maximum flexibility to users, we have divided the handbook into six
sections, separated by tabs. Within the sections are 21 modules. The modules are
grouped according to their use in the three stages of the backward design process.
Here are the tab titles and a brief description of the materials in each section:
rn Overview. The Overview contains the Introduction; the first and only
chapter, entitled “Understanding Understanding”; and Modules 1-3. The “under-
standing” chapter explains the multifaceted nature of understanding and discuss-
es the six facets of understanding, which provide the framework for the
Understanding by Design approach. Modules 1-3 explain the backward design
process and show readers the Understanding by Design template. The five-page
template is the final product that designers complete to plan a unit. Users are not
expected to understand how to fill it out until after they have worked through the
handbook. The rest of the handbook explains how to complete the template, con-
centrating on specific elements of the template pages, and guiding readers through
the three stages of the backward design process.
rn Stage 1 (Modules 4-6). The modules contain information to complete page
1 of the template.
rn Stage 2 (Modules 7-11). The modules contain information to complete
pages 2-4 of the template.
rn Stage 3 (Modules 12-19). The modules contain information to complete
page 5 of the template.
Testing and Peer Review (Modules 20-21). Module 20 contains standards
and accompanying tests for designers to use for self-assessment and peer review.
2
I N T R O D U C T I O N
Module 2 1 contains information to conduct a peer review, using the standards and
tests in Module 20.
Glossary and Bibliography. We tried to make the modules as self-con-
tained as possible, but key terms recur throughout the handbook, and defining
them each time they appear seemed cumbersome. So we put them in the Glossary
for quick reference when clarification is needed. The Bibliography lists the refer-
ences cited in the handbook plus other related publications.
Modules
Each module explains a particular idea about Understanding by Design. Mod-
ule figures and worksheets use graphic organizers, design tools, and exercises to
help clarify those ideas. Worksheets are designed to inductively guide learning and
stimulate reflection about the big ideas in the Understanding by Design approach.
Designers can use them to plan their own unit. Many worksheets have a corre-
sponding figure; that is, a figure is a completed worksheet. For example, Figure 3.5
(Fig. 3.5) is a filled-out version of Worksheet 3.1 (WS 3.1). To try to anticipate
reader misconceptions about ideas and their application, we have included
“MisconceptionAlerts,”which are set off within the module text.
A module concludes with a reflection from our mythical 5th grade teacher Bob
James. James and his unit on nutrition were introduced in the book Understunding
by Design. In the handbook, James attempts to apply the Understanding by Design
ideas as he develops a three-week unit on nutrition.
ADVI O U T U S I N G THE HANDBOO
Users of this handbook will likely face two questions: Where should I begn? and
In what order should I go? We try here to explain why these understandable questions
are difficult to answer, and how that fact has influenced the structure of the handbook.
As we note repeatedly throughout this book, curriculum design is an iterative,
not a linear, step-by-step,standardized process. Successful designers find themselves
constantly circling back to aspects of the design that need to be revised or rethought
entirely in light of reflection, feedback from others, and experience with learners.
But design work is more than iterative; it is idiosyncratic: The starting points,
sequences, and tools will be as varied as the individual users in unique settings.
3
Building a unit design is more like painting from a blank canvas than painting
by numbers, more like cooking from available ingredients than following cookbook
recipes. As educational designers, we are like architects developing a blueprint. The
architect cannot, in one fell swoop, listen to a client, review the building codes,
research materials and labor costs, and develop a blueprint by following a step-by-
step recipe. The blueprint emerges through a process of trymg out ideas, getting
feedback, matching the proposed ideas to the reality of the available space, and ful-
filling client wishes. Each design idea affects other design ideas-and leads to a
new, perhaps unexpected, reaction by the client, requiring more changes.
Architecture also has crucial givens, such as building codes, budget, and num-
ber of rooms and their functions. The challenge in design is to keep playmg with
the imaginative possibilities while ensuring that all the givens are honored.
Curricular design has a similar challenge. The designer can imagine all sorts of
wonderful possibilities, but a new idea about learning activities may require
rethinking the proposed assessment plan. Givens exist here, as well-state content
standards, realistic time and resource constraints, and student achievement levels
and interest-and they must be balanced with our imagination.
Thus, this handbook cannot and does not provide a step-by-step procedure for
building a unit. What we have done instead is to organize the handbook into mod-
ules that provide an overall logic (corresponding to the three stages of backward
design) but permit beginning in many different places and following many differ-
ent paths to achieve the same end-a completed design that meets standards.
Four common starting places in unit design illustrate both the difficulty of pre-
scribing a sequence and the virtue of a modular handbook. Designs often begin
with a state content standard; a favorite learning activity; a performance assessment
task; or an event, idea, or text we want students to understand.
Clearly, each of these four starting points takes us through a different
sequence. For example, when we begin with a content standard, we have to deter-
mine exactly what it means and what constitutes evidence of its attainment (Stage
2). Then we consider what learning activities and instruction would be appropri-
ate for meeting the standard (Stage 3). On the other hand, when we begin with a
performance task, we are likely to go somewhat in the opposite direction. We try
to specifically and clearly determine what specific understanding such a task
could assess (Stage l),what state standards can be addressed by the unit, and what
4
I N T R O D U C T I O N
changes to the task and scoring criteria can be made to make it a more valid mea-
sure. In both cases, our movement will be iterative: We will likely rethink and
revise the desired understandings and appropriate assessments as we work through
the whole design.
Though no specific recipe is therefore possible, we offer some general advice. As
we said earlier, the handbook is organized to reflect the logic of backward design, and
the sequence of the modules reflects the logic of the three stages and the order of the
design template. The worksheets in each module are organized roughly by degree of
difficulty, with the simpler design exercises first. Thus, though the modules have
been written to be relatively independent of one another, they are arranged in a delib-
erate sequence. Designers will be best served by skimming the content of a27 the
modules before beginning intensive design work. We also recommend that, regard-
less of the starting point, designers gravitate as soon as possible to answer the Stage
1 question of design purpose: Toward what important understandings, knowledge,
and skill does it aim? Otherwise, designers run the risk of developing or refining
activities and assessments that are inappropriate or invalid. The flip side of the advice
is that we encourage designers to postpone the planning of specific learning activi-
ties (Stage 3), even though this area is often the most satisfymg, until they have clar-
ified the desired results and possible assessments in Stages 1 and 2.
w . . . .
We hope that the information in this book will stimulate individual reflection
and promote thoughtful conversation among colleagues. We trust that the tem-
plate, design tools, and tests will lead to improved designs-curriculums focused
explicitly on key questions and big ideas worthy of understanding, more convinc-
ing evidence of understanding by students, and more engaging instruction and
learning for students and teachers alike. Ultimately, observable and measurable
improvements in learning and performance will result.
For up-to-date amplification of ideas provided in the handbook, readers are
referred to the ASCD Web site on the Internet: http://ubd.ascd.org. This site
includes an Understanding by Design home page containing updated information,
frequently asked questions, information about an online database of units designed
in the Understanding by Design format, and an Ask the Authors section.
5
There are many different ways of understanding,
overlapping but not reducible to one another and,
correspondingly, many dvferent ways
of teaching to understand.
-PASSMORE,1982, P. 210
We speak and write about understanding as if we fully understand it. But though
we all claim as teachers to be after understanding, the irony is that we may not ade-
quately understand our goal. This may seem like an odd statement. Teachers aim
for understanding everyday, don’t they? How can they not know what they are aim-
ing for? Yet, there is plenty of evidence to suggest that “to understand” or “to teach
for understanding” are ambiguous and slippery terms.
We see some of this conceptual uncertainty in the Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives: Classification of Educational Goals (Bloom, 1956). Bloom and his col-
leagues wrote the book to classify and clarify the range of possible intellectual
objectives,from the cognitively easy to the difficult. It was meant to classify degrees
of understanding, in effect.
But in the introduction to the taxonomy, Bloom (1956) and others refer to
understanding as a commonly sought but ill-defined objective:
For example, some teachers believe their students should “really understand,”
others desire their students to “internalize knowledge,” still others want their stu-
dents to “grasp the core or essence.” Do they all mean the same thing? Specifically,
what does a student do who “really understands,” which he does not do when he
Notefrom the authors: Much informa-
does not understand? Through reference to the taxonomy . . . teachers should be able tion in this chapter is from Wiggms
& McTighe (1998). We provide it
to define such nebulous terms (p. 1). here to give readers the conceptual
framework of Understanding by
Design.
7
At the heart of the confusion, we believe, is that understanding is different

from knowledge. Of course, understanding depends upon subject knowledge, but
understanding is more than knowledge, as familiar classroom scenes suggest. At
one time or another we have all seen that a student can have a great deal of knowl-
edge but limited understanding, such as what the knowledge means. We have also
seen the opposite: A student may not have read the homework fully or carefully,
but nonetheless has grasped the subtler points of an idea, seemingly lost on more
dutiful students. Knowing the facts and doing well on tests of knowledge don’t
necessarily mean that students understand what they know, and doing poorly on
tests of factual knowledge doesn’t mean that students lack insight into the key
ideas of a topic.
The same is true for accomplished men and women. In talking about Charles
Darwin, researcher Frank Sulloway (1996) notes that what
Differentiates revolutionary from nonrevolutionary thinkers is almost never a

greater knowledge of the facts. . . . Darwin, who knew less, somehow understood
more (p. 20).
U N D E R STA N D I N G
A key difference between knowledge and understanding based on knowledge is

that the latter is always fluid, transferable to new contexts and transformable into
new theory. Mere knowledge can be rote, more like correct beliefs than insight.
Genuine performances of understanding, as Howard Gardner (199 l),Harvard psy-
chologist and educational researcher, puts it, occur when “students are able to take
information and skills . . . and apply them flexibly and appropriately in a new and
at least somewhat unanticipated situation” (p. 9). Such performances are opposed
to “ritualistic”performances in which students “simply respond . . . by spewing
back the particular facts, concepts, or problems sets that were taught” (p. 9).
Bloom (1956) and his colleagues remind us of this difference when they
recount a famous John Dewey story:
Almost everyone has had the experience of being unable to answer a question
involving recall when the question is stated in one form, and then having little
8
U N D E R S T A N D I N G U N D E R S T A N D I N G
difficulty . . . when the question is stated in another form. This is well illustrated by
John Dewey’s story in which he asked a class, “What would you find if you dug a hole
in the earth?”Getting no response, he repeated the question; again he obtained noth-
ing but silence.
The teacher chided Dr. Dewey, “You’re asking the wrong question.” Turning to
the class, she asked, “What is the state of the center of the earth?”
The class replied in unison, “igneous fusion” (p. 29).
Dewey’s story also illustrates the rote nature of some knowledge learning. The
emphasis on knowledge as involving little more than remembering or recall dis-
tinguishes it from conceptions of knowledge that involve understanding, insight,
or that are phrased as “really know” or “true knowledge” (Bloom, 1956, p. 29).
The example is extreme, but the problem is universal. Teachers are often sat-
isfied by signs of apparent understanding, such as students giving back the right
words, definitions, or formulas. Change the question or terms, and students may
reveal that they do not really understand what teachers thought they did
This problem affects our most successful students, not just our low achievers.
Exacerbating our problems as teachers and curriculum designers is the disturbing
and well-documented phenomenon of student misconceptions about key ideas-
misunderstandings that persist despite thorough teaching and apparent under-
standing as revealed on tests. (See Module 14: Misunderstanding.)
The problem of sorting out apparent from genuine understanding is made
more pressing by a world of high-stakes testing and grading. For as long as edu-
cation permits a cat-and-mouse game that gives students an incentive to seem to
understand what they are supposed to learn, the challenge of teaching and assess-
ing for understanding will be great.
If “correct” answers can offer inadequate or misleading evidence of under-
standing, or if good test results can hide misunderstanding, then what is genuine
understanding? How does it manifest itself? How can design more effectively and
reliably reveal it? Attempts to teach for understanding-by design as opposed to
dumb luck-must answer these questions.
Understanding involves insights and the ability to use them effectively. But we
know from common language use that understanding means different things.
Sometimes people think of understanding as highly theoretical; at other times, they
see it revealed in effective, practical real-world applications. Sometimes they think
9
of it as dispassionate critical analysis; at other times, as empathetic response.

Sometimes it is seen as dependent upon direct experience; at other times, as gained
through detached reflection. There seem to be different types of understanding,
different methods of understanding, and overlap with other intellectual targets.
It makes sense, therefore, to identify different aspects of understanding, even
if they overlap and ideally become integrated. We now turn to a more thorough
and precise theory of understanding.
We have developed a multifaceted view of what makes up a mature understand-

ing, a six-sided view of the concept. The six facets are explanation, interpretation,
application, perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge. They are most easily sum-
marized by specifylng the particular achievement each facet reflects. When one
truly understands, one
Can explain: provide thorough, supported, and justifiable accounts of phe-

nomena, facts, and data.
Can interpret: tell meaningful stones; offer apt translations; provide a reveal-
ing historical or personal dimension to ideas and events; make them personal or
accessible through images, anecdotes, analogies, and models.
Can upply: effectively use and adapt what one knows in diverse contexts.
Have perspective: see points of view through critical eyes and ears; see the
big picture.
Can emputhize: find value in what others might find odd, alien, or implau-
sible; perceive sensitively on the basis of prior direct experience.
Have se7f-knowledge: perceive the personal style, prejudices, projections, and
habits of mind that both shape and impede one’s own understanding. One is aware
of what one does not understand, of why understanding is hard, and of how one
comes to understand.
The facets reflect the different connotations of understanding, yet a com-

plete and mature understanding ideally involves the more or less full develop-
ment of all six kinds of understanding. The first three facets represent the kinds
I0
of performances one with understanding can do; the latter three speak more to
the types of insights one has.
These facets are different but related, in the same way that different criteria are
used in judging the quality of a complex performance. For example, a "good essay"
is composed of persuasive, organized, and clear prose. All three criteria need to be
met, yet each is different from and somewhat independent of the other two. The
writing might be clear, but unpersuasive; it might be well organized but unclear
and somewhat persuasive. Similarly, a student may have a thorough and sophisti-
cated explanation but not be able to apply it, or may see things from a critical dis-
tance but lack empathy.
Understanding is always a matter of degree, typically furthered by questions
and lines of inquiry that arise from reflection, discussion, and use of ideas. For
each facet, therefore, we
Introduce the facet with a brief definition, followed by an apt quote and
questions typical of someone wishing to better understand what the facet means.
Offer examples of what the facet might look like in daily public life and in
the classroom, as well as an example of what a lack of this type of understanding
looks like.
We caution readers to treat these divisions as somewhat artificial and not the only 4
possible take on the subject. The number six is not sacred, anymore than the five- M~SCONCE~ION
paragraph essay is the only way to write discursively. The analytic framework we ALE#T
offer makes teaching and assessing for subject matter mastery more manageable.
Another analysis might yield only three facets (e.g., application, explanation, and
perspective) or five (as our initial theory had it). We have no doubt that further analy-
sis might yield a different number of conceptual distinctions and hierarchies, and
we, too, may make changes as w e hear from readers and ponder further.
The number and names of the facets matter less than the differences in mean-
ing of the term "understanding." The important point is that understanding should
be seen as a family of related abilities. We trust that readers will see that "under-
standing by design" is made more likely through the kinds of distinctions w e are
making here.
I1
Provide an analysis of the facet, offering a brief look at the instructional and
assessment implications. (See Understanding by Design [Wiggins & McTighe, 19981
for a detailed discussion of these implications.)
Facet 1 : Explanation
Definition: Sophisticated and apt explanations and theories, which provide knowl-
edgeable and justified accounts of events, actions, and ideas.
We see something moving, hear a sound unexpectedly, smell an unusual odor,

and we ask: What is it? . . When we have found out what it signifies, a squirrel
,
running, two persons conversing, an explosion of gunpowder, we say that we

understand.
-Dewey, 1933, pp. 137, 146
Why is that so? What explains such events? What accountsfor such a n eflect? How
can we prove it? To what is this connected? How does this work? What is implied?
d A cook explains why adding a little mustard to oil and vinegar enables
them to mix. The mustard acts as an emulsifier.
d A 10th grade history student provides a well-supported view of the causes
of the American Revolution.
% A 10th grade student knows the facts of the Boston Tea Party and the Stamp
Act but not why they happened and what they led to.
Facet 1 involves the kind of understanding that emerges from a well-developed

and supported theory, an explanation that makes sense of puzzling or opaque phe-
nomena, data, feelings, or ideas. It is understanding revealed through perfor-
mances and products that clearly, thoroughly, and instructively explain how things
work, what they imply, where they connect, and why they happened.
As Dewey (1933) put it, to understand something “is to see it in its relations to
other things: to note how it operates or functions, what consequences follow from
it, what causes it” (p. 137) (emphasis in original). A student reveals an under-
standing of things-an experience, a lesson by the teacher, a concept, or an indi-
vidual performance-when the student can give good reasons and telling evidence
to support the claims.
12
Knowledge of Why and How
Understanding is thus not mere knowledge of facts, but knowledge of why and
how, laid out in evidence and reasoning. We know that the Civil War happened,
and we can perhaps cite a full chronology. But why did the war happen? What was
its impact? A student who can explain why steam, water, and ice, though superfi-
cially different, are the same chemical substance better understands the chemical
formula H20 than someone who cannot. To understand in this sense is to connect
facts and ideas, including seemingly odd, counterintuitive, or contradictory ones,
into a theory that works. More thorough or in-depth understanding involve more
insightful and systematic explanations, where many diverse events or data are
linked and subsumed under more powerful principles.
When we understand in this way, we can make inferences and offer predic-
tions: We can go beyond the information given to make connections and associa-
tions. We understand guiding principles that explain and give value to the facts.
Illuminating mental and physical models are one result of such understanding. We
can bind together seemingly disparate facts into a coherent, comprehensive, and
helpful account. We can predict unsought for or unexamined results, and we can
illuminate strange or unexamined experiences.
Warranted 0pinions
Explanatory understanding go beyond true opinions (mere right answers) to

warranted opinions, a person’s ability to explain his opinion so that he can justify
how he got there and why it’s right. Educators call upon learners to reveal their
understanding by using such verbs as explain, justfy, generalize, support, verqy,
prove, and substantiate. Regardless of the subject matter, or the age and sophistica-
tion of a student, when the student understands in the sense of Facet l , she has
the ability to “show her work,” explain why the answer is right or wrong, give valid
evidence and argument for a view, and defend that view against other views if
needed. The student with the most in-depth understanding in this sense explains
diverse data more precisely and grasps the subtler aspects of the ideas or experi-
ence in question.
Teachers invariably describe this type of understanding as thorough,
nuanced, and in-depth (as opposed to merely glib or grandiose theorizing). An
explanation or theory without such understanding is typically not so much wrong
13
as incomplete or naive. It is not wrong to say that the Civil War was fought over
slavery, or that literature often involves good versus evil-just naive or simplistic.
Merely learning and giving back on tests the official theory of the textbook or
teacher are not adequate evidence of understanding. Facet 1 calls for a student to
be given assignments and assessments that require an explanation of varied and
novel events before the teacher can conclude that the student understands what
was taught.
Implications for Instruction and Assessment
Instructionally, this facet suggests that we deliberately seek a better balance

between knowledge transmission (through a teacher and text) on the one hand and
student theory building and testing on the other. A simple strategy is to make sure
students have to ask the 5 “W” questions at the heart of journalism: who, what,
where, when, and why.
Facet 1 calls for building units around questions, issues, and problems that
demand student theories and explanations, such as those found in problem-based
learning and effective hands-on and minds-on science programs. Other implica-
tions for assessment are straightforward-use assessments (e.g., performance
tasks, projects, prompts, and tests) that ask students to explain, not simply recall;
to link specific facts with larger ideas and justify the connections; to show their
work, not just give an answer; and to support their conclusions.
Facet 2: Interpretation
Definition: Interpretations, narratives, and translations that provide meaning.
Juzo Itami’s films revealed truths to the Japanese they never knew existed-even
though they were right there in their daily life. “He could express the inside story
about things people think they understand but really don’t,’’ said film critic Jun
Ishiko.
-Wushington Post, 1997, p. A1
The object of interpretation is understanding, not explanation. Understanding is

the outcome of organizing essentially contestable, incompletely verifiable proposi-
tions in a disciplined way One of our principal means for doing so is through narra-
tive: by telling a story of what something is about. But as Kierkegaard had made clear
14
many years before, telling stories in order to understand is no mere enrichment of the
mind; without them we are, to use his phrase, reduced to fear and trembling.
-Bruner, 1996, p. 90
What does it mean? Why does it matter? What of it? What does it illustrate or illu-
minate in human experience? How does it relate to me? What makes sense?
d A grandfather tells stories about the Depression to illustrate the importance

of saving for a rainy day.
d An 11th grade student shows how Gulliver’s Travels can be read as a satire
on British intellectual life. The book is not just a fairy tale.
% A middle school student can translate all the words but does not grasp the
meaning of a Spanish sentence.
We value engaging storytellers because a good story both enlightens and enter-
tains. A clear and compelling narrative helps us find meaning, where before there
may have been only scattered facts, cold and impersonal theory, and abstract ideas.
Stories help us remember and make sense of our lives and the lives around us. The
deepest, most transcendent meanings are found, of course, in the stories, parables,
and myths that anchor all religions. A story is not a diversion; the best stories make
our lives more understandable.
Mea n i ngs Tra ns f o r m Und e r st a nd i ng s

The meanings we ascribe to all events, big and small, transform our under-
standing and perception of particular facts. A student with such an understanding
can show an event’s significance, reveal an idea’s importance, or provide an inter-
pretation that strikes a deep chord of recognition and resonance. Consider how
Martin Luther King Jr.’s memorable March on Washington speech (“I have a
dream”) and imagery crystallized the many complex ideas and feelings behind the
Civil Rights movement. Or, think of how the best newspaper editorials make sense
of complex political currents and ideas.
Meaning, of course, is in the eye of the beholder. Think of how much November
22, 1963 (the day President Kennedy was assassinated), means as a watershed event
to those of us who came of age in the ’ ~ O Sand
, how little that date means to today’s
15
students. Or, consider the different readings of the same newspaper account of
severe child abuse when the reader is a mother, a police officer, or an adolescent in
a foster home. Social workers and psychologists might well have an accepted theo-
ry of child abuse in the sense of Facet 1. But the meaning of the event, hence an
understanding of it, may have little to do with the theory, which is a scientific
account with no bearing on the abused child’s view of the event and the world.
Making sense of the stories of others involves translation and interpretation.
Whether we think of a student struggling in German I, a 4th grader reading
Churlotte’s Web, or a scholar poring over the Dead Sea Scrolls, the challenge is the
same: to understand words rooted in an author’s intent but a puzzle to the reader
who cannot see a clear meaning and significance. Similarly, experts in fields like
history and archaeology must reconstruct the meaning of events and artifacts from
the clues provided by the historical record. With this type of understanding, teach-
ers ask learners to interpret, translate, make sense of, show the significance of,
decode, and make a story meaningful.
Explanation and Interpretation
Explanation and interpretation are thus related but different. We may know
the relevant facts and theoretical principles, but we can and still must ask, What
does it all mean? What is its importance to me? To us? A jury trymg to understand
child abuse seeks significance and personal intent , not generalizations from theo-
retical science. A theorist builds objective and general knowledge about the phe-
nomenon called abuse, but the story told by the lawyer, witness, or journalist may
offer more insight.
As the example reveals, all acts of interpretation are more fraught with ambi-
guity than the act of theory building and testing. A text or a speaker’s words may
have different but valid meanings. As noted researcher, Jerome Bruner (1996) puts
it: “Narratives and their interpretations traffic in meanings, and meanings are
intransigently multiple” (p. 90). A theory needs to be true to work; a story need
only illuminate , engage, and have verisimilitude. The same physical phenomenon
cannot have three accurate explanations. But the same stories and events can have
many different plausible and illuminating interpretations.
This narrative building (as well as the theory building of Facet 1) is the true
meaning of constructivism. When we say that students must make their own
16
meaning, we mean that handing them prepackaged “interpretations,”without their

working through a problem and coming to see these explanations and interpreta-
tions as valid, is counterproductive-sham understanding. A purely didactic
teaching of the interpretation is likely to lead to misunderstanding and forgotten
knowledge, and ignores the arguable nature of interpretation, thus misleading stu-
dents. The inherently problematic nature of certain ideas, texts, and experiences
mandates an education that requires students, not just teachers and textbook writ-
ers, to develop interpretations and stories, an education that also ensures that stu-
dent ideas get the feedback necessary to force continual testing and revision of
those accounts.
The implications for instruction parallel those for the other facets. Educating
students so that they will be able to think intelligently as adults requires that they
learn to build stories and interpretations, not just passively take in official ones. They
need to see how knowledge is built “from the inside.” For example, a teacher might
ask students to fashion an oral history from disparate interviews, a mathematical for-
mula and graph from discrete properties, or an interpretation of a story from a care-
ful reading. Learning cannot merely be the process of receiving what someone else
says is the meaning of something, except as a way to model meaning making or as
a prelude to testing an interpretation for better understanding the possibilities.
Facet 3: Application
Definition: The ability to use knowledge effectively in new situations and diverse
contexts.
[By understanding] I mean simply a sufficient grasp of concepts, principles, or

skills so that one can bring them to bear on new problems and situations, deciding
in which ways ones present competencies can suffice and in which ways one may
require new skills or knowledge
-Gardner, 1991, p 18
How and where can I use this knowledge, skill, or process? In what ways do people
apply this understanding in the world beyond school? How should nzy thinking and action
be modfied to meet the demands of this particular situation?
17
d A young couple uses their knowledge of economics (e.g., the power of

compounded interest and the high cost of credit cards) to develop an effective
financial plan for saving and investing.
d 7th grade students use their knowledge of statistics to accurately project
next year’s costs and needs for the student-run candy and supply store.
% A physics professor can’t diagnose and fix a broken lamp.
edu-
To understand is to be able to use knowledge. This is an old idea in U.S.
cation-indeed, an old idea in the long tradition of American pragmatism and cul-
tural disdain for mere ivory-tower, academic thinking. We all say to young and old
alike, “You need to walk the walk, not just talk the talk.”
Matching Ideas to Context
Gardner’s definition of genuine performance mentioned earlier echoes what

Bloom (1956) and his colleagues said in the taxonomy They saw application as
central to understanding and quite different from the kind of plugging-in and fill-
in-the-blanks pseudoapplication found in so many classrooms:
Teachers frequently say: “If a student really comprehends something, he can

apply it.” . .. Application is different in two ways from knowledge and simple com-
prehension: The student is not prompted to give specific knowledge, nor is the prob-
lem old-hat (p. 120).
Application also needs to reflect real-world situations:
Problems should be as close as possible to the situation in which a scholar/artist/

engineer, etc., attacks a problem. The time allowed, conditions of work, etc., should
be as far from the typical controlled exam situation as possible (Bloom, Madaus, &
Hastings, 1981, p. 268) (emphasis in original).
Understanding involves matching one’s idea or action to context. To show that

we understand something we show our ability to use it, adapt it, customize it, not
simply plug in knowledge in a formulaic manner. When we must negotiate different
constraints, social contexts, purposes, and audiences, understanding is revealed as
performance know-how, the ability to accomplish tasks successfully, with “grace
under pressure” and with “tact for the concrete situation” (James, 1899/1958, p. 24).
Swiss child psychologist Jean Piaget (1973/1977) argued more radically that
student understanding is revealed by a student’s innovation when applying knowl-

edge. He said that many so-called application problems, especially in mathemat-
ics, were not truly novel, hence, not indicative of true understanding:
Real comprehension of a notion or a theory implies the reinvention of this the-

ory by the student. Once the child is capable of repeating certain notions and using
some applications of these in learning situations he often gives the impression of
understanding; however, this does not fulfil1 the condition of reinvention. True
understanding manifests itself by new spontaneous applications (pp. 726-732).
Implications for Instructions and Assessment

Thus, the instructional and assessment implications of Facet 3 call for an
emphasis on performance-based learning-work that focuses on and culminates in
more authentic tasks, supplemented by more conventional tests. (For more infor-
mation, see Wiggins, 1998; McTighe, 1996-97.)
Facet 4: Perspective
Definition: Critical and insightful points of view.
The profit of education is the ability it gives to make distinctions that penetrate
below the surface. . . . One knows that there is a difference between sound and sense,
between what is emphatic and what is distinctive, between what is conspicuous and
what is important.
-Dewey, in Johnson, 1949, p. 104
An important symptom of an emerging understanding is the capacity to repre-

sent a problem in a number of different ways and to approach its solution from var-
ied vantage points; a single, rigid representation is unlikely to suffice.
-Gardner, 1991, p. 13
From whose point of view? From which vantage point? What is assumed or tacit that
needs to be made explicit and considered? What is justqied or warranted? Is there ade-
quate evidence? Is it reasonable? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the idea? Is it
plausible? What are its limits? So what?
d A 10-year-old girl recognizes the fallacy in TV advertising of using popular

figures to promote products.
I9
/ A student explains the Israeli and Palestinian arguments for and against
new settlements on the Gaza Strip.
% A bright but rigid student refuses to consider that there is another way to
look at gun control.
*
To understand in this sense is to see things from a dispassionate and disinter-
ested perspective. This type of understanding does not involve a student’s particu-
lar point of view, but instead is a mature recognition that any answer to a complex
question typically involves a point of view. Therefore, an answer may be one of
many possible plausible accounts. A student with perspective is alert to what is
taken for granted, assumed, overlooked, or glossed over in an inquiry or theory
Seeing f r o m a Critical Distance

Perspective implies seeing from a distance, the ability to see the whole forest,
not just the near trees. Different perspectives are often found by asking, What of
it? and to see an answer-even a teacher or textbook answer-as a point of view.
Perspective involves making tacit assumptions explicit, bringing to light and ana-
lyzing unexamined habits of thought and action. Students with perspective expose
questionable and unexamined conclusions and implications.
Such perspective can lead to a powerful form of insight, because by shifting
perspective and casting familiar ideas in a new light, one can create new theories,
stories, and applications. When a student can take different perspectives, she gains
a critical distance from the habitual or knee-jerk beliefs, feelings, theories, and
appeals that less careful and less circumspect thinkers fall prey to. Then she can
shift her point of view, try out new ways of seeing, and discover new theories and
interpretations.
A definition of the verb understand in the Oxford English Dictionary is “to know
the import of” something. By this criterion, the U.S.
educational system is not very
successful in causing understanding. Few students leave school with an under-
standing of the value of their schoolwork-and of the value of the discipline
required to learn the disciplines. Few can successfully ask and answer, What of it?
Such an attitude is central to what is meant by a liberal education.
Perspective involves the discipline of asking, Why might this matter? How
might its value be clearer from another point of view? How, for example, would my
20
critics see things? In his autobiography, Darwin (1958) noted that this critical
stance was key to his success in defending his controversial theory:
I .. . followed a golden rule that whenever a published fact, a new observation

or thought came across me, which was opposed to my general results, to make a
memorandum of it without fail and at once; for I had found by experience that such
facts and thoughts were far more apt to escape from memory than favorable ones.
Owing to this habit, very few objections were raised against my views that I had not
at least noticed and attempted to answer (p. 123).
Perspective as an aspect of understanding is a mature achievement, an escape

from our egocentric beliefs in systematizing different vantage points. Novice learn-
ers, just setting out on the road to mastery, may have a revealing point of view,
even when they lack a thorough explanation of things. Consider the child in The
Emperor’s New Clothes. But novices lack the ability to take multiple perspectives.
A student with a sophisticated perspective can simultaneously value teacher
and textbook accounts while recognizing them as representing points of view.
What is the point of view of the authors of a U.S.
history or a physics textbook
about what is true, verified, and important? Do other authors share those views?
Do different experts, teachers, and authors establish different priorities? If so, what
is their justification? What advantages or disadvantages do other points of view
have? That this line of questioning seems too esoteric or odd shows how far edu-
cation is from giving students needed perspective. Everyone recognizes the prob-
lem of maintaining perspective in newspaper reporting, so why isn’t it addressed
in textbook writing? Everyone knows that authors’ views shape choice of content,
emphasis, and style, so why aren’t students helped to use these language arts skills
in understanding textbooks and the theories in them?
Facet 4 suggests that instruction include explicit opportunities for students

to confront alternative theories and diverse points of view about big ideas. An
essential perspective on perspective involves encouraging students and designing
coursework to ask and answer these questions: What of it? What does it mean?
What follows? These questions need to be asked for all core knowledge and texts
in the students’ experience. One might say that these questions and attempts to
21
answer them are the perspective of any liberally educated person. Instructional and
assessment strategies need to better highlight the means and ends of a liberal edu-
cation, namely greater control over essential questions and ideas so that students
can see both intrinsic and extrinsic value in intellectual life.
Facet 5: Empathy
Definition: The ability to get inside another person’s feelings and worldview.
To understand is to forgive.
-old French proverb
“Do women ever come up to you and say, ‘How did you know that? How did
you feel that?’ I ask, and for the first time, he turns and looks at me evenly:
”
“Yeah, that’s the normal response,” he says in a voice that suddenly isn’t so shy
‘‘It’snot that I understand women any better than anyone else, but I do understand
feelings. . . . All you have to do is imagine what that girl is going through, just turn
it around and put yourself in those same shoes. . . . We’re all the same people.”
-The singer Babyface
New York Times Sunday Magazine, 1997, Sec. 6, p. 22
How does it seem to you? What do they see that I don’t? What do I need to experi-
ence if I am to understand? What was the artist or performer feeling, seeing, and trying
to make mefeel and see?
d An Israeli adolescent empathizes with the restrictive and constrained life of

his Palestinian contemporaries.
d From a recent British national exam: “Romeo and Juliet, act 4. Imagine you
are Juliet. Write your thoughts and feelings explaining why you have to take this
desperate action.”
% An accomplished basketball player-turned-coach often berates his young
players because he cannot relate to their struggles in learning the game.
Empathy, the ability to walk in another’s shoes, to escape one’s own emotional
reactions to grasp another’s, is central to the most common colloquial use of the
term understanding. When we try to understand another person, people, or culture,
we strive for empathy. It is not simply an affective response or sympathy.
22
Empathy is a leuvned ability to grasp the world from someone else’s point of
view. It is the discipline of using one’s imagination to see and feel as others see and
feel. It is different from perspective, which is to see from a critical distance, detach-
ing one’s self to see more objectively. With empathy, one sees from inside the per-
son’s worldview, embracing the insights that can be found in the subjective or aes-
thetic realm.
A German scholar, Theodor Lipps, coined the term empathy at the turn of the
20th century to describe what the audience must do to understand a work or
performance of art. Empathy is the deliberate act of finding what is plausible, sen-
sible, or meaningful in the ideas and actions of others, even if those actions are
puzzling or off-putting. Empathy can lead us not only to rethink a situation but
also to have a change of heart as we come to understand what originally seemed
odd or alien.
This kind of understanding implies an existential or experiential prerequisite.
If, when referring to such experiences as poverty, abuse, racism, or high-profile
competitive sports, someone says, “You cannot possibly understand without hav-
ing been there,” the implication is that insight from experience is necessary for
understanding. A recent controversy involving the songwriter Paul Simon echoed
the same theme (USA Toduy, 1997). Some Puerto Ricans contended that a Jewish
man cannot possibly understand the experience of Puerto Ricans. The subject was
a new musical, “Capeman,”cowritten and produced by Simon and Reuben Blades.
Though we might disagree with that particular sentiment, we regularly acknowl-
edge as teachers that students need to directly or indirectly experience the ideas
they study, or their understanding will be hobbled.
Empathy as a Form of Insight

Empathy, too, is a form of insight because it involves the ability to get beyond
odd, alien, or seemingly weird opinions or people to find what is meaningful in
them. Students have to learn how to open-mindedly embrace ideas, experiences,
and texts that might seem strange, off-putting, or difficult to access, in order to
understand them and their connection to what is more familiar. They need to see
how weird or dumb ideas can seem insightful or sophisticated once they can over-
come habitual responses, and they need to see how habit blocks their understand-
ing of another person’s understanding.
23
Empathy is linked to self-knowledge (Facet 6) because we must bracket our

prejudices to empathize:
The hermeneutical attitude supposes only that we self-consciously designate our

opinions and prejudices and qualify them as such. . . . In keeping to this attitude, we
grant the text the opportunity to appear as an authentically different being and to
manifest its own truth, over and against our preconceived notions (Gadamer, 1994,
pp. 238-239).
All great interpreters and historians of ideas need empathy. “If we laugh with
derision” at the theories of our predecessors, as anthropologist Stephen Jay Gould
(1980) says, we will fail “in our understanding of their world” (p. 149). From his
own experience to find new meaning in what had seemed inadequate views about
motion in Aristotle’s work, Kuhn (1977) suggests:
When reading the works of an important thinker, look first for the apparent
absurdities in the text and ask yourself how a sensible person could have written
them. When you find an answer, when those passages make sense, then you may find
that more central passages, ones you previously thought you understood, have
changed their meaning (p. xi).
An example of the need for empathy can be found in the U.S.

system of gov-
ernment. Few students know that for more than 100 years, U.S. senators were
appointed, not popularly elected. Fewer still understand why such a practice
seemed like a good idea then. It is easy to imagine that our forefathers were mis-
guided or hypocrites. Today’s teachers could use assignments and assessments that
ask students to role-play as the writers of the Constitution. The challenge would
be to make a case to a group of citizens that appointed offices are in the citizens’
best interest. A postscript could be to ask for an essay or journal entry on the pros
and cons of the current popular vote approach, and a further consideration of the
value, if any, of the electoral college.
Need for a Change of Heart
As noted in an earlier discussion of language, understanding in the interper-

sonal sense suggests not merely an intellectual change of mind but also a signifi-
cant change of heart. Empathy requires respect for people different from ourselves
and openness to what they have to say. Respect for others causes us to more will-
ingly and carefully consider others’ views when they are different from ours.
It becomes easier, then, to imagine schoolwork that deliberately confronts stu-
dents with strange or alien texts, experiences, or ideas to see if they can get beyond
what is off-putting about the work. Such activity, in fact, is common in foreign lan-
guage classes that stress cultural issues. It is the point of using many fables and
such stories as Shirley Jackson’s The Lottery and Camus’ The Strungev: It is key to
learning history, a point made by the Bradley Commission on the Teaching of
History, which argues that a primary aim of history is to help students escape their
ethnocentric and present-centered views (Gagnon, 1989).
To ensure greater understanding of abstract ideas, students must have far

more direct or simulated experiences of them than most current textbook-driven
courses now allow. We refer in Understanding by Design to the idea of an “intellec-
tual Outward Bound” to capture the needed changes: Learning needs to be more
experiential, more geared toward making students directly confront the effects-
and affect-of decisions, ideas, theories, and problems. Put differently, the absence
of such experience may explain why so many important ideas are misunderstood
and learnings so fragile, as the literature on misconception reveals. Assessment
must also pay greater attention to whether students have overcome egocentrism,
ethnocentrism, and present-centeredness in their answers and explanations.
Facet 6 : Self-Knowledge
Definition: The wisdom to know one’s ignorance and how one’s patterns of thought
and action inform as well as prejudice understanding.
All understanding is ultimately self-understanding. . . . [A] person who under-

stands, understands himself. . . . Understanding begins when something addresses
us. This requires . . . the fundamental suspension of our own prejudices.
-Gadamer, 1994, p. 266
It is the duty of the human understanding to understand that there are things
which it cannot understand, and what those things are.
-Kierkegaard, 1959, No. 1395, 1854 entry
How does who I a m shape my views? What are the limits of my understanding? What
are my blind spots? What a m I prone to misunderstand because of prejudice, habit, or
style?
/ A mother realizes that her frustration with her daughter’s shyness is rooted
in issues from her own childhood.
/ Mindful of the fact that many students are visual learners, a middle school
teacher includes visual organizers and images.
9C When all you have is a hammer, every problem looks like a nail.
Deep understanding is ultimately related to what is meant by wisdom. To

understand the world, we must all understand ourselves. Through self-knowledge,
we understand that what we understand is often intertwined with what we believe
and expect to see, that sometimes what we think we understand is “out there” is
actually a mental habit projected onto reality.
With maturity, we come to understand that we do not understand. “Know thy-
self” is the maxim of those who would redly understand, as the Greek philoso-
phers often said. Socrates is the patron saint of understanding; he knew he was
ignorant and needed to continually reflect and question beliefs.
In daily life, the capacity to accurately self-assess and self-regulate reflects such
understanding or its absence. Metacognition, or self-knowledge about how we
think, why we think it, and the relation between our preferred methods of learn-
ing and our understanding (or lack of it), are involved. An immature mind is not
merely ignorant or unskilled but unrejective. A naive student, no matter how
bright and learned, is lacking in self-knowledge to know when an idea seems
objectively true but really only fits the student’s beliefs, or to know how styles or
perceptual frames shape how and what is understood. The challenge for self-
knowledge is to learn when prejudice, not insight, determines our understanding.
Stephen Jay Gould (1996), Harvard paleontologist and popular writer on sci-
ence, has eloquently warned about the danger of confusing insight with prejudice:
Our prejudices often overwhelm our limited information. . . . Nature is objec-

tive, but we can only view her through a glass darkly-and many clouds upon our
vision are of our own making: social and cultural biases, psychological preferences,
and mental limitations (p. 8).
This caution is an old one, going back to Francis Bacon’s writing 300 years ago
on the “idols” (illusions) that impede the progress of science:
The human understanding is of its own nature prone to suppose the existence
of more order and regularity in the world than it finds. . . . [and] when it has once
adopted an opinion draws all things else to support and agree with it. . . . It is the
peculiar and perpetual error of the intellect to be more moved and excited by affir-
matives than by negatives. . . . Numberless, in short, are the ways, and sometimes
imperceptible, in which the affections color and infect the understanding (Aphorisms
46 and 49, pp. 50 and 52).
What Self-Knowledge Demands
Self-knowledge is a key facet of understanding because it demands that we all

self-consciously question our understandings to advance them. It asks us to have
the discipline to seek and find the inevitable blind spots, prejudices, or oversights
in our thinking and to have the courage to face the problems lurking underneath
effective habits, naive confidence, strong beliefs, and worldviews. When we talk of
subject matter disciplines, such courage and persistence are the essential sources
of rational understanding as opposed to dogmatic belief.
I mplicat ions for I nst r uct ion a nd Assessment

Practically speaking, a greater attention to self-knowledge means that as teach-
ers we must do a better job of teaching and assessing self-reflection. In one area,
we do that quite well. Many programs and strategies exist to help students develop
greater metacognition and awareness of their own preferred learning style. But the
ideas expressed in this book suggest that greater attention is needed to self-assess
the philosophical abilities that fall under the heading “epistemology”-the branch
of philosophy that addresses what it means to know and understand, and how
knowledge differs from belief and opinion.
For a more thorough account of the facets, readers are encouraged to review
Chapter 3 of Understanding by Design (Wiggins & McTighe, 1998) or the video
Understanding by Design: What Is Understanding? (Kiernan, 1998).
27
* We have already noted that any robust teaching of understanding must grapple with
the phenomenon of misunderstanding. And throughout the book, w e alert readers
MISCONCEPTION
to potential misunderstandings of various points. Now we direct that concern to the
ALERT
facets themselves. The following list of misconceptions is not intended to be
exhaustive, merely suggestive and cautionary.
Facet 1: Explanation
Misconception 1: If a student gives a correct answer to a complex and demanding
question, the student must have an in-depth Understanding.
Misconception 2: If a student cannot write an explanation of her views, then she

lacks Understanding.
Both these misconceptions involve the plausible but incorrect view that a stu-
dent who can provide an accurate answer and explanation on a test understands
that answer. But we have all seen students who could correctly give back what they
learned, without understanding why the answer or explanation is correct. This con-
cern is one reason that at the doctoral level a dissertation and its defense are
required. Right answers, with documentation, could be merely borrowed and not
understood.
The second misconception is the reverse view, a common problem in assess-
ment: A performance test is an invalid way to assess knowledge when the perfor-
mance ability (or lack of it, in this case) determines the quality of the answer. For
example, a student writes a beautiful and flowing essay but has little of substance
or novelty to say; another student is a poor writer but the essay is filled with
insights. Often in such assessments, the writing quality outweighs the understand-
ing being assessed-improperly-if the aim is to assess understanding and not
writing ability.
Misconception: If a student offers an engaged and rich response to literature, the
student understands that piece of literature.
This is a common misconception in language arts. Reader response becomes

equated or confused with understanding the text. For example, a student’s fluent
response to a text is sometimes described in terms that suggest the success is
equivalent to a substantiated and subtle interpretation of the text. But some highly
responsive and engaged readers get the meaning wrong, and some seemingly
detached or bored readers can penetrate to the core of a book‘s most important
ideas and meanings.
28
Facet 3: Application <

Misconception 1: Any effective performance showing knowledge indicates under- MISCONCEPTION
standing of that knowledge.
ALERT
Misconception 2: Any ineffective performance showing knowledge indicates a lack (contin ued)
of understanding of that knowledge.
These misconceptions are common in activity-based teaching and perfor-

mance-based assessment. It is easy to assume that if a student performs well, then
he understands; that if he has learned the skills of persuasive writing or soccer, then
he must understand what to do. But the two are not synonymous. As educators,
w e can make assessment clearer by asking such questions as, Does the student
understand persuasion? and, Does the student understand the purpose of the game
and apply deliberate strategies? In other words, Is there a purposefulness and
reflectiveness to performance?
Persuasion and the strategies of the game can and must be taught, learned,
and assessed using additional performances from the targeted skills. This work
suggests that in addition to actual performance applications (Facet 31, students
would be asked to explain what they did and why (Facet 1).
The reverse is true. Students who do poorly on a specific performance task do
not necessarily misunderstand the topic. As with explanation, they may be unskilled
at the performance but understand it. Consider, for example, sports commentators
who cannot play a sport but can reveal through analysis their deep understanding
of a game. Educators must be wary of making invalid inferences on the basis of per-
formance results. To put the matter more precisely, they need to make sure that
they have built in the most appropriate performances of understanding.
Misconception 3: Application means that a student can correctly answer teacher-

assigned problems based on what was taught.
This is a long-standing misconception abetted by textbook end-of-chapter

problems and standardized tests. Authentic application involves novel problems, real-
istically messy situations, and adaptations and adjustments to theoretical knowledge
and skill. Algorithmic or mechanical application is rarely adequate in authentic contexts
that require judgment, heuristics, problem solving, and adjustment based on feedback.
Misconception 1 ; Having an opinion equals having perspective.
Misconception 2: Perspective implies relativism.
Both views represent an ancient misunderstanding that many thinkers have

tried to expose and eradicate. Just because one finds a view plausible or well argued
theories and arguments does not mean that all theories are equal. On the contrary,
criticism is the only way to get beyond relativism. Such perspective is, of course,
threatening to those who prosper and retain authority based on an orthodoxy.
(continued)
Facet 5 : Empathy
Misconception I : Empathy is affect, synonymous with sympathy or heartfelt rapport.
Misconception 2: Empathy requires agreement with the point of view in question.
Empathy is not sympathy. It is a disciplined effort to understand what is differ-

ent, not a question of feeling what other people feel. Similarly, just because one
works to understand what is different doesn't mean one agrees with it. Rather, one
comes to understand it as plausible.
Facet 6: Self-Knowledge
Mlsconception I : S e If - kno w I edge eq ua Is s e If-ce nt e redness .
Self-knowledge is the opposite of self-centeredness. When we know our-

selves, w e know the limits of ourselves and are far less likely to confuse our views
1 with those of others or our knowledge with our prejudices.

m A
We all claim as teachers to be after understanding.

But, ironically, we may not under.stand understanding.
This may seem like an odd statmLent. Teachers aim for
understanding every day, don’t they? How can they not know
what they are aimingfor? Yet, there is plenty of evidence
to suggest that “to understandn or “teach for understanding”
are ambiguous and slippery terms.
The worksheets in Module 1 are designed to help educators clarify their thinking
about understanding. We suggest completing each worksheet individually and then
discussing it with colleagues in pairs or small groups. After the pair or group dis-
cussions, share your examples, generalizations,and insights with the larger group.
Worksheet 1.1introduces the multifaceted nature of understanding. Typically,
people identify several if not all of the six facets. The exercise provides a natural
lead-in to an overview of the six facets, which are summarized in Figure 1.1.
Worksheet 1.2 explores the relationship among knowledge, skill, and understand-
ing. Although the worksheet has no correct answers, users generally recognize that
knowledge, skill, and understanding are interrelated but not identical. Figure 1.2
shows two graphic representations.
31
The words know and understand are not synonyms. A student can have an
MlSCONCEPTlON accurate and thorough knowledge of something without understanding why the
ALERC knowledge is justified, what the knowledge means, or what can be done with that
knowledge.
A common misunderstanding is that one either gets it, or one doesn't, and
when one gets it, there is a mental "aha!" Such a response confuses results with
psychological states. A student may not understand a complex idea but think he
does because of an immediate "aha!" Or, a student may think she understands
something after considerable effort or struggle-also an "aha! " moment. The
degree to which one understands is revealed through performance, not whether or
not one has a certain inner feeling.
REFLECTION FROM BOB JAMES
I guess I have always used the words know and understand interchangeably. But
now that I think about it, there have often been times when kids were able to
correctly answer the knowledge-recall questions on my tests, and yet I knew
they didn’t really understand the material.
I also see that having lots of knowledge doesn’t mean you can use what you
know. I recall last year when two of my better students, who aced all my quizzes
and tests in the nutrition unit, could not analyze their family’s menu planning
and shopping to come up with a more nutritious plan. I also noticed that they
ate mostly junk food at lunch. So, I guess know, know-how, and understanding
are different.
32
M O D U L E 1 : C L A R I F Y I N G U N D E R S T A N D I N G
I B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S I
,
stagel: stage% stage*
Identify Desired R e w b Determine A mptable Plan Learning
A b Enduring Understandings hidence and llwtrvction
B b Essential Questions D b PerformanceTasks H b Sequence of Learning
C b Knowledge and Skills PerfonnancaTask Blueprint(DI Experiences and Instruction
E b Quizzes, Tests, Prompts
F D Unprompted Evidence
G b Sell-Assessment
Blueprintfor Mher Evidence(E. F. G)
What do people mean by understand? Consider the various meanings in these statements:
H Men just don't understand women!

rn He knows the historical facts but doesn't understand what they mean.
H I can understand the Palestinian point of view.
H I didn't really understand it until I had to use it.
H Does anyone here understand French?
H I understood exactly what she needed to hear at that moment.
H She knows the answer but doesn't understand why it is correct.
H Grandfather's stories about the Depression helped us understand the importance of saving.
H I understand what you're feeling.
In the box, list various connotations of understand.
Someone who understands.. .

H
......... .. . . . . .
H
.............................
~ .: .........................................................
~
..................................................................................
H
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H
................................................................................................ ..
01999 m M A l l rights reserved. 33

FIGURE I B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
1 .I
I d e h Desired Results De&nnim, Acceptable
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence a d lnstrudion
B D Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks H B Sequence of Learning
C B Knowledge and Skills + Performance Task Bluepnnt(D) Experiences and Instruction
E D Quizzes. Tests, Prompts
C B Unprompted Evidence
G B Self-Assessment
+ Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E. F, 6)
Facet 1: Explanation
Sophisticated and apt explanations and theories, which provide knowledgeable
and justified accounts of events, actions, and ideas.
Interpretations, narratives, and translations that provide meaning.
Facet 3: Application
The ability to use knowledge effectively in new situations and diverse contexts.
Critical and insightful points of view.
Facet 5: Empathy
The ability to identify with another person's feelings and worldview.
Facet 6: Self-Knowledge
The wisdom to know one's ignorance and how one's patterns of thought and
action inform as well as prejudice understanding.
34 01999 B ' A H rights reserved.

M O D U L E 1 : C L A R I F Y I N G U N D E R S T A N D I N G
WORKS HEET B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
1.2 stage 1:
I d e m D e s i i Resub
stage 2
Determine Acceptable
stage 3:
Plan Learning
C B Knowledge and Skills Peltormance Task Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and Instruction
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence(E. F. G)
What is the relationship among knowledge, skill, and understanding? In the space below, make a graphic
representation to show how the three are related (or not related).
Given your graphic representation, list in the box what is suggested for methods of instruction, kinds of
assignments and activities, sequence of work, and types of assessments.
. . .... . ........................
.. . . .. .
01999 -mAII rights reserved. 35

FIGURE B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
1.2 Stage 1: Stage 2: stage 3:

Identifv Desired Resufts Detemine Acceptable Plan Leaming Experinces
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instmction
B D Essential Questions D D Performance Tasks H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills Perionnancelask BlueprintlD) Experiences and Instruction
E D Quizzes,Tests, Prompts
( Graphic Representations -)
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidsncs (E, F, G)
knowledge /
Imagine a three-legged stool.
\ expectationsand /
36 01999 -,"Al rights reserved.

Teachers are designers. An essential act
of our profession is the design of curriculum and learning
experiences to meet specijed purposes.
W I G G I N65S MCTIGHE,1998, P 7
E
Curriculum is a means to an end. Our approach, Understanding by Design,
focuses on a particular topic (e.g., racial prejudice), uses a particular resource (e.g.,
To Kill a Mockingbird), and chooses specific instructional methods
(e.g., Socratic seminar to discuss the book and cooperative groups to analyze
stereotypical images in films and on TV) to cause learning to meet a given standard
(e.g., “The student will understand the nature of prejudice, and the difference
between generalizations and stereotypes”).
We believe that the most effective curricular designs are backward. Backward
design may be thought of as purposeful task analysis: Given a task to be accom-
plished, how does one get there? Or one might call it planned coaching: What
kinds of lessons and practices are needed to master key performances? The
approach to curricular design we recommend is logically forward and common-
sensical, but backward by conventional habits, whereby many teachers typically
begm with textbooks, favored lessons, and time-honored activities rather than
deriving them from targeted goals or standards. We are,advocating the reverse: One
starts with the end-the desired results (goals or standards)-and then derives the
curriculum based on the evidence of learning (obtained through assessments)
called for by the goals and standards.
37
This backward approach to curricular design departs from another common

practice: thinking about assessment as something teachers do at the end, once
teaching is completed. Rather than creating assessments near the conclusion of a
unit of study-or relymg on the tests provided by textbook publishers, which may
not completely or appropriately assess relevant standards-backward design calls
for teachers to operationalize their goals or standards in terms of assessment evi-
dence as they begin to plan a unit or course. Such a process reminds them to begin
with a question-What evidence would I accept that students have attained the
desired understandings and proficiencies?-bejore proceeding to plan teaching
and learning experiences. Many teachers who have adopted this design approach
report that the process of “thinking like an assessor” about evidence of learn-
ing not only helps them to clarify their goals, but also results in a more sharply
defined teaching and learning target so that students perform better knowing
their goal. Greater coherence among desired results, key performances, and teach-
ing and learning experiences leads to better student performance-the purpose
of design.
The backward design process consists of three general stages, shown in
Figure 2.1.
2.1 I
I
1 c3
Identify desired
resuIts.
2 c3
Determine
acceptable evidence.
3
Plan learning
experiences and
instruction.
38
M O D U L E 2 : T H E B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
Stage 1 . Identify Desired Results

In this first stage, we consider our goals, examine established content stan-
dards (national, state, and district), and review curriculum expectations. Because
there is typically more content than can reasonably be addressed in the available
instructional time, we are obliged to make choices. What should students know,
understand, and be able to do? What is worthy of understanding? What “endur-
ing” understandings are desired? Understanding of this type are important ideas
or core processes that are transferrable to new situations.
Stage 2. Determine Acceptable Evidence

How will we know if students have achieved the desired results and met the
standards? What will we accept as evidence of student understanding and profi-
ciency? In the second stage, the backward design orientation suggests that we
think about a unit or course in terms of the collected assessment evidence needed
to document and validate that the desired learning has been achieved-so that the
course is not simply content to be covered or a series of learning activities. This
approach encourages teachers and curriculum planners to first think like an asses-
sor before designing specific units and lessons, and thus to consider up front how
they will determine if students have attained the desired understandings.
When planning to collect evidence of understanding, a teacher should con-
sider a range of assessment methods. Given the focus on understanding, perfor-
mance tasks should anchor a unit or course because they provide evidence that
students are able to use their knowledge in context, a more appropriate means of
evoking and assessing enduring understanding. More traditional assessments, such
as quizzes, tests, and prompts, are used to round out the picture by assessing
essential knowledge and skills that contribute to the culminating performances.
We recommend that students be given regular opportunities to engage in self-
assessment or peer assessment to help them become more mindful of how their
work measures up against design standards.
Stage 3. Plan Learning Experiences and Instruction

With clearly identified results (enduring understandings) and appropriate evi-
dence of understanding in mind, educators can now plan instructional activities.
Several key questions must be considered at this stage of backward design:
39
What enabling knowledge (facts, concepts, and principles) and skills (pro-
cedures) will students need to perform effectively and achieve desired results?
What activities will equip students with the needed knowledge and skills?
rn What will need to be taught and coached, and how should it best be taught,
in light of performance goals?
H What materials and resources are best suited to accomplish these goals?
Is the overall design coherent and effective?
Note that the specifics of instructional planning-choices about teaching meth-

ods, sequence of lessons, and resource materials-occur crfter desired results and
assessments are identified. Teaching is a means to an end. Having a clear goal helps
to focus teacher planning and guide purposeful action toward the intended results.
The backward design process is applicable to the design of courses and pro-
grams of study as well as to individual units. Although the materials in this book
focus primarily on the unit level, unit design should be considered in a larger con-
text. Figure 2.2 depicts the linking of individual units to the overarching under-
standings that should frame courses and programs.
ESIGN IN A LARGER C
Overarching Understa ndings
0
Program Level I
0
I Course Level 1
b
(T )
(Unit2)(Unit3)
40
___ __ __ ~ ~ ~ ~
Beginning with a clear target or outcome, and developing a set of relevant perfor- 4
mance-based inquiries and experiences, still do not make up backward design. The MlSCONCEPTlON
challenge is to postpone all thinking about what specific learning activities should
ALERT
frame a unit until the culminating performance tasks and other assessments are clear.
Educators need to know precisely what performances are required by the end of the
unit before they can know what specific experiences and learnings need to occur.
The temptation to build units around favored activities is great. This approach
threatens to make the unit less coherent and goal directed from the students' point
of view. And often the teacher hasn't stopped to consider what precisely should be
assessed in such activities, given a specified target. The assessment often ends up
evaluating the specifics of the activity instead of an understanding of the target. As
a result, the activity, when used as a test of specific understandings, usually ends
up yielding invalid or incomplete inferences.
Let’s watch the backward design process unfold inside the head of Bob James as
he designs a three-week unit on nutrition.
Stage 1. Identify Desired Results

In reviewing our state standards in health, I found content standards on
nutrition that are benchmarked to this age level:
Standard 6: Students will understand essential concepts about nutrition

and diet.
F Standard 6a: Students will use an understanding of nutrition to plan
appropriate diets for themselves and others.
P Standard 6c: Students will understand their own eating patterns and
ways in which these patterns may be improved.
Using these standards as the starting point, I need to decide what is the
enduring understanding I want my students to take away from the unit. I think
that what I’m really after is, Students will use an understanding of the elements of
good nutrition to plan a balanced dietfor themselves and others.
41
This understanding is clearly important, because planning nutritious

menus is a real-life application that students can use throughout adulthood. I’m
still a little unclear about how an understanding goes beyond the use of specif-
ic knowledge. The basic concepts of nutrition are fairly straightforward, after
all, as are the skills of menu planning.
Stage 2. Determine Acceptable Evidence

This will be a bit of a stretch for me. Typically in a three- to four-week unit
like this one, I give one or two quizzes; have a project, which I grade; and con-
clude with a unit test, generally multiple choice or matching. Although this
approach to assessment makes grading and justifylng the grades fairly easy, I
have come to realize that these assessments don’t always reflect the most impor-
tant understandings of the unit. To be honest, I tend to test what is easy to test
instead of assessing what is most important, namely the understandings and
attitudes students should take away above and beyond nutritional facts. One
thing that has always disturbed me is that the kids tend to focus on their grades
rather than on their learning. Perhaps the way I’ve used assessments--more for
grading than for documenting learning-has contributed somewhat to their
attitude. Now I need to think about what would actually serve as evidence of
the enduring understanding I’m after.
Stage 3. Plan Learning Experiences and Instruction

This is my favorite part of planning-deciding what activities the students
will do and what resources and materials we’ll need for those activities. But
according to what I’m learning about backward design, I’ll need to think first
about what essential knowledge and skills my students will need in order to
demonstrate the important understandings I’m after. Well, they’ll need to know
about the different food groups and the types of foods found in each group so
that they will understand the USDA food pyramid recommendations. They will
also need to know about human nutritional needs for carbohydrates, protein,
sugar, fat, salt, vitamins, and minerals, and about the various foods that provide
them. They’ll have to learn about the minimum daily requirements for these
42
nutritional elements and about various health problems that arise from poor
nutrition. In terms of skills, they will have to learn how to read and interpret
the nutrition fact labels on foods and how to scale a recipe up or down, because
these skills are necessary for their culminating project: planning healthy menus
for a three-day camp program.
Now for the learning experiences. 1’11 use resources that I’ve collected dur-
ing the past several years-a pamphlet from the USDA on the food groups an(d
the food pyramid recommendations; a wonderful video, Nutvitlon m u
* -.
YOU; and,
7
of course, our health textbook, which I now plan to use selectively As I have
for the past three years, I will invite the nutritionist from the local hospital to
present information about diet and health and to discuss ways to plan healthy
menus. I’ve noticed that the kids really pay attention to a real-life user of the
nutrition information that they’re learning.
methods will follow my Dasic parrern-a oiena 01 direct
:tive (constructivist) methoc roup

ual activities.
ward has helped me more LLC~ILS
Y ~ C L I I YWIIZIL mluwledge
and skills are really essential, given my goals for the unit. I’ll be able to better
concentrate on the T
chapters on nutrition will be especially useful (for instance, the descriptions of

health problems arising from poor nutrition), other sections are not as infor-
__-- .- -- - - -
mative as other resources I’ll now use (the pamphlet from the USDA and the
video). I now know more clearly what I need to assess using traditional quizzes
and tests, and why a performance task and project are needed-to have
students demonstrate their understanding. I think I’m getting the feel for
backward design.
We think that a good template or design frame serve!
“intelligentyytool. It provides more than a place to write ii
Itfocuses and guides our thinking throughout the backw
process to make high-quality work a more likely rt
W I G G I N& S MCTIGHE,1998, P. 180
The Understanding by Design template provides a format for developing, review-

ing, and sharing units of study Each page of the five-page template contains key
questions to help a user focus on the three stages of backward design (identify
desired results, determine acceptable evidence, and plan learning experiences and
instruction). A graphic organizer format provides space for recording design ideas
in both draft and final form.
The template pages are presented in three ways in this module:
A blank version of the template packet is presented at the end of this mod-
ule (see Worksheets 3.1-3.6). Worksheet 3.1 is a Unit Cover Page, and Worksheets
3.2-3.6 are the template pages.
Directions for completing the pages are given in Figures 3.1-3.4. (Directions
are not needed for two pages, Worksheet 3.1 and Worksheet 3.5.)
An example of a completed template packet for a 5th grade unit on nutri-
tion is given in Figures 3.5-3.10.
The template form offers a means to succinctly present a unit design; the
template’s function is to guide the backward design process. When completed,
45
the template can be used for self-assessment, peer review, and sharing of the unit
design with others.
Unit Cover Page

The Unit Cover Page (Worksheet 3.1)contains sections to record basic descrip-
tive information; show links to the appropriate national, state, or district content
standards; summarize a unit; and list the contents of a unit design packet, includ-
ing accommodations for special needs students and enrichment extensions. Space
for adding Key Words (see the first section) is included for listing additional words
and phrases that can be used in searching an electronic database of unit designs.
The bottom section includes space to record a unit’s development status-ini-
tial draft, revised draft, review by peers, independent review by content experts,
field testing (trying out the unit in various classrooms, validation (testing the unit
against design standards), and anchoring (selecting examples of student work to
illustrate performance levels. Module 20 presents design standards and accompa-
nymg tests for reviewing and validating unit designs. Module 2 1 describes the peer
review process in detail.
Stage 1 Template Page

The first page of the template (Worksheet 3.2) focuses on Stage 1 of the
backward design process. Box A asks designers to identify the enduring, big
ideas worthy of understanding. Enduring understandings may include overarch-
ing understanding-transferable ideas that transcend the particulars of a unit-
as well as topical understanding-specifics that students should understand
about the unit topic. We recommend that the understanding listed in Box A be
framed as generalizations or propositions, rather than stated as topics. Essential
questions used to frame the enduring understanding are placed in Box B. At the
bottom (Box C) is space for listing the key knowledge and skills to be developed
through the unit.
Stage 2 Template Pages

The next three pages of the template (Worksheets 3.3-3.5) focus on Stage 2 of
backward design. They provide graphic organizers for specifying the assessment
plan for the unit in light of the desired results identified in Stage 1. They prompt
46
M O D U L E 3 : T H E U N D E R S T A N D I N G B Y D E S I G N T E M P L A T E
the designer to consider and specify a variety of assessment methods best suited
for gathering sufficient evidence of the desired learning in the unit.
Worksheet 3.3 asks the designer to summarize all the assessments for the
unit. Worksheet 3.4 is a performance task blueprint for recording a more com-
plete description of an authentic task, the required student products and perfor-
mances, and the criteria against which each product or performance will be
judged. A separate performance task blueprint is used for each task in the unit.
The last template page for Stage 2 (Worksheet 3.5) offers a blueprint for other
evidence, where supplementary assessments (e.g., quizzes, prompts, and obser-
vations) may be described. The worksheet shows space for describing two sup-
plementary assessments.
Stage 3 Template Page

Worksheet 3.6 focuses on Stage 3 of backward design, the learning experi-
ences and instruction needed to develop the targeted knowledge, skills, and
understandings. Unit designers provide a sequence of the learning activities and
lessons most likely to hook the students, sustain their interest, help develop the
desired understandings, and equip students for their culminating performances.
Teachers are encouraged to consider the WHERE elements from the student’s per-
spective as they plan the major learning experiences. This page of the template
calls for listing the major activities and lessons, not exhaustive lesson plans.
To help guide you through the three stages of the backward design process,
we provide a road map (Figure 3.11). We matched the alphabet letters (A-H) on
the Understanding by Design template pages (Worksheet 3.2-3.6) to the modules
that explain how to complete the pages. For example, Modules 4 and 5 explain
how to complete Box A on the template page for Stage 1 of the backward design
process.
E Iect ronic De s i g n Te mpIate

In addition to the paper version presented here, the Understanding by Design
template can easily be built in electronic form. An electronic version offers several
advantages:
47
W The Understanding by Design template provides a framework for generating

MISCONCEPTION and recording ideas. Users should not feel compelled to fill in all the boxes on the
ALERT template pages if the information is not needed.

W When completed, the template provides a summary of a unit’s main com-
ponents. Space constraints, however, limit the amount of information that can be
recorded on the pages. In most cases, students and other teachers will need addi-
tional directions and materials. Such additions may be appended to the template.
W Though intended to guide a unit‘s development, the template should not be
thought of as providing all needed process materials to complete a finished product.
Indeed, a key goal of this handbook is to provide worksheets and design tools to
assist educators as they plan a unit. Think of the template, then, as equivalent to the
1040 tax form: It provides the general structure for the required information, but
must be supplemented by other forms and worksheets to complete the tax return
with all of the 1040 boxes filled in. In this regard, the template should be thought of
as a place to record the final unit (product), as opposed to an ordered set of process
works heets.
W The unit design template is structured by the logic of backward design: iden-
tify desired results; determine needed assessment evidence; and then plan learning
experiences and instruction. Though the logic is sound and recommended as an
overall strategy, initial users of the template sometimes display a misconception-
the belief that they must follow the sequence laid out by the template boxes. In real-
ity, designs can and do begin in many different places (e.g., starting with a content
standard or an effective performance task). Furthermore, a clarification of one
design element will often lead to a rethinking of a previously completed section of
the template. Recognition of the nonlinear and iterative nature of the design process
led to the modular organization of this handbook to provide the flexibility of
sequence needed in a process that is recursive and personal as opposed to linear
and standardized.
w Designers can add their ideas directly onto the template using a computer.
H Editing and revising are easy, a significant feature because ongoing refine-
ment is crucial to achieving high-quality curriculum designs.
Units can be readily shared across schools and districts.
Information on the Designers’
Co-op is available by contacting the
authors at their e-mail addresses
(gwiggins@classnj.org and
jmctigh@aol.com) or by logging We have formed a Designers Cooperative for this purpose, using a template
onto the co-op Web site at
http://www.classdesign.org. accessible on the World Wide Web.1 In addition, work is currently under way to
establish a national database of validated curriculum units based on the

Understand ng by Design template. This searchable database, accessible on the
Internet through the ASCD Web site (http://www.ubd.ascd.org),will enable edu-
cators to share their best designs as well as to access hundreds of validated units
from other sites.
REFLECTION FROM BOB J A M E S
This new template seems a bit overwhelming, but I think I can see the value of
planning backward in this detailed way For example, in Stage 1,visualizing the
links between understandings, questions, and knowledge will sharpen priori-
ties and help me get beyond just teaching the textbook content of nutrition.
Although I’ve never liked having to fit my ideas into someone else’s framework,
I can see that this template organizes planning more than telling me how or
what to teach. And it provides a practical format for sharing unit designs with
other teachers. I must admit that I really like the idea of having access to a large
database of units on the Internet. What a great resource for beginning and
experienced teachers alike.
49
stage 1: stage 2: Stage 3:

Identify Desired Results Detennine Acceptable Plan Leaming -8
ADE Evidence and Instruction
BDE D D PerformanceTasks H D Sequence of Learning
C D Kno Performance Task Blueprint( 0 ) Experiencesand Instruction
STAGE
E D Quizzes, Tests, Prompts
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, 6)
Identify the enduring

understanding to be
developed during this
unit. You may choose T H E U N D E R S T A N D I N G B Y D E S I G N H A N D B O O K
to include overarch-
ing understanding
that transcend the
unit, as well as Identify essential question5
wh.t mdurlno undrmndingr a n dnhad7
topical understand- Studentswill understand that will guide teaching an

ings specific to the stimulate inquiry toward tl
unit. Understandings desired topical understand
should be framed as ings, and beyond the topic
generalizations or toward overarching under-
propositions. standings.
I Studemswill know Students will be able to

I
I
I
I
I
Identify knowledge and skills to be developed during this unit. Include

key facts, concepts, principles, skills, and processes in two areas:
those called for by the content standards.
Those needed by students to reach desired understanding.
Note: This section is asking for key knowledge and skills, not every discrete objective
listed in textbooks or curriculum guides.
50 01999 B m A I I rights reserved.

sQe" 1: sQe"2 Stage 3 :

Identity Desired Results DetermineAcceptable Plan Learning
A D EnduringUnderstandings Evidenoe and Instmction
B D Essential Questions D B Perfor H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint(D) Experiencesand Instruction
STAGE E D Qu
F Bun
GBSe
Directions Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F, G)
List the titles of the

performance tasks in
which students apply
what they have learned M O D U L E 3 T H E U N D E R S T A N D I N G B Y D E S I G N T E M P L A T E
in a new context to
provide evidence of
their understanding.
Complete a separate Identify quizzes, tests,
prompts, and work
i .
Performance Task
Blueprint (Worksheet samples that will be
3.4) for each task. used to assess key
II II
Attach related scoring knowledge and skills.
tools (e.g., rubrics).
Note: Include formative
tasks used during the unit
as well as culminating
performances.
List student
self-assessments
required in the unit.
Identity assessment information

that will be obtained through
observation, spontaneous
interactions, and other informal
means.
~~
01999 , i ! " A H rights reserved. 51

staw 1: stage 2 stages

Identify D e d d Resultr Detennine Acceptable Plan Laamsng
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and lnsbuction
B B Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills * Experiences and Instruction
E
I (Directions ) I G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Omer Evidence (E, F, 6)
Provide a summary of the T H E U N D E R S T A N D I N G B V D E S I G N H A N D B O O K
performance task through

which students will
demonstrate understanding.
Include the goal, role, TaskTlrle - . ApproximateTime Frame .._ _ . . - -
audience, situation, product What daind und.ntmnding8lcontentstandard,will be msessad thmugh ihb task?
or performance, and standards II II II II II II

(GRASPS) in the task what b (he putposeofihlsasammeni task7 0 Fornative 0 Surnmative
description.
Thmugh wh.t @mmw tart will amdents dr0mb.t.und.nt.m(lnp7
Task Overview (indudeGRASPS:goal, role, audmnes, ohation, product or perbrmanes, and rtandards)
By what smsri.win rtudantpodusb/p&olnl.nsa be mlushd7
8 8 8
8 8 8
what tvp.of rcollng mob will be uaed for mlwtion?(Use a separatesheet for scoring tools.)
0Analylic rubric 0 Holisticrubric 0 Criteriontperformance) list 0 Checklist
52 01999 , i t " A l l rights reserved.

3.4 staae 1: stacn, 2: staae 3:

I d e h Desired R e s u l t s Detknine Acceptable PI& barn- rxpsrisnces
A B Enduring Understandings Evidence and -on
B D Essential Questions D B PerformanceTasks W b Sequence of Lesming
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint(O1 Experiences and Instruction
STAGE E D Quizzes, Tests, Prompts
t F D Unprompted Evidence
G D Self-Assessment
Directions Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E, F, G)
Provide a sequence for the major teaching and
learning experiences that will most likely hook
the students, hold their interest, help develop
the desired understandings, and prepare stu-
What WPUMC. ol msehlng and lwmlng expaiencawill .quip slwhnla
to develop and demomtnte the doaimcl und.nt.ndlngs7
dents for their culminating performance.
Considerm0 W E R E elmenta hwn the atudenlf pnnpaclivs.
The WHERE elements should be considered
from the student? perspective.
W = Help students know where the unit is

going.
H = Hook students and hold their interest.
E = Equip students, explore the issues, and
experience the ideas.
R = Provide opportunities to rethink and revise.
E = Allow students to exhibit their understand-
ing and evaluate their work.
-.
Note: This section is asking for a chronology of the main

lessons and learning activities, not detailed lesson plans.
01999 i ? i ? " A l l rights reserved. 53

3.5 I B A C K W A R D
Identify Desired Results

A B Enduring Understandings
stage 2
D E S I G N
Detennine Acceptable
Evidence
P R O C E S S
stage 3:
Plan Learning Experiences
and Instruction
B D Essential Questions D B Performance Tasks H D Sequence of Learning
C B Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
Nutrition Unit Blueprint for Other Evidence(E, F, G)
UnitTitle: “You Are What You Eat” Grade Levels: 5th
Subjecflopic Areas: health and nutrition
Key Words: nutrition, health, wellness, balanced diet, food pyramid

Unit Designer: Bob James Time Frame: three weeks
School District: Montgomery Knolls E 5 School: Cheshire Cat Elem.
Link to Content Standards

5tandard 6: 5tudents will understand essential concepts about nutrition and diet.
5tandard 6a: 5tudents will use an understanding of nutrition t o plan appropriate diets for themselves and
o the r 5
5tandard 6c: 5tudents will understand their own eating patterns and ways in which these patterns may be
improved.
Brief Summary of Unit (including curriculum and unit goals)
In t h i s introductory unit of t h e health education course, students will learn about human nutritional needs, t h e food
groups, t h e nutritional benefits of various foods, t h e U5DA Food Guide Pyramid, and health problems associated with
poor nutrition. They will design an illustrated nutrition brochure t o teach younger children about t h e importance of
good nutrition for healthy living; work in cooperative groups t o analyze a hypothetical family’s diet, recommending ways
t o improve i t s nutritional value; and research health problems resulting from poor eating. In t h e culminating perfor-
mance task, students will develop and present a proposed menu for an upcoming three-day Outdoor Education camp
program. Their menu for meals and snacks should meet t h e U5DA food pyramid recommendations. The unit will con-
clude with students evaluating their personal eating habits and t h e extent t o which they “eat healthy.”
Unit Design Packet
I CONTENTS I STATUS
d Completed template pages b3 Initial draft (date: 3/12/98)

Ci Completed blueprint for each performance task ~ b3 Revised draft (date: 1/14/99)
d Completed blueprint for other evidence d Peer reviewed
Ci Directions to students and teachers Ci Content reviewed
U List of materials and resources U Field-tested
U Suggested accommodations U Validated
Ll Suggested extensions Ll Anchored
54 01999 AWD”‘A11rights reserved.

1
3.6
Correspondsto WS 3 2
I ‘
I
Stage 1:
B A C K W A R D DESIGNPROCESS
Identity Desired Results

A B EnduringUnderstandings
Stage 2
Determine A-ptable
Evidence
Stage 3:
Plan Lemming Experkme8
and lnstmction
I
B B Essentiat Questions D B PerformanceTasks H B Sequence of Learning

PerformanceTask Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and Instruction
STAGE E B Quizzes,Tests, Prompts
F B UnpromptedEvidence
G B Self-Assessment
What enduring understandings are desired?
Students will understand
A balanced diet contributes t o physical and mental health.

The U5DA food pyramid presents relative guidelines for nutrition.
Dietary requirements differ for individuals, depending on variables such a s age, activity level,
weight, and overall health.
Healthful living requires an individual t o a c t on available information on such topics a s diet,
exercise, sleep, and hygiene, even if those actions mean breaking comfortable habits.
What essential questions will guide this unit and focus teaching and learning?
What is healthful eating?
Can a healthy diet for one person be unhealthy for another?
Why does t h e United 5 t a t e s have 50 many health problems t h a t are caused by unhealthy
lifestyles, despite all t h e available information?
What key knowledge and skills will students acquire as a result of this unit?
~~~~ ~ ~
Students will know Students will be able to

Key terms (e.g., protein, fat, calorie, H Read and interpret nutrition information on
ca rbohydrate, and c ho lesterol) . food labels.
Types of foods in each food group and Analyze diets for nutritional value.
t h e ir nutritio na I va I Ues. Plan balanced diets for themselves and
H The U5DA food pyramid guidelines. others.
Variables influencing nutritional needs.
Health problems caused by poor nutrition.

3.7 Stage 1:
Identity Desired Rerutts
Stage 2:
Stage 3
Plan Learning Expmiences
Correspondsto WS 3.3 A B EnduringUnderstandings Evidence and lnshuetion
B B Essential Questions H B Sequence of Learning
C B Knowledge and Skills Performance Task B l w r Experiences and Instruction
STAGE
G D Self-Assessment
( Nutrition Unit Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E. F, G)
What evidence will show that students understand?
PerformanceTasks (summarized) )(Complete a PerformanceTask Blueprint [Worksheet 3.41 for each task.)
Family Meals. 5 t u d e n t s evaluate t h e eating habits of a hypothetical family (the 5 p r a t t s ) and
make recommendations for a diet t h a t will improve t h e nutritional value of their meals.
You Are What You Eat. s t u d e n t s create an illustrated brochure t o teach younger children about
t h e importance o f good nutrition f o r healthful living.
Chow Down. 5 t u d e n t s develop a three-day menu for meals and snacks for an upcoming Outdoor
Education camp experience.
OTHER EVIDENCE )(Use the Blueprint for Other Evidence [Worksheet 3.51
t o describe assessments other than performance tasks.)
Quizzes,Tests, Prompts, and Work Samples (summarized)
Quiz 1: The food groups Prompt: Describe two health problems t h a t can
Quiz 2: The U5DA food pyramid arise a s a result o f poor nutrition and explain
how these can be avoided.
Teacher observations of students during work on Self-assess your brochure.
t h e performance t a s k s and in t h e cafeteria while 5elf-assess t h e camp menu.
self-assess t h e extent t o which you
“eat healthy” a t t h e end of t h e unit
compared t o t h e beginning of t h e unit.
56 01999 A I ~ I ~ A rights
I I reserved.
3.8 SQge 1: Stage 2: stage3
I
Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning
STAGE C D Knowledge and Skills > PerfommncelsdrBfee Experiences and Instruction
E b Quizzes, Tests, Prompts
I F B Unprompted Evidence
I (Nutrition Unit 11
G B Self-Assessment
W Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E, F, G)
TaskTitle: Chow Down ApproximateTime Frame: Two periods (plus out-of-class work)
What desired understandings/content standards will be assessed through this task?
an understanding of nutrition .................................. ..................................
to plan appropriate diets for

.................................. ..................................
themselves and others.
What is the purpose of this assessment task? D Formative USummative
Through what authentic performance task will students demonstrate understanding?

~~ ~
Task Overview (include GRASPS: goal, role, audience, situation, product or performance, and standards)
Because we have been learning about nutrition, t h e camp director a t t h e Outdoor Education Center
has asked us t o propose a nutritionally balanced menu for our three-day trip t o t h e center later
t h i s year. Using t h e U5DA food pyramid guidelines and t h e nutrition f a c t s on food labels, design a
plan f o r three days, including t h e three meals and three snacks (morning, akernoon, and campfire
time). Your goal: a t a s t y and nutritionally balanced menu. In addition t o your menu, prepare a letter
t o t h e director explaining how your menu meets t h e U W A nutritional guidelines. Include a c h a r t
showing a breakdown o f t h e fat, protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and calories.
What student products/performances will provide evidence of desired understandings?
nutritiona I va I ues ..................................
By what criteria will student products/performances be evaluated?
4 Menu meets U5DA guidelines. Explanation o f nutritional 4
4 Nutritional values c h a r t is value and t a s t e appeal of

......................................
accurate and complete. proposed menu is effective. 4

.....................................
What type of scoring tools will be used for evaluation? (Use a separate sheet for scoring tools.)
d Analytic rubric Q Holistic rubric Q Criterion (performance) list D Checklist
~~ ~~~~ ~
01999 , i i " A H rights reserved. 57

FIGURE
I B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
.
d I
3.9
Correspondsto WS 3.5
1
Stage 1:
Identify Desired R e s u b
A D Enduring Understandings
Stage 2
Evidence
Stage 3:
Plan Learning
and Instruction
a
C D Knowledge and Skills Performancelesk BlueprintfDI Experiences and instruction
STAGE
I E D Quizzes, Tests, Prompts
G D Self-Assessm
(Nutrition Unit
What other assessment evidence will be collected during this unit?
What will be assessed? What will be assessed?

d Knowledge D List: The food groups, d Knowledge 0 List: 5pecific health
CI Skill U5DA food pyramid D Skill problems caused by poor
D Understanding # Understanding nutrition
How will evidence be collected? How will evidence be collected?

QuizTTest D Assignment D Quiflest D Assignment
CI Teacher notes CI Other: d Teacher notes D Other:
What type of assessment will be used? What type of assessment will be used?
Selected response D Observation D Selected response # Observation
D Academic prompt #Work sample Ld Academic prompt Work sample
D Brief constructed D Other: CI Brief constructed CI Other:
response response
What is the assessment's purpose? What is the assessment's purpose?

CI Diagnostic El Formative CI Summative D Diagnostic D Formative Gd Summative
Describe the assessment and state the prompt Describe the assessment and state the prompt
(if a pp Iicable). (if applicable).
Two multiple-choice quizzes from t h e t e x t - Prompt: Describe two health problems t h a t
book will be used during t h e unit t o check can arise a s a result o f poor nutrition and
for knowledge of t h e food groups and t h e explain how these can be avoided.
U5DA Food Guide Pyramid.
By what criteria will student responses be By what criteria will student responses be
evaluated? (Complete if applicable.) evaluated? (Complete if applicable.)
w Accurate: Correctly links health problems
......................................................
with accompanying nutritional deficiencies or
........................................................ exces~es.
w Complete: Identifies t w o health problems and
........................................................
their related nutritional causes.
What type of scoring tools will be used for What type of scoring tools will be used for
evaluation? (Check if applicable.) evaluation? (Check if applicable.)
CI Analytic rubric CI Checklist d Analytic rubric D Checklist
D Holistic rubric d Answer key tl Holistic rubric D Answer key
CI Criterion list tl Criterion list
58 01999 , i i N A I I rights reserved.

Stage 1: Stage 2: stage 3:

Identify Desired Results Detennine Acceptable Plan Learning bperiencer
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instruction
B D Essential Questions D D Performance Tasks H D Sequence of
C D Knowledge and Skills k PerformanceTask Blueprint(D) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
Nutrition Unit k Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, G)
What sequence of teaching and learning experiences will equip students

to develop and demonstrate the desired understandings?
Consider the WHERE elements from the student’s perspective.

1. Present t h e s t o r y o f t h e sailors’ “mystery” disease (scurvy) t o hook s t u d e n t s t o consider t h e
relationship o f nutrition t o health.
2. Introduce essential questions and key vocabulary terms.
3. Present concept a t t a i n m e n t lesson on food groups, and then categorize foods accordingly.
4. Have s t u d e n t s read and discuss t h e nutrition brochure from t h e U5DA.
5. Present lesson on t h e food pyramid and identify foods in each group.
6. Read and discuss relevant selections from t h e health textbook.
7. Present and discuss t h e video Nutrition and You.
8. Have s t u d e n t s design an illustrated nutrition brochure t o teach younger children about t h e
importance o f good nutrition f o r healthy living.
9. Assess and give feedback on t h e brochures; allow s t u d e n t s t o assess their own and their peers’
brochures, using a performance list.
10. Using cooperative groups, have s t u d e n t s analyze a hypothetical family’s d i e t and make
recommendations f o r improved nutrition.
11. Conduct a group review and give feedback on t h e d i e t analyses.
12. Have s t u d e n t s listen t o and question a guest speaker (e.g., a hospital nutritionist) about health
problems caused by poor nutrition.
13. Have s t u d e n t s research health problems resulting from poor eating.
14. Model how t o interpret food label information f o r nutritional value; have s t u d e n t s practice.
15. Allow s t u d e n t s t o work independently t o develop t h e three-day camp menu.
16. Observe and coach s t u d e n t s a s t h e y work on their menus.
17. Evaluate and give feedback on t h e camp menu project; have s t u d e n t s assess their own and their
peers’ projects, using rubrics.
18. Conclude t h e u n i t with students’ self-evaluating their personal eating habits (i.e., t h e extent t o
which t h e y “eat healthy”).
01999 , i i M A l l rights reserved. 59

u.1 I
I
The guide below outlines the three stages of the backward design process. Alphabet letters
from the Understanding by Design template pages are shown under the appropriate stage of the
process.The number of the module that explains how to complete the pages is shown on the right.
MODULE
Backward Design Process -2
STAGE Identify Desired Results
* 4-5
-
Enduring Understandings
Essential Questions *6
p Knowledge and Skills 4-5
STAGE Determine Acceptable Evidence -7
Performance Tasks
Other Evidence
Performance Task Blueprint (D) - * 8-11
8-11
-7
Quizzes, Tests, Prompts -7
Unprornpted Evidence -7
Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, E; G) - *7
7
STAGE Plan Learning Experiences and Instruction
6 Sequence of Learning Experiences and Instruction -+ 12-1 9
~~ ~
60 01999 -"All rights reserved.

WORKS H EET B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
Stage 2: Stage 3:
Identify Desired Results Detennine Acceptable Plan karnpnS Experiences
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instmction
B B Essential Questions D D Performance Tasks H B Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint(D) Experiences and hstruction
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F, 0 )
Unit
. . Title:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grade Levels:
. . . . . . . . . . .
Subject/Topic Areas:
Key Words:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit Designer: Time Frame:
School District: School:. ..................................................
Link to Content Standards
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Brief Summary of Unit (including curriculum and unit goals)
..........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Unit Design Packet
CONTENTS STATUS
D Completed template pages D Initial draft (date: 1

D Completed blueprint for each performance task D Revised draft (date: 1
D Completed blueprint for other evidence D Peer reviewed
D Directions to students and teachers D Content reviewed
D List of materials and resources D Field-tested
D Suggested accommodations 0 Validated
D Suggested extensions D Anchored
01999 B m A I f rights reserved. 61

3.2 1I a L B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S I
I
'
ldentifv Desired Results Detennine Acceptable Plan Learning Experknees
Correspondsto Figs. 3.1,3.6
I A D Enduring Understandings
B B Essential Questions
C ) Knowledge and Skills
Evidence
D B PerformanceTasks
PerformanceTask Blueprint( 0 )
and lnstructi-on
H D Sequence of Learning
Experiences and lnstruction
I
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E. F, G)
What enduring understandings are desired?
Students will understand
What essential questions will guide this unit and focus teaching and learning?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
What key knowledge and skills will students acquire as a result of this unit?
62 01999 B M A I Irights reserved.

3.3
Corresponds to Figs. 3 2 3.7
I
I
stage 1:
B A C K W A R D D E S I G NP R O C E S S
Staga 2
Evidence
Stage 3:
Plan Learning brperiences
and Insbudion
B B Essential Questions D B Perfo H B Sequence of Learning
C B Knowledge and Skills Experiences and Instruction
What evidence will show that students understand?
PerformanceTasks (summarized) )(Complete a PerformanceTask Blueprint [Worksheet 3.41 for each task.)
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
OTHER EVIDENCE >(Use the Blueprint for Other Evidence [Worksheet 3.51
to describe assessments other than performance tasks.)
Quizzes,Tests, Prompts, and Work Samples (summarized)
.. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unprompted Evidence (e.g.,observations and dialogues) Student Self-Assessment
..................................................
..................................................
..................................................
..................................................
......................................
0 1 999 . i ? i ? " A l l rights reserved. 63

WORKS HEET I B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
3.4 SQSa 1: Stage 2 Stage 3:

Identity Desired Results Detennine Acceptable Plan Leaming Expeiences
Correspondsto Figs. 33,3.8 A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instmction
B D Essential fluestions D D Performance Tasks H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills PErfwma Experiences and Instruction
G B Self-Assessment
> Blueprintfor Other Evidence(E. F, GI
Ta s k.TitI e :
Nhat is the purpose of this assessment task? CI Formative Ll Summative
rhrough what authentic performance task will students demonstrate understanding?
Task Overview (include GRASPS: goal, role, audience, situation, product or performance, and standards)
.............
ice
.................................. .................................. ..................................
...................................... ...................................... . .
...................................... ...................................... ......................................
...................................... ...................................... .....................................
D Analytic rubric CI Holistic rubric D Criterion (performance) list Ll Checklist
64 01999 -,mA1l rights reserved.

t
STAGE Is B
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint(D)
Experiences and hldruction
I
I \
l l G D Self-Assessment
Blueprhtfor
I
What other assessment evidence will be collected during this unit?
What will be assessed? What will be assessed?

D Knowledge D List: D Knowledge D List:
D Skill D Skill
D Understanding D Understanding
How will evidence be collected? How will evidence be collected?

D Quiznest D Assignment D Quiznest D Assignment
D Teacher notes D Other: D Teacher notes D Other:
What type of assessment will be used? What type of assessment will be used?
D Selected response D Observation D Selected response D Observation
D Academic prompt D Work sample D Academic prompt D Work sample
D Brief constructed D Other: D Brief constructed D Other:
response response
What is the assessment's purpose? What is the assessment's purpose?

D Diagnostic D Formative D Summative D Diagnostic D Formative D Summative
Describe the assessment and state the prompt Describe the assessment and state the prompt
(if a pplicable). (if applicable).
.......................
By what criteria will student responses be By w h a t criteria will student responses be

evaluated? (Complete if applicable.) evaluated? (Complete if applicable.)
........................................................
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~ _ _ _ ~~ ~ ~
_ _
~ _
What type of scoring tools will be used for What type of scoring tools will be used for
evaluation? (Check if applicable.) evaluation? (Check if applicable.)
D Analytic rubric D Checklist D Analytic rubric D Checklist
D Holistic rubric D Answer key D Holistic rubric D Answer key
D Criterion list D Criterion list
01999 -"AI1 rights reserved. 65

3.6
Corresponds to Figs. 3.4,3.10
1 stage 1:
B A C K W A R D
Stage 2
D E S I G N
Evidence
P R O C E S S
stage 3:
Pian Learning
and lnsbuction
B B Essential Questions D B PerformanceTasks H B Sequence of
C Knowledge and Skills Petformance Task Blueprint (D) Experiences and
STAGE E B Quizzes, Tests, Prompts
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F, GI
What sequence of teaching and learning experiences will equip students

to develop and demonstrate the desired understandings?
Consider t h e WHERE elements f r o m t h e student’s perspective.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..........................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66 01999 m i 6 m A l l rights reserved.

0
STA(

identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning Experiences
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and lnstruction
B D Essential Questions D D Performance Tasks H B Sequence of learning
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint (D) Experiences and lnstruction
G D Self-Assessment
How does one go about deten
worth understanding amic
content standards and topics?
S MCTIGHE,1998, P. 10
W I G G I N&
UZ E E
Because there is typically more content than can reasonably be addressed within Worksheet 3.2
t
the available instructional time, educators are obliged to make choices. A useful
framework for establishing curricular priorities may be graphically depicted using
three nested rings, shown in Figure 4.1.
The blank background within the middle ring represents the field of possible
content (topics, skills, and resources) that might be examined during a unit or
course. Clearly, as educators, we cannot address it all; thus, we move within the
largest ring to identify knowledge that students should befamiliar with. During the
unit or course, what do we want students to hear, read, view, research, or other-
wise encounter? For example, in an introductory course on classroom assessment,
Enduring
it makes sense for adult students to be conversant with the history of standardized Understandings
testing in the United States and in other nations (see Figure 4.2). Broad-brush
knowledge, assessed through traditional quiz or test questions, would be sufficient,
given the purpose of the course.
In the middle ring, we sharpen our choices by specifying important knowledge
(facts, concepts, and principles) and skills (processes,strategies, and methods). We
would say that student learning is incomplete if the unit or course concluded with-
out mastery of these essentials. For instance, the characteristics of, and distinctions
69
4.1 I
I
between, norm- and criterion-referenced assessments would be considered essen-

tial knowledge in the assessment course, and some use of that knowledge would
properly be expected. Here is another way to think about the middle ring: It spec-
ifies the prerequisite knowledge and skill students need to successfully accomplish
key performances.
The smallest ring requires finer-grain choices and a focus on intellectual prior-
ities. Here we select the enduring understandings that will anchor the unit and
establish a rationale for it. The term enduring refers to the big ideas, or the impor-
tant understandings, that we want students to “getinside of’’and retain after they’ve
forgotten many of the details. Put differently, the enduring understandings provide
a larger purpose for learning the targeted content: They implicitly answer the ques-
tion, Why is this topic worth studymg? For the assessment course, the instructor
would emphasize the principles of validity and reliability-through analysis and
critiquing of would-be tests, followed by actual test design work-and the distinc-
tions in theory and practice between norm- and criterion-referenced evaluation.
How do educators determine what is worth understanding from among a range
of content standards, topics, and goals and objectives?We offer four criteria, or fil-
ters, to use in selecting big ideas and core processes to teach for understanding:
70
M O D U L E 4 : I D E N T I F Y I N G E N D U R I N G U N D E R S T A N D I N G S
To what extent are the content standards and topics enduring and trans-
ferable big ideas, having value beyond the classroom?
Enduring understanding go beyond discrete facts or skills to focus on larger
concepts, principles, or processes. They are transferable-applicable to new situa-
tions within or beyond the subject. For example, we study the enactment of the
Magna Carta as a specific historical event because of its significance to a larger idea.
That idea is the “rule of law,” whereby written laws specify the limits of a govern-
ment’s power and articulate the rights of individuals, such as due process. This big
idea transcends its roots in 13th century England to become a cornerstone of mod-
ern democratic societies. Students can use this understanding in new situations,
such as when studying emerging democracies in the third world.
A big idea may be described as an intellectual linchpin. A linchpin is the pin
that keeps a wheel in place on an axle. Thus, a linchpin idea is one that is essen-
tial for understanding-without it, a student cannot go anywhere. For instance,
without grasping the distinction between the letter and the spirit of the law, a stu-
dent cannot understand the U.S. constitutional and legal system-even if the stu-
dent is highly knowledgeable and articulate about the facts of U.S. history and law.
Without a focus on transferable, linchpin ideas that have lasting value, the student
may be left with inert, easily forgotten fragments of knowledge.
rn To what extent are the content standards and topics big ideus and core
processes at the heart of the discipline?
Consider the ways people work within the disciplines-conducting investiga-
tions in science; writing for different purposes (e.g., to inform, persuade, or enter-
tain) to real audiences; interpreting events and primary source documents in histo-
ry; applylng mathematics to solve real-world problems; researching; critiquing books
and movies; and debating issues of social and economic policy Such authentic learn-
ing experiences shift students from a passive knowledge receiver into an active con-
structor and verifier of meaning. By involving students in “doing” the subject, we
provide them with insights into how knowledge is generated, tested, and used.
w To what extent are the content standards and topics abstract, counterin-
tuitive, often misunderstood, or easily misunderstood ideas requiring uncoverage?
71
Think about the abstract ideas in a unit or course, those concepts and princi-
ples that are not obvious and may be counterintuitive. For example, in physics,
students often struggle with ideas concerning gravity, force, and motion. When
asked to predict which object-a marble or a bowling ball-will strike the ground
first when dropped simultaneously from the same height, many students reveal a
common misconception by incorrectly selecting the bowling ball.
What important concepts or processes do students have difficulty grasping?
What do they frequently misunderstand? What do they typically struggle with?
About which big ideas are they likely to harbor a misconception? These are fruit-
ful topics to select and uncover-to teach for understanding.
To what extent are the content standards and topics big ideas embedded
in facts, skills, und activities?
Many seemingly straightforward facts are difficult to grasp without understand-
ing the underlying concepts that give meaning to those facts. And many skills are
only successfully mastered when we understand their intellectual purpose or justifi-
cation. The fact that small objects fall to earth in the way they do only becomes
understandable through the idea of gravitational force that similarly keeps planets in
orbit. The skill of reading stones requires understanding that authors sometimes do
not explicitly state what the story is about-their meaning resides between the lines.
None of these ideas for setting priorities and designing for better understand-
ing is radical or new. Indeed, Bruner in The Process of Education (1960) made an
elegant case almost 40 years ago for greater curricular focus on what matters
most-powerful ideas with transfer:
The curriculum of a subject should be determined by the most fundamental

understanding that can be achieved of the underlying principles that give structure
to a subject. . . . Teaching specific topics or skills without making clear their context
in the broader fundamental structure of a field of knowledge is uneconomical. . . .
An understanding of fundamental principles and ideas appears to be the main road

to adequate transfer of training. To understand something as a specific instance of a
more general case-which is what understanding a more fundamental structure
means-is to have learned not only a specific thing but also a model for under-
standing other things like it that one may encounter (pp. 6, 25, and 31).
72
What is perhaps new is that we offer a set of tools (worksheets and filters) to
make the selection of curriculum priorities more likely to happen by design than
by good fortune. Several design tools have proven useful to educators striving to
identify priorities and focus on big ideas within a unit of study or course. Figures
4.3 and 4.4 provide examples from a unit on nutrition and on the American
Revolution. Figures 4.5-4.8 illustrate possible enduring understanding that
resulted from running various content topics through the Understanding by
Design filters. Try using the blank versions of these design tools (Worksheets 4.1
and 4.2) with content standards and topics from your curriculum.
I A filter is not a criterion that all units must meet; it is a guideline for focusing a unit 4
on important ideas worthy of understanding. Passing possible topics through the fil- MISCONCEPTION
ters helps ensure the quality of the unit's ingredients, but it is not sufficient to judge ALERT
the final design. That assessment requires a set of tests, based on design stan-
dards, once the unit is complete.
Consider the metaphor of drip coffee making, from which our filter analogy is
borrowed. The paper filters out the grounds so that only coffee (not mere water or
ground coffee) goes into the carafe. But the filter is not providing a criterion of good
coffee; the final test of the coffee is whether it tastes good. Analogously, because
we have identified a big idea, it does not follow that our final unit will do justice to
that idea. Nor are these filters the only ways to end up with a good idea. Similarly,
w e might even make good coffee using different or makeshift filters (e.g., we have
no more paper ones in the house, but we find some cheesecloth to use). In terms
of testing, all that matters is that the final unit (or cup of java) be right, not meet rules
of being made a certain way.
73
The basic concepts of nutrition are fairly straightforward, as are the skills of
menu planning. So then, what are the important ideas worth understanding?
What in the unit may require uncovering? One aspect of nutrition that isn’t
obvious to my students is the understanding that the USDA food pyramid
provides a general set of guidelines for good nutrition, but that individual
differences (in age, weight, activity level, and dietary restrictions) must be taken
into account. In other words, a healthy diet for one individual may be inade-
quate for another.
As I. reflect on my experience teaching nutrition, I’ve been frustrated by the
fact that even when students know what “healthy eating’’ means, they don’t
always follow what they’ve learned; that is, they still eat too much junk food
and too few fruits and vegetables. Maybe this is another aspect of nutrition that
needs uncovering-exploring the idea of why people don’t act on their knowl-
edge with respect to eating (and other health matters, such as exercise). I think
I’ll try to uncover these two ideas in addition to teaching basic nutrition
information.
stag0 1: -2: SQgC 8:

Identity D o s i d Rerub Determine Acceptable Plan Leadng Lrperssnu~~
A B EnduringUndewndings Evidence and lnstn~ction
C B Knowledge and Skills Petformance Task Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiencesand Instruction
E B Quizzes,Tests, Prompts
G B Self-Assessment
Assessment Course Blueprint for Omer Evidence (E, F, 6)
Knowledge that is worth being

familiar with
The history of standardized

testing in t h e United States;
how standardized testing has
evolved over t h e years.
Different purposes and
01999 -"All rights reserved. 75

4.3 stage 1: stage2 stage 3:

Identify Desired Results Determine Acwptabk Pbn Brperiencer
Corresponds to WS 4.1 A B Enduring Undemtamiings ' Evidence and lnstrucbon
C B Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask BlueMnt (0) Experiences and hstrUCtiOn
>I
. .
0 B Self-Assessment
(Nutrition Unit W Blueprintfor Other Evidsnca (E. F, G)

familiar with
rn General eating patterns and

menus from t h e past.
rn Different conditions
requ iring d ie t a ry restriction 5
(e.g., high blood pressure,
diabetes, and stomach ulcers).
Knowledge and skills that are

important to know and do
know and do r
rn Types of food in each o f

\
t h e food groups and their

nutritional values.
rn The U5DA food pyramid
g U idelines.
Interpret nutritional
.information on food labels.
t o physical and mental health.

rn Dietary requirements differ
for individuals, depending on
variables such a s age, activity
level, weight, and overall health.
76 01999 B M A I I rights reserved.

4.4 Stage 1: -2: -3:

Identify Desired R e s u b D&nnine Acceptable man ~eaming
Correspondsto WS 4.1 A D EnduringUnderstandings Evidence and Instruction
STAGE
G D Self-Assessment
American Revolution Unit Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, G)
Knowledge that is worth being familiar with

W A few conflicting interpretations of t h e causes and meaning of t h e American Revolution.
W The way t h a t particular groups o f Americans (sailors; southern planters; New England farmers; merchants and
craftspeople; African Americans, both enslaved and free; women; and American Indians) responded t o t h e conflict with
Great Britain and t h e s o r t s of changes each group experienced during t h a t period.
W The evolution of t h e British colonies on t h e Atlantic seaboard since t h e early 17th century.
\ Knowledge and skills that are

important to know and do
r
The main events, social and economic

structures, and ideas of t h e Revolution-
ary period, including shifts in British
policy toward t h e colonies after 1763;
various colonial responses t o British
policy moves; structure of colonial
society in different regions; key turning
know and do points in t h e war; terms of t h e Treaty o f
Paris; changes in government and laws in
t h e 1700s; evolution and main features
of t h e Constitution; and key arguments
during t h e ratification process.
W That historians differ about the
u m ~ u w v me u m m u m m m w causes and meaning of t h e American

Revolution, from those who see in i t a
struggle for freedom and a new nation
based on egalitarian and libertarian
principles, t o those who see i t a s an
effort by t h e colonial elite t o maintain
t h e s t a t u s quo and their place of
dominance.
Understandingsthat are enduring \ \
W Americans rebelled for many reasons, b u t n o t because their colonial governments had been long oppressed by t h e
British. Ideals related t o liberty and equality (e.g., "no taxation without representation") were developed by t h e colonial
elite during t h i s period (based on old ideas) t o justify t h e rebellion. Once t h e ideals developed, they had different
meanings for different people.
W A new nation was created during t h e American Revolution, b u t American nationalism was n o t a strong motivating
force for t h e rebellion until i t s later years.
01999 , i i ? " A l l rights reserved. 77

FIGURE B A C K W A R D D E S I G NP R O C E S S
stage 1: stage 2: stage 3:
Identify Desired Results DetermineAcceptable Plan Learning Experiences
Corresponds to WS 4 2 A B Enduring Understandings Evidence and lnstruch -on
C B Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint (D) Experiences and hstrUctiOn
G B Self-Assessment
G o v m m t Unit Blueprintfor Other Evidence(E. F, G)
Content Standards
The Magna Carta was established on June 15,1215.
d Enduring, big ideas, having lasting

value beyond the classroom.
0 Big ideas and core processes at the

heart of the discipline.
0 Abstract, counterintuitive, and

often misunderstood ideas.
0 Big ideas embedded in

facts, skills, and activities.
Possible enduring understandings
' Democratic governments m u s t balance t h e rights of individuals with t h e common good.
A written constitution s e t s f o r t h t h e t e r m s and limits of a government's power.
78 01999 rights reserved.

C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint(01 Experiences and hstrUCtiOn

G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F, G)
Content Standards
Interdisciplinary unit on apples


d Abstract, counterintuitive, and

0 Big ideas embedded in


/
rn Living things grow and change over time.
rn Harvest t i m e is celebrated by many cultures.
rn The natural resources o f a region influence t h e economy and lifestyles o f its inhabitants.
01999 i f i t ” A 1 1 rights reserved. 79

stage 1: - 2 stags 3:
IdentiFy Desired Results Detennme Acceptable Plan Learning
A D EnduringUnderstandings ' Evidence and Instruction
B D Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint(D) Experiences and instruction
STAGE E D Quizzes,Tests, Prompts
F D UnpromptedEvidence
G D Self-Assessment
0 Enduring, big ideas, having lasting


hearf of the discipline.

d Big ideas embedded in

i
-
Authors do n o t always say exactly what they mean and mean what they say (literally).
5atire a t t e m p t s t o expose and ridicule public or political immorality and stupidity through
irony, sarcasm, or exaggeration. (5atire is n o t j u s t making fun o f other people.)
80 01999 , i i " A I I rights reserved.

stage 1: Stage 2 stag0 3:

Identify Desired Result. Determine AcCepQbk Pbn Lea-
AD EnduringUnderstendings Evidence and lnstrucbon
C D Knowledge and Skills PsrformenceTesk Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and hstrUctiOII
G D Self-Assessment
Scientific Method Unit Blueprintfor Other Evidence(E.F, G)
Content Standards
The scientific method

d Big ideas and core processes at the


d Big ideas embedded in

’ w scientific knowledge develops through carefully controlled investigations.

w The scientific method deliberately isolates and controls key variables. (It is n o t simply t r i a l
and error.)
01999 , i i ” A U rights reserved. 81-

~~
stage 1: Stage 2 stage 3:

l d e m Desired-Results Determine Acceptable Plan Laarning Experkaces
A D EnduringUnderstandings Evidence and Instruction
C ) Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Bluevint(D) Experiences and hIstruction
G D Self-Assessment

familiar with
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M O D U L E 4 : I D E N T I F Y I N E N D U R I N G U N D E R S T A N D I N G S
WO R KSHEET B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
4.2 stag: 1: sf"9"2 -3:

Identdy Desired Results DetermineAcceptable Plan Learning Experiences
Consponds to Figs. 4.5-4.8 A B Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instruction
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint ID) Experiences and Instruction
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Wler Evidence (E.F, 6)
0 Enduring, big ideas, having lasting

o Big ideas and core processes at the

o Abstract, counterintuitive, and

o Big ideas embedded in

01999 , i i " A l l rights reserved. 83

The design process and template call for stating a
targeted understanding as a proposition, as opposed
to stating it us a topic only. The aim is to state
clearly what is to be learned, not merely what the
area of inquiry will be; what the student should take
away, not merely what the teacher will cover
In selecting understandings as the focus of a unit or course, designers are asked to Worksheet 3.2
state clearly what is to be understood. By stating the targeted understanding as a

topic only, teachers typically offer a vague phrase about the content, instead of the . . .
.._ .. - -- - .... .
specific understandings that are meant to result. To say, “I want students to under- I ~ $*”-.*,”-”-
stand the Civil War” or “I want students to understand friendship,” is to say noth-
ing about what, specifically, students should understand about those topics.
Although saymg, “I want students to understand the causes and effects of the Civil
War” or “Friends are different from family,” narrows the focus of the topic, these
statements still do not specify exactly what insights into cause and effect the
teacher wants students to leave with.
Enduring
To provide greater clarity for teachers and students about what is most impor- Understandings
tant, we recommend stating a desired understanding as a generalization or a

Knowledge and Skills
proposition, not as a phrase or a word. Stating the desired understanding as a gen-
eralization provides a sharper target for teaching and assessing. For example, stat-
ing that a unit goal is for students to understand “the causes of the Civil War” does
not say specificallywhut understanding about cause and effect is expected. By con-
trast, the statement, “The Civil War was fought over states’ rights issues more than
over the morality of slavery,”is a full statement-a generalization summarizing the
85
intended insight, not just the topic. Stating desired understanding as specific gen-
eralizations makes it much easier for designer and student alike to realize what
particular knowledge, activities, and assessments are needed to support that
understanding. Similarly, an enduring understanding such as, “True friendship is
revealed during hard times,” sharpens the friendship unit.
All generalizations, no matter how specifically stated, are abstractions. What
may be obvious to the teacher will not be obvious (yet) to students. In fact, many
subtle concepts and counterintuitive ideas will typically have to be explored, grap-
pled with, and tested if true understanding is to be achieved.
A unit aiming for understanding must therefore involve more than learning the
generalization as a statement-as if it were a fact. Teaching will entail uncovering
the understanding-not merely covering it-if the student is to be more than

merely familiar with a claim and have insight into its meaning and importance.
Indeed, the mere stating of intended understanding, either by the teacher or by
the teacher pointing them out in the textbook, is the cardinal mistake of coverage,
which treats complex ideas as words to be learned. Instead, teachers should be
helping students explore the ideas’ meaning and confirm their wisdom.
Enduring Understa nd i ngs: Overa rc hi ng and To pica I

Some enduring understandings are more specific than others. Consider the
generalizations in Figure 5.1. The examples suggest that understanding can be
thought of as involving different degrees of abstraction and generalization. The
understanding in Column 1 are more abstract or general than the related ones in
Column 2. These targets can be described as “overarching understandings” because
they provide a larger context and rationale for the specific unit understanding in
Column 2. They point beyond the particulars toward more transferable knowledge.
Column 2 shows topic-specific insights; we refer to them as “topical understand-
ings.” Both types may be placed in Box A of the template.
An emphasis on transferable big ideas (framed as overarching understanding)
is key to effective teaching for understanding. Our goal as teachers is not merely to
teach what is known or what we find delight in. It is to provide students with
powerful sources of connection, insight, and application in present and future
endeavors. Such work means focusing on big ideas that point beyond the
M O D U L E 5 : F R O M T O P I C S A N D S K I L L S T O U N D E R S T A N D I N G S
5.1 I
ENDURINGUNDERSTANDINGS
Overarching Topical
Art Unit on Impressionism

Great artists often break with established Impressionist artists used novel painting
traditions, conventions, and techniques to better techniques to represent everyday life. They used
express what they see and feel. color, light, and shadow to convey the
impression of reflected light at a particular
moment.
~ ~ ~~
Literature Unit on The Catcher in the Rye

The modern novel overturns many traditional Holden Caulfield is an alienated antihero, not an
story elements and norms to tell a more average kid on an ”excellent adventure.’’
authentic and engaging narrative.
History/Government Unit on the U S . Constitution

A president is not above the law. The Watergate incident was a major
constitutional crisis (not a third-rate burglary or
Democracy requires a courageous, not just a hea It hy com petition between politica I parties).
free, press.
Science Unit on gravitational force

Gravity is not a physical thing but a term Vertical height, not the angle and distance of
describing the rate of acceleration of falling descent, determines the eventual speed of a
objects. falling object.
Economics Unit on money and introductory economics

Value is a function of supply and demand. A Beanie Baby‘s initial cost has little relation t o
its eventual worth. Demand and availability
determine its value at any given time.
Mathematics Unit on the parallel postulate

Postulates logically precede any axiomatic The parallel postulate is a crucial foundation to
system, but they are often developed long after Euclidean geometry, despite its awkwardness
the fact to justify key theorems. and theoremlike nature.
particular content of a unit, thus giving schoolwork greater intellectual focus,

coherence, and applicability
Distinguishing between topical understanding and overarching understand-
ings is not clear-cut. Such variables as the scope of course content, subject matter
priorities, age of students, and time allotted to the unit influence the breadth of the
targeted understanding. Nonetheless, we encourage designers to consider the fol-
lowing principles when selecting and framing both kinds of understandings:
87
Enduring understandings are of two kinds, topical and overarching. Topical

understandings are specific to the unit topic. They involve generalizations derived
from the specific content knowledge and skills of the unit. Overarching under-
standing are broader in scope. They involve generalizations that transcend the
content knowledge of the unit, thus serving as bridges to other units and courses.
A unit should focus on a small number of transferable big ideas (overarch-
ing understanding).
N Enduring understandings of both kinds are best stated as generalizations or
propositions.
Although abstract, the targeted understandings must be stated unambigu-
ously-as specqic abstractions.
w Overarching understandings typically focus on broader conceptual rela-
tionships than do topical understandings.
Skills and Understanding

As we repeatedly note in Understanding by Design, as well as in this handbook,
our design work is based on a conditional: If you are aiming for understanding, then
certain design moves follow. The conditional reflects that many appropriate goals in
education do not demand in-depth understanding (e.g., skills, habits, attitudes, and
factual knowledge). The template reflects this distinction by providing a place (Box
C) to note separate knowledge and skill objectives for a unit.
But the distinction between skill and understanding is not as straightforward as it
may first seem. Many skills-focused teachers in reading, world languages, physical
education, and algebra, for example, have told us that they see no need to worry about
big idea understandings because their teaching involves so little of such ideas. They
often want to leave template Box A blank, where such understanding are placed.
Learning to de-code text, translate Spanish sentences into English, dribble a
basketball, or solve simultaneous equations does indeed involve mostly skill. Any
understanding here would seem to be at the low level of comprehending the rules
of translation or application and the appropriate vocabulary to perform the skills in
question. Indeed, one can become highly skilled in algebra, for example, without
understanding what one is doing: One need not know why the algorithms work to
come up with accurate answers.
88
We would argue, however, that important concepts and understanding are

often implicit or embedded in all skill development. Unless one learns the under-
lymg principles, rationales, or strategies implicit in a skill, developing true exper-
tise would be impossible because the highest-level use of a skill invariably involves
innovation, good judgment, and efficiency. To be skillful is to work purposefully
and strategically,not merely to produce discrete moves on cue. Such efficiency and
effectiveness require understanding some key principles at work, even if one is not
self-consciously thinking about those principles or verbalizing them as one per-
forms. (This theme is addressed in greater detail in Module 11 in a discussion of
the need for authentic performance assessment of skill and understanding.)
The examples in Figure 5.2 make this difference clearer. Consider the skills in
Column 1 and the corresponding embedded understandings in Column 2. The
examples suggest that a few key strategic ideas or principles need to be taught
along with the discrete skills if teachers wish to develop true proficiency.
Decisions on how much to emphasize these embedded understandings and
how to address them-inductively or through up-front teaching-are not at issue
at this point; those decisions must be made in Stage 3. Our aim here is to alert
teachers that they may find, upon reflection and discussion, that worthwhile
understanding are embedded in their skill objectives.
5.2 I
I
S D TO UNDERSTANDINGS
Skill Understanding
Reading text The author’s meaning in a story is rarely explicit;

one must read between the lines.
Creating scoring opportunities in soccer One needs to create space, spreading the
defense as broadly and deeply as possible.
Asking directions in Spanish Knowing whether or not one has been

understood requires attention to nonverbal as
well as to verbal feedback.
Speaking persuasively in public Persuasion often involves an emotional appeal

to the particular wishes, needs, hopes, and fears
of an audience, irrespective of how logical and
rational the argument.
Confusing district and state content standards with what we call enduring
MISCONCEPTION understandings is common. Novice designers often think that they need only write
ALERT their district or state standards in Box A of the template. Those standards belong on
the template Unit Cover Page. Even when the standards refer to understanding,
however, their framing is usually inadequate for unit design. To say that a unit goal is,
"Students will understand the water cycle," is insufficient. The designer must go one
step further by identifying the particular understandings students will take away from
their studies of the water cycle. In other words, the targets need to be framed as spe-
cific generalizations or propositions.
Framing an understanding as a generalization or proposition is necessary but
insufficient. Simply stating a proposition does not ensure that the stated understand-
ing is specific or enduring. For example, to want students to understand the proposi-
tion, "Life is unfair," is too vague to adequately serve the design of a unit linked to
specific standards.
Similarly, to equate "proposition" or "generalization" with "sentence" is a mis-
conception. The sentence, "Students will understand the causes and effects of the
Civil War," is not a proposition. It doesn't propose a specific claim or insight about the
Civil War that is worth understanding. It merely takes the topic and puts it in sentence
form. (More examples of appropriately worded understandings are shown in Figures
5.3 and 5.4.)
A common phrase used in standard setting,"students will understand how
to," presents a potential source of confusion in framing understandings.
Often, the phrase, "understand how to," is loosely used and meant as a syn-
onym for "learn how to." When what is really being described is a straightforward,
discrete skill (e.g., write in cursive or dribble a basketball), the desired achievement
is a skill, not an Understanding. Such discrete knowledge and skill objectives are
placed in Box C on the template.
Learning a single technique or recipe is not the same as understanding how to
do something. A common mistake, for example, is to simplistically operationalize the
standard, "understand how to write persuasively," by teaching students how
to write formulaic five-paragraph essays. At the very least, "understand how to"
implies that students need to learn a varietyof strategies for use in various contexts.
In cases where no big idea understandings are at stake, place the skills in Box C of the
template.
When, however, "understand how to" refers to a skill that requires thoughtful
attention to underlying concepts and principles, then the teacher is dealing with under-
standings, as well as skills. For instance, "understand how to write persuasively"
requires not only a set of skills and good judgment in their use across different
contexts and audiences, but also insight into the concept of persuasion. In this case,
w e place these writing skills in Box C and their companion understandings in Box A.
In our example, students need not only to understand h o w t o perform as writ-
ers but also to understand that certain principles are at work in achieving any per-
(contin ued)
suasive written performance. In learning to write persuasively, in other words, stu-
dents are expected to understand the ideas that lie behind all successful persuasion
(e.g., how advertising and political propaganda work). This element has an important
implication for assessment-for gathering evidence of that understanding. A student
might not be an effective writer but still reveal an understanding of how persuasion
works (e.g., in critiques of essays, commercials, or propaganda). Or the reverse
might occur: Because a teacher sees skill in writing a five-paragraph "persuasive
essay" does not mean that the student really understands persuasion and how to
accomplish it. The student may merely be an articulate, thoughtful writer.
Here, again, teachers still face the challenge of stating the particular insights
desired about persuasion (or whatever skills are addressed). What about persuasion
(or "the scientific method," or "best fit" graphing, or sailing) do w e want students to
understand? Thus, in addition to identifying both the understanding elements and
skill elements in their respective boxes, curriculum designers should state the
desired understanding as a generalization-for example-"Students will understand
that successful persuasion often involves nonrational appeal to audience emotions
I and values." I
In this module, we provide a variety of worksheets and design tools to help

designers move from topics and skills to topical and overarching understandings.
Worksheet 5.1 helps designers identify two types of enduring understandings-
overarching and topical. Figures 5.3 and 5.4 present four examples for moving
from topics to understandings. Designers can use Worksheet 5.2 for their own units.
Figures 5.5 and 5.6 offer four examples for movingfrom a skill or process to under-
standings. Worksheet 5.3 can be used for specific units. Figure 5.7 provides an exam- We w s h to gratefully acknowledge
Lynn Erickson for helping us refine
ple for movingfrom content to topical understandings; Figure 5.8,from topical to overur- our thinking on these matters Many
ideas in this module have evolved
from her helpful critiques and exam-
ching understandings. Each has an accompanyng worksheet (Worksheets 5.4 and 5.5, ples Readers interested in practical
ideas for movlng beyond the facts to
respectively). Figure 5.9 illustrates a strategy for linking concepts to form generaliza- enduring understandings are encour-
aged to read her excellent book,
Concept-Based Curnculum and
tions and has an accompanyng worksheet (Worksheet 5.6). Instruction (Erickson, 1998)
91
I'm beginning to realize that my original targets for the unit are inadequate. The
content standards for nutrition do not specify the particular understandings
that my students are supposed to acquire. The standards merely state that
students should understand the elements of good nutrition. After working
through the Understanding by Design exercises, I'm much clearer about how to
frame my unit goals as specific propositions. I will now focus on three main
understandings: (1) A balanced diet contributes to physical and mental health;
(2) the USDA food pyramid provides relative guidelines for nutrition; and (3)
dietary requirements differ for individuals, depending on variables such as age,
activity level, weight, and overall health.
5.3 I
I stage 1:
B A C K W A R D
Identify D e s i d Results
Stage 2:
D E S I G N
Detsnnine Acceptable
P R O C E S S
-e 3:
Plan Leaming E x p d a m ~
A D Enduring Undersfandings Evidence and Instruction
STAGE C B Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint (01 Experiencesand Instruction
t F B UnpromptedEvidence
Civil War Unit and 0 B Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Mher Evidence (E, F. 6)
Nutrition Unit
Consider the big ideas you want students t o come to understand as a result of exploring a particular
topic.The following examples illustrate the movement from a broad topic, to a focus on particular
aspects of the topic, to specific understandings. Notice that the desired understandings are stated as
-
specific, yet abstract, generalizations or propositions.
Phrased as a topic /theCivilWar)

Phrased as a more focused topic
[
e
causes and effects of t h e Civil War
Stated as specific generalizations
The Civil War was fought primarily over states' rights issues linked t o differences
in regional economies (not over t h e morality o f slavery, a s commonly believed).
The war's effects live on in national politics, regional economies, and cultural
differences.
.................... ..........................................................................................................
Phrased as a topic [ nutrition
e Phrased as a more focused topic
t h e elements of good nutrition
Stated as a specific generalization
The U5DA food pyramid presents relative guidelines for a balanced diet because
dietary requirements differ for individuals, depending on such variables a s age,
activity level, weight, and overall health.

Id* Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning Expewieoces
A D EnduringUnderstandings Evidence and Instruction
Experiencesand Instruction
STAGE
G D Self-Assessment
Friendship Unit and Blueprintfor Omer Evidence (E, F, G)
Weather Unit
Consider the big ideas you want students t o come to understand as a result of exploring a particular
topic.The following examples illustrate the movement from a broad topic, to a focus on particular
aspects of the topic, to specific understandings. Notice that the desired understandings are stated as
specific, yet abstract, genera Iizatio ns or propositions.
Phrased as a topic 1 friendship I

U
acquaintances, and teammates
times t h a n during happy times.
Phrased as a topic [ weather 1

e \

1
e causes of different types o f severe weather
Stated as specific generalizations

f
Weather and climate conditions occur as a result o f t h e transfer o f energy into

and o u t of t h e earth’s atmosphere.
Energy from t h e s u n heats t h e earth unevenly, causing air movements t h a t
produce changing weather patterns.
When making predictions, weather forecasters m u s t consider many variables,
which are constantly changing.
94 01999 B m A I l rights reserved.

FIGURE B A C K W A R D D E S I G NP R O C E S S
stage 1: stage 2: Stage 3:
l d e e Desired Results Detennimr AccepQble Plan Leaming
C D Knowledge and Skills Performaneelask Elueprint(0l Experiences and lnStrUctiOn
STAGE
G D Self-Assessment
Swimming Course and
Blueprintfor Omer Evidence (E, F, G)
Persuasive Writing Unit
Consider the ”understanding” elements of important skills and processes you teach. Identify the
concepts that undergird those skills and processes. Study the following examples to see how underlying
concepts are combined to form big idea understandings. Notice that these understandings are stated as
specific generalizations or propositions.
Phrased as a skill [ swimming: freestyle stroke mechanics 1

\ /
Underlying concepts
e f
efficiency, maximum power, backward push, surface area
Stated as specific generalizations to be understood
a The m o s t efficient and effective stroke mechanics involve pushing t h e maximum

amount of water directly backward.
a A f l a t (versus cupped) hand palm offers t h e maximum surface area.
a A bent arm pull enables a swimmer t o push water directly backward with greatest
power.
Phrased as a skill ( persuasive writing techniques \i
e Underlying concepts
\
persuasion, goal, audience, influence, technique

J
a A variety o f specific techniques (e.g., bandwagon, personality appeal, and use of

data) is used t o influence people’s thoughts and actions.
a The choice of particular persuasive techniques depends upon t h e goal (i.e., what
do you want people t o believe or do) and audience.
01999 m m A I I rights reserved.

I
95
Stage 1: Stage 2 Stage 3:

A B EnduringUnderstnndings Evidence and lnsbuction
C ) Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTaokBlueprint(D) Experiences and tnstruction
G D Self-Assessment
ScientificMethod and Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F. G)
Metric Conversion Unit
Consider the "understanding" elements of important skills and processes you teach. Identify the
concepts that undergird those skills and processes. Study the following examples to see how underlying
concepts are combined to form big idea understandings. Notice that these understandings are stated as
s pec if ic generalizations o r propositions.
Phrased as a process ( t h e scientific method 1

\
Underlying concepts
I
I
investiaation, variable, isolation, control
r/
I
I
I
rn 5cientific knowledge develops a5 a result of carefully controlled investigations.
rn The scientific method deliberately isolates and controls key variables. ( I t is n o t sim-
ply t r i a l and error.)
e Underlying concepts
measure, standard, accuracy, conversion
rn 5tandardized measures allow people t o accurately describe t h e physica world.

rn We can measure t h e same thing with different measures (e.g., Fahrenheit and
Centigrade.
96 01999 ,-TMAll rights reserved.

5.7 Stags 1: Stage 2: Stage 3:

ldentrfy Desired R e s u k Determine Acceptable Plan Learning w e n c s ~
Corresponds to WS 5.4 A D Enduring Understandings and Instruction
c Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint(0) Experiencesand lnstrUctiOn
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E,F, G)
Data Analysis Unit
Try this process for developing topical understandings for a unit:

1. List the unit topic in the box at the center of the web.
2. Identify possible concepts that are involved in this topic and record them in the web boxes.
3. Push your thinking about possible unit concepts by asking of the topic:
rn What does knowing enable you to do?
What idea underlies ?
What couldn't we understand if we didn't know ?
rn How and why do people outside school use ?
w What underlying issue/conflict/dilemma is involved in ?
; (
0. 0.
(1
[phenomena))
standard deviation
... .....
populations and
.** 0.
0.
**.
... ..*-
..***
0
.. *.**
in terpreta tion .....a. 5TATI5TIC5 AND DATAANALY5I5 DO.....
.
predictio n pattern5 d a t a display
4. Combine two or more concepts from the web into sentences-generalizations that sum up
understandings students should take away from the unit.Think about
w Moral of the story for your unit.
w Underlying unit theme or unobvious lesson to be learned.
Larger purpose or rationale for studying .
Use the web link worksheet (Worksheet 5.6) to brainstorm possibilities.Your goal is to develop one or
more specific generalizations to serve as unit understandings.
Students will understand that

n s an
often reveals patterns and enables
tion and representation affect their and use.

FIGURE R A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
5.8 stage 1: stage 2 Stage 3:
l d e m Desired Rmsults Determine Acceptable Plan Learning E q d m c e s
Corresponds to WS 5.5 A & Endu Evidence and lnsbuction
B D Essential Questions D B Performance Tasks H D Sequence of Learning
STAGE C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
( Friendship Unit 1 Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F, G)
Try this process for developing overarching understandings:
Unit
[ primary unit on friendship based on t h e s t o r y “frog and Toad Are friends.”

1. List the key lessons (topical understandings) to be learned from the unit.
Frog is willing t o use a t o g e t Toad outdoors.
frog, like all will t o cheer up a friend.
how friendship and our are complex.
2. Identify important and transferable.concepts involved in these lessons.’ ’ . . . , ... ..

. .
. .
t r u e friend truthlhonesty .‘.
5 eIf - refI e c tion perseverance stories teach motives
3. Combine two or more of the concepts into broader generalizations or more abstract principles. Refine
the generalizations by asking and answering of the unit: Why? How so? So what?Your goal is to devel-
op one or more overarching understandings under which topical understandings fall.
4 friendship requires t r u s t and honesty, y e t t h e t r u t h is sometimes stretched in t h e name o f

friend 5 hip.
5tories can shed light on t h e complexities and inconsistencies in our relationships and ourselves.
4 friends are there for each other, through thick and thin.
4. Check those that apply. Are your understandings
D Big ideas? QTransferable generalizations? Cl Specific, yet abstract?
98 0 1999 B M A U rights reserved.

5.9 stama 1: sQge2 Stage 3:

d
I&
& Desired Results Determine Acceptabk Plan Learnhg
A D EnduringUnderstandings Evidence and lnsbuction
C B Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint(0) Experiencesand lnStrUCtion
G P Self-Assessment
Statistics and Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, G)
Data Analysis Unit
Combine two or more concepts to form generalizations. Use linking verbs or verb phrases to connect
the concepts.
mean, mode,
median
I interpretation
***-
s t a ndard
deviation m:
.. %:
$:
a:
iJ.
Unit iopic
Generalizations
S t a t i s t i c s can describe phenomena or populations.
Data analysis often reveals patterns and enables prediction.
Choices in d a t a collection and representation affect their interpretation and use.

5.1 I !stage 1:
B A C K W A R D
Identity Desired Results&

A IEnduringUndemtandings
-2
D E S I G N
Evidence
P R O C E S S
sQse3:
Plan k””’i
and lnstrucbon
STAGE 1 B D Essential Questions

C D Knowledge and Skills
D IPerformance Tasks
PerformanceTask Blueprint(D)
E IQuizzes,Tests, Prompts
F IUnpromptedEvidence
H D Sequence of Learning
Experiencesand Instruction
G ISelf-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence(E, F, G)
In the table below, identify possible enduring understandings for a unit of study. In Column 1, consider
overarching, transferable understandings. In Column 2, identify what you want students to understand
about the particular topics in this unit. Remember to state the desired understandings as generalizations
or propositions.
To move from topical to overarching understandings, consider these questions:
Why do I want students to understand ?

(topical understanding)
w What is the larger goal or purpose of understanding ?

What general principles underlie ?

To move from overarching to topical understandings, consider these questions:
w What specific understandings for this topic follow from ?

(overarching understanding)
What are some examples of particular understandings related to the unit topic that are
subsumed under ?
What follows for the unit topic from the idea that ?
I00 0 1999 m T ” A I I rights reserved.

WO R KSHEET B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S 1
Ide- D e r i i Renub Determine Acceptable Plan hrning
A D EnduringUndersfandings Evidence and lnabuction
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformancelaskBlusprint(D) Experiencesand hlstrUcti0n
E D Quizzes,Tests. Prompts
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E.F. G)
Use the following frames to move from a topic, to a more focused topic, to specific understandings.
Remember to state the desired understandings as generalizations or propositions. Answer the following
questions to help you move from a topic to specific understandings:
Topic
a What about should students understand?
a What aspects of this topic will this unit focus on?
4 f Phrase as a more focused topic.
.........................................................................
a What specifically should students understand about ?
a What do experts understand about , and why is it important?

a If the unit on is a story, what’s the moral of the story?
a What insights about should students take away?
State as a specific understanding, framed as a generalization or proposition.

T
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
01999 ,-mAfl rights reserved. I01

~~ ~ __________________________
I B A C K W A R D D E S I G NP R O C E S S
SQSS 1: stage 2
Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Leaning Experiences
A B Endu Evidence and Instruction
I
C D Knowledge and Skills PetformanceTask Blueprint( 0 ) Experiences and Instruction
STAGE
0 D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence(E, F, G)
List a skill or process you teach. Identify the underlying concepts that would help students learn and
apply the skill or process more effectively. Combine two or more concepts to form big idea understand-
ings. State the understandings as specific generalizations or propositions. To help you consider the
"understanding" elements contained within the skills or processes you teach, answer the following scaf-
folding questions as you work.
Skill or process ( 'I

w What underlying concepts are involved when the skill or process is effectively
applied?
w What ideas are embedded in the skill or process?
Identify underlying concepts.
.....................................................................................
.....................................................................................
.....................................................................................
H What do experts understand about this skill or process that novices do not?
H If students better understood , how might their performance improve?
What understanding would help students learn and apply the skill or process more
effectively?
State the skill or process as a specific generalization to be understood.
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
102 01999 -,"Al rights reserved.

B A C K W A R DD E S I G N P R O C E S S
stage 1: - 2 stage 3:
Identity Desired R e r u b Detennina Acceptable Plan Learning
and lmrbuction
B D Essential Questions D D Performance Tasks H D Sequence of learning
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint(DJ Experiences and Instruction
I G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence(E. F, 6)
Try this process for developing topical understandings for a unit:

1. List the unit topic in the box at the center of the web.
2. Identify possible concepts that are involved in this topic and record them in the web boxes.
3. Push your thinking about possible unit concepts by asking of the topic:
IWhat does knowing enable you to do?
IWhat idea underlies ?
IWhat couldn't we understand if we didn't know ?
IHow and why do people outside school use ?
IWhat underlying issue/conflict/dilemma is involved in ?
4. Combine two or more concepts from the web into sentences-generalizations that sum up
understandings students should take away from the unit.Think about
IMoral of the story for your unit.
IUnderlying unit theme or unobvious lesson to be learned.
ILarger purpose or rationale for studying .
Use the web link worksheet (Worksheet 5.6) to brainstorm possibilities.Your goal is to develop one or
more specific generalizations to serve as unit understandings.
Students will understand that

I
.........................................................................................................................
I
..........................................................................................................................
I
.........................................................................................................................
01999 m m A I I rights reserved. 103

WORKS) EET B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
5.5 stage 1: - 2 Stage 3:

Identify Desired Results Detennine Acceptable Plan banning Expe-
Correspondsto Fig. 5.8 A B Enduring Evidence and lnsbuction
B B Essential Questions D B PerformanceTasks H B Sequence of Learning
C B Knowledge and Skills Petiormancelask Blueprint(D) Experiences and Instruction
STAGE
G B Self-Assessment
Try this process for developing overarching understandings:
Unit
rn
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
rn
..........................................................................................................................
1. ......................................................................................................................
2. Identify important and transferable concepts involved in these lessons.
3. Combine two or more of the concepts into broader generalizations or more abstract principles. Refine
the generalizations by asking and answering of the unit: Why? How so? So what?Your goal is to devel-
o p one or more overarching understandings under which topical understandings fall.
rn
................................................. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................................................
........ ....................................................
4. Check those that apply. Are your understandings
Big ideas? QTransferable generalizations? D Specific, yet abstract?

~ ~________
104 01999 -"All rights reserved.

WORKS H EET B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
stage 1: -2 stage 3:
Identity Desired Retutts Determine Acceptable plan
Corresponds to Fig. 5.9 A B Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instmdwn
C B Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTaskBlueprint( 0 ) Experiences and Instruction
STAGE
E B Quizzes,Tests. Prompts
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E,F, GI
Combine two or more concepts to form generalizations. Use linking verbs or verb phrases to connect
the concepts.
Generalizations
.
......................................................................................................................
1. ......................................................................................................................
01999 m m A l l rights reserved. 105

Every statement has to be seen as a respc
question, and the only way to understand a st
get hold of the questions to which a statement
-GADAMER, 1978, P. 106
Only a person who has questions can have knowledge. . .

To question means to lay open. As against thefixity of
opinions, questioning makes an object [of knowledge]
and all its possibilitiesfluid. . . . [One must] learn to
see what is questionable.
-GADAMER,1994, PP. 364-367
USING
One key design strategy for engaging student inquiry, uncovering subtle ideas, and Worksheet 3.2
developing understanding is to build curriculum around the kinds of questions
that gave rise to the content knowledge in the first place. The creators of theories,
theorems, extraordinary stories, and powerful images grappled with perplexing
questions about puzzling facts or problems. So, too, must the learner be given an
opportunity to ask probing questions that lead to deeper insights about a subject.
Such questions render a unit design more coherent, make a student's role more
appropriately inquisitive, and a teacher's priorities more clearly focused. Without
asking and pursuing such questions, the student is confronted with either a set of
disconnected activities-resulting in minimal understanding of important ideas-
pEssential Questions
or leading questions that point toward obvious, flat lessons to be dutifully learned.
Without designing around provocative questions and big ideas, teaching easily
succumbs into an activity- or coverage-orientationwithout clear priorities.
At the heart of all uncoverage, then, is the deliberate interrogation of the
, content to be learned, as opposed to just the teaching and learning of material.
Although this focus may sound odd, it points to an important truth about coming
to understand: Key ideas must be questioned, played with, and discovered to be
useful if they are to be understood. Content that has not been questioned is like
107
courtroom testimony that has not been examined, leading to a hodgepodge of

opinions and beliefs instead of to knowledge.
Practically speaking, educators must reframe content standards and outcome
statements into rich questions, and then design assignments and assessments to
explore big ideas and evoke thoughtful and supportable answers. In contrast, most
current curricular frameworks and standards documents make the mistake of
framing core content as factlike sentences rather than revealing them to be sum-
mary insights, derived from questions and inquiries.
Look what happens, for example, to a few national standards in science when
we transform them from declarative statements (suggesting memorized responses)
to questions (suggesting engaging inquiries). The questions are derived from the
national science standards (American Association for the Advancement of Science,
1993):
Is nature systematic? In what sense is the body a system? Are all systems
synergistic (more than the sum of their parts)?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of models (e.g., light as a wave and
the heart as a pump) in helping us understand the world? When have models
helped and hindered the progress of science?
Do scientific laws imply constancy? What is a law of nature, and how is it
like or unlike social laws?
Are all events or behavior caused? Can orderly patterns and formulas be
found to explain all phenomena, even the most apparently random, lucky, or
chaotic? Are patterns of change “out there” or in our heads?
How are humans like and unlike other life forms?
Essential Questions
What specific questions might guide teaching and engage students in uncov-
ering the important ideas at the heart of each subject? We might begin to identify
such questions by using the format found in the quiz show Jeopardy. Given the
content found in a textbook-the answers to be learned-what is an important
question for which the textbook provides an answer? For instance, if balance of
powers in U.S.government (a core idea) is the answer, then what is a good
108
M O D U L E 6 : F R A M I N G U N I T S A R O U N D E S S E N T I A L Q U E S T I O N S
question that would help students understand the idea and its value? In other
words, What were some questions that founders of the United States asked them-
selves that led to their proposed constitution? An inquiry-generating question
might be, What type of government best suits the fact that “all men are not angels”
(to quote the Federalist Papers)? A more content-directed question for the same
unit might be, What key reasons did the Federalists advance for a balance of pow-
history?
ers, and was their particular solution wise in light of U.S.
We refer to such questions as “essential” because they suggest time-honored
yet radical inquiries (in the sense of the word’s etymology of “going to the roots”)
into core ideas. Consider the following examples of essential questions and notice
how they differ from typical textbook or test questions:
IDoes art reflect culture or shape it?

IHow do effective writers hook and hold their readers?
IMust a story have a beginning, middle, and end?
H How does an organism’s structure enable it to survive in its environment?
IWhat is wellness?
IIs history a history of progress?
IWho owns what and why?
IWhat makes places unique and different?
Essential questions such as these share common characteristics:
IHave no one obvious right unswey: Essential questions are not intended to yleld
a pat answer. Rather, they serve as doorways into focused yet lively discussion,
inquiry, and research. They uncover rather than cover up a subject’s controversies,
puzzles, and perspectives. Although the teacher may want a unit to culminate in
specific understanding, these questions should make clear that other plausible
understanding can be derived from such an inquiry.
Raise other important questions, often across subject-area boundaries. Such ques-
tions lead to other essential questions as well as to topic-specific questions. For
example, the question, In nature, do only the strong survive? leads to questions
such as, What do we mean by “strong”?and, Are insects strong because they are
I09
survivors? The question can also lead to inquiries into human biology and
physiology.
w Address the philosophical or conceptual foundations of a discipline. They can be
found in the most historically important issues, debates, and problems in a field of
study. An example is, Is history inevitably biased?
w Recur naturally. The same important questions are asked and re-asked through-
out one’s learning and in a field’s history. For example, What makes a great book
great? can be productively examined by 1st graders as well as college students.
w Areframed to provoke and sustain student interest. Focusing units on questions
works best when the questions are designed to be thought provoking and capable
of engaging students in sustained inquiries. Such questions often involve the coun-
terintuitive, the visceral, the whimsical, the controversial, and the provocative.
Here are some examples: Is the Internet dangerous for kids? and, Does food that is
good for you have to taste bad?
Essential questions have proven to be an effective way of framing a program of

study. Indeed, some schools and districts have grounded their curriculum in essen-
tial questions. For example, Central Park East Secondary School in New York,
founded by Deborah Meier, centers its entire curriculum around a set of broad
questions linked to key “habits of mind”:
In every class and every subject, students will learn to ask and to answer these
questions:
a. From whose viewpoint are we seeing or reading or hearing? From what angle
or perspective?
b. How do we know when we know? What’s the ewdence, and how reliable is it?
c. How are things, events, or people connected to each other? What is the
cause and what is the effect? How do they fit together?
d. What’s new and what’s old? Have we run across this idea before?
e. So what? Why does it matter? What does it all mean?
(Courtesy of Central Park East Secondary School.)
If designers ponder such questions, they may see how to make their unit design
more in-depth and coherent. From a teaching perspective, essential questions are used
to focus and deepen the work of a unit by causing rethinking and further inquiry.
1I 0
We find it helpful to distinguish between two types of essential questions for

framing a unit: overarching and topical. As the phrase implies, overarching
questions transcend the particulars of a unit and point toward larger, transferable
ideas. Topical questions are more specific. They lead to particular understandings
related to the topics of this unit, the key inferences and generalizations teachers
want students to uncover. Topical questions may not necessarily be easy to answer,
but they are answerable using the facts and materials of the unit.
Examples of topical and overarching questions are provided in Figure 6.1.
Though in practice, no firm boundaries exist between topical and overarching
questions, some differences can be noted.
Overarc hi ng
H Point beyond a unit to large? transferable ideas. These questions point beyond
the particulars of a unit to big ideas and enduring understandings. When such ques-
tions are framed, the unit’s specific topics, events, or texts are typically not men-
tioned. For example, Is science fiction great literature? is an overarching essential
question for a unit on a specific text, such as Stranger in a Strange Land or 2001: A
Space Odyssey.
H Link a topic to other related topics and subjects. Overarching essential questions
link the particulars and the unique aspects of a topic to issues and inquiries in relat-
ed topics or other subjects. If used to focus all coursework and curriculum design,
they can provide a coherence and set of priorities often lacking in courses of studies.
For example, the overarching question, How true does a story need to be to make
it compelling and memorable? not only informs a unit on literature but can also be
fruitfully addressed by the entire English department and the history department.
Topical
Can be answered by uncovering a unit’s content. Topical questions stay within the
bounds of a topic. They can be answered as a result of in-depth inquiry (uncover-
ing) into a single topic. Nevertheless, they should be open-ended and thought pro-
voking. They have no single, correct answer, but rather several plausible answers
that are defensible from the facts of a unit.
Ill
* To say that “coursework derives from questions“ might be misunderstood, how-

ever, because all teachers ask questions. We mean here the development of con-
MISCONCEPTION
tent out of itself, through questions that inform a unit’s worth of work by design, not
ALERT
by day-to-day teacher interrogation of student answers. Anchoring a unit in questions
in this sense is different from using prompting or leading questions to check for fac-
tual knowledge, move toward the right answer, or sharpen students‘ responses. To
design around questions means to choose activities, instructional strategies,
sequences, and materials that make learning seem like the pursuit of questions
instead of the taking in of unproblematic truth. Too often, students leave school
never realizing that knowledge is answers to someone‘s prior questions, produced
and refined in response to inquiry, testing, argument, and revision. Too often, content
standards are defined in intellectually sterile and misleading ways, as if instruction
were mere didactic teaching of truth instead of entry into the challenges, arguments,
and performances at the heart of each subject discipline. To teach from questions
means helping students understand that their job is to question knowledge, not
merely take it in. It means rhetorically asking, If knowledge is made up of answers,
then what were the questions that gave rise to textbook, teacher, and even profes-
sional answers? And what questions can I come up with about that knowledge?
Both overarching and topical questions focus the teaching and learning of big
ideas and core processes. We place both kinds of essential questions in Box B of the
unit template.
Tips for Using Unit Questions

w Organize programs, courses, units of study, and lessons around essential
questions; make all content seem to be the answers to design questions.
w Select or design assessment tasks upfront and make sure they are explicitly
linked to the questions. The tasks and performance standards should clarify what
acceptable pursuit of, and answers to, the questions actually look like.
w Use a reasonable number of essential questions per unit (two to five). Make
less be more: Prioritize content for students to make the work clearly focus on a
few key questions.
Edit the questions to make them as engaging and provocative as possible for
a particular age group. Frame the questions in “kid language” as needed.
112
rn Ensure that every child understands the questions and sees their value.
Conduct a survey or informal check if necessary.
rn Derive and design specific exploratory activities and inquiries for each ques-
tion, as well as make sure that each final assessment either explicitly or implicitly
requires a student to answer the question.
Sequence the questions so they naturally lead from one to another.
rn Post the essential questions in classrooms, and encourage students to orga-
nize notebooks around them to clarify their importance for study and note taking.
rn Help students personalize the questions. Encourage them to share examples,
personal stories, and hunches, and to bring in clippings and artifacts to help make
the questions come alive.
Allow sufficient time for “unpacking”the questions-examining subquestions
and probing implications-mindful of student age, experience, and other instruc-
tional obligations. Use question-concept maps to show the relatedness of questions.
H Share your questions with other faculty members. To promote using essen-
tial questions schoolwide, ask teachers to post their questions in the faculty room
and in department meeting and planning areas. Publish essential questions in the
faculty bulletin and discuss them at faculty meetings.
Three worksheets are provided in this module to support designers in build-

ing units around essential questions. Use Worksheet 6.1 to brainstorm possible
essential questions for your unit. Worksheet 6.2 offers frames for brainstorming
overarching and topical essential questions; two figures illustrate how the work-
sheet was used for a unit on insects (Figure 6.2) and for one on nutrition (Figure
6.3). Worksheet 6.3 uses the six facets of understanding as a stimulus for generat-
ing essential questions. Examples of this worksheet are shown for a Civil War unit
and for a nutrition unit (Figures 6.4 and 6.5, respectively).
Keep in mind that these worksheets are design tools and should be used to
assist curriculum designers. Resist the urge to fill in all the blanks!
113
This idea of using essential questions to frame the curriculum has really gotten
me thinking. I'm especially intrigued by this notion: If the textbook contains the
answers, then what are the questions? As I reflect on my own education, I can't
recall ever being in a course in which the content was framed around impor-
tant, thought-provoking questions. Some of my teachers and professors asked
thought-provoking qt
different. I see how tl
inquiry I now feel a bit cneatea, Decause 1.m Degtnning to reailze tne power 01
these overarching questions for pointing to the bigger ideas within a subject or
topic.
Well, I suppose a basic question for the unit should be, What is healthful
eating? It gets at the essence of what I want my students to take away-the
pnrliirina iinrlpmtanrlino W Prniilrl f n r i r c nn whpthpr ctiirlpntc tnilv iinrlprctanrl
what is good for them.

To see if I was on the right track, I brought up my ideas over lunch with a
few teachers in the faculty room, and they really got into it! We had an inter-
esting discussion about my question, which led to others. If left on their own,
will children eat what they need nutritionally? Do tastes change as we grow
up-in the direction of healthier eating? If so, why? What about others in the
animal kingdom, then? Do young animals naturally eat what is good for them?
What is the influence of junk food advertising on the eating patterns of children
and adults? Unfortunately, we were really cooking when the 20-minute lunch
period ended and I had to leave for recess duty I think I'll stew on this awhile.
114
~~
6.1 Stage 1: Stage 2 Stage 3:

Identity Desired Results Detennim, Acceptable Plan Learning Expdmces
B b Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills PerfonnanceTaskBlueprint(0) Experiences and hlStrUCtiOn
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E, F, G)
E S S E N T I A L QUESTIONS
Overa rching Topical

Art Unit on masks
In what ways does art reflect and shape culture? What role have masks played in various cultures?
How do artists choose tools, techniques, and What do masks and their use reveal about a
materials to express their ideas? cu Iture?
What tools, techniques, and materials are used in
creating masks from different cultures?
Literature Unit on mysteries

What makes a great story? What is unique about the mystery genre?
How do effective writers hook and hold their How do great mystery writers hook and hold their
readers? reade rs?
History/Government Unit on the US. Constitution

How do governments balance the rights of In what ways does the Constitution attempt to
individuals with the common good? limit abuse of government powers?
How and why does the United States provide Does the separation of powers between the three
checks and balances on government power? branches of government create a deadlock?
Science Unit on insects

How does an organism's structure enable it to How does the structure and behavior of insects
survive in harsh or changing environments? enable them to survive?
How do organisms survive in harsh or changing How do insects survive when their environment
environments? cha nges?
Economics Unit on money and introductory economics

How does something acquire value? Why do we need money?
What changes the worth of something? How is the value of a baseball card determined?
Geography Unit on any state or region

How does the topography, climate, and natural How does the topography, climate, and natural
resources of a region influence how people live resources of Maryland's Eastern Shore
and work? influence the lifestyle and work of its
Why is Iocated there? inhabitants?
Why is Annapolis, the state capital, located where
it is?
Mathematics Unit on the parallel postulate

If axioms are like the rules of a game, when Why is this an axiom if it's so complex?
should we change the rules? What no longer holds true if we deny it?
01999 -NAII rights reserved. 115

FIGURE B A C K W A R DD E S I G N P R O C E S S
Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning Expemknces
A B Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instmction
B B EssentiaiQuestions D B PerformanceTasks H B Sequence of Learning
C B Knowledge and Skills PedormanceTark BlueprintID) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
Given the targeted understandings or content standards for your unit, brainstorm possible overarching
and topical essential questions to stimulate inquiry and guide the unit.
1 Unit on insects
How does t h e structure of insects

Will insects outlive t h e human race?
enable them t o survive?
F
r \
How do insects a d a p t t o changing How do insects use natural resources t o
conditions in their environment? help them survive?
116 0 1 999 , i i N A l l rights reserved.

1
+*I-
FIGURE ~ D A 0: B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3:

Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable plan Learning Exp-
Correspondsto WS 62 7 a:TAj: A D A D EnduringUnderstandings Evidence and Instnnctiam
tJ B Essential Questions D D Performance Tasks H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills * Performance Task Blueprint (D) Experiencesand Instruction
E D Quines, Tests, Prompts
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence [E,F, GI
I Unit on nutrition
Overarching Questions
What is healthful living? so many health problems t h a t are
What is wellness? [ caused by unhealthy lifestyles,

1
despite the available i
What is healthful eating? What is meant by a balanced diet?
I Could a healthy diet for one individual be

I How might we encourage people t o e a t
unhealthy for another? t h e way they know they should?

I
~~
6.4 staae 1: StaW 2: StaCM 3

:
I d e g m Desired RewIts Det-Ana Acceptable h-ihadng
B D Essential Questi D B PerformanceTasks H D Sequence of learning
c: D Knowledge and Skills PetformanceTeskBlueprintfD) Experiences and tnstruction
G D Self-Assessment
b Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E. F, G)
Use the "lenses" of the six facets of understanding to generate possible essential questions for a topic or
content standard.
\
\
\
? /
/
/
/
\
I
Q
1
\
\
Explanation /
/
\ /
? *O
%@
\
\\
Was t h e /
/
/
<= \
\ ,' Howshould
&Q What does The Red \\
Civil War /
/
\
/
United 5 t a t e s
\
'\ Badge of courage \\
avoidable? /
\
// memorialize t h e
\ /
reveal about human \
\ /
/
war t o b e s t honor
\ /
beings and war? \ /
/ its legacy (i.e., t h e
war's memory and
in fIuence)?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~
How might i t feel i f your How did t h e war look from

home and land were // \\ t h e point o f view o f
/ \
/ \
destroyed by people / \ Native Americans?
/ \
/ \
in your country? /
/ \
\
The British?
/ What do you \
I
/ \
\
*Other:
/ \
/ believe is worth \
/ \
\
// fighting for? \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
\
/// Self-Knowledge \\
/ \
118 01999 -MAII rights reserved.

I_ _ _ ~
stage 1: stage 2 stage*

Identify Desired RerulQ Determine Acceptable Plan Lsarniyl -ces
AD Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instwction
B D Essential Questions D b PerformanceTasks H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint(D) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Omer Evidence (E. E G)
Use the "lenses" of the six facets of understanding to generate possible essential questions for a topic or
content standard.
\
\
\
? B
B
B
B
\
I
.(\
\
\
\
Expla nation B
B
\ B
? )Cab0
\
\\
What is B
B
B
B
4t@ \
\ B
B
What does the \\ meant by a I What could we
\ B
\ B
popularity of f a s t \,
balanced B serve a s healthy
\ B
foods say about \

\
diet? I
B
yet t a s t y snacks
\ B
\ B
modern life in the \
I
B for a class party?
United 5tates?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
How might i t feel t o live Do the food pyramid

with a dietary restriction B \\ guidelines apply in other
B \
B \
caused b y a medical B \ regions, such a s the
B \
B \
co ndi tion? B \ Middle East, Asia, and
B
B
B
B
B
B
are you a healthy \
,
B \
B \
B eater? \
B \
B \
B \
B \
\
B
I
B
Self-Knowledge \\
B \
01999 , i i " A I I rights reserved. I19

WORKS HEET B A C K W A R D DESIGNPROCESS

6.1 stags 1: Stage 2 Stage 3:
Identdy Desired Reswtts Detennine Acceptable Plan Learning Expenienobs
B D Essentia D D Performance Tasks H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint(D) Experiencesand lnstruction
STAGE
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Mher Evidence(E,F, 6 )
Essential questions are used t o focus and deepen a unit's work by causing rethinking and further
inquiry. Consider the following characteristics as you brainstorm possible essential questions for your
unit or course.
EssentiaI questions
Have no one obvious right answer.
Raise other important questions, often across subject-area boundaries.
Address the philosophical or conceptual foundations of a discipline.
Recur naturally.
Are framed t o provoke and sustain student interest.
Possible Essential Questions
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W 0 RKSH EET B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
6.2 Stage 1: Stage 2 stage 3:

Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning Brperian-8
Corresponds to Figs. 626.3 A B Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instruction
B B Essential Questions D B Performance Tasks H D Sequence of Learning
C Knowledge and Skills Performancelask Blueprint(D) Experiences and lnStrUCtiOII
G D Self-Assessment
F Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. E 6)
Unit on
Overarching Questions
01999 , i i M A 1 l rights reserved. 121

W 0RKS H EET B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
6.3 Stage 1: Stage 2: stage 3:
Correspondsto Figs. 6.16.5
STAGE C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint(D) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Omer Evidence (E, F, G)
Use the "lenses" of the six facets of understanding t o generate possible essential questions for a topic or
content sta nda rd.
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C B Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint (D) Experiences and Instruction
G B Self-Assessment
* Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E, F, G)
I
messor boils dov
ould we look tof
d What should 1
iguishing degrees
1 nejzrsr question asks us to conside
evidence-the kinds of performance or behavior indicative of
understanding; the second question asks us tofocus on the
most salient and revealing criteria for identifying and
differentiating levels or degrees of understanding-using
criteria and rubrics to sort work by quality along a
continuum (emphasis in original).
W I G G I N&
S MCTIGHE,1998, PP. 67-68
ING E MODULE
What is evidence of in-depth understanding, as opposed to superficial or naive Worksheet 3.3
understanding? Where should we look, and what should we look for to determine
the extent of student understanding? What kinds of assessment evidence will
anchor our curricular units and thus guide our instruction? These are an assessor’s
questions.
Too often, as teachers, we rely on only one or two types of assessment, then
compound that error by concentrating on those aspects of the curriculum that are L
most easily tested by multiple-choice or short-answer items. And frequently we fail
to consider the differences between tests and other forms of assessment that are
particularly well suited for gathering evidence of understanding or its absence.
In fact, a great error in aiming for understanding is to assume that formal test-
ing is the main vehicle of gathering evidence. On the contrary, as the phrase “check
for understanding” implies, ongoing formative and informal assessment is vital if
students are to achieve understanding and avoid misunderstanding.
To think like an assessor before designing lessons-what backward design
demands-does not come naturally or easily to many teachers. We are far more
used to thinking like an activity designer once we have a target: We easily and
unconsciously jump from Stage 1 to Stage 3 of the backward design process, from
125
content standards to the design of lessons, without asking ourselves, Will we have
the evidence we need to assess for the desired knowledge and skill?
Backward design demands that we short-circuit this natural instinct. Other-
wise, the design is likely to be less coherent and less focused on understanding-
and successful results will be obtained more by chance than by design.
When planning to collect evidence of understanding, teachers should consider
a range of assessment methods, shown in Figure 7.1. This continuum includes
checks of understanding (such as oral questions, observations, dialogues, student
logs, self-assessments, and peer assessments); traditional quizzes, tests, and open-
ended prompts; and performance tasks and projects. They vary in scope (from
simple to complex), time frame (from short-term to long-term), setting (from de-
contextualized to authentic contexts), and structure (from highly to ill-structured).
Because understanding develops as a result of ongoing inquiry and rethinking, the
assessment of understanding should be thought of as a collection of evidence over
time instead of an event-a single moment-in-time test at the end of instruction-
as so often happens in current practice.
In effective assessments, we see a match between the type or format of the
assessment and the achievement target it intends to measure. If the goal is for stu-
dents to learn basic concepts and skills, then written tests and quizzes generally
provide adequate and efficient measures. When the goal, however, is deep under-
standing, we need to rely on more complex assessment methods to determine if
the goal has been reached. Figure 7.2 shows the relationship between types of
assessments and different curriculum targets.
Given the focus on enduring understanding, our unit or course will be anchored
by performance tasks or projects. This type of assessment provides evidence that
7.1 I
Source:Wiggins & McTighe, 1998, p. 12.
126
M O D U L E 7 : E V I D E N C E O F U N D E R S T A N D I N G
7.2
I
I
CURRICULAR PRlORITIES AND ASSESSMENT
METHODS
Assessment Types
Traditional quizzes and tests-==:
H paper-pencil
se Iected - res ponse
constructed-response Important to
know and do
Performance tasks and projects-
H open-ended
H complex
H authentic
Source: Revised from Wiggins & McTighe, 1998,
students are able to use their knowledge in context, a more appropriate means of
evoking and assessing enduring understanding. More traditional assessments, such
as quizzes, tests, and prompts, are used to round out the picture by assessing essen-
tial knowledge and skills that contribute to the culminating performances.
Quiz and Test Items

This type of assessment consists of simple, content-focused questions that
H Assess for factual information, concepts, and discrete skills.

H Use selected-response or short-answer formats.
H Are convergent-typically have a single, best answer.
H May easily be scored using an answer key (or machine scoring).
H Are secure (not known in advance).
Academic Prompts
Academic prompts are open-ended questions or problems that require stu-
dents to think critically, not just recall knowledge, and to prepare a response, prod-
uct, or performance. Such questions or problems
H Require constructed responses under school exam conditions.

H Are open, with no single best answer or solution strategy.
127
Are often ill-structured, requiring the development of a strategy.

Involve analysis, synthesis, evaluation, or a combination of the three.
Require an explanation or defense of an answer and methods used.
Require judgment-based scoring, using criteria and performance standards.
May or may not be secure.
Performance Tasks and Projects

This type of assessment involves complex challenges that mirror the issues and
problems adults face. The challenges are authentic. Ranging in length from short-
term tasks to long-term, multistaged projects, they require a tangible product or
performance. They differ from academic prompts in that they
Use real or simulated settings with the kinds of constraints, background

noise, incentives, and opportunities an adult would find in a similar situation.
Require students to address an identified audience.
Are based on a specific purpose that relates to the audience.
Allow students greater opportunity to personalize the task.
H Are not secure. The task, criteria, and standards are known in advance and
guide student work.
We summarize the key elements of a performance task in the acronym

GRASPS:goal, role, audience, situation, product or performance, and standards.
Worksheet 7.1 helps ensure that teachers consider the full range of evidence
that can be used for assessing complex understandings. Figure 7.3 shows examples
of evidence used for a literature unit.
128
When w e speak of evidence of understanding, w e are referring to evidence

4
gathered through a variety of formal and informal assessments during a unit of study
MISCONCEPTION
or a course. We are not alluding only to end-of-teaching tests or culminating perfor-
ALERT
mance tasks. Rather, the collected evidence w e seek may well include observations
and dialogues, traditional quizzes and tests, performance tasks and projects, as well
as students' self-assessments gathered over time.
H A common misconception among teachers is that understanding can be
assumed if students do well on the tests the teachers construct. Indeed, one might
call it THE teacher misconception about evidence of understanding: "If I said it
clearly and they answer correctly, then they must have understood it." We have
heard the joke about the teacher who says, "I taught it, but they didn't learn." Too
few teachers critically ask, What is convincing evidence of understanding? How do
I know students aren't just giving back what was taught without understanding it?
What evidence would show for certain if they have real or apparent understanding?
The oversight is worsened by the all-too-common assumption that if the
assessment task is hands-on, then the results are valid. Many so-called assessment
tasks are just interesting activities that can be done with or without deep under-
standing. And many inauthentic paper-pencil tasks (e.g., essay prompts) provide
solid evidence on whether or not students understood key ideas. Understanding
backward design requires realizing not merely that assessment design comes before
instruction and clarity of target precedes assessment design but why. Validity
demands such a logic. And sound assessment of complex targets invariably demands
multiple sources of evidence and types of performance, irrespective of assessment
politics and preferences.
REFLECTION F R O M BOB JAMES
In addition to the quizzes that I have always given, I now need to think about
what would actually serve as evidence of the understandings I'm after. After
reviewing examples of performance assessments and discussing ideas with my
colleagues, I have decided on the following performance task:
Because we have been learning about nutrition, the camp director at the
Outdoor Education Center has asked us to propose a nutritionally balanced menu
for our threeday trip to the center later this year. Using the USDA food pyramid
129
129
guidelines and the nutrition facts on food labels, design a plan for three days,
including the three meals and three snacks (morning, afternoon, and campfire
time). Your goal: a tasty and nutritionally balanced menu. In addition to your
menu, prepare a letter to the director explaininghow your menu meets the USDA
nutritional guidelines. Include a chart showing a breakdown of the fat, protein,
carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and calories.
This task also links well to one of our unit projects-to analyze a hypo-
thetical family’s diet for a week and propose ways to improve their nutrition.
With this task and project in mind, I can now use quizzes to check students’
prerequisite knowledge of the food groups and the food pyramid recommen-
dations, and a test to check their understanding of how a nutritionally deficient
diet contributes to health problems. This is the most complete assessment
package I’ve ever designed for a unit, and I think that the task will motivate
students as well as provide evidence of their understanding.
Staae 1:
l d e n w Desired Results
Stage 2
--
Staae
- __ 3
-:
Plan Learning
Conespondsto WS 7.1 a A B Enduring Understandings
Evidence
D B Performance Tasks
and Instruction
H B Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills > PetfomnceTask Bluep
STAGE E B Quizzes, Tests, Prom
F B Unprompted Evidenc
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidsn
Literuture Unit
Write the targeted understanding and core performance task in the middle box-what students should
understand and be able to do.Then, brainstorm types of evidence that might be most useful, insightfd,
and fair for rounding out the picture to produce sufficient evidence of understanding.
Formal observations or interviews of students Public performances
5eminar discussion on Turn a fairy tale
author’s choice of into a poem or

1 I
na rrat o r. news article.
Targeted Understanding
Understand t h a t t h e relationship
between form and content

Written, oral, or visual Student self-assessments,
(displayed) products in in literature often illuminates logs, and peer reviews
response to prompts
key ideas. Reading logs, with
As editors, students
student comments on
review a t e x t for possible
t h e author’s craft.
plagiarism. The t e x t 4 Core PerformanceTask b
duplicates t h e style o f Videotape a simulated
a well-known writer 5iskel and Ebert review of a book
(e.g., e. e. cummings). turned into a movie
(e.g., Romeo and Juliet).
Student exhibits or models Short-answer quizzes

and tests
A Web site exhibit on
Quiz on t h e readings
different treatments o f t h e
about author’s point o f
same themes in different 1 L
view and literary style.
books (e.g., courage and t h e
~ horrors of war).
01999 B m A I I rights reserved. 131

~ _ _ _ ~

Identify Desired Results DetermineAcceptable Plan Learning Brperienc-
B D Essential Questions D D Perfo H D Sequence of Learning
STAGE C D Knowledge and Skills * PerfomanceTeskB f W r Experiences and Instruction

E B Quizzes, Tests, Pro
G D Self-Assessmen
> Blueprintfor Other Evi
Write the targeted understanding and core performance task in the middle box-what students should
understand and be able to do.Then, brainstorm types of evidence that might be most useful, insightful,
and fair for rounding out the picture to produce sufficient evidence of understanding.
Formal observations or interviews of students Public performances
Targeted Understanding
Written, oral, or visual Student self-assessments,

(displayed) products in logs, and peer reviews
response to prompts
4 Core PerformanceTask
Student exhibits or models Short-answer quizzes

and tests
~~~~ ~ ~
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Understanding is not directly observable or
measurable. How then can teachers obtain evidence
of student understanding? They need to consider
wuys in which students might demonstrate their
understanding through tangible performances.
I N G THE DULE
A practical means of generating ideas for performance assessments of understand- Worksheet 3.3
ing involves combining the generalizations to be understood with appropriate
verbs. The verbs specify the kinds of performances needed to reveal understanding
by making the invisible, visible.
Figure 8.1 provides an example of how to turn a targeted understanding (gen-
eralization) into possible performances. Designers can use Worksheet 8.1 to trans-
form understandings into possible performances for their own unit.
Performance-oriented verbs are embedded within the six facets of under-
standing and Bloom's (1956) higher-order thinking. A list of possible performance
verbs, based on the six facets, is shown in Figure 8.2. Think of these verbs as
answering the questions, What are appropriate performances for best revealing
particular understandings? and, What must a student do to provide evidence of
understanding?
133
rn Simply connecting a performance verb with a topic or content standard is inad-

MISCONCEPTION equate. The statement, Students should understand how to compare and contrast
ALERT characters when reading literature, tells little about the particular insights to be gained
from such analysis. Teachers first need to identify a specific understanding and frame
it as a generalization. Next, they should consider which facet or facets of understand-
ing would appropriately reveal the targeted understanding. The verbs under the facets
can then be used to generate ideas for possible understanding performances.
H A related misconception refers to framing targets as generalizations. We real-
ize that many teachers state their objectives in the form of "understand how to"
(e.g., Students will understand how to solve quadratic problems), but such phrasing
does not address the particular insights or results to be shown. The understanding
that teachers seek to observe is derived from the performance but is not synony-
mous with it. The performance reveals whether or not students understand the idea
in question; the performance is not the idea. Thus, designers are asked to first frame
the target as generalizations (Stage I ) , then specify the assessments (Stage 2).
Another way to think of the first two stages is to use this syntax: I want my students
to understand that [ x is the case], and they can best reveal their understanding by
showing they understand how to [perform y and zl. Framing the understanding and
performance this way avoids t w o problems: treating something as an understanding
that is really a skill, and confusing the performance with the understanding.
The facets and performance verbs have been helpful as I think about possible
ways that students could demonstrate their understanding through perfor-
mance. For example, the verb design under the application facet gave me the
idea of having the students design a brochure to introduce younger students
to the principles of healthy eating. I plan to keep this verb list in my plan
book for easy reference.
134
M 0 D U L E 8 : T R A N S F 0 R M I N G U N D E R S T A N D I N G S I N T O P E R F O R M A N C E S
8.1 stage 1:
l d e m Desired Results
stage2
stage 3:
Plan Learning
B D Essential Questions D D Perfo H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and lnStrUCtiOn
G B Self-Assessment
(History Unit on the 1960s 1 Blueprint for Mher Evidence (E,F, GI
Turn a targeted understanding into possible performances that can be assessed.
f performance +- generalization
Possible performances for a history unit on t h e 1960s
Explain how U.5. involvement in t h e Vietnam War caused some people t o lose faith in their
govern ment.
Argue for or against t h e view t h a t t h e antiwar movement was sparked by t h e Civil Rights
movement.
Apply your understanding of t h e era in a role-play re-creation of t h e Kerner Commission report
on violence.
* Note: Performance here can refer to an authentic performance task and an academic prompt.
01999 , m N A I I rights reserved. 135

8.2 Stage I: Stage 2: Stage 3:

Identity Desired R e s u b Determine Acceptable Plan Learning Experiences
6 D Essential Questions D D Perfo H D Sequence of learning
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint (0) Experiences and Instruction
STAGE
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E, F, G)
Consider the following performance verbs when planning specific tasks and prompts through which stu-
dents can demonstrate their understanding. (See Worksheet 8.1.)
Explanation Interpretat ion Application Perspective Empathy Self-Knowledge

demonstrate create analogies adapt a na Iyze assume role of be aware of
derive critique build argue be like realize
describe document create compare be open t o recognize
design eva h a t e de-bug contrast beIieve reflect
exhibit iI1ust rate decide criticize consider self-assess
express judge design infer imagine
induce make sense of exhibit relate
instruct make meaning of invent ro le-p lay
justify provide perform
metaphors
model produce
predict read between the propose
lines
prove solve
show represent test
synthesize tell a story of use
teach t ra nslate
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M O D U L E 8 : T R A N S F O R M I N G U N D E R S T A N D I N G S I N T O P E R F O R M A N C E S
WORKSHEET
8.1
I Staae 1:
B A C K W A R D
Stage 2
D E S I G N P R O C E S S
Stage 3
_.:
' I
Ide* Desired Results Determine Acceptable Experiences
Planlnstnrctiom
and
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence
B D Essential Questions D D Performanc H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F, 6)
Turn a targeted understanding into possible performances that can be assessed.
,
(
performance
verb 1 [
generalization
J
Possible performances for

Given thefocus on understanding, a unit or
course should be anchored by performance
tasks. They provide evidence that
students are able to use knowledge in context
(i.e., understand what they know).
Understanding is about more than technical knowledge and skill. It requires good Worksheet 3.3
judgment in the use of knowledge-know-how, in other words. Understanding is

revealed through diverse performances, in differing contexts. Thus, assessment for
understanding must be grounded in performance-based tasks and projects that are
as authentic as possible. To test primarily for discrete facts and skills makes little
sense, because such testing implies that understanding can be demonstrated by
merely plugging in responses to decontextualized questions. This type of assess-
ment would be like evaluating court judges solely on their memory of legal cases
or doctors on their recall of biochemistry and pathology facts.
Conventional test questions, whether from national tests or the teacher down Performance TU~S
the hall, neither replicate nor simulate the kinds of challenges adults face in the
workplace, community, or home. We are not condemning these types of questions,
but rather characterizing them: In the language of psychometrics, they are indirect
ways of testing performance. Whether for reasons of cost, time, feasibility, or pur-
pose, such test items serve as proxies for real performance. Although discrete test
items have a use, in the same way that drills have a place in coaching, the sum of
the items is not understanding.
139
Authentic Tasks
Authentic tasks have certain characteristics. An assessment task, problem, or
project is authentic if it
Is realistic. The task replicates or simulates the ways a person’s knowledge

and abilities are tested in the real world.
Requiresjudgment and innovation. A student has to use knowledge and skills
wisely and effectively to solve unstructured problems. A plan must be designed,
and the solution must involve more than following a set routine or procedure, or
plugging in knowledge.
Asks a student to “do” the subject. Instead of reciting, restating, or replicating
through demonstration what was taught or already known, the student has to carry
out exploration and work in a subject.
Replicates or simulates the contexts in which adults are tested in the workplace,
community, and home. Authentic contexts involve specific situations that have par-
ticular constraints, purposes, and audiences. Typical school tests are context-less.
Students need to experience what it is like to do tasks in the workplace and other
real-life contexts, which tend to be messy and murky. Authentic tasks undo the
arbitrary secrecy, silence, and absence of apt resources and feedback that mark
school tests.
Assesses a student’s ability to efficiently and effectively use a repertoire of hnowl-
edge and skills to negotiate a complex task. Most conventional test items are isolated
elements of performance-similar to sideline drills in athletics. Although a place
for drill tests exists, performance is always more than the sum of the drills.
Allows appropriate opportunities to rehearse, practice, and consult resources;
obtain feedback on perfornzances; and refine performances and products. Conventional,
secure tests that keep questions and resource materials secret from students before
test time must coexist with assessment against known tasks if students are to
improve performance; if teachers are to focus student learning through cycles of
perform-feedback-revision-perform to produce specified high-quality products;
and if teachers are to help students learn to use information, resources, and notes
to effectively perform in authentic contexts.
A call for greater authenticity in tests is neither new nor inappropriate for a
world of standards. Bloom (1956) and his colleagues realized the importance of
140
M O D U L E 9 : D E S I G N I N G P E R F O R M A N C E T A S K S
such work 40 years ago, as shown, for example, in their description of application
and of tests to assess synthesis:
[Application uses] situations new to the student or situations containing new

elements as compared to the situation in which the abstraction was learned. , . .
Ideally, we are seeking a problem which will test the extent to which an individual
has learned to apply the abstraction in a practical way. . . . [Synthesis is] a type of
divergent thinking [where] it is unlikely that the right solution to a problem can be
set in advance (p. 125).
An assessment approach grounded in authentic work calls for students (and

teachers) to learn two important points. First, they must learn how adults in the
world beyond school use the knowledge and skills that are being taught and
learned. Second, students must learn why individual lessons to develop discrete
knowledge and skills are meaningful-how such work leads to mastery of more
complex and interesting performance tasks. Just as a basketball player endures the
drudgery of shooting endless foul shots or a flutist the monotony of playing
scales-hoping that their efforts will pay off in high-quality performance-so, too,
must students come to see, to experience, that testing and teaching will pay off in
better performance.
Performance Task Vignettes

The vignettes in this section offer brief descriptions of student performance
tasks that may be used to assess student understanding. Notice how the tasks
reflect the characteristics described earlier in the chapter. Information in parenthe-
ses under the title lists the subject area and grades where the task can be used.
From the Mountains to the Seashore

(History, geography; grades 6-8)
A group of nine foreign students is visiting your school for one month as part
of an international exchange program. (Don’t worry, they speak English!) The prin-
cipal has asked your class to plan and budget a four-day tour of Virginia to help
the visitors understand the state’s impact on the history and development of the
United States. Plan your tour so that visitors are shown sites that best capture
Virginia’s influence on U.S.development.
141
Write an itinerary that includes an explanation of why each site was selected.
Include a map tracing the tour’s route and a budget.
Garden Design
(Mathematics; grades 6-8)

For a company, plan a flower garden that reflects the company’s logo of side-
by-side circular, rectangular, and triangular shapes. The product should be a
labeled scale drawing and a list showing how many plants of each type and color
will be needed.
Ha I I of Recognit ion
(Social studies, language arts; grades 4-5)

Your state has announced the establishment of a Hall of Recognition to honor
the contributions of its citizens to their community, the state, or the United States.
Because you are learning about famous individuals from your state, you have been
asked to nominate a candidate whom you believe would be worthy of admission
to the Hall.
Select and research the life of one individual from the state. Submit a nomina-
tion letter to the Hall’s selection committee explaining the reasons your candidate
should be included in the Hall of Recognition. Be sure to describe your nominee’s
accomplishments and contributions.
Literary Hall of Fame

(English; grades 10-1 2)
The state Council of Arts and Letters has announced the establishment of a
Hall of Fame to honor the works of notable U.S. authors and artists. Because your
class is finishing a course on U.S. literature, you have been asked to nominate an
author for admission to the Hall of Fame.
Complete the nomination form for an author you believe is worthy of induc-
tion into the Hall. Attach an essay containing your analysis of the author’s contri-
bution to U.S. literature and your rationale for recommending inclusion in the Hall
of Fame.
142
Mail-Order Friend
(Language arts; grades K-2)
Imagine that you have an opportunity to “order” a friend by telephone from a
mail-order catalog. Think about the qualities that you want in a friend. Before you
order your friend, practice asking for three characteristics that you want in a friend,
and give an example of each characteristic. Remember to speak clearly and loudly
enough so that the sales person will know exactly what to send.
Moving Van Go
(Writing, mathematics; grades 6-9)
You work for a moving company that plans to submit a bid for moving the
contents of an office building to a new location. Determine the minimum volume
of furniture and equipment that must be moved. The exemplary product should
take into account (1) stackability of the items; (2) interlocking nature of noncubi-
cal pieces; (3) padding to protect the furniture; and (4) number and size of the
boxes needed to pack the small items.
Prepare a written report specifying the volume of items to be moved, your
rationale for the findings, and a chart showing how the items will be placed to min-
imize the volume needed.
Mythic Job Search

(English; grades 7-1 0)
Select an epic hero from the literature you have read, and write him a business
letter applying for a job as a crew member on his expeditions. Specify the position
you want, your qualifications for the job, and the reasons you think you would be
an asset to the crew. Be sure to make your letter persuasive, emphasizing that you
understand the particular struggles and adventures the hero and crew have already
undertaken, and explaining your value to them in handling such situations and
difficulties. Include a resume.
Installing Sheet Rock

(Mathematics; grades 8-1 0)
Don’t you hate to be ripped off? We all do, but sometimes it’s hard to tell.
When contractors give us an estimate on home repairs, how can we know if the
cost is reasonable?
143
You are given room dimensions and cost figures for materials and labor.
Determine if a sheet-rocking contractor is giving accurate information or trymg to
overcharge you.
Tr ue Conce ss io ns
(Mu t hema ticslpre-algebra; grades 7-8)
Using data from the previous two years, decide on an amount of food to order
for this year’s concession stand at the local football stadium. Make a list of food and
amounts, accompanied by a written justification.
We‘re Talking History
(Language arts, social studies; grades 5-1 2)

Interview adults on their recollections of the Vietnam era, and write a history
of that time. In a separate essay, affirm or correct the adults’ oral history using
research from secondary and original sources about that time frame.
How does one come up with authentic and engaging tasks? We have found
that designers of performance tasks benefit from using design tools as they work.
In this module, we have included a collection of practical and proven performance
task design tools to assist you in completing the Performance Task Blueprint page
of the Understanding by Design template (Worksheet 3.4).
Worksheet 9.1 presents a set of prompts to create an authentic scenario for a
performance task. Figure 9.1 is an example of how some of the prompts are used
in high school mathematics. Figures 9.2-9.5 offer more specific ideas for perfor-
mance tasks components. Figure 9.2 lists possible student goals, and Worksheet
9.2 provides space for adding goals for a specific unit. Figure 9.3 shows possible
student roles; Figure 9.4, audiences; and Figure 9.5, products and performances.
Worksheet 9.3 provides a planning matrix for a task scenario.
Additional ideas for designing performance tasks are based upon the six facets
of understanding (see Figure 9.6). Worksheets 9.4 and 9.5 present idea starters
for each facet. Figures 9.7 and 9.8 show how some of these ideas are used in a
graduate-level course on educational assessment.
144
Thinking like an assessor prior to designing Iessons-what backward design 4

demands-does not come naturally or easily to many teachers, who are accus- MISCONCEPTION
tomed to thinking like an activity designer first. Consider a summary of the differ- ALERT
ences, shown in the table below. The first set of questions in the table ensures that
the eventual activities and instructional strategies derive from and point toward the
appropriate final assessments. The second set of questions, though logical from the
perspective of activity design, makes it far less likely that the work will culminate in
understanding or that teachers will have the evidence needed to judge whether
such understanding has occurred.
The following true story suggests the extent of the problem:
A 7th grade teacher captures the energy and imagination of his students by
announcing that they will have to eat the results of their next science exper-
iment. But what is engaging is not always what is most effective or appro-
priate, given the time available. Making peanut brittle offers little in the way
of big ideas and enduring understanding for the t w o weeks allotted.
Thinking like an Assessor Thinking like an Activity Designer
What would be sufficient and What would be interesting and

revealing evidence of engaging activities on this topic?
understanding?
What performance tasks must What resources and materials are

anchor the unit and focus the available on this topic?
instructional work?
How will I be able to distinguish What will students be doing

between those who really under- in and out of class? What assign-
stand and those who don’t ments will be given?
(though they may seem to)?
Against what criteria will I How will I give students a grade

d ist ing u ish work? (and justify it to their parents)?
What misunderstandings are Did the activities work? Why or

likely? How will I check for those? why not?
Source:Wiggins & McTighe, 1998, p. 68.

The Understanding by Design Performance task design tools are excellent. I

particularly liked Worksheet 9.1 (Prompts for Constructing a Performance Task
Scenario) because it provides a framework for considering the components of
an authentic task: goal, role, audience, situation, product or performance, and
standards for success. I also liked Worksheet 3.4 (Performance Task Blueprint)
for summarizing the task. The blueprint is a useful format for sharing perfor-
mance tasks with other teachers.
A colleame
- found it helpful to consider th, yuwLlwlL, lluvv uw a u u i L 3 111 LllL
larger world use the knowledge and skills we’re teaching? Worhng through the fig-
ures and worksheets and having a brief brainstorming session with another 5th
grade teacher has led me to the followingidea for a culminating performance task:
Because we have been learning about nutrition, the camp director at the
Outdoor Education Center has asked us to propose a nutritionally balanced
menu for our three-day trip to the center later this year. Using the USDA food
pyramid guidelines and the nutrition facts on food labels, design a plan for three
days, including the three meals and three snacks (morning, afternoon, and camp-
fire time). Your goal: a tasty and nutritionally balanced menu. In addition to your
menu, prepare a letter to the director explaining how your menu meets the USDA
nutritional guidelines. Include a chart showing a breakdown of the fat, protein,
carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and calories.
I’m excited about this task because it asks students to demonstrate one of
the targeted understanding of the unit: how to plan healthy menus for them-
selves and others. This task also links well with an earlier activity: analyze a
hypothetical family’s diet for a week and propose ways to improve their nutri-
tion. Each student will prepare a camp menu, unlike the diet analysis, which
was done in groups. This final assessment will enable me to see the extent to
which each student can apply an understanding of balanced diets and healthy
eating.
M O D U L E 9: D E S I G N I N G P E R F O R M A N C E T A S K S
stage I: stage2 stage*

Identify -id R e s u b Deternine Acceptable Plan Learning
A D Enduring Understandings E~Wemce and Instruction
B D Essential Questions D D Perform H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills PertormanceTask Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and lnstruction
Pk*
”‘ F D Unprompted Evidence
G D Self-Assessment
w Blueprint for Wler Evidence (E. F, 6 )
Mathematics Unit I
Goal
rn The goal is to minimize costs for shipping bulk quantities of M&Ms.
Role
rn You are an engineer in t h e packaging department of Mars, Inc., makers of M&Ms.
Audience
The target audience is nonengineer company executives.
Situation
rn The context you find yourself in is t o convince t h e company officers t h a t your container
design will provide cost-effective use of t h e given materials, maximize shipping volume of bulk quan-
tities of M&Ms, and be safe t o transport.
Product or Performance
rn You need to design a shipping container from given materials so that M&Ms can be
shipped safely and cost-effectively. Then you will prepare a written proposal in which you include a
diagram and show mathematically how your container design provides efficient and effective use of
t h e given materials and maximizes t h e shipping volume of t h e M&Ms.
Standards for Success

rn Your product must meet the following standards:
Use t h e given materials cost-effectively.
Maximize shipping volume of bulk quantities of M&Ms.
Be safe t o transport.
01999 B m A U rights reserved. 147

9.2 Stage I: - 2 stage*

I d e m Derircd Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning Brperimces
B D Essential Questions D B Perfo H D Sequence of Learning
C B Knowledge and Skills h PerformanceTask Blueprint(0) Experiences and Instruction
G b Self-Assessment
* Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E.F, 6 )
N Summarize t h e procedure for a lab experiment for a student who was absent.
Explain t h e legal justification f o r a court; decision to newspaper readers.
N Inform t h e PTA Garden Committee about which plants are best suited t o your area.
N Teach a younger student about t h e water cycle. (declarative)

N Teach a classmate to read a contour map. (procedural)
N Design a poster to teach classmates about human, capital, and natural resources.
Create a museum display to document a historical event you've researched.
N Persuade a friend to read a book by your favorite author.
N Defend your position with data.
N Critique a s-t;udent's letter to t h e editor o f t h e local newspaper.
N Identify errors or weaknesses in mathematical reasoning of a fellow student.
Correct errors in a student's essay on persuasiveness.
Improve your f i r s t d r a f t of a research report.
148 01999 -"A11 rights reserved.

FIGURE BACKWARD D E S l G N P R O C E S S
9.3 stage 1: Stage 2: stage 3:

Identify Desired Results Determine Accaptable Plan Learning -8
A B Enduring Understandings Evidence and Ir#rtruction
C B Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint (D) Experiences and Instruction
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Mhar Evidence (E, F, 61
advertiser museum director or curator
artist or illustrator newscaster
author novelist
biographer nutritionist
Boy Scout or Girl Scout panelist
ca ndidate park ranger
cartoon character photographer
caterer pilot
chairperson playwright
chef poet
coach police officer
composer product designer
detective reporter
editor researcher
elected official scientist
engineer ship's captain
expert in social scientist
eyewitness taxi driver
filmmaker teacher
f irefighter tour guide
historian travel agent
intern TV or movie character
interviewer tutor
inventor zoo keeper
lawyer other:
literary critic
01999 -mAIl rights reserved. 149

FIGURE BACKWARD DESIGNPROCESS

9.4 SQgS I: -2 s b g o 3:
Id- D o s i d Resulb Determine W p t a b i m Plan Eqmhwas
A D Enduring Undentandings Evidence and lnsbucbon
B D Essential Questions DDPe H D Sequence of learning
C D Knowledge and Skills Perfo Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Mhsr Evidencs (E, F, 6)
advertisers
board members (school, community, or foundation)
boss
businesses or corporations (local, regional, or national)
celebrities
community members or helpers
customers or consumers
experts (individual or panel)
foreign embassy staff
friends
government or elected officials (local, state, or federal)
historical figures
judge
jury
library patrons
museum visitors
neigh bors
reIat ives
pen pals
radio listeners
readers (newspaper or magazine)
school staff
students (any age)
travel agent
travelers
TV viewers
visitors (to school, community, state, or country)
other:
150 01999 A s e a . . A l l rights reserved.

9.5 Stage 1:
Identity Desired Results Detennme AcWptaMe
stage 3
Plan Lsarning
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint(0) Experiences and ~ I l S W U ~ i O I l
0 D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E,F, 61
What student products and performances will provide appropriate evidence of understanding and pro-
ficiency?The following table offers possibilities. (Remember that student products and performances
should be framed by an explicit purpose or goal and an identified audience.)
Written Oral Visual (displayed)

advertisement a udiotape advertisement
biography debate banner
book report or review discussion cartoon
brochure dramatization collage
crossword puzzle interview collectio n
editorial newscast computer graphic
essay Play constructed item
ex periment record poetry reading data display
game presentation design
journal ra P diagram
lab report report diorama
letter skit display
log song drawing
magazine article speech filmstrip
memo teach a lesson graph
newspaper article other: map
poem model
position paper painting
proposal photograph
questionnaire poster
research report scrapbook
script scuIpture
story slide show
test storyboard
other: videota pe
other:
01999 A S C W ’ A I I rights reserved. 151

9.6 stage*
Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptabhm Plan Learning
A B Enduring Understandings Evidence and lnsbuction
C ) Knowledge and Skills F Performance Task Blueprint (01 Experiences and hlS~CtiOll
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Mher Evidence (E, F, G)
I THE S I X F A C E T SO F UNDERSTANDING
I Explanation I Interpretation Application Perspective Empathy Self-Knowledge
Show and say how Report on the Design a bridge to Compare British Take on a persona Keep a log of your
electric lights work. meaning of Animal withstand specific and French from theTitanic, reactions to
forces and wave textbooks accounts and create a literature and what
patterns. of the journal, set of your reactions
Revolutionary War letters, or reveal about your
to your textbook scrapbook. views of human
account. nature.
Describe why Develop an oral Use the case Read and discuss Imagine you are Self-assess your
a rhetorical history on the method in The Real Story of Juliet from Romeo involvement in
technique is significance of the business, the Three Little figs and Juliet, and class discussions
effective in speech. 1960s. medicine, or law. by A. Wolf. consider your and performances,
terrible, final act. and explain your
What are you patterns of
thinking and participation.
feeling?
Construct and Write newspaper Role-play supply- Analyze the Role-play a Develop a resume
write a editorials on the and-demand in a assumptions in meeting of the and a description
mathematical meaning of business game. politicaI minds (e.g., of your intellectual
proof. election results. advertising. Truman deciding to strengths and
drop the atomic weaknesses.
bomb).
Provide conceptual Draft a Supreme Make an Research the Work in a soup Keep a log of the
clarification Court decision audiotape of a impact of welfare- kitchen, and write drama class
(e.g., freedom on a First favorite book for to-work laws on an essay on the exercises that
compared to Amendment case. the school library. low-income experiences of the demand the most
license). people. homeless after from you
reading Charles emotionally.
Dickens.
Reveal subtle and Do a trend analysis Design a museum Write critical Read and discuss Attach a self-
easily overlooked of a finite data set. exhibit on the reviews of movies premodern or once- assessment of each
patterns in causes and based on best- discredited scientific paper you write to
phenomena or effects of early selling books. writings to find the paper as you
data. 20th century what is of value in turn it in.
immigration. the analyses.
Clarify the causes Represent fear and Develop a Conduct thought Read and discuss Reflect on why
of global warming. hope in a dance. statistical analysis experiments literature that students often say
of crime trends to (e.g.,What would confronts you with in class, "I know
predict police staff the world be like if what is alien (e.g., this sounds stupid,
needs in 2010. I were riding on a The Stranger or but,,' before stating
beam of light [from figman). an interesting
Einstein]?). comment.
Link everyday Conduct research Perform a chemical Self-assess your Write a report on Propose solutions
actions and using primary analysis of local writing as if you why some kids to an ineffective
facts to the laws sources, and stream water to were an editor always get picked cooperative
of physics, write a historical monitor EPA for a national on and what it learning exercise
concentrating biography. compliance, and magazine. feels like to be on the basis of
on easily present findings. those kids. what didn't work in
misunderstood your group.
aspects (e.g., mass
compared to
weight).
152 01999 a T M A I Irights resewed.

~ ~~ ~ ~ _____ _____~
B A C K W A R DD E S I G N P R O C E S S
stage 1: Stage 2 stage 3:
Correspondsto WS 9.4 1 Identify Desired R e r u b

Detennme Acceptable
Evidence
D B Perfo
Plan Leaming v e n o a s
and Instruction
H b Sequence of learning
I
C B Knowledge and Skills Performance Task BlueprintfD) Experiences and Instruction
E P Quizzes, Tests, Prompts
1 ((Part 1) Topic: Assessment >I G B Self-Assessment

*. Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F, G)
Use the following prompts to generate ways that students can reveal their understanding of a topic within
a unit or course.The goal is to consider ways that understanding can be shown, not to use every prompt
in every facet.
Understanding is demonstrated through explanation, interpretation, and application.
You really understand assessment when you can.. .

(unit or course topic)
X a Give examples of criterion-referenced assessment.

P a Make connections with
I
a Offer a sophisticated theory of t h e negative effects o f an overreliance on one-shot,
a
n standardized testing.
a a Describe how
t
i a Justify/support t h e need f o r balanced use of various types of assessment.
0 a Proveherify
I a Interpret t h e phenomenon of t e s t anxiety.

n a Make sense of
t
a Tell a revealing story of t h e power of t h e backward design process.
e
r Provide an apt analogy for beginning with t h e end in mind.
P a Show the importance or meaning of
r
e a Translate
t a Relate to your experience (or the experiences of others).
a
t
i
0
n
f
a In a new situation, apply a rubric a t home with children (e.g., for household chores).
A
P a Show or demonstrate
P a Use in the context of
I
i a Designhnvent a valid Performance t a s k t h a t truly engages learners.
C a Overcome a challenge or constraint, such as lack of consistency among teachers scoring
a
t open-ended performance tasks.
I
0
L L
01999 m'?c?=9"All rights reserved. 153
I
9.8 I I Stagel:
Id&*
B A C K W A R D
Desired Results
Staw 2
D E S I G N
D&rmine Acceptable
Evidence
P R O C E S S
Stame 3:
Pbn barning brpsrsencas
and Instruction
B D Essential Questions D D Perfo H D Sequence of learning
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint(D) Experiences and hStnICtiOn
G D Self-Assessment
(Part 2 ) Topic: Assessment Blueprintfor Omer Evidence (E. F, G)
Use the following prompts to generate ways that students can reveal their understanding of a topic
within a unit or course.The goal is to consider ways that understanding can be shown, not to use every
prompt in every facet.
Understanding is revealed through perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge.
You really understand assessment when you can.. .

rn Analyze
I P
e rn See from the point of view of a student taking a high-stakes exam.
r Compare and contrast
S
Critique
P
e Critically examine assumptions such as
C
t rn Show how performance assessment fits in a historical context.
i rn See the limits of external, standardized testing for Providing valid measures of local
V
standards.
I
e
\
f Walk in the shoes of
Experience directly and see t h e value of identifying criteria before beginning a performance
E
task.
m
P rn Reach a common understanding with
a concerning
t
h Entertain the seemingly odd or alien view that grading is n o t essential t o learning.
Y
/
rn Recognize your prejudice about
S K Identify the lens through which you view t h e Scholastic Assessment Tests.
e n See how your habits influence how you approach grading students.
I 0
f w rn Explain how you came to understand how assessment can serve t o improve learning (not
I j u s t measure it).
e
d w Realize that even with all you now know, you don't really understand
g
e
154 0 1999 , B m A I I rights reserved.

staoa 1: staae42: staQe3:

Id&* Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning
AB Enduring Understandings Evidence and lnstnrction
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint( 0 ) Experiences and hstrUCti0n
0 B Self-Assessment
Consider the following stem statements as you construct a scenario for a performance task using GRASPS.
(Note:These are idea starters. Resist the urge t o fill in all the blanks.)
Goal
Yourtaskis
The goal is t o
The problem/challenge is
The obstacle t o overcome is
Role
You are
You have been asked t o
Your j o b is
Audience
H Your client is
The target audience is
You need t o convince
Situation
The context you find yourself i n is
The challenge involves dealing with
Product or Performance
You will create a
to
You need t o develop/design a
so that
Standards for Success

Your performance needs t o
Your work will be judged by
Your product must meet the following standards:
A successful result will

stage 1: Stage 2: stage*

Id- Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning w e m c e ~ ~
B B Essential Questions ‘ D b Perfo H B Sequence of Learning
c B Knowledge and Skills Peifonnance Task Blueprint (D) Experiences and hStNCtiOn
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F, GI
Complete the statements for your own units, using the filled-in statements as a guide.
H Summarize for
H Summarize t h e procedure for a lab experiment for a student who was absent.
H Explain to
Explain t h e legal justification f o r a court decision to newspaper readers.
H Inform a bout
H Inform t h e PTA Garden Committee about which plants are best suited t o your area.
H Teach about .(declarative)

H Teach a younger student about t h e water cycle. (declarative)
rn Teach to .(procedural)
H Teach a classmate to read a contour map. (procedural)
Design a to/for
H Design a poster to teach classmates about human, capital, and natural resources.
H Create a to/for
Create a museum display to document a historical event you’ve researched.
H Persuade to
Persuade a friend to read a book by your favorite author.
H Defend wit h/to/fo r

H Defend your position with data.
H Critique to/for
H Critique a student’s letter to t h e editor of t h e local newspaper.
H Identify errors or weaknesses in of/to/for

H Identify errors or weaknesses in mathematical reasoning of a fellow student.
ICorrect errors in to/for/on

H Correct errors in a student’s essay on persuasiveness.
I Improve of/to/for
H Improve your f i r s t d r a e of a research report.
156 01999 -mAll rights reserved.

9.3 stage 1: stage* stage3

Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learnlng B q n r i c n c c ~
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and hlStfUCtiOn
G D Self-Assessment
Use the following matrix for GRASPS to guide your brainstorming about possible performance task scenarios
Goal
01999 ~ B m A I rights
I reserved. 157

Identify Desired R e s u b Determine Acceptable Plan Learning
Correspondsto Fig. 9.7 A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and lnsbuction
B D Essential Questions D D Petfo H D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
( (Part 1) + Blueprintfor Other Evidence(E. F. G)
in every facet.
Understanding is demonstrated through explanation, interpretation, and application.
You really understand when you can. ..

w Explainkeach
‘ E
X w Give examples of
P w Make connections with
I w Offer a sophisticated theory of
a
n
a rn Describe how
t
i w Justify/support
0 Proveherify
, n w Avoid common misconceptions, such as
Y
f w Interpret
I
n w Make sense of
t w Tell a revealing story of
e
r rn Provide an apt analogy for
P w Show the importance or meaning of
r
e w Translate
t w Relate to your experience (or the experiences of others).
a
t
i
0
n
1
w In a new situation, apply

Show or demonstrate
w Use in the context of
Designhnvent
w Overcome a challenge or constraint, such as
0
n
158 01999 m T M A I rights

l reserved.
9.5 SQSe 1: stage 2 -3:

Identify D e s M Results DetennimAcceptable Plan Learning
Conaspondsto Fig. 9.8 A B Enduring Understandings Evidence 'on
and lnstrucb
B B Essential Questions D B Perform H B Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills W Performance Task Blueprint( 0 ) Experiences and Instruction
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, 6 )
in every facet.
Understanding is revealed through perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge.
You really understand when you can.. .

w Analyze
I P
e w See from the point of view of
r w Compare and contrast
S
P
w Critique
e w Critically examine assumptions such as
C
t w Showhow fits in a historical context.
I w See the limits of
V
e
f w Walk in the shoes of

w Experience directly and see
E
m
P w Reach a common understanding with
a concerning
t
h w Entertain the seemingly odd or alien view that
Y
w Recognize your prejudice about

S K Identify the lens through which you view
e n w See how your habits influence how you approach
I 0
f w w Explain how you came to understand
I
e
d w Realize that even with all you now know, you don't really understand
g
e

M O D U L E 1 0 : D E S I G N I N G S C O R I N G R U B R I C S
Understanding is a matter- of degree on a

continuum. It is not a matter o, f right versus wrong
but more or less naive or sophisiticated; more or less
superficial or in-depth. WhaIt does a range of
. -
explanations look like, for example, from the most naive
or simplistic to the most complex and sophisticated?
Whatever the response, rubrics provide usefil guidance
in assessment (emphasis in original).
-WIGGINS& MCTIGHE,1998, p. 70
A scoring rubric is a tool for evaluating a product or performance. A rubric con- Worhsheet 3.4
sists of evaluative criteria, a fixed scale (e.g., four points or six levels), and descrip-
tive terms (indicators) for differentiating among different degrees of understand-
ing, proficiency, or quality Rubric originates from the Latin word, rubrica, referring
to the use of red earth (later, red ink) to mark something of significance. Today, we
maintain the spirit of the term: The criteria in a rubric communicate the important
qualities in a product or performance.
Types of Rubrics
Scoring rubrics can be holistic-intended to provide an overall impression of
the elements of quality and performance levels in a student’s work-or analytic-
designed to indicate a student’s performance level on two or more separate ele-
ments of quality (such as a rubric for each criterion).
Rubrics may be generic or task-specific. A generic rubric provides general cri-
teria for evaluating a student’s performance in a given performance area. For
example, a generic rubric for persuasive writing may be used with any persuasive
writing task. In contrast, a task-specific rubric is designed for use with a particu-
lar assessment activity (e.g., an open-ended question about a specific reading
161
assignment). Although they are useful for task-related feedback, task-specific

rubrics cannot be used to evaluate responses to related performance. Thus, they
may not allow adequate assessment of a complex and general understanding,
because such an assessment would require diverse tasks and evidence.
Rubrics are most effectively used for evaluation or instruction when they are
accompanied by examples of responses for each score point. These examples, or
anchors, provide tangible illustrations of the various points on the scale. Perhaps the
greatest advantage of rubrics lies in their capacity to clearly communicate elements
of quality to students and evaluators. The clarity provided by criteria and anchors
assists raters in reliably evaluating student responses, products, or performances.
The criteria also provide targets toward which teachers can teach and students can
aim. When students internalize the criteria contained in rubrics or guides, they are
better equipped to engage in self-evaluation and revision of their o w n work.
Rubrics provide teachers with specific criteria for assessing student under-
standing, a tool for increasing the consistency of evaluation among teachers, and
clear targets for instruction. Rubrics provide students with clear performance tar-
gets, expectations about what is most important, and criteria for evaluating and
improving their o w n work.
Many rubrics only describe a progression of skills from novice to expert. Our
quest, however, is not for a rubric of skill development but rather for one that
combines insight and performance related to understanding of ideas and meaning.
What does a novice understanding of the Cold War look like compared with more
expert views? What characterizes an in-depth response? What specifically makes
this argument or explanation effective? These are the kinds of questions we as edu-
cators need to ask for any specific understanding.
Characteristics of Effective Rubrics

Here are some characteristics of effective rubrics. They
H Are designed to relate specific task requirements to more general perfor-
mance goals. Ultimately, understanding matters more than performance on a

unique task. But the indicators need to be specific enough to enable good feedback
and reliable scoring of the particular task.
162
w Discriminate among different degrees of understanding or proficiency ac-

cording to significant features, such as thoroughness of explanation or effectiveness
of application.
w Do not combine independent criteria in one rubric. For example, to com-
bine “very clear” and “very organized” in the same descriptor often creates a prob-
lem, because a paper might be clear but not organized and vice versa.
w Are based on analysis of many specific exemplars or work samples, using the
widest possible range. In other words, all potential performances should fit some-
where in a rubric.
w Rely on descriptive language-what quality or its absence looks like-as
opposed to relylng heavily on mere comparatives or value language (e.g., “not as
thorough as” or “excellent product”) to make a distinction.
w Avoid making the lowest score points sound bad. The lowest score should
rather describe what novice or ineffective performance looks like.
w Highlight the judging of the performance’s impact-the effect, given the
purpose-as opposed to overrewarding just the processes, content used, or good-
faith effort. Ultimately, performance is about results. Was the paper persuasive?
The problem solved? The story engaging? The speech informative? Teachers should
make sure students understand the purpose of the task as reflected in appropriate
impact criteria.
The figures and worksheets in this module support the design of scoring rubrics
to evaluate student understanding. Worksheet 10.1 prompts users to describe differ-
ences between novice and expert understanding; Figure 10.1 provides an example of
differences for the concept of persuasion within a unit on persuasive writing.
Figures 10.2 and 10.3 each offer a set of generic descriptors to use in rubrics
based on the six facets of understanding. Worksheet 10.2 presents a frame to help
designers construct a holistic rubric to assess the degree of understanding of a
particular generalization or proposition, using a four-point scale. Worksheet 10.3
offers a frame for constructing an analytic rubric to assess the degree of under-
standing, using a four-point scale.
163
Figure 10.4 is an example of an analytic rubric containing two criteria:

degree of understanding and effectiveness of performance. Notice in this exam-
ple that understanding is weighted more than effectiveness of performance (60
percent versus 40 percent). Worksheet 10.4 presents an analytic rubric frame
based on the six facets. When developing an analytic rubric, designers should
use only those facet descriptors that apply to the unit or task.
Validity applies to rubrics, not just to assessment tasks. Suppose that stu-
dents are given a writing task to see if they understand satire. The rubric for judg-
MISCONCEPTION
ing this task places exclusive emphasis on spelling and grammatical accuracy.
Although the scores would be highly reliable-counting such errors is easy-they
are likely to lead to invalid inferences about the students’ ability to write satirically
with insight and efficacy. Accurate spelling and grammatical usage are certainly ele-
ments of effective writing, but their presence does not guarantee engaging, vivid,
and coherent satire. In this case, the rubric has not delineated all the key criteria
related to the targeted outcome.
Assessment designers must take care to focus on the most appropriate crite-
ria to assess the desired capacities. Have they identified the most important and
revealing dimensions of performance, given the criteria most apt for their achieve-
ment target? Does the rubric provide an effective way of discriminating among
degrees of understanding and proficiency? Are the descriptors for each level of per-
formance sufficiently grounded in actual samples of different quality performances?
These and other questions lie a t the heart of valid rubric construction.
H Many rubrics fail to focus on the purpose of the work-the desired impact of
the product or performance. Instead, they focus on the content and polish of the
work. A paper or proof can be accurate and organized, yet still be unpersuasive; a
computation may be accurate, but ineffective a t solving a larger problem. In addition
to evaluating specific component traits (such as accuracy, organization, and thor-
oughness), a rubric should highlight the appropriate result or end. If the goal is to
build a working roller coaster or argue a debate position, then one needs to specify
the traits of the successful roller coaster or winning debate. Creativity is then height-
ened, not impeded, when impact criteria are included.
Perhaps the most common misunderstanding about rubrics is that they can
only be developed after a specific task has been designed. A rubric is meant as a
I bridge between unique performance tasks and a more general target. The target to
-4
be assessed is usually more general than any particular task. For example, a rubric
MISCONCEPTlON
for judging the effectiveness of an essay should be applicable to any essay; thus, it
can and should be written before a particular writing prompt is developed. The qual-
(continued)
ities of an effective essay guide the rubric's development. Designers may add spe-
cific indicators to a rubric to make it more task-specific and helpful to students, but
they should know the general criteria of performance before designing a unique
task.
rn Even though the general qualities of an effective performance or product can
be identified in advance of the assessment task, to believe that a rubric is finalized
prior to using it is a misconception. In fact, a rubric becomes more specific by care-
fully analyzing a range of student work samples. The specificity of the language in a
rubric is derived by describing the distinguishing features of different levels of per-
formances and products, such as exemplary, solid, and subpar. Rubrics based on
actual student work provide greater clarity for students as well as teachers because
they ground a rubric's somewhat abstract language in tangible examples.
A common mistake in rubric design and use is to score what is easiest to
score, not what is essential. For example, many rubrics give a higher score when
students include more footnotes or reasons. In some cases, more is better, but
teachers should not lose sight of the product's or performance's purpose-its qual-
ity or impact, for example. An essay with one compelling, well-supported reason
may be more persuasive than an essay with three weakly developed and supported
reasons.
Although I’ve had some experience using rubrics, I found some valuable ideas
in the Understanding by Design materials. The sample descriptive language for
the six facets will help me overcome the tendency to create “counting” rubrics;
for example, students will get a “3”if their work has three details, a “2” for two
details, and so forth.
The suggestion to focus on impact criteria really hits home; most of the
rubrics that my colleagues and I use emphasize particular traits, such as
organization, use of details, accuracy, and neatness. The traits don’t always
address the overall result based on the goal or purpose. I’m going to revise some
other rubrics I use with this idea in mind.
I usually fine-tune my rubrics after I’ve used them, but I’ve never actually
modified a rubric based on a careful look at student work. I can see how this
approach could help make the rubric language even more understandable
because some of the terms are open to different interpretations.
166
10.1 stage 1: stage 2: stages:

Identify Desired Rewtts Detennine Acceptable Plan Learning k p d e n c a s
Corresponds to WS 10.1 A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instruction
C D Knowledge and Skills Pwf~mance Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Omer Evidence (E,F, Gl
How would you develop a simple rubric to assess understanding of a targeted big idea or complex
process? What are the indicators of a naive understanding? Of a sophisticated understanding? Pick a
specific idea t o consider or describe naivete and sophistication in general.
Targeted big idea t h e concept of persuasion within a unit on persuasive writing
Indicators of Understanding
w
naive sophisticated
The novice persuader The expert persuader
rn Believes t h a t stating a point clearly will result rn Recognizes t h a t different circumstances and
in people being persuaded. audiences require different persuasive
approaches or techniques.
rn Only knows one persuasive technique and
uses i t f o r every situation, even when it is rn Is proficient in a variety of persuasive
ineffective. techniques and knows when t o apply them.
rn Does n o t anticipate t h e different points of rn Deliberately considers different perspectives

view when preparing a persuasive argument. and makes plans t o address or counter them
when preparing a persuasive argument.
0 1999 ,-"All rights reserved. 167

10.2 I stam 1:
B A C K W A R D
I d e h Desired Results
staae 2
D E S I G N
Detknine Acceptable
Evidence
P R O C E S S
staaa 3:
PIaiLeaming-
and-I 'on
STAGE
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Wler Evidence (E, F, G)
Explanation Interpretation Application

~ ~ ~~~~~
Sophisticated: an unusually thorough, Profound: a powerful and illuminating Masterful: fluent, flexible, and effi-
elegant , and inventive account (model, interpretation and analysis of the cient; able to use knowledge and skill
theory, or explanation); fully supported, importance/meaning/significance; tells and adjust understandings well in
verified, and justified; deep and broad: a rich and insightful story; provides a novel, diverse, and difficult contexts.
goes well beyond the information rich history or context; sees deeply
given. and incisively any ironies in the differ-
ent interpretations.
In-depth: an atypical and revealing Revealing: a nuanced interpretation Skilled: competent in using knowledge
account, going beyond what is obvi- and analysis of the importance/mean- and skill and adapting understandings
ous or what was explicitly taught; ing/significance; tells an insightful in a variety of appropriate and
makes subtle connections; well sup- story; provides a telling history or con- demanding contexts.
ported by argument and evidence; text; sees subtle differences, levels,
' novel thinking displayed. and ironies in diverse interpretations.
Developed: an account that reflects Perceptive: a helpful interpretation or Able: able to perform well with knowl-
some in-depth and personalized ideas; ana Iysis of the importance/meaning/sig- edge and skill in a few key contexts,
the student is making the work her nificance; tells a clear and instructive with a limited repertoire, flexibility, or
own, going beyond the given-there is story; provides a useful history or adaptability to diverse contexts.
supported theory here, but insufficient context; sees different levels of
or inadequate evidence and argument. interpretation.
Intuitive: an incomplete account but Interpreted: a plausible interpretation Apprentice: relies on a limited reper-
with apt and insightful ideas; extends or analysis of the importance/mean- toire of routines; able to perform well
and deepens some of what was ing/significance; makes sense of a in familiar or simple contexts, with
learned; some "reading between the story; provides a history or context. perhaps some needed coaching; lim-
lines"; account has limited support/ ited use of personal judgment and
argument/data or sweeping generaliza- responsiveness to specifics of feed-
tions. There is a theory, but one with bac Usit uation.
limited testing and evidence.
Nai've: a superficial account; more Literal: a simplistic or superficial read- Novice: can perform only with coach-
descriptive than analytical or creative; ing; mechanical translation; a decoding ing or relies on highly scripted, singu-
a fragmentary or sketchy account of with little or no interpretation; no lar "plug-in" (algorithmic and mechani-
factshdeas or glib generalizations; a sense of wider importance or signifi- cal) skills, procedures, or approaches
black-and-white account; less a theory cance; a restatement of what was
than an unexamined hunch or bor- taught or read.
rowed idea.
Source:Wiggins & McTighe, 1998, pp. 76-77.
168 01999 , i i " A l l rights reserved.

Perspective Empathy Self-Knowledge
lnslghtful: a penetrating and novel Mature: disposed and able to see and Wise: deeply aware of the boundaries
viewpoint; effectively critiques and feel what others see and feel; unusu- of one's own and others' understand-
encompasses other plausible perspec- ally open to and willing to seek out the ing; able t o recognize one's prejudices
tives; takes a long and dispassionate, odd, alien, or different. and projections ; has integ rity-a b Ie
critical view of the issues involved. and willing t o act on what one
understands.
Thorough: a revealing and coordinated Sensitive: disposed to see and feel Circumspect: aware of one's ignorance
critical view; makes own view more what others see and feel; open to the and that of others; aware of one's prej-
plausible by considering the plausibility unfamiliar or different. udices; knows the strengths and limits
of other perspectives; makes apt of one's understanding.
criticisms, discriminations, and
qualifications.
Considered: a reasonably critical and Aware: knows and feels that others Thoughtful: generally aware of what is
comprehensive look a t all points of see and feel differently; somewhat and is not understood; aware of h o w
view in the context of one's own; able to empathize with others; has prejudice and projection can occur
makes clear that there is plausibility to difficulty making sense of odd or without awareness and shape one's
other points of view. alien views. views.
Aware: knows of different points of Developing: has some capacity and Unreflective: generally unaware of
view and somewhat able to place own self-discipline t o "walk in another's one's specific ignorance; generally
view in perspective, but weakness in shoes," but is still primarily limited to unaware of h o w subjective prejudg-
considering worth of each perspective one's own reactions and attitudes; ments color understandings.
or critiquing each perspective, espe- puzzled or put off by different feelings
cially one's own; uncritical about tacit or attitudes.
assumptions.
Uncritical: unaware of differing points Egocentric: has little or no empathy lnnocent: completely unaware of the
of view; prone to overlook or ignore beyond intellectual awareness of oth- bounds of one's understanding and of
other perspectives; has difficulty imag- ers; sees things through own ideas the role of projection and prejudice in
ining other ways of seeing things; and feelings; ignores or is threatened opinions and attempts to understand.
prone to egocentric argument and or puzzled by different feelings, atti-
personal criticisms. tudes, or views.
0 1 999 , m i , i l r " ' A I l rights reserved. 169

10.3 stage 1: SQSe 2: stage 3:

Identity Desired Results Detennine Actcaptable Plan Learning -8
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and lnabuction
STAGE C D Knowledge and Skilis * p Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
f 3 Blueprint tor Other Evidence (E, F, 6)
~ _ _ _ _ _ _
Facet 1 Facet 2 Facet 3 Facet 4 Facet 5 Facet 6

Explanation Interpretation Application Perspective Empathy Self-Knowledge
Accurate MeaningfuI Effective Credible Sensit ive Self-aware

Coherent Important Efficient Revealing Open Metacognitive
Justified Significant Fluent Insightful Receptive Self-adjusti ng
Systemat ic IIIust rative Pract icaI Plausible Perceptive RefIective
Predictive Illuminating GracefuI Unusual TactfuI Wise
170 01999 m m A l l rights reserved.

M O D U L E 1 0 : D E S l G N I N G S C O R I N G R U B R I C S
FIGURE BACKWARD DESIGNPROCESS

Identity Desired R e s u b Detennmo AccsptaMo Plan Leadng Expaicmcsa
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and Insbudon
B B Essential Questions D B Performance Tasks H B Sequence of learning
STAGE
C D Knowledge and Skills * P ~ ~ a ~ ~ T = k 3 l w f * Experiences and Instruction
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Wler Evidence E . F, G)
Generalization or proposition:
Performance or product:
CRITERIA
(Weight)
~~
Understanding Performance
Scale (60%) (40%)
Shows a sophisticated understanding of the The performance or product is highly effective.

relevant ideas or processes. The concepts, evi- The ideas are presented in an engaging, pol-
4 dence, arguments, qualifications made, q ues- ished, clear, and thorough manner, and are
tions posed, and methods used are advanced, mindful of the audience, context, and purpose.
going well beyond the grasp of the subject The final product or performance shows high-
typically found at this age level. q uaIity craftsmanship.
Shows a solid understanding of the relevant The performance or product is effective.The

ideas or processes. The concepts, evidence, ideas are presented in a clear and thorough
arguments, and methods used are appropri- manner, showing awareness of the audience,
3 ate for addressing the issues or problems. context, and purpose.
Response shows no misunderstandings of
key ideas or overly simplistic approaches.
~ ~~
Shows a somewhat naive or limited under- The performance or product is somewhat

standing of the relevant ideas or processes. effective. Some problems with clarity, thor-
The concepts, evidence, arguments, and oughness, delivery, and polish are evident. It is
2 methods used are somewhat simple, crude, unclear whether the audience, context, and
or inadequate for addressing the issues or purpose have been considered.
problems. Response may reveal some misun-
derstandings of key ideas or methods.
Shows little apparent understanding of the The performance or product is ineffective. One
relevant ideas or processes. The concepts, evi- of t w o situations is evident:The performance
dence, arguments, and methods used are is unpolished, providing little evidence of plan-
inadequate for addressing the issues or prob- ning, practice, and consideration of purpose
1 lems. Response reveals major misunderstand- and audience; or the presentation is so unclear
ings of key ideas or methods. and confusing that the key points are difficult
to determine.
01999 m m A U rights reserved. 171

BACKWARD DESIGNPROCESS
stage 1: - 2 SQge 3 :
lde- Desired Results DetermineAcceptable Plan Leamg"ls Expdttn-
A B Enduring Understandings Evidence and Imtmctwm
B B Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks H B Sequence of learning
C B Knowledge and Skills Perf-me Experiences and Instruction
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E. F, C)
How would you develop a simple rubric to assess understanding of a targeted big idea or complex
process?What are the indicators of a naive understanding? Of a sophisticated understanding? Pick a
specific idea to consider or describe naivete and sophistication in general.
Targeted big idea [ \I
naive sophisticated
f=
. . . . ............ ......... .......
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
.........................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
......................................................
.....................................................
172 01999 m T M A 1 1rights reserved.

WORKSH EET B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
10.2 stage 1: SQe"? stage&

Identity Desired Results Deternine Acceptabk Plan LsarningExpdencms
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and Ins6uetion
B D Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks H D Sequence of learning
STAGE
C D Knowledge and Skills * Perfomnc Experiences and Instruction
c G D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Mher Evidence (E. F, 6)
Use the space below to further develop a 4-point rubric to evaluate the degree t o which students
understand a generalization or proposition. Add specific descriptors to the general descriptors below.
You may revise the general descriptors if appropriate. (Refer t o the language in Figures 10.2 and 10.3
for possible descriptive terms.)
Generalization or (
proposition
Scale Criteria and Indicators
Shows a sophisticated understanding of the relevant ideas or processes. The con-

cepts, evidence, arguments, qualifications made, questions posed, and methods
used are advanced, going well beyond the grasp of the subject typically found at
4 this age level.
.....................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
Shows a solid understanding of the relevant ideas or processes.The concepts, evi-

dence, arguments, and methods used are appropriate for addressing the issues or
problems. Response shows no misunderstandings of key ideas or overly simplistic
3 approaches.
rn
...................................................................................................
rn
...................................................................................................
Shows a somewhat naive or limited understanding of the relevant ideas or

processes.The concepts, evidence, arguments, and methods used are somewhat
simple, crude, or inadequate for addressing the issues or problems. Response may
2 reveal some misunderstandings of key ideas or methods.
.....................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
Shows little apparent understanding of the relevant ideas or processes.The con-

cepts, evidence, arguments, and methods used are inadequate for addressing the
issues or problems. Response reveals major misunderstandings of key ideas or
1 methods.
....................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
01999 r W r r T M A l rights
l reserved. 173
Stqpa 1: stage 2: stagtm3:

I
d en m Desired Resutts Deternine Acceptable Plan Expdences
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and Indwctnon
B D Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks W D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills
STAGE
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Omer Evidems (E, F, 6 )
Use the frame below to identify criteria for evaluating student understanding and effectiveness of a
performance or product.
Genera Iization or proposition :
Perform a nce or product:
CRITERIA
(Weight)
0 0
174 0 1999 m T ” A 1 f rights reserved.

WORKS H EET BACKWARD D E S I G N P R O C E S S
10.4 stage 1: - 2 stagas:

l d e e D o s i d Results DetennineAcceptable plan Learning
A D EnduringUnderstandings bidence and lnsbuction
B D Essential (luestions D D Performance Tasks H D Sequence of Learning
STAGE C D Knowledge and Skills *P M f o r n ~ ~ Experiencesand Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F, 6)
Use the frame below for developing an analytic rubric for your unit. Not all facet descriptors need to be
used-only those that apply to your specific unit.
Self-
Explanation Interpretation Application Perspective Empathy Knowledge
Sophisticated: MeaningfuI: MasterfuI: Insightful: Mature: Wise:
...~
In-depth: Revealing: SkiIled: Thorough: Sensitive: Circumspect:
DeveI oped: Perceptive: Able: Considered: Aware: Thoughtful:
I ntuitive: Interpreted: Apprentice: Aware: Developing: Unreflective:
Nai've: Literal: Novice: Uncr it ica I: Egocentric: Innocent:
01999 m T M A I frights reserved. 175

If we expect students to do
high-quality work, they need to know
what high-quality work looks like.
THE
Anchoring refers to the process of selecting examples of student work to charac- Worksheet 3.4
terize performance levels in a scoring rubric. These examples, known as anchors,
provide tangible and specific illustrations of various levels of quality or degrees of
proficiency that are based upon established criteria. Anchors assist teachers in
understanding and consistently applying the criteria and standards when judging
student products or performances. They provide teachers and students with clear
targets to motivate and guide their efforts, and help students to better understand
and apply the criteria when engaged in self-evaluation and peer review.
Educators use two basic models to anchor a scoring system for performance
assessments (see Figure 11.1).Model 1 is based on using established scoring cri-
teria contained in a scoring rubric. In this model, teachers evaluate student
responses, products, or performances according to the scoring criteria. They sort
the scored responses into groups corresponding to the various score points on the
scale. For example, responses receiving a “4” would be grouped together, those
receiving a “3” would be grouped together, and so forth. They select several
responses, products, or performances from each group to illustrate the criteria for
that score point. These are the anchors for that score point. Model 1 is appropri-
ate when a performance task and accompanymg scoring rubric have been validated
through reviews, field testing, and revision.
177
11.1
I
I
TWO MODELSFOR ANCHORING
A RUBRIC
Model 1 Model 2
(Based on Scoring Criteria) (Based on Student Responses)
Review the scoring rubric to become familiar Follow a consensus process t o sort student
with the range and criteria for each score point. responses into three or four groups according to
quality (e.g., high, medium, and low).
Follow a consensus process t o evaluate student Decide on the distinguishing characteristics of

responses using the scoring criteria. the "high" responses.
Sort the scored responses into groups Use these characteristics to identify the criteria
corresponding to the score points. for the top score point of the scoring rubric.
Select several responses that best illustrate the Select several responses that best illustrate the
distinguishing characteristics for the top score distinguishing characteristics for the top score
point.These are the anchors for that score point. point.These are the anchors for that score point.
Repeat the process for the other score points. Repeat the process for the other groups of
student responses.
Model 2 uses student responses, products, or performances as the basis for

identifymg or refining scoring criteria. In this model, teachers sort student
responses into three (high, medium, and low) or four (excellent, good, fair, and
poor) groups based upon general quality They review each group to determine the
distinguishing Characteristics of the responses, and use these characteristics to
identify specific criteria for each group. Finally, they select several responses that
best illustrate those criteria. These responses serve as anchors, Model 2 is appro-
priate when teachers are using a task and scoring rubric for the first time or when
the scoring rubric is in draft form and has not yet been validated.
178
M O D U L E 1 1 : A N C H O R I N G U N I T D E S I G N S
I
Anchoring provides a basis for setting performance standards. By selecting 4
examples of student work correlated with various levels (score points) in a rubric,
MISCONCEPTION
educators and other stakeholders are better equipped to answer the question, How
ALERT
good is good enough?
To consider, however, that standard setting is the only purpose for anchoring
is a misconception. Anchors have two additional benefits. They guide scorers in
making more consistent judgments when evaluating student products and per-
formances. And they equip students to engage in more accurate and productive
self-assessment. By providing tangible illustrations of the rubric descriptors, the
potentially ambiguous language in a rubric (e.g., "well organized" or "persuasive")
is exemplified, aiding both teachers and students in better understanding the quali-
ties of effective performance.
Educators should beware of the assumption that a single example (anchor)
for the top score point in a rubric is sufficient. There may often be more than one
effective solution and approach to a performance task. A single example suggests
that only one best answer or pathway exists. Teachers should seek multiple exam-
ples-"diverse excellence''-for the top score point. Likewise, identifying several
weak or flawed examples to illustrate common problems or misconceptions
revealed in student products or performances is useful. Selecting several anchors
for each point in a scoring scale provides a richer set of examples to guide teachers
and students in understanding the criteria and performance levels in a rubric.
-ivionei
- - -- - - - - r__n-e- ancnonnp
L OT - .-- - - - - - -- -o rnrocess.
- - - - - - --ir- was r ----,
- - nrerrv - _-,ro
easv _ _ sorr
- - - - rnosr _ - rne
- - - _- - 01 sruaenr
- _ _ _-_--_
- - ~ _
nus into three categories using the stated criteria. I then selected three sam-
c frnm pnch cpt thslt n r n v i d d thp h x t illiictrntinnc nf hicrh mpdiiim 2nd lnw
quality I will use these as my anchors.

A fellow teacher suggested that I make copies of the anchors (after obtain-
parent permissions) for future use. She also suggested removing the stu-
dents' names from the anchors that I copy, because the purpose is to show the
qualities of work at various performance levels, not to identify who did well
and who didn't.
179
I really like the idea of using anchors as instructional models to help kids
see differences in quality. These models should also help students better under-
stand the criteria when they self-assess their menus. I am a little concerned that
students might copy the work if I show them examples from previous years. But
because we have a variety of possible healthy food options for the menus, I’m
hoping that copyng will not be a problem.
Now that I understand this process, I plan to select anchors for student
work from other units.
180
GE
Stage 1: Stage 2:
Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable
A B Enduring Understandings Evidence
B B Essential Questions D B Performance Tasks
C B Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint (D)
G B Self-Assessment
The design must blend what is engaging
with what is effective. Just because a lesson
is engaging does not mean it is effective in
causing understanding.
U S I N G THE MODULE
Clearly, we want our designs to be engaging. For unless students are provoked, Worksheet 3.6
enticed, or intrigued by the work, why would they persist or give their best effort?
But engaging work is insufficient. The work must also be effective. In other
words, the work must promote and make possible maximum achievement. The
bottom line is performance showing that the design makes students achieve the
targeted understanding.
The worksheets in this module provide brainstorming techniques that ask
designers to consider, regardless of topic, what is most likely to make work en-
gaging and effective, given the students and classroom context. Worksheet 12.1
focuses on making design engaging. An engaging design stimulates students to
actively participate-for example, in solving a problem or answering a question.
Worksheet 12.2 focuses on making design effective. An effective design includes
appropriate evidence that desired results have been achieved. Worksheet 12.3 uses
a Venn diagram to show the relationship between engaging and effective designs.
The point of these exercises is that hand-on activities do not necessarily ensure that
students will develop the desired understandings.
183
W An engaging unit is not always an effective unit. An effective unit is one in
MISCONCEPTION which students are able to demonstrate good performance results on a credible
ALERT assessment. Whether students are engaged in their work is a separate issue. The
most effective units are those in which most if not all students do well, perhaps
much better than expected on insight and work quality, and show surprisingly strong
test results.
W The indicators of engagement and effectiveness are not the same as the
causes of engagement and effectiveness. To say, When students are engaged, they
do not jump up when the bell rings but stay engrossed in their work, is an indicator
of engagement. Such engagement does not explain why they are absorbed; it
shows teachers what to look for to see if engagement has occurred. A cause of
such engagement might be that the issues are thought provoking-so thought pro-
voking (cause) that students tune out the bells (indicator).
I
R E F L E C T I CIN F R O M B O B J A M E S
We used the effecztive-engagiing worksheets during a faculty meeting. They were

most enlightenirig for our staff! Many of us pride ourselves on the extent to
which we involve our kids iin hands-on learning, but many admitted that they
hadn't given sufficient attention to the issue of effectiveness.
.bly the most valua,,,
ihlp inciaht thgt
LlldlbLIL LLIUL
ovnlvorl
uL Lu
frnm tho
lluLll LLiL
xxrnrlrchootc
I\JILLLLJ
xvvx m
LIJc
'tance of thinking liike an assessor-considering what we will look for

Lu UCLClllline
if students really understand what we set out to teach. Our grade-
level team decided to meet regularly and ask that question before upcoming
units. I believe this approachL will help our team become even more focused, as
well as make our individual teaching more effective.
M O D U L E 1 2 : E N G A G I N G A N D E F F E C T I V E D E S I G N
WO RKSHEET B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
12.1 stage I: stage 2 Stage 3:

Identity Desired Resub Detennine Acceptable Plan Learning 15rpericnccw
B D Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks H D Sequence of
STAGE c D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences 8
G D Self-Assessment
1. When are students most engaged by their work? What kinds of activities, assignments, tasks, work
conditions, goals, and situations tend t o keep your students persistently engaged? List specific activities,
tasks, and conditions.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
I. ...................................................................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. ....
..........................................................................................................................
2. In general, what criteria must be met to make a lesson, unit, or task design the most engaging for your
students? List some criteria.
..........................................................................
.............................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...........................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
01999 , - i ! ” A l l rights reserved. 185

12.2 1 staae 1:
Ide*
B A C K W A R D
Desired Resutts
Stare 2:
D E S I G N
Evidence
P R O C E S S
Staae 3:
Pia: Learning -
e
s
and Instruction
B D Essential Questions D D Performance Tasks HD
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint ( 0 ) Exp
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Mher Evidence(E, F. G)
1. When are students most effective in their work? What kinds of learning activities, guidelines, task direc-
tions, goals, and work conditions enable students to be effective in their work (i.e., to maximize assess-
ment performance)? List specific activities and conditions.
9
..........................................................................................................................
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I. ......................................................................................................................... I
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9
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..........................................................................................................................
I 9
.........................................................................................................................
I
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2. In general, what criteria must be met t o make a lesson, unit, or task design the most effective for your
students? List some criteria.
9
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9
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9
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9
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..........................................................................................................................
186 01999 -43C3"All rights reserved.

M O D U L E 1 2 : E N G A G I N G A N D E F F E C T I V E D E S I G N
WO RKSHEET B A C K W A R DD E S I G N P R O C E S S
12.2 Staaa 1: Staae 2 Stage 3:
I d e k y Desired Results D e t k i n e Acceptable Plan h m h g v - 8
B B Essential Questions D B Performance Tasks H B Sequence of 1
C B Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint(D) Experiences and In
I
F B Unprornpted Evidence
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence(E. F, G)
Make a Venn diagram showing the relationship between engaging and effective work. What criteria have
to be met for both to be more likely?
Engaging
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..........................................................
................. .. .. .....................................
..........................................................
4
................. .. .. .....................................
Engaging and Effective
..........................................................
..........................................................
..........................................................
4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..........................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...........................................................
..........................................................
Effective
0 1999 -n'All rights reserved. 187

Y
Ultimately, coverage is bc
egocentric fallacy: I f 1 talkec
we read about it, they
Considering what needs to be uncovered is vital when designing curriculum because

big ideas are often subtle, abstract, and unobvious. Teaching that is grounded in text-
book coverage only can leave students with a superficial grasp of key ideas and an
erroneous view of how knowledge becomes knowledge. Students should come to
know what scholars know: Knowledge is the hard-won, somewhat tentative fruit, of
many attempts to understand through constant pondering, testing, and rethinking of
ideas. What does it mean to uncover what is in the textbook? Figure 13.1helps clar-
ify the difference between uncoverage and coverage.
The Illusion of Coverage

“This all takes so much time! I cannot possibly do what backward design
requires, gven my coverage obligations.”Although this type of thinking is plausi-
ble, we believe it is incorrect. We think the problem is misunderstanding the rela-
tionship between results and teaching.
Teachers have to make difficult choices and priorities in instruction. All teach-
ing, including coverage teaching, involves deciding in part what not to teach or
emphasize. All teaching involves the feeling that possible and desirable learnings
are being sacrificed because of lack of time.
189
13.1 I IS0
Uncoverage Coverage
~ ~~
The text serves as a resource for an indepen- The text is the syllabus; no explicit purpose
dently designed course of study with specific exists beyond marching through the text.
purposes, based on standards.
The purposes imply various inquiries that Assessment involved only tests of knowledge
culminate in valid and effective performance and skill from the content of the textbook.
assessments of understanding.
The text is used to help explore big ideas and The student’s job is to know what is in the text;
overa rching essentia I questions. no overarching questions exist.
Sections of the text are read in an order that The text is read in page order.
supports overarching purposes.
The textbook is one resource among many, Primary-source and other secondary-source
which include primary-source materials; the text- materials are not used; the textbook summaries
book often only summarizes important are taken as givens to be learned, not inferences
ideas or inferences. to be analyzed or critiqued.
Nonetheless, the “coverer” acts under an illusion, we believe: Textbook and

test-driven instruction operate under an untested assumption that coverage maxi-
mizes state or national test scores. But little evidence supports such a view. So
much is passed over without inquiry. Weaker students get confused and lost.
Memory is overtaxed in the absence of central questions and ideas to organize
inquiries and answers around.
The Irony of Coverage

Coverage involves a sad irony In the absence of guiding questions, ideas, and
methods that are meant to recur and inform learning, students are left to guess
about what is most important and what will be tested. Test results reflect this
absence: The range of results is great, despite good teaching. The time-
honored justification for such coverage is that the syllabus and upcoming tests
somehow demand it; that is, “I would like to go into greater depth, but I have to
cover the content.” Yet, teachers who make this claim rarely subject it to critical
scrutiny Does such a claim mean that teaching worse causes higher test scores?
I90
M O D U L E 1 3 : U N C O V E R A G E
Such thinking is implied by their rationale. But let’s stop and rethink this rationale
by asking a few questions:
What methods of teaching ensure the greatest retention and recall offacts? Surely,
they are not ones that are essentially composed of unconnected lectures and read-
ings, with no prioritized knowledge using overarching ideas or performance goals
to guide note taking and studying. Retention and recall are enhanced when learn-
ers have a sense of the big ideas, some organizational schema upon which to
connect discrete facts and skills, and opportunities to use acquired knowledge and
skills in meaningful ways.
When one compares classrooms with the highest test scores to those with the lowest
test scores, does one see more or less uncoverage and performance-based work in thefor-
mer or the latter classrooms? In our experience, the best test scores correlate with
more active and intellectually provocative forms of instruction, and the worst
scores are seen in classrooms that rely on simplistic worksheets, busywork having
no larger purpose, and a “copy down my notes from the blackboard” approach.
Recent research by Newmann (1997) and colleagues supports the idea that more
authentic work leads to better overall student performance.
Hus the teacher who only covers content conducted action research to justfy that
the coveruge approach yields optimal results? Few teachers have done systematic
research into their own practice. Rather, they grow comfortable with their habits,
invariably developed in isolation with limited exposure to other ways of teaching.
They fear that new approaches to instruction will jeopardize results-a reasonable
fear-but invalid as a reason for not examining evidence on whether their cover-
age approach is the most effective.
Several exercises assist designers in thinking through the coverage versus

uncoverage dilemma. Worksheets 13.1 and 13.2 guide users to think about the
meanings of the two terms and the reasons that teachers feel compelled to cover
the content instead of going into depth. Figures 13.2 and 13.3 show examples of
meanings and reasons. Worksheet 13.3 provides a set of criteria to help designers
better identify the ideas in their unit needing uncoverage.
I91
Coverage works under a false logic by confusing correlation with causality-that
MISCONCEPTION short-answer test results correlate with important performance. Teaching to items
ALERT using a coverage approach does not cause important performance. For example, to
practice a doctor's physical exam as a way of becoming fit and well is ludicrous. The
reality is the other way around: If we are physically fit and live in a healthy manner,
we will pass the physical. The separate items on the physical are not meant to be
taught and crammed for; they serve as indirect measures of our normal healthful liv-
ing. Multiple-choice answers may correlate with more genuine abilities and perfor-
mance, yet mastery of such test items does not cause achievement. Standardized
tests were not invented to be directly taught to. Indeed, we corrupt their meaning
if we teach to them. Rather, they were meant to be the easiest ways possible of
testing classroom-developed knowledge and skills indirectly and inexpensively.
I I
Does anything in the nutrition unit require in-depth and deliberate uncover-
age? Well, sure. It isn’t easy to grasp the idea that nutritional needs vary accord-
ing to individual characteristics. There is no such thing as a one-size-fits-all
diet. Are there typical misunderstandings that I ought to more deliberately
focus on? Well, as I think about it, I have found that many students harbor the
belief (misconception) that if food is good for you, it must taste bad. One of my
goals in this unit is to dispel this myth so that they won’t have an automatic
aversion to healthy food.
192
I
13.2
.
Corresponds to WS 13.1
II
I
stage 1:
B A C K W A R D
I d e e Desired Resuits
Stage 2:
D E S I G N
Evidence
P R O C E S S
Stage 3:
plan Learnkg Expdences
and lnabuction
B D Essential Questions D D Performance Tasks
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTaskBlueprint(D1
F D Unprompted
. . Evidence
G D Self-Assessment
(Part 1) Examples Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, Gl
As much as going into great depth and breadth on a topic is a desirable aim, sooner or later w e all feel
that w e have to cover the content. What do w e mean when w e say this? What are the reasons that
prevent us from doing what w e think would be wiser pedagogically?The following prompts ask you to
reflect o n the meaning of cover and uncover.
1. Consider the terms cover and uncover. What does each term suggest? What images come to mind?
What synonyms could be used to explain each term and the differences between them? List your ideas.
2. Share and discuss your lists with colleagues. What are the implications for curriculum design,
assessment, and teaching? List some below. Use your meanings and connotations of cover and uncover
as a basis.
Implications of Coverage
U lecture approach favored, short-answer t e s t s
U implied need t o worry about s t a t e t e s t s o f content knowledge
Implications of Uncoverage
U problem-based work, primary-source documents used
U different points of view, more authentic student performance
01999 ,-AI1 rights reserved. 193

13.3 stage 1: Stage 2 stage 3:

Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning Expmiences
Corresponds to WS 132 A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instruction
B D Essential Questions D B Performance Tasks H B Sequence
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint(0) Experiences a
STAGE
((Part 2) Examples > G B Self-Assessment

F Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E. F, G)
3.Try to sort out excuses for not rethinking old habits, as opposed to real impediments to reform or
sound instructional reasons to cover only the content. Write them below.
Real Impediments
rn My course is a survey course, and t h e s t a t e exam t e s t s for familiarity of content only.
=There is no time t o collaboratively redesign more conventional courses t o make them

uncoverage focused.
Excuses
=The textbook f o r t h i s course is massive, and t h e chapter t e s t s are multiple choice.
=There is no time t o do t h i s kind o f work with students.
194 01999 B A 1 1 rights reserved.

WORKSHEET B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
13.1 stage 1: stage 2 stage3

Identity D e s i d Results Detennine Acceptable Plan Learning Experiences
Correspondsto Fig. 132 A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and lnsbuction
B D Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks W B Sequence of
STAGE c D Knowledge and Skills PedormanceTaskBlueprint(D) Experiences and tnStrUCti

G D Self-Assessment
As much as going into great depth and breadth on a topic is a desirable aim, sooner or later we all feel
that we have to cover the content. What do we mean when we say this? What are the reasons that pre-
vent us from doing what we think would be wiser pedagogically?The following prompts ask you to
reflect on the meaning of coverand uncover.
1. Consider the terms cover and uncover. What does each term suggest?What images come to m nd?
What synonyms could be used to explain each term and the differences between them? List your ideas.
.
Cover Uncover
H H
.......................................................... ..........................................................
rn rn
.. . .
H H
...........................................................
2. Share and discuss your lists with colleagues. What are the implications for curriculum design,
assessment, and teaching? List some below. Use your meanings and connotations of cover and uncover
as a basis.
Implications of Coverage
H
...................................
H
. . ....................
Implications of Uncoverage
rn
...................................................................................
01999 -AI1 rights reserved. 195

WORKSHEET B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S

lde- Desired Rerulb Detennine Acceptable Plan Learning Experiences
Correspondsto Fig. 13.3 A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instruction
B D Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks 'HD Sequence of
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiencesand
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, GI
3.Try to sort out excuses for not rethinking old habits, as opposed to real impediments to reform or
sound instructional reasons to cover only the content. Write them below.
Real Impediments
rn
..........................
rn
. .
rn
..........................................................................................................................
Excuses
rn
..........
..........................................................................................................................
rn
....................
rn
..........................................................................................................................
196 01999 -AI1 rights reserved.

Unit topic or focus
f U
0
Ideas
w Abstract
What needs uncovering -
c
n .........................................
w Not obvious z
n and 0
t Complex 0
i .........................................
13 Core 13 <
e W rn
t w Likely to be 3
Processes n
a
n misunderstood x D
E t)
t l * rn
a
0
U
rn
v,
U -
0
2
a
I
0
n
rn
v,
VI
-
Making the matter of greater I
research over the past 20 year
shocking depth and breadth of a pl
students, even the best, appear to
w o r k - m shown by tests and in-class discussion-only
to later reveal significant misunderstanding of what
they learned when asked to answer follow-up questions
or to apply what they learned.
Students often leave school with misunderstandings about what (we thought) they Worksheet 3.6
had learned. Howard Gardner, David Perkins, and their Harvard colleagues at
Project Zero have summarized the findings on misconceptions eloquently and
thoroughly:
[What] an extensive research literature now documents is that an ordinary

degree of understanding is routinely missing in many, perhaps most students. It is
reasonable to expect a college student to be able to apply in new context a law of
physics, or a proof in geometry, or the concept in history of which she has just
demonstrated acceptable mastery in her class. If, when the circumstances of testing
I - .,---*-
are slightly altered, the sought-after competence can no longer be documented, then
understanding-in any reasonable sense of the term-has simply not been achieved.
-Gardner, 1991, p. 6
Even conventional testing can reveal such failures to understand. Consider this
result in mathematics: Most U.S. teenagers study Algebra I and get passing grades.
Yet National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) results show that only 5
percent of U.S. adolescents perform well at tasks requiring higher-order use of
Algebra I knowledge (NAEP, 1988). The recent Third International Math and
Science Study (TIMSS) reached a similar conclusion for science in one of the most
I99
exhaustive studies to date (reprinted in Trenton Times [1997]).And so did NAEP’s

most recent test, showing “a stark gap between the ability of students in general to
learn basic principles, and their ability to apply knowledge or explain what they
learned” (New York Times, 1997, p. 19). The test was a mixture of multiple-choice,
constructed response, and performance task questions. More prosaically,Jay Leno’s
on-the-street interviews about basic historical facts (Why do we call July 4
Independence Day? Independence from whom and what? In what year?) reveal
that many U.S. citizens neither retain the most basic facts of their schooling nor the
meaning of the facts that they can recall.
Striking research on misconceptions has been conducted over two decades in
physics and astronomy Such research is familiar to many teachers through the
videotape A Private Universe (Schneps, 1989) and the recently released series Minds
of Their Own, developed by the Harvard astrophysics department. (The tapes are
available through the Annenberg science and mathematics videotape collection.)
Here we see and hear Harvard students at commencement unable to properly
explain why it is colder in winter and warmer in summer. They continue to har-
bor the naive misconception that the earth is farther away from the sun during
winter and closer during summer. A moment’s thought would have reminded them
that it is summer in Australia in December and always warm at the equator. The
cause of seasonal change has to do with the earth’s tilt, thus the duration and
strength of the sun’s rays.
Anticipating Misconceptions in Design

After stating an understanding target as a set of specific generalizations, edu-
cators can better appreciate the importance of confronting student misconceptions
in assessment and lesson design. A generalization is abstract, not self-explanatory,
and its meaning is not self-evident to a novice. When a big idea is familiar to a
teacher but new to students, possibilities for student misunderstandings arise, par-
ticularly if students mistakenly view lessons as jargon or a catechism to be learned,
with no insight into what the lessons mean, why they are so, or why they matter.
Referring to our Civil War example (discussed in Module S), it is not self-
evident to students that the Civil War was fought over issues other than slavery, or that
much economic self-interest was cloaked in the guise of a moral stance about freedom
200
M O D U L E 1 4 : M I S U N D E R S T A N D I N G
and states’ rights. A more specific framing of the target as a set of nonobvious propo-
sitions makes clearer the likely misconceptions that the unit must overcome.
Designers may thus find it helpful to conclude their desired understanding
with parenthetical alerts about possible or likely student misunderstandings-for
example, “Students will understand that the Civil War was fought primarily over
states’ rights issues linked to differences in regional economies (not over the moral-
ity of slavery, as commonly believed).”
Because we teach for an understanding does not mean that students will leave
with it or avoid misunderstanding. We not only need to aim for more specific and
worthy understanding, but also to ferret out and assess for the beliefs that have
not been removed by our teaching. The challenge provided to us by the miscon-
ception research is that student opinion is often more resistant to change than we
imagine. Consider the research in misconception about transfer of heat, provided
in Benchmarks for Science Literacy (American Association for the Advancement of
Science, 1993),to show how persistent such misconceptions can be:
Heat transfer.
Middle school students do not always explain the process of heating and cool-
ing in terms of heat being transferred. Some students think that “cold” is being trans-
ferred from a colder to a warmer object, others that both “heat”and “cold” are trans-
ferred at the same time. . . . Even after instruction, students don’t always give up their
naive notion that some substances (for example, flour, sugar, or air) cannot heat up
or that metals get hot quickly because they “attract heat”. . . or “hold heat well”
(pp. 337-338).
The challenge is to better anticipate misunderstandings and attack them more

aggressively in our design work, not just as they arise as surprises in teaching.
Student misunderstanding will likely increase the more the ideas in question
w Are abstract (i.e., based upon subtle concepts and generalize from prior
inquiries).
w Require prior knowledge or life experience and reflection to be fully grasped.
w Are counterintuitive, not obvious, unfamiliar, or esoteric.
w Are presented in summary fashion through secondary sources (such as sci-
ence, history, and mathematics textbooks).
201
Checks for Misunderstanding

The purpose of ongoing assessment is to ferret out misconceptions and misun-
derstandings before it is too late-that is, before the unit concludes and teachers
engage in summative assessment. How will we determine if students really under-

stand what they are learning? Given both a teacher's propensity to hear correct
answers as indicative of understanding and students' desire to appear as if they
understand even if they don't, the teacher needs to be ever vigilant. Consider this
humorous maxim based on a judicial analogy: Students should be assumed inno-
cent of understanding until proven guilty. Just because eight students understand
and no further questions are asked doesn't mean the other students understand. Just
because students provide a simple correct answer on cue doesn't mean they can use
that knowledge on their own or know when it is called for when no cue is given.
How then might teachers determine if students really understand before a final
exam or culminating performance? Over the years, teachers have developed a
A common misconception is that misunderstanding is due to ignorance;
MlSCONCEPTlON thus, it can be solved by knowledge. But misunderstanding is not ignorance, and
ALERT knowledge often fails to eradicate misunderstanding, as the misconception research

in physics and arithmetic has long revealed.
Misunderstanding is often an erroneous but plausible mapping of a familiar idea
or strategy onto new situations, such as when a child asks, "Dad, are Spanish and
English using the same words, but just pronouncing them differently?"
H A misconception about informal checks for understanding is to assume that
assessment always requires a score or grade. Such an assumption confuses

assessing with making a value judgment. Teachers do need not to assign a grade to
a piece of work to offer commentary about its strength and weakness. The phrase
"formative assessment" is meant to convey the idea that some forms of assess-
ment are designed to support teaching and learning, rather than simply to provide
scores or measures. We may choose to score or grade formative assessments, but
we are not required to.
W Teachers should beware of attributing to all students what is revealed in the
comments or work of only a few. A key reason to engage in ongoing assessment of

all students as a part of instruction, rather than only after instruction, is that such
feedback greatly improves a teacher's and students' likelihood of success.
202
variety of informal techniques to ensure that students understand while they are
learning. We offer a few in Figure 14.1.
Three exercises are included in this module to assist educators in addressing
the likelihood of misconceptions and misunderstandings by design. Worksheet
14.1 examines the characteristics of content topics that students are likely to mis-
understand (e.g., an idea that is counterintuitive). Worksheet 14.2 prompts design-
ers to consider the predictable misunderstandings likely to arise when students
tackle particularly challenging topics. Worksheet 14.3 encourages teachers to plan
ways of checking for prior misconceptions at the beginning of a unit and for mis-
understandings along the wuy as they teach.
What are some typical misunderstandings my students may have about nutri-
tion? Let’s see what the Project 2061 benchmarks say: “Lower elementary
school children . . . may believe that energy and strength result from exercise
but not nutrition. . . . After instruction, middle school students are often unable
to explain their knowledge in scientific terms.” I have heard that first mistake
before. I think I’ll plan a quiz early in the unit to check for this misconception.
I found the list of informal checks for understanding useful. Although I
think that one of my strengths as a teacher is my questioning, which I regularly
use to stimulate students’ thinking and check their understanding, I was not
familiar with the other techniques. I particularly like the hand signals, which I’ve
already started using with great effect. In fact, I’ve added my own twist: I ask stu-
dents to close their eyes before signaling. That way, they are less likely to indi-
cate that they understand when they really don’t for fear of what other students
might think. I also like the analogy prompt, although I’m not sure that it will be
appropriate for all my students. I plan to use visual representationsbecause they
will enable some of my less articulate students to show what they understand.
As I think more about misconceptions, I recall that many students harbor
the belief that if food is good for you, it must taste bad, and vice versa. One of
my goals in this unit is to dispel this myth so that students won’t have an auto-
matic aversion to healthy food. I think I’ll include some informal checks to see
if this year’s students harbor this misunderstanding, too.
203
14.1 stage 1: Stage 2: Stsge 3

Identify Desired Resub DetermineAcceptable Plan Lea- hperienccw
B B Essential Questions D B PerformanceTasks
C B Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint(D)
STAGE E B Quizzes, Tests. Prompts
G B Self-Assessment
f \ Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E, F, 6)
Hand Signals
Ask students to display a designated hand signal to indicate their understanding of a specific concept,
principle, or process:
rn I understand and can explain it (e.g., thumbs up).

rn I do not yet understand (e.g., thumbs down).
rn I’m not completely sure about (e.g., wave hand).
Index Card Summaries and Questions

Periodically, distribute index cards and ask students t o complete the following statements, using both
sides of a card:
(Side 1) Based on our study of , list a big idea that you understand, and write it as a
(unit topic)
summary statement.
(Side 2) Identify something about that you do not yet fully understand and word it as
(unit topic)
a statement or question.
Question Box or Board

Establish a location (e.g., question box, bulletin board, or e-mail address) where students may leave or
post questions about concepts, principles, or processes that they do not understand. This technique may
benefit students who are uncomfortable admitting publicly that they d o not understand.
Analogy Prompt
Periodically, present students with an analogy prompt:
is like because
(designated concept, principle, or process)
Visual Representations
Ask students t o create a visual representation, such as a web or concept map, flow chart, or time line, to
show the elements or components of a topic or process. This technique effectively reveals whether
students understand the relationships among the elements.
Misconception Check
Present students with common or predictable misconceptions about a designated concept, principle, or
process. Ask them whether they agree or disagree and why.The misconception check can also be
presented as a multiple-choice or true-false quiz. Keep in mind that a “distractor” on a multiple-choice
test is designed t o see if students fall for a plausible but incorrect answer.
204 01999 A ! ~ , ! ~ A I Irights reserved.

14.1 stage 1: stage 2 stage 3:

lde* Desired Resutts DetermineAcceptable Plan Learning Expsriencss
B D Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks
C B Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint ( 0 )
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprinttor Other Evidence (E. F, G)
Research in cognition and learning suggests that students sometimes misunderstand what they have
been taught in school. In some cases, they come to school with misconceptions that are difficult to detect
and correct.These misunderstandings may be hidden by test results, misleading teachers into thinking
that students understand what they don't in fact understand.
1. What are some ideas that typically confuse students?What do students frequently misunderstand? List
one or two examples.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Give examples of misconceptions that students may bring to school and that are difficult to overcome.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Consider the examples identified above. In general, what makes an idea likely to be misunderstood?
For example, ideas that are counterintuitive (e.g., dividing fractions yields a larger number) tend to be
misunderstood. List other characteristics of easily misunderstood ideas.
..
. .
. .
...........................................................................................................................

T H E U N D E R S T A N D N G B Y D E S I G N H A N D B O O K
WORKS HEET I B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S
14.2 stage 1: Stage 2 Stage 3:

Identity Desired Results DetermineAcceptable Plan Learning Expefiences
B B Essential Questions D B Performance Tasks H B Sequence of
c Knowledge and Skills W PerformanceTask Blueprint (D) Experiences and
G B Self-Assessment
/ I W Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E. F, G)
Targeted Understanding I=> Likely Misunderstanding
The Civil War was fought primarily over states' The Civil War was fought over the evil of slavery,
rights issues linked to differences in regional and the "good guys" won.
economies.
____________________-----------------------------
Friendship is revealed more through challenging
times than during happy times.
Gravitational force is the only significant force

acting on a ball once it has been thrown.
___----________-____-------_---------------------
The same data can be represented in different
ways.
Statements that include statistical evidence must
The representation of data can affect the data's be true.
interpretation.
Using the above examples as a guide, complete the table below to identify likely misunderstandings for
your unit or course.
Targeted Understanding 0 Likely Misunderstanding
206 01999 , i t A I 1 rights reserved.

14.3 stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3:

Identity Desired Results Detennine Acceptable Plan Learning
A D Enduring Understandings hidence and Instnacb'on
B D Essential Questions D D Performance Tasks ll D Sequence of Learning
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint (D) Experiences and ~nSWU~iO4l
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E. F, 6)
Consider the big ideas of your unit when answering the questions below.
1. Given the possibility that misunderstandings may occur, how would you diagnose previously formed
misconceptions at the beginning of the unit?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .. ................................. . . . . . . . . . ........................
........................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . ............................... .....................
2. How would you check for misunderstandings during the unit?
. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..... ......... ...
..... . . . ..... ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . .
rights
01999 ~ i 4 i i 4 ~ ~ A I I reserved. 207
just as telling a story neec
of plot, characters, and settlflgLu frlc*Icc Lrlc
story engaging and effective, designing a
curriculum needs elements to make student
understanding engaging and effective.
USIN H E MODUL
Clearly specified understanding targets and valid, challenging assessments do not Worksheet 3.6
guarantee an effective and engaging unit of study Knowledge of the target and
assessment does not specify what to do in instruction and how to best sequence
the unit for maximum effectiveness. How and when should teachers present spec-
ified material? In what ways? What different kinds of lessons need to occur to make
performance success most likely? We use the acronym WHERE to guide teachers
on where to focus their efforts:
Where the work is headed and the purpose of day-to-day work.

Hook students with engaging work that makes them more eager to explore
key ideas.
Explore the subject in depth, equip students with required knowledge and
skill to perform successfully on final tasks, and help them experience key ideas.
Rethink with students the big ideas; students rehearse and revise their work.
Evaluate results and develop action plans through self-assessment of results.
All these elements may not be needed in each unit, but as design guidelines
and self-assessment criteria, they alert teachers to considering students as would-
be performers. Such guidelines move teachers from thinking only about what they
209
We stress here that WHERE, like the facets, serves more as a criterion for
MISCONCEPTION design than as a chronologyor step-by-step recipe for design. Recall that Bloom's
ALERT (1956) taxonomy represents a way of judging assessment items and tasks for cog-
nitive difficulty and is not a rigid prescribed sequence for teaching. Similarly, WHERE
represents a way of testing lessons and units rather than a recipe for building them.
Just as a storyteller might begin with fragments of dialogue or a character and
work toward plot (or vice versa), design work, too, can emerge over time following
many different paths and sequences. For example, a teacher might introduce a unit
by presenting the final task in preliminary form as a written draft.
want to do and need to accomplish to thinking about what students-end users of

their design-will need to achieve understanding.
If we were software designers, we would have to ensure that all the code we
have written and all the functions we have built into an application are going to
become truly user friendly, elegant, and powerful. In a sense, as teachers, we come
to realize that we are intellectual software designers: Students will be using our
design to accomplish important learning tasks.
A planning frame (Worksheet 15.1) provides a series of questions to prompt
designers to deliberately include the WHERE elements in their unit plan. An exam-
ple (Figure 15.1) illustrates its application to the nutrition unit.
Just when I think I’ve got it nailed, I’m finding that my thinhng about the
nutrition unit is being stretched by WHERE. Here are my current ideas:
w - The backward design process has really helped me clarify where I’m
going with the unit. Now I need to think about how I can help students know
where they are headed, and why I think my unit will help give direction, espe-
cially because I plan to post these questions on the classroom bulletin board.
210
M O D U L E 1 5 : W H E R E
But I probably can make the goals even clearer by introducing the assessment
tasks and the corresponding evaluative criteria and rubrics early in the unit.
With these performance targets in mind, I’m hoping that the kids will more
clearly see the purpose for the particulars they’ll be learning-the food groups,
the food pyramid, how to read nutrition information on food labels, and so on.
H - I like the suggestion of starting with a hook, something to capture stu-
dents’ interest in the topic. Our social studies textbook has a section on explor-
ers that will work well, I think. The kids love mysteries, and this is one: a story
of 16th and 17th century ocean-going sailors who developed a mysterious
disease (now known as scurvy) during long months aboard ship. Their condi-
tion improves dramatically when they arrive back on land. Once students learn
that the disease resulted from a lack of vitamin C, and that consuming fresh
fruits and vegetables was the medicine, we will be poised to examine the role
of nutrition in health.
E - I think that the new lessons I have planned will do a good job equip-
ping my students for the performance tasks and project. I believe that my teach-
ing will be much more focused now that I’ve thought through my desired
understandings and the assessment evidence I need to collect.
R - The rethinking portion of unit design is probably the greatest stretch
for me. Other than when we use revision as a part of the writing process, I have
rarely asked my students to formally rethink the ideas we discuss. Yet I’m
beginning to realize how important it can be.
Two interesting questions came up during my lunchroom discussion with
other teachers. I can use one or both questions midway in the unit to challenge
students to refine their thinking about nutritious eating: If allowed to eat any-
thing they wanted, would children eat a balanced diet? and, Do animals eat
foods that provide for their nutritional needs? These questions point to anoth-
er essential question: Does Mother Nature lead living creatures in the direction
of nutritious eating? I think that these provocations should stimulate discussion
and rethinking, and lead to interesting questions for further research.
E - The performance tasks and culminating camp menu project will give
students several opportunities to exhibit their understanding of healthy eating,
21 1
the major goal of the unit. Before evaluating, I will involve the class in a peer
review of the camp menus in cooperative learning groups so that students will
receive feedback. I’ll allow time for menu revisions before their final menus are
due. Finally, I will ask each student to complete two self-assessments: one for
their camp menu, using the rubric; and the second, a reflection on if (and how)
their personal eating habits have changed as a result of what they have learned
during the unit. These activities should bring the unit to an effective close.
I think that WHERE definitely enhances the nutrition unit, and I intend to
use it when planning other units. I’m anxious to see what the results will be
with my students.
212
M O D U L E 1 5 : W H E R E
15.1 stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3:

Identify D e s i d Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learniyl Erperlence~
Corresponds to WS 15.1 A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instruction
B D Essential Questions D D Performance Tasks H B Sequence of Le
STAGE
I C D Knowledge and Skills PertormanceTaskBlwrint(DI
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence(E. F, G)
Experiences and Instruction
Questions for the Teacher Responses from theTeacher

F T
How will you help students know Post essential questions on a bulletin board.
where they are headed and why H Review t h e rubric for t h e camp menu performance
W (e.g., major assignments,

performance tasks, and criteria by
which the work will be judged)?
t a s k and evaluate sample menus f o r previous years.
Print handouts t h a t specify t h e performance
require ments, dead I i nes, c h ec klists, rub rics, a nd
reference materia Is.
How will you hook students through Begin a unit with a problem-based learning
e ngag ing a nd t houg ht- p rovo king mystery (e.g., t h e seafarer’s disease [scurvy] t h a t
experiences (e.g., issues, oddities, cleared up once fresh vegetables and f r u i t s and
problems, and challenges) that were eaten).
point toward big ideas, essential Challenge students t o react t o t h e statement,
questions, and performance tasks? “If food is good for you, i t m u s t t a s t e bad.”
\
What events, real or simulated, can Explore such ideas a s surveying t h e healthy
students experience t o make the eating habits o f different ethnic groups; searching
E ideas and issues real? What learning

activities will help students to
explore the big ideas and essential
t h e Web f o r nutrition advice; and researching
correlations between diet, 5GhOOl absence, and
academic and athletic performance.
questions? What instruction is Equip students with skills in survey writing, oral
needed to equip students for the
interviews, and research, including searching on t h e
final performances?
I nt e r net.
f J
How will you cause students to Ask students t o work in groups t o
reflect and rethink to dig deeper Evaluate different diets f o r nutritional balance
R into the core ideas? How will you

guide students in rehearsing,
revising, and refining their work
(e.g., a hypothetical average diet and an exemplary
diet).
Reflect on their own and their family’s eating and
based on feedback and self-
cooking habits.
assessment?
Propose changes (if needed) t o their family’s diet
in light o f their increased understanding of t h e
elements of good nutrition.
How will students exhibit their 5 t u d e n t s self-assess their work on t h e key

understanding about their final performa nce t a s k s (illustrated nutrition brochure
performances and products? and camp menu).
How will you guide them in self- 5 t u d e n t s create a nutritional action plan f o r
evaluation t o identify the strengths themselves and their family t o promote healthy
and weaknesses in their work and
e a t ing.
, set future goals?
01999 -All rights reserved. 213

15.1 stage 1: stage 2: stage 3:
Corresponds to Fig. 15.1 I Identify Desired Re8ults

AB Enduring Understandings
B D Essential Questions
Evidence
D D Performance Tasks
Plan Leandng Expdence8
and Instruction
H D Sequenc
C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTaskBlueprintlD) EXPehtCeS
G D Self-Assessment
+ Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E, F, G)
Questions for theTeacher Responses from the Teacher
How will you help students know

where they are headed and why
II
W (e.g., major assignments,
performance tasks, and criteria by
which the work will be judged)? .... . . . . ..... . . . . .... .... . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .
How will you hook students through

engaging and thought-provoking
H experiences (e.g., issues, oddities,

problems, and challenges) that
point toward big ideas, essential
questions, and performance tasks? II \ ...................................................
What events, real or simulated, can

students experience to make the
ideas and issues real? What learning
activities will help students to
explore the big ideas and essential
questions? What instruction is
r:
I .
...............................................................
needed to equip students for the

fi na I perform a nces?
I= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...............................................................
H o w will you cause students to

reflect and rethink to dig deeper
into the core ideas? H o w will you
guide students in rehearsing,
revising, and refining their work
based on feedback and self-
assessment? I. ..............................................................
How will students exhibit their ...............................................................

understanding about their final
E performances and products?

How will you guide them in self-
evaluation to identify the strengths
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...............................................................
and weaknesses in their work and

set future goals? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
214 0 1999 -A
,l rights reserved.
The cultivation of reflectiveness is one of the great
problems onefaces in devising curricula: how to lead
children to discover the powers and pleasures that await t
exercise of retrospection. [One answer] is the use of the
organizing [question]. They serve twofunctions, one of them the
very obvious though important one of putting perspective back
into the particulars. The second is less obvious and considerably
more surprising. The questions often seemed to serve as criteria
for determining where [students] were getting, how well they
were understanding, whether anything was emerging.
-BRUNER, 1973, PP. 449-450
ING THE M O D U L E
In Module 6, we discussed the role of essential questions (overarching and topical) Worksheet 3.6
in framing the unit and focusing teaching and learning. Now we consider two
other types of questions that are useful in teaching for understanding.
Entry Questions
Despite their provocativeness and ability to suggest important lines of inquiry,
essential questions may not always serve as the most fruitful doorway into a topic.
A question may simply prove to be too global, esoteric, abstract, or inaccessible for
students (e.g., Is biology destiny?). Thus, the more specific topical and overarch- -
I -
ing questions that frame each unit are often what teachers rely on to guide instruc-
tion and focus learning.
But even topical essential questions may not initially connect with students'
experiences or interests. Students may have a hard time seeing the relationship of
an essential question to the facts and skills they are expected to learn. How, then,
do we introduce them to big-idea questions and issues? How do we make ques-
tions an accessible and useful foundation upon which inquiry and performance
can be built? By starting units with provocative and specific entry-point questions
(and activities that raise such questions), we point toward larger ideas and
questions.
Students of all ages need concrete and meaningful experiences, problems,
applications, and shifts of perspective to enable an important question to arise. An
abstract discussion of property rights is quickly made more accessible and intrigu-
ing by asking students if the saylng, “Finders keepers, losers weepers,” is a sound
moral principle, and by building role-play around the idea. Then, in discussing the
exercise, the larger questions about property naturally arise. Similarly, one might
start a unit on gravitational force by asking, How does a roller coaster work?
Students must come to see that hands-on activities are designed to raise
important questions and ideas, not just involve pleasant experiences or outings.
The actions of an activity may always have closure, but the intellectual issues raised
should not. If teachers do their preliminary entry question and activity-design
work well, students are more likely to spontaneously ask overarching and essential
questions or more quickly see their importance. In fact, such student questions are
a key indicator that the activities have succeeded and that the initial part of the
design is effective in enabling understanding and interest to develop.1
Examples of possible entry questions for a nutrition unit are presented in
Figure 16.1.The accompanying worksheet (Worksheet 16.1) may be used to gen-
erate possible entry questions for your unit.
Ongoing Questioning and Probing

Teaching for understanding includes the strategic use of questioning daily to
stimulate students to think (and re-think) about big ideas as a means of helping
them deepen their understanding. The six facets offer a valuable framework for
generating these ongoing questions. Figure 16.2 presents a series of question
starters, based on the facets. Such questions are effectively followed by probes.
Some educators use the term “scaf-
folding” or “guiding” questions to Here are examples of probes:
describe such entry questions, but
we think there is a slight difference
in meaning Certainly, an entry ques-
tion is an attempt to scaffold the
work of a unit and make the core H Why?
ideas more accessible But scaffolding
questions are also used to help stu-
dents bridge gaps in their under- H How do you know?
standing, knowledge, and skill along
the way In other words, scaffolding H Do you agree?
questions are used not only as an
entry into a topic but as teacher
feedback and guidance when stu- H Explain.
dents do not sufficiently grasp key
content H What do you mean by ?
216
M O D U L E 1 6 : Q U E S T I O N S T O G U I D E T E A C H I N G
H Can you give an example?

H Tell me more.
rn Give your reasons.
But what about ?
Can you find that in the text?

H What data support your position?
I
A common teacher error in questioning, stemming from a misconception 4
about the aim of questions, is to assume that only questions that students can def- MISCONCEPTION
initely answer are appropriate for instructional use. The whole point of essential
ALERT
questions is often to challenge the idea that there is only one answer or way to look
a t a situation, issue, or set of facts. Also, teachers should not shy away from asking
questions for which they do not have clear and thorough answers-as long as the
questions will stimulate productive thin king and greater depth of learning.
H On the other hand, a common error when asking essential questions is to
make the mistake of transmitting the view that all answers are equally valid. The old
adage still applies: No clear right answers may exist, but some answers are better
than others, namely, the ones that have better argument, evidence, and predictabil-
ity on their side.
In addition to its value to provoke thought, ongoing questioning serves

another purpose-to ferret out possible misunderstandings or misconceptions. By
eliciting student ideas, theories, solutions, and interpretations throughout the unit,
teachers can more easily determine the degree of student understanding or mis-
conception and adjust as needed.
217
Ever since I began teaching, I have tried to get my students to stretch their
thinking by asking idea-sharpening questions, such as, Can you give another
example of ? How does relate to ? What might happen if
? Do you agree with ? and, Why? Although I think I'm pretty good
at posing these ongoing questions, I have never really used entry questions in
the way that is suggested here.
The essential question for the nutrition unit, What is healthful eating? may
not grab my kids. Perhaps a more provocative entry question would be, Can
food that is good for you also taste good? I think that this question might work
because kids at this age are fond of junk foods, and many seem to believe that
if food is nutritional, it has to taste yucky. Because I try to give my kids some
say in what they'll be learning, I'll also ask them for any questions that interest
them about eating and health. Their ideas could lead to other entry questions I
can use in future years.
218
16.1 stage 1: stage 2; stem 3:

Correspondsto WS 16.1 A B Enduring Understandings hidence and lnatruction
B B Essential Questions D b PerformanceTasks H D Sequence of Learning
c Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint ( 0 ) hperi6nCeS and ~nstt’UctiOn
G D Self-Assessment
( Nutrition Unit 1 Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E, F, G)
A unit can often be made more engaging if provocative questions introduce its major topics. Use the
prompts below to help you generate possible entry questions to hook and entice students.
Understandings and essential questions to be addressed in the unit
rn A balanced diet contributes t o physical and mental health.
What is healthful eating?
The U5DA food pyramid recommendations provide relative guidelines for healthful eating.
Can a healthy diet for one person be unhealthy fo another?
To generate entry questions and problems for the unit, consider

rn Weird facts, discrepant events, and anomalies.
Issues and problems that students can relate t o and that raise essential questions.
Proverbs, aphorisms, and folk wisdom.
rn Interesting questions that have arisen when you have taught or studied this content.
Do you agree with t h e saying, What would happen i f you

“You are what you eat”? only a t e junk food?
Do t h e foods t h a t are good Will an apple a day really keep

f o r you have t o t a s t e bad? t h e doctor away?

16.2 I I
st8ge 1:
B A C K W A R D

stage 2:
D E S I G N
Determine A c c e p t a h
Evidence
P R O C E S S
stage 3:
Plan Learn-
and lnsbuction
B B Essential Questions D B Performance Tasks
C B Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTaskBlueprintID) Experiences and instru
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprint tor Other Evidence(E. F. GI
Explanation Perspective
What is the key idea in ? What are different points of view about ?
What are examples of ? How might this look from 's perspective?
What are the characteristics/parts of ? How is similar to/different from ?
How did this come about?Why is this so? What are other possible reactions to ?
What caused -?What are the effects of ?. What are the strengths and weaknesses of ?
How might we prove/confirm/justify ? What are the limits of ?
How is connected to ? What is the evidence for ?
What might happen if ? Is the evidence reliable? Sufficient?
What are common misconceptions about ?
Empathy
Interpretation What would it be like to walk in 's shoes?
What is the meaning of ? How might feel about ?
What are the implications of ? How might we reach an understanding about -?.
What does reveal about ? What was trying to make us feekee?
How is like (analogy/metaphor)?
How does relate to me/us? Self-Knowledge
So what? Why does it matter? How do I know ?
What are the limits of my knowledge about -?
Application What are my blind spots about ?
How and when can we use this -(knowledge/ How can I best show ?
process)? How are my views about shaped by
How is applied in the larger world? (experiences, habits, prejudices, or style)?
How might help us to ? What are my strengths and weaknesses in ?
How could we use to overcome ?
220 0 1999 m M A I I rights reserved.

16 1 SlaCH, 1: Staaa2: sQas3:

I d e h Desired R e s u b D&im Acceptable Plan9
A D Enduring Understandings hidence and lnstmcbom
B D Essential Questions D D Performance Tasks
STAGE
=I
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence (E, F, GI
A unit can often be made more engaging if provocative questions introduce its major topics. Use the
prompts below to help you generate possible entry questions to hook and entice students.
Understandings and essential questions to be addressed in the unit
rn
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . .... . . . .............................
. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . ..... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .......
rn
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .......
rn
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............................
To generate entry questions and problems for the unit, consider

rn Weird facts, discrepant events, and anomalies.
Issues and problems that students can relate t o and that raise essential questions.
rn Proverbs, aphorisms, and folk wisdom.
Interesting questions that have arisen when you have taught or studied this content.
.................................................. ...................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
..................................................
\
\ /
?
\
.........................................
01999 a m A I I rights reserved. 221

At its most basic, teachingfor uinderstanding means,
ronically, less teaching. Much of Innderstanding is about
ioughtfulness, and thoughtfilness is awakened more than
trained-developed by design, nc7t exhortation. When
educators teach for understanding, students must come to see
that understanding means that they mustfigure things out, not
simply waitfor and write down teacher explanations. To
understand complex ideas, the learner-not the teacher-
must make meaning of ideas.
The backward approach to design suspends instructional planning-the develop- Worksheet 3.6
ment of specific lessons and selection of teaching strategies-until the last phase of
the process. Until teachers have specified the targeted understanding, the assess-
ment tasks, and the enabling knowledge and skill necessary to master such tasks
and display understandings, a discussion of learning activities and teaching strat-
egy is premature. Teaching “moves”must be made in light of established goals and
what they require.
We begn by considering the requirements for instruction implied in the design.
Given the objectives (as mapped out in an assessment plan) and a curricular plan,
what kinds of teaching need to take place? First, let’s note all the possible teaching
moves one might make, gven the goal of student understanding. We have found it
helpful to list those moves under the three broad categories of teaching types orig-
nally proposed by Adler (1982) in The Paideia Proposal: didactic (or direct) instruc-
tion, coaching of skills, and facilitation,as shown in Figure 17.1. (For further insight
on the three teaching types and on what h n d of teaching best suits what kind of
objective, refer to Adler [ 19841 and follow-up volumes.)
No single approach is best or preferred to teach for understanding. Particular
instructional methods and techniques are selected on the basis of the specific types
223
of learning needed to achieve the desired results (evidence of understanding) in a

unit or course. Teachers should routinely use all three types of teaching.
Direct instruction is not a second-class form of teaching; it is vital for effi-
ciently and effectively developing enabling skill and knowledge. An education
devoted exclusively to guided discovery is inefficient and may be ineffective.
To use a real-life example, suppose you get lost while driving and stop to ask
for directions from a gas station attendant. You don’t want Joe Socrates asking,
“And why are you trying to get there as opposed to some other place? What does
it mean that you are driving? How do you think you became lost? Have you con-
sidered that maybe you are not lost and have found something important?” You
want Joe to directly instruct you on how to get to Main Street.
Likewise, if you are learning entry-level computer skills, procedures for library
research, or a foreign language, you will probably do best with guided step-by-step
instructional coverage and directed skill-building exercises. And trylng to get stu-
dents to discover on their own the “carry” rule in adding large sums can waste
much time and effort.
Conversely, overemphasizing didactic teaching bypasses the constructive work
students must do to understand what they learn. Rather than succumb to either-
or thinking about direct or indirect teaching approaches, as educators, we need to
consider more carefully issues of strategy and choice. When should we teach what
we know, and when should we structure experiences that cause inquiry and
* We all joke about the teacher who says, “ I taught it, but they didn‘t learn,” but class-
MISCONCEPTION room observation suggests that we are all prone to such thinking when students
ALERT don’t seem to understand what we’re teaching. Teaching for understanding by
recipe and recitation does not work. Although we naturally play to our strengths and
predilections as teachers, we may have to develop new teaching strategies in the
service of the understandings w e seek. More opportunities for meaning making and
more assessing of student responses are required. The irony is that less teaching
can yield better learning if our assignments and assessments are well designed-if
w e evoke and require understanding rather than only trying to hand it over.
224
M O D U L E 1 7 : T E A C H I N G A P P R O A C H E S
constructive understanding? When should we cover, and when should we

uncover? These are the key questions for teachers of understanding.
We should use direct instruction and focused coaching for discrete, unprob-
lematic, and enabling knowledge and skill. We should reserve uncoverage-and
the kinds of facilitative or indirect teaching it implies-for those ideas that are sub-
tle; most prone to misunderstanding; and in need of personal inquiry, testing, and
verification.
REFLECTION
Let’s consider Bob James’s nutrition unit from the vantage point of the three
types of teaching:
Didactic. I believe that direct instruction, combined with student reading

and checks for understanding, is an effective approach to teach factual knowl-
edge about protein, fats, carbohydrates, and cholesterol; the food pyramid; and
the relationship among food consumption, caloric intake, and energy
expenditure.
Couching. Coaching comes into play when I provide feedback and guid-
ance to students as they work on their tasks and project.
rn Fucilitative. The unit presents numerous opportunities for guided inquiry
and discussions around the essential and entry questions (e.g., What is health-
ful eating?). Students will also need to engage in individual and group research
as they work on their Eerformance tasks.
To develop the prerequisite knowledge and skill, I’ll use a blend of teach-
ing methods, including direct instruction, inductive (constructivist) methods,
and cooperative group work.
225
Experiences and Ins

STAGE
G B Self-Assessment
Blueprintfor Other Evidence(E, F, C)
What theTeacher Uses What Students Need to Do
DidactidDirect Instruction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Receive, take in, respond:

Demonst ratiodmodeling Observe, attempt, practice, refine
Lecture Listen, watch, take notes, question
Questio nskonvergent Answer, give responses
Coaching ---------------------------- Refine skills, deepen understanding:

Feedback/c o nf erenc ing Listen, consider, practice, retry, refine
Guided practice Revise, reflect, refine, recycle through
Facilitative/ConstructivisVReflective - - - - - - - - - Construct, examine, extend meaning:

Concept attainment Compare, induce, define, generalize
Cooperative Iea rnin g Collaborate, support others, teach
Discussion Listen, question, consider, exp Iain
Experimenta I inquiry Hypothesize, gather data, analyze
Graphic representation Visualize, connect, map relationships
Guided inquiry Question, research, conclude, support
Problem-based learning Pose/def ine prob Ie ms, so Ive, eva Iuate
Questions (open ended) Answer and explain, reflect, rethink
ReciprocaI teaching Clarify, question, predict, teach
Simulation (e.g., mock trial) Examine, consider, challenge, debate
Socratic seminar Consider, explain, challenge, justify
Writing process Brainstorm, organize, draft, revise
Source: Wiggins & McTighe, 1998, p. 160.
226 01999 -"AI1 rights reserved.

I 0 1
The most basic fe tuture of all compelling s tories is

the presence of scm e mystery or dilemma;we are
plopped into a specific world that has to befigured
out. Instead of presenting a straightforward sequence
of events, the compelling storyteller deliberately
raises questions and delays answering them.
W I G G I N&
J S I N G THE
The typical organization of curriculum-the scope and sequence-provides a lin- Worhsheet 3.6
ear march through content topics; it is the logic of detailed and patient explanation
(Facet 1).But our theory of understanding suggests that at least two other kinds of
logic may often more appropriately organize work for students: the logic of narra-
tive (Facet 2) and the logic of application (Facet 3).
Both alternative methods are time-honored ways of teaching. But they unfold
differently from explaining and analyzing a topic. Stories do not lay out all facts
and ideas in a step-by-step fashion. They start in the middle of things, and they
often cause one to rethink events and characters as the story progresses. Though
seemingly illogical, stories often have an overall flow, drama, and coherence that
make them easier to grasp than material presented in the didactic-catalog fashion
of textbooks.
Facet 2 (interpretation), as well as common sense, suggests that a curriculum
grounded in the structure and logc of stones offers the potential for more engage-
ment, more deliberate rethinking (hence deeper understanding), and more coher-
ence in the overall design than does sole use of the logc of explanation. Think of
how your syllabus might be designed by Stephen King or Steven Spielberg to move
back and forth between provoking thought and resolving questions. Any course
227
can be designed to honor this logic. For example, we know of a chemistry course
taught entirely as forensics. The usual chemistry course is required to solve crimes,
with the teacher staging clues and students solving cases.
To work for an audience, stories have to be engaging and user friendly. Stories
need coherence, direction, and flow, or they end up confusing and disengaging. By
thinking of backward design as a story, teachers are more likely to avoid the bore-
dom of schooling, the haphazardness of coverage, and the “I taught it, but they
didn’t get it” syndrome. And because the logic is then conceived to meet a recipi-
ent’s need to be engaged, leading to a slowly emerging understanding with differ-
ent levels, teachers will be less inclined to think the lessons and their connections
are obvious or linear. Stories also invariably make learning easier because memory
works better when structured into narrative. (For more information on narrative,
see Schank, 1990; Bruner, 1990.)
Thinking of curriculum as narrative helps us see why problem-based learning
(PBL) works as an engaging and effective design, even in such abstract disciplines
as chemistry and calculus. Immersion in real problems involves the unfolding of a
Not every unit needs a story with a plot, characters, and suspense. A curriculum is I
MlSCONCEPTlON not a story except in a metaphorical sense. Our point in using the metaphor is to
ALERT encourage designers to consider three elements of good pedagogical design:
A curriculum designer, like an author or moviemaker, needs to engage stu-

dents as soon as possible, immersing them in something interesting and important.
One needn‘t have all the facts before confronting challenging ideas, perplexing
issues, or challenging problems.
A unit’s sequence should reflect the logic of learning, not merely the logic of
the textbook. Coming to understand involves questioning, theory building, trying
out, checking, and rethinking. Consider the reader or viewer of a compelling mys-
tery. A march through a dry, straightforward reference book rarely generates or sus-
tains active attempts to uncover.
Important learnings, whenever possible, should be allowed to unfold and
reveal themselves through the work, as opposed to a teacher telling students what
they should see as important. Imagine if storytellers stripped a story of its engaging
elements and simply told its meaning or moral.
228
M O D U L E 1 8 : A S T O R Y S T R U C T U R E F O R C U R R I C U L U M D E S I G N
story. The work of involved students brings the story to fruition or denouement.
The students, in effect, become part of the story. PBL works well as a vehicle for
developing uncoverage and understanding because its form suits its object. We
often understand complex matters through stories, and we often reveal that we
understand by our ability to tell meaningful but accessible stories.
Thus far, we have suggested the value of thinking metaphorically about a unit
as a story in order to consider the engagement and flow from a student’s perspec-
tive. In fact, some teachers have found that actually employmg a story structure to
plan the unfolding of a unit is beneficial. Worksheet 18.1provides a framework for
such an approach. Figure 18.1is an example of the story structure “in action” for
an ecosystems unit.
REFLECTION F R O M BOB JAMES
Although I’ve never thought of a curriculum unit as a story, I am really attracted

to the idea, perhaps because I’m such a film buff and appreciate how a good
cinematic story can enthral1 the viewer. I guess that my hook-beginning the
unit with the sailors’ mystery disease-is storylike. I’m already thinking about
an upcoming social studies unit on westward expansion that would lend itself
to this type of organizing frame.
229
I BACKWARD DESIGNPROCESS I
stage 1: stage2 stage&
Identity Desired Resdts Determine Acceptable Plan kpdmces
A D Enduring UnderJtandings hrkknce and lnsbucbon
B D Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks
C D Knowledge and Skills lJ~rfomme
Task Blueprint( 0 )
0 D Self-Assessment
Ecosystems Unit F Blueprint for Other Evidence (E,F, G)
1
Where and when does the story The Chesapeake Bay area: first, in a
take place? restaurant overlooking t h e bay; then,
Setting in a science research lab.
Who are the major and minor Major characters are family members
&a racters? (father, grandfather, and siblings).
I Characters
Minor characters are researchers and
policymakers. 5 t u d e n t s role-play all
c ha ract e rs.
How will students be drawn into The family is ordering dinner a t a
I Opening
the story (e.g., reader, viewer, or
Iistener)?
restaurant. Gramps is angry because
his favorite seafood dish-sea
trout-is no longer on t h e menu.
What problems must be solved?
I
Local fisher people report t h a t sea
Obstacles or What obstacle needs to be t r o u t are dying in t h e bay. What is
Problems overcome? ca Using t his?
I
What opposing forces are at work Farming industry versus fishing indus-
Dramatic (e.g., ideas or characters)? try. Fertilizer and manure runoff from
Tension farms is polluting t h e bay.
I
What surprises, ironies, twists, and 5 t u d e n t s learn t h a t t h e chief
Surprises and unexpected turns will be built in? polluters are farmers who unknowingly
Twists are polluting t h e bay with runoff from
manure and fertilizer. These farmers
include t h e kids’ own father and
grandf at her!
How are obstacles overcome? How Now t h a t t h e causes and effects are
Resolution or is the problem solved? How does known, researchers and policymakers
Solution the story end? What might the develop nonpolluting farming methods.
sequel be?
Source:The story is from a middle school science unit developed at the College of William and Mary, Center for Gifted Education
(1997).
230 01999 B m A l l rights reserved.

M O D U L E 1 8 : A S T O R Y S T R U C T U R E F O R C U R R I C U L U M D E S I G N
I B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S 1
stage 1: -2 StagJes:
Id- hshmd Results Determm Acceptable Plan M n g bpdenmm
A D Enduring Understandings hidmce and Instruction
B D Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks HI
C D Knowledge and Skills PerfonaaceTstk BlueprintlD) bp
F D UnpromgtedEvidence
G D Self-Assessment
Blusprint for Mher Evidence (E, F, 6)
Where and when does the story
i
............................................
take place?
Setting
Who are the major and minor ................

characters?
Characters
.....................................
How will students be drawn into
I Opening
the story (e.g., reader, viewer, or
listener)?
What problems must be solved?
i Obstacles or
Problems
What obstacle needs to be
overcome?
What opposing forces are at work .................................

Dramatic (e.g., ideas or characters)?
Tension .................................
What surprises, ironies, twists, and ............................................

Surprises and unexpected turns will be built in?
Twists ............................................
................
How are obstacles overcome? How
I
.........................................
Resolution or is the problem solved? How does
Solution the story end? What might the
.........................................
sequel be? .........................................
0 1 9 9 9 , 1 A I I rights reserved. 231

I f understanding is ultima tely about the
performances and insights ithat come from
creating, adapting, critiquing, and applying
knowledge, then the logic of leaarning needs to be
more like the sequence we expel+me in ski classes
than in most math classes. Focus jrom the start on a
target performance, start with the most simple and
scaffolded ways of doing the performance, and
slowly introduce more complexity amid ongoing
attempts to grapple with hey questions and
performance challenges.
Task analysis derives its sequence from specific performance standards and needs. Worksheet 3.6
As coaches, we organize a sequence backward from specific tasks and standards.

Lessons are derived from the desired results, based on building up performance
skill and knowledge. Here Whitehead’s (1929) maxim of “get your knowledge and
use it quickly” applies. We head right to the desired performance, even if it has to
be simplified or scaffolded (e.g., T-ball for 6-year-olds); we build up performance
progressively; and we revisit the fundamentals as needed. Ski classes no longer
require beginners to learn snowplows, stem christies, and other overly analytical
approaches to building up performance. Instead, learners start to parallel ski, using
short skis and no poles. Similarly, software manufacturers now provide tutorials
and usage ideas in brief manuals, separate from a complete reference manual orga-
nized analytically into topics.
Coaches invariably revisit the basics with each new group, no matter how
expert a student is-how to hold an instrument, how to pass and shoot, how to
sing from the diaphragm and not the throat. They do not think of this as time lost
or coverage sacrificed because they know they will gain better results. And they
will go into greater depth on the basics with more advanced students.
Even when practice is devoted to topics in sequence, good coaches never front-
load all important information before a practice or performance. They understand
233
that two kinds of learning by doing must keep occurring: Students must practice
the new ideas in simplified drill or exercise form, and they must then practice
using those discrete skills or moves in a more complex and fluid performance.
Didactic teaching occurs while students play and after they play, as a way of
making the learning by doing more self-conscious and informed. Coaches don’t
say, “We covered defense last year; this year, we’ll work on offense.” The logic is
iterative, not linear, and focused on specific performances that integrate knowledge
and skill, not coverage.
The movement back and forth, from discrete learning to whole performance,
from part to whole to part and back to whole again, is a familiar one to all per-
formers in writing, the performing arts, and athletics. In acting, we rehearse a few
lines of dialogue, then put them back into act 2, scene 4, and rehearse again as
needed. In writing, we fine-tune our story introductions, read the whole story to
see if it works, then have the work peer edited. Alas, the introduction confuses the
reader, so we work on it again. In basketball, we practice shooting and dribbling
in isolation, work on drills that combine the two, then have a controlled scrim-
mage to see if we can put everything together in context. On the basis of feedback
from results in the whole performance, we go back to drillwork to overcome mis-
understandings, bad habits, or forgotten lessons. Work on specific elements,
chunks of performance, and performance as a whole constantly recycles. The work
is structured as many sequences of model, practice] feedback, practice] perform,
and feedback-followed by more such loops as the complexity of each exercise
increases toward the complexity of the whole performance.
Your emerging design requires task analysis. The goal is a filled-out template
to use for classroom performance. Mindful of the template demands, a teacher-
designer maps back from the desired result of a complete unit to the present to
determine the best way to reach the goal. The process is iterative, not linear. Filling
out the template requires ongoing analysis, not blindly following a recipe.
A flowchart is a time-honored tool for performing such a task analysis. Tkvo
examples are provided to show how thinking backward from a final result enables
a teacher to develop a more logical plan. Figure 19.1 shows how a task analysis
chart is used for preparing a Thanksgiving meal for a family; Figure 19.2, for plan-
ning a Russian history unit based on a culminating performance.
234
M O D U L E 1 9 : C U R R I C U L U M A S T A S K A N A L Y S I S
The word task in "task analysis" does not necessarily refer to performance tasks. We 4
use the phrase to mean any decision-making process in which the steps needed to
MISCONCEPTION
accomplish an end result are derived from that end result. To design a curriculum as
ALERT
a task analysis is to design actions backward, from a given target. Thus, even if a unit
culminates in a conventional set of exam questions, teachers would still ask, What
must the teaching and learning be to enable students to do well on the final exam?
The purpose in using the phrase is to alert teachers to think beyond mere cov-
erage and activities, to focus their designs on leading students to perform well cer-
tain important actions-tasks in a broad sense. Such a goal tends not only to make
learning more active and focused but also to appropriately alter the sequence of
teaching and learning activities to make sure students are properly equipped for
such tasks. Used in this sense, task analysis means the kind of curriculums found
in team sports or the performing arts.
Task analysis makes sense to me. It reminds me of the old “behavioral objec-
tives” days. But the’one thing that I never liked about it then-the focus on very
low-level and discrete goals-is solved by designing backward from complex
performance tasks. It just makes sense to derive lessons from what students
need to perform (rather than simply following the sequence of the textbook).
My neighbor teaches at the regional vo-tech high school, and from what
he’s told me, their competency-based curriculum is planned this way Teachers
present students with performance goals, such as building a house or rebuild-
ing an engine, and all the teaching and learning experiences are structured and
sequenced to accomplish the targeted task. It’s what I already do when I coach
boys’ soccer: I make up my practices on the basis of our goals for the upcom-
ing game and performances in previous games.
As I think about it, task analysis can help me sharpen the sequence and
content of the nutrition unit once I flesh out the details of my camp menu and
brochure tasks. I realize that I have tended to teach the unit by following the
pagination of the textbook rather than through thinking backward from final
performance requirements. Ah, more food for thought.
235
19.1 stage 1: stage 2 Stage 3:

Identity Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and lnstnrction
B D Essential Questions D D PerformanceTasks HB
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint ( 0 ) Exp
STAGE E b Quizzes, Tests, Prompts
G D Self-Assessment
('IlzanksgivingMeal Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, 6)
Desired Result SatisfyingThanksgiving meal at 5 p.m. for

extended family of 12
Performance
I Cook and serve turkey dinner I
Do I have I
Performance Rethink menu, review
Standa rd no- cookbook and family
and Criteria preferences
/
Call 800-turkeys,
Enabling Skills or no-+ watch Julia Child video,
Assistance train kids
/
/ Borrow neighbor's
Enabling oven
Conditions
Go to the
Needed Materials no+
grocery store
Time Allocation no -
Yes
Yes
J. I
Efficient Sequence
of Activities Wednesday night
J.
I Eat! I
236 01999 B T M A 1 rights
l reserved.
M O D U L E 1 9 : C U R R I C U L U M A S T A S K A N A L Y S I S
19.2 Stage 1: Sage 2 stage 3:
Identity Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning
B D Essential Questions D D Performance Tasks R B Sequence of
C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint(D) Experiences and
G D Self-Assessment
(Russian History Unit ) Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F, Gl
Desired Result I Students understand major events of 20th century Russian history I
Performance Students perform successful role-play of Russian
"meeting of the minds" to reveal understanding
Performance
Standard
and Criteria
/ Teach role-play rules and

Enabling Skills or equipped with criteria, provide study
no + guides on
Assistance
Russian roles
.)-
Enabling teacher, review Steve
able to set up the
Allen "meeting of
Conditions
$. /
Use auditorium and
Needed Materials needed available? borrow props
/ Work with team

members to build an
Time Allocation adequate?
for two days
/
of Russian history
Efficient Sequence
of Activities
Talk with debate and

drama coaches
01999 ~ i $ i i $ ~ ~rights
A l l reserved. 237

C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint (D) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
committees or supervisory personnel) to validate the designs prior to their distri-

bution to other teachers.
Tests 1-3 assess elements in Stage 1 of backward design:
H Test 1 assesses if a proposed understanding is enduring-a big idea or core

Drocess at the heart of the discipline (see Figure 20.2).
Test 2 assesses if a targeted understanding is specific enough to guide

The design standards serve curriculunY
igners in the same way that a scoring rubric
!s students. When presented to students before
they begin their work, the rubric provides th,em with
a performance target by identifying the important
qualities toward which they should strive. Similarly,
the design standards specify the qualities of effective
units according to the Understanding by Design
framework (emphasis in original).
W I G G I N&
ING
In their design work, educators must practice what they preach to students. Their
work, too, is performance based and thus driven by standards. To assist designers
in checking and improving their work, we have provided 12 design standards cor-
responding to the three stages of backward design (see Figure 20.1). Each of these
standards is accompanied by a detailed test containing criteria, presented in rubric
form, to use for self-assessment and peer review.
The tests contribute to design work in three ways:
w As a reference point during design. Teachers can periodically check to see, for
example, if the identified understandings they initially proposed are truly big and
enduring ideas, or if the assessment evidence is sufficient. The criteria contained in
the rubrics serve as reminders of important design elements to include, such as a
focus on the WHERE elements in Stage 3.
For use in self-assessment and peer review of draft designs. Teachers and peers
can use the criteria to examine draft units to identify needed refinements, such as
expanding or aligning the assessment evidence.
For quality control of completed designs. The tests can also be used following
classroom trials by other teachers and independent reviewers (e.g., curriculum
241
committees or supervisory personnel) to validate the designs prior to their distri-

bution to other teachers.
rn Test 1 assesses if a proposed understanding is enduring-a big idea or eore

process at the heart of the discipline (see Figure 20.2).
rn Test 2 assesses if a targeted understanding is specific enough to guide
instruction and assessment (see Figure 20.3).
rn Test 3 assesses if a unit is focused on important and engaging questions (see
Figure 20.4).
Failure to meet the standards (Level 3 on the tests) does not necessarily signify a
MISCONCEPTION lack of understanding or incompetence. Rather, the tests serve as a reminder that
ALERe backward design is an iterative process. Teachers rarely develop a perfect unit, per-
formance task, or scoring rubric on their initial attempt. They should expect to revise
their unit and course designs following self-assessment and peer review against
standards, just as they teach student writers to expect to revise early drafts of their
writing.

AFTER U S I N G STAGE I TESTS
I have begun to see the importance of clarifying the target, and my essential and
unit questions really help me do that. I think they pass the tests!
I was a little disappointed, however, when I first tested my original under-
standing target; I realized that it reflected Level 2 criteria on the rubric scale
rather than Level 3. I now realize that I had been stating my goal as a topic to
be understood (e.g., “Studentswill understand the elements of good nutrition”)
instead of a specific generalization about those elements.
I think that my planning will be much sharper as I keep the test criteria in
mind. (I already see some changes that I will want to make in future units.)
242
M O D U L E 2 0 : T E S T I N G D E S I G N S A G A I N S T S T A N D A R D S
m . . . .
Test 4 assesses if a proposed performance task provides a valid measure of a

targeted understanding (see Figure 20.5).
Test 5 assesses if a proposed assessment is anchored in a performance task
requiring a meaningful, authentic application (see Figure 20.6).
Test 6 assesses if the proposed assessment evidence is sufficient to support
valid inferences about student understanding (see Figure 20.7).
The great challenge in testing an assessment plan for a unit is to check for valid-
ity. To ask if an assessment is valid is to ask a question about the appropriateness of
the emdence, given the desired understanding in Box A on the template (Worksheet
3.2),or the desired knowledge and skill in Box C. As educators, we want to make
sure that the specific answers or performance we get from an assessment is logically
connected to the more general understanding we seek to assess.
For example, suppose we want students to understand that the letter of the
law and the spirit of the law are different, and that the U.S. federal appeals courts
and the U.S.
Supreme Court are designed, in part, to help us honor the spirit of
the law. What would count as evidence of that understanding? One way would be
a task or writing prompt asking students to interpret Supreme Court decisions or
to change classroom rules. An assessment that asked students to memorize and
recall famous Supreme Court cases, however, would not enable us to infer that stu-
dents understand the difference between the letter and the spirit. On the other
hand, if the desired unit goal was knowledge of important Supreme Court deci-
sions, then such a test could provide valid evidence of that knowledge.
Validity also involves the degree to which we can confidently generalize about
what a student knows and can do using a sample of evidence as a basis. We want
to be able to make fairly sweeping claims about a student’s understanding from a
small amount of evidence. Not only are we asking, Is that the right kind of evi-
dence? but also, Is the logical jump from this particular task to a more general
statement of understanding sound?
243
A practical way of thinking about the problem of validity is to ask of any pro-
posed perfirmance task, paper-and-pencil test, or oral quiz, Could a student suc-
cessfully accomplish the task well but lack the desired understanding? and, Could
a student perform the task poorly but possess understanding? The goal is always
to answer no to both questions-otherwise, the proposed assessment will not pro-

vide a valid measure.
Developing valid and reliable performance tasks is one of the most technically
demanding parts of Understanding by Design. Few educators have an adequate
working understanding of validity, and many of us easily confuse effective hands-
on learning activities with valid tests of performance.
Let’s look at a completed Performance Task Blueprint to see the problem of
validity in action and to understand how to more effectively design an assessment
to yield necessary evidence of learning (see Figure 20.8). In a unit on the Civil War,
a 5th grade teacher reports that she is going to use a favorite activity to assess one
of her state’s content standards: “Students will understand the causes and effects of
the Civil War.” The students are asked to imagine that they are setting up a
museum display about the Civil War. They will construct a diorama of a great bat-
tle and produce an index card containing detailed information about the battle.
Let’s critically examine this performance assessment task by asking the two
validity questions mentioned earlier: Could a student successfully accomplish the
task well but lack the desired understanding? and, Could a student perform the
task poorly but possess understanding? We suspect that evidence from the task will
not yleld valid inferences about student understanding of the causes and effects of
the Civil War. There are two problems: The evidence obtained through the diorama
display is not really germane to understanding the causes and effects of the war,
and the considerable emphasis on design and display skills has nothing to do with
the unit objectives. Filling in the Performance Task Blueprint confirms this suspi-
cion, particularly when we recognize the lack of alignment among the desired
understanding (major causes and effects of the Civil War), the proposed task, the
specific product (a diorama), and the proposed scoring criteria for the diorama.
Note further that the desired understanding is not yet stated as a full-sentence
generalization of what is to be understood, as our approach recommends. Had the
designer taken the time to craft complete unit understanding-what about the
244
The content of a proposed performance task should not be confused with 4

the need for sufficient evidence for each student. A task that yields evidence of MISCONCEPTION
understanding for some students is insufficient-the task must yield appropriate ALERT
evidence to judge the understanding of every student.
This problem is often found in assessment tasks that involve students work-
ing in cooperative teams or "jigsaw" divisions of labor. The assessments must do
more than prove that understanding is distributed around a classroom or in a
group. Indeed, the common parental backlash over cooperative projects has little
t o do with antipathy toward collaborative work and a lot to do with their correct
view that assessments and grades should reflect individual contributions and
achievements.
rn Authentic tasks should not be confused with hands-on work or performance

in a broad sense. Authentic work is a subset of performance; many open-ended per-
formance tasks or writing prompts are not authentic; that is, they are not grounded
in realistic problems, audiences, constraints, and purposes that use knowledge.
Nonetheless, they may provide valuable evidence of achievement.
H Validity should not be confused with reliability. Validity concerns the appro-
priateness of the evidence and the inferences the evidence supports. Reliability con-
cerns the variability of the evidence or whether a clear and defensible pattern to this
evidence exists. The t w o are independent of each other. A valid, authentic task may
yield unreliable results. For example, your favorite football team wins its first game
of the season. Clearly, the game provides a valid and authentic test, yet w e would
be hesitant to infer from this one sample that the team will be forever victorious-
no pattern has yet emerged. The opening-day win may be an anomaly, and the team
loses the rest of its games. Conversely, a student may constantly get the same
question about parts of speech wrong on a multiple-choice test, but these "reliable"
test scores would not necessarily provide valid predictors of performance in writing
essays.
Performance tests are prone to unreliability, even if w e value them as more
valid measures of important achievement targets. Similarly, w e may not value indi-
rect short-answer tests, but their results are often highly reliable and may correlate
well with other more valued performances. A balanced blend of methods in assess-
ment is always wise. Such balance and variety is the only way to pass the suffi-
ciency test for the evidence (see Figure 20.7).

causes and effects of the War should students understand?-the validity problem
would have been even more clearly revealed. A diorama of a battle, no matter how
elegantly designed and well explained, has little relevance to a specific under-
standing about causality, such as, The Civil War was caused by the different
economies and views of government in the North and South.
Does “failing”the validity test mean that this teacher can never use her dio-
rama again? No. If it is an engaging and effective learning activity, it could become
a part of the lesson plan summarized in Stage 3. Or, in an art unit, it could be a
valid assessment of specific design and display skills. Or, the task could be modi-
fied by placing greater emphasis in the instructions on planning museum exhibits
that reveal the causes and effects of the Civil War. In other words, a task is not
inherently valid or invalid; validity is a function of drawing inferences from the evi-
dence. That evidence comes from a student’s response to a task in relation to stan-
dards. By changing the standard or adjusting the assessment, the evidence can be
made more or less appropriate.

. AFTER U S I N G STAGE 2 T E S T S
When I ran my idea for a camp menu plan against the Stage 2 tests, I could see
that my assessment plan had two problems. For one thing, I don’t have enough
information on all the targeted understanding. I won’t really know from the
menu planning alone if students’ food choices reflect a sophisticated and accu-
rate perception of the food pyramid or just plain old common sense. I can see
the value of the facets of understanding here. I need the facets to explain and
justify students’ menu choices, or to analyze the choices others made.
I also need to make sure that I have enough evidence from each student
because I had originally planned to allow them to work in groups on the camp
menu plan. Well, I know I’ll be building in quizzes; perhaps that is enough
reinforcing evidence. But maybe I can also make sure that the plan is divided
into pieces that can be linked to individual student work.
246
My task is certainly authentic. But realistically,menu planners have to work

within a budget, which will surely influence their choices. And menus alone do
not reveal whether students understand all the nutrition lessons of the unit. Here
is the validity question popping up in a small way Maybe I’ll include some imag-
inary budget constraints and wholesale food pricing information that I can get
from our cafeteria manager. And then I will need to have more focused questions
on particular aspects of nutrition-perhaps in a writing prompt or another
performance task.
Whew-this is hard work, but I think I’m getting better at assessment
planning!
H Test 7 assesses if students know the overall goals of a unit, the reasons they
are important, and their performance requirements (see Figure 20.9).
H Test 8 assesses if students are hooked by provocative experiences early in a
unit and their interest held throughout (see Figure 20.10).
H Test 9 assesses if students are equipped for their culminating performances
(see Figure 20.11).
H Test 10 assesses if students are provided with opportunities to rethink key
ideas and revise their work based on feedback (see Figure 20.12).
H Test 11 assesses if students are provided with opportunities to evaluate their
work and consider next steps (see Figure 20.13).
H Test 12 assesses if a unit is coherent from the students’ perspective (see
Figure 20.14).
247
To assume that WHERE specifies the proper sequence of lessons is a misconcep-
MlSCONCEPTlON tion (i,e., that the first lessons must establish students' obligations, the next lesson
ALERT must provide a hook, and so forth). WHERE simply establishes a set of criteria for
judging an instructional plan, not a teaching sequence. Just as an essay can be
effective regardless of whether it is constructed using the five-paragraph form, so
too, can units meet design standards through many different sequences. The proper
way to consider WHERE is to ask, Irrespective of how the unit sequence is con-
structed, can each element from WHERE be found in the final design?
If, however, the design seems to lack a logical flow or integrity, then the
reviewer should question the coherence of the unit (see Figure 20.14).
REFLECTION F R O M BOB J A M E S
AFTER U S I N G STAGE 3 T E S T S
I think my design passes the WHERE tests pretty well. I have developed a plan
that hooks and equips the students. They will have to rethink and evaluate their
understandings to complete the final tasks. I think my biggest need is to include
a minilesson on brochures and the standards by which they are judged. Maybe
I can invite Sue Haverford, who teaches graphics design, to share some design
principles and professional brochures with the class. I know they’d love seeing
her work. She could also guide the students in generating a rubric to use in
evaluating their brochures.
248
FIGURE
20.1
G D Self-Assessment
How will w e judge our unit designs?
To what extent are the targeted understandings

1. Enduring (transferable, big ideas at the heart of the
discipline) and in need of uncoverage?
2. Framed as generalizations specific enough to guide
teaching and assessing but overarching enough to
enable transfer? Ll Ll Ll
3. Framed by provocative essential questions? Ll Ll Ll
To what extent do the assessments provide

4. Valid and reliable measures of the targeted understandings? Ll Ll Ll
5. Opportunities for students to exhibit their understanding
through authentic performance tasks? Ll Ll Ll
6. Sufficient and varied information to support inferences about
each student's u nd e rsta nding? Ll Ll Ll
To what extent will

W 7. Students know where they are going; why (reason for
learning the unit content); what they already know (prior
knowledge); where they might go astray (likely misunder-
standings); and what is required of them (unit goal, perfor-
mance requirements, and evaluative criteria)? Ll Ll tl
H 8. Students be hooked-engaged in digging into the big
ideas (through inquiry, research, problem solving, and
expe ri mentat io n ) ? Ll Ll cl
E 9. Students explore and experience key ideas and receive
instruction to equip them for the required performance? cl Ll tl
R 10. Students be challenged to rethink ideas and have
opportunities to rehearse and revise their work based on
timely feedback? Ll cl Ll
E 11. Students evaluate (self-assess and set future goals) prior
to the conclusion of the unit? Ll Ll Ll
12. The unit appear coherent to students? Ll Ll Ll
01999 ,ii3 "All rights reserved. 249

T H E U N D E R S T A N D I L G B Y D E S I G N H A N D B O O K
FIGURE
~ ~ ~~
B A C K U 4 R D D E S I G Y P R O C E S S
20.2 Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3

B B Essential Questions D B Performance Tasks H D Sequence of Learning
C B Knowledge and Skills * Performance Task Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and Instruction
G B Self-Assessment
(Stage I 1 > Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, C)
Is the proposed understanding truly enduring-a big idea or core process at the
heart of the discipline?
\ I
~
Level 3 The understanding is a big idea or core process at the heart of the discipline.
Level 2 The understanding is important but not of the highest priority; or it may be more accurately
described as important knowledge and skill (i.e., understand how to design and de-bug an
experiment); or both.
Level 1 The understanding as stated is a straightforward fact, skill, or attitude, not a big idea or core
process at the heart of the discipline (worth being familiar with, but not the highest priority of
importance for an entire course of study).
Example 1 Example 2
Level 3 Understand that accurate time keeping aboard Level 3 Understand that essay writing is iterative, not
ships is needed for safe sea exploration to calculate longi- linear; why and how various techniques (e.g., imagining
tude precisely a reader’s response and objections, and concept webs)
work; and the benefits of drafts, critiques, and revision
Level 2 Understand how to calculate longitude and lati- for achieving more persuasive arguments.
tude using a map, sextant, and clock.
Level 2 Understand how to write a five-paragraph essay.
Level 1 Define and locate lines of latitude and longitude.
Level 1 Understand (describe or define) the difference
between an essay and a narrative.
Indicators of an enduring understanding

rn If the length of your syllabus or program were cut in half, you would still want students to explore the
understanding in some depth.
rn The understanding is key to connecting and making sense of much discrete knowledge.
rn The understanding is key to understanding other important ideas.
rn The understanding is unlikely to be fully understood by studying it once.
rn The understanding is unlikely to be understood through textbook accounts only.
rn There are different ways to study the understanding, teach it, and apply it.
rn The understanding is not obvious and is often misunderstood, but it is worth the trouble.
rn The understanding involves the kind of problems, challenges, and work that adults do.

Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning Expehences
C D Knowledge and Skills F Performance Task Blueprint (0) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
Stage 1 F Blueprint for Other Evidence (E,F. G)
Is the proposed target a specific matter of understanding?
Level 3 The targeted understanding is stated clearly and specifically. It is framed as a generalization
("specific abstraction"), which specifies the big idea that students should understand.
Level 2 The unit's content focus is clear, but the targeted understanding is vague. An area of study or
general understanding may be given, but the specific understanding that should result for
students is not stated.
Level 1 The targeted understanding is stated as a general topic or area of study, without stating exactly
what is to be understood about that topic.The understanding is too vague or general to guide
instruction and assessment
Example
Level 3 Understand the causes and effects of the Civil War. Understand
U Why the Civil War was fought over states' rights (not just slavery), and that the issues persist today
(e.g., debates over the federal role in education and welfare).
Why the conflict was inevitable, given the different economies and cultures of the North and the South.
Level 2 Understand the causes and effects of the Civil War.
Level 1 Understand the Civil War
Indicators that a targeted understanding is not specific enough

U If teachers cannot agree on exactly what is to be taught or emphasized in the unit.
U If teachers cannot agree on what should be assessed.
U If students and parents cannot tell from the course or unit description exactly what is to be learned
and how success will be determined.
U If students do not know what to focus on in their study or how to study it.
01999 i i l i i 3 ; " A I l rights reserved. 251

C D Knowledge and Skills h Performance Task Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and lnstruction

G D Self-Assessment
Stage 1 Blueprint for Other Evidence (E.F, G)
Is the unit focused on important and engaging questions?
Level 3 The essential questions are important and thought provoking.They have more than one correct
answer and require inquiry rather than recall. They have great potential for engaging students.
They provide a unifying focus to guide teaching and learning.
Level 2 The essential questions are appropriate for the topic but do not focus on the most important
ideas or core processes. Although they do not have a single correct answer, they may not
require much inquiry.They may or may not engage students.
Level 1 The essential questions do not focus on big ideas or core processes.They are not particularly
thought provoking and are not likely to engage students.They may have only one correct
answer and be too narrow to guide the unit.
Example
Level 3 Can individual liberties and the common good be balanced?
Level 2 How does the U.S. Constitution protect individual liberties and human rights? Why has the Constitution
been changed?
Level 1 What are the first ten Amendments to the U.S.

Constitution?
Indicators of effective essentiaI questions

rn The questions do not yield a pat answer. Rather, they uncover provocative aspects of the topic and
guide further inquiry into the unit’s big ideas.
rn The questions recur; they can be fruitfully asked and explored again and again.
The questions stimulate other important questions about the unit topic (and beyond).
rn Students are engaged in attempting to answer the questions.
252 01999 ,M“All lights reserved

FIGURE B A C K \ \ A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S I
20.5 Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3:
AB Enduring Understandings Evidence and Instruction
C B Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint (D) Experiences and lnStrUCtiOn
G B Self-Assessment
( Stage 2 F Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F, G)
Level 3
I Would the proposed performance task provide a valid measure of the targeted
understanding?
The task clearly provides a valid measure of the targeted understanding. Students are required
to demonstrate the desired understanding to successfully complete the task.
Level 2 The task likely provides a valid measure of the targeted understanding. Some students,
however, may be able to complete the task without demonstrating the desired Understanding.
(For example, a task involving oral presentation could favor students with strong public
speaking ski IIs.)
Level 1 The task does not provide a valid measure of the targeted understanding. Students are not
required to demonstrate the desired understanding to successfully complete the task.
Examplcs f ~ o mthree subject aicas

Level 3 Assume the role of a Russian leader in a meeting-of-the-minds simulation, write an editorial and news article
explaining the collapse of the Soviet Empire (The task assesses understanding of mid-to-late 20th century
Russian history)
Level 2 Given a budget, complete a mail-order clothing catalog order form to purchase a back-to-school wardrobe
(The task assesses computation and estimation.)
Level 1 Build a diorama of a Civil War battle. (The task assesses understanding of the causes and effects of the Civil War.)
Indicators of valid performance tasks

The task can only be accomplished well by students who have the desired understanding, not just
some other performance ski II.
The task will be performed poorly by students who lack the desired understanding.
The task calls for students to thoughtfully apply their understanding. It requires flexibility and good
judgment as opposed to plugging information into a formula.
253
FIGURE B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S I
20.6 I Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3: I
Identify Desired Results DeGnnine Acceptable PG Learning Experiences
B B Essential Questions D B Performance Tasks W B Sequence of Learning
C B Knowledge and Skills F PerformanceTask Blueprint (D) Experiences and Instruction
G B Self-Assessment
Stage 2 F Blueprint for Other Evidence (E,F, G)
Is the assessment anchored in a performance task requiring a meaningful, authentic

applicat ion of understanding?
Level 3 The task is highly authentic, involving a direct or simulated application of the targeted
understanding.The task is complex and involves the types of challenges or constraints that
adults face in the world beyond a classroom. Students develop actual products or performances
for an identified audienceklient.
Level 2 The task calls for applying the targeted understanding, but the context is not particularly
authentic. Students may develop actual products or performances, but the task lacks an
identified pur pose, a ud ie nce/client, or reaIist ic co nst raints.
Level 1 The task is inauthentic. It presents an out-of-context question or problem that does not
represent the kinds of complexities or challenges adults face. Students may respond to
questions but do not develop actual products or performances. No clearly identified purpose,
realistic situation, or audienceklient is evident.
Indicators of an authentic performance task
rn The task represents the kind of challenges adults face in the world beyond a classroom.
rn The task requires using a repertoire of knowledge and skill to accomplish the goal or solve the problem.
The task requires thoughtfully applying knowledge, rather than simply recalling facts or plugging in a
formula.
The task is open-ended. It does not have a single right answer or solution path.
rn The task calls for developing a tangible product or performance.
rn The task has an identified purpose and audienceklient.
rn The task involves a realistic scenario.
254 01999 all rights reserved

FIGURE B A C K U ' A R D D E S I G N P R O C E S S

C D Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint (D) Experiences and lnStrUCtiOn
E B Quizzes. Tests, Prompts
G B Self-Assessment
Stage 2 Blueprint tor Other Evidence (E.F, G)
Is the proposed assessment evidence sufficient to support valid and reliable

inferences about student understanding?
Level 3 The proposed assessments provide sufficient evidence t o permit confident inferences about
each student's overall understanding. Appropriate diversity is evident in the assessment
methods; students have m a n y opportunities to reveal t h e depth and breadth of their
understanding, not just a one-time, one-type test or performance task.
Level 2 The proposed assessments provide evidence but are incomplete. Overreliance on one
assessment m e t h o d (e.g., multiple choice) occurs; o r several assessment methods are used, but
they yield insufficient data to permit confident inferences a bout each student's overall
understanding .
Level 1 The proposed assessments are t o o limited o r incomplete to permit confident inferences about
each student's overall understanding.
Indicators of insufficient evidence

A single performance task is required, and it provides evidence about only one aspect o f t h e topic,
leaving other important understandings unexamined.
rn Evidence types are not balanced (e.g., selected response only).
rn Students o r parents protest that the final assessment does not accurately reflect w h a t is important in
t h e unit.
rn Overreliance o n questions o f fact a n d skill occur, and not enough evidence on using that knowledge
a n d skill t o reveal understanding is given.
01999 k?i?9
'AD tight5 t e s c t w d 255
Corresponds to WS 3.4
C D Knowledge and Skills > PetformanceTask Blueprint (D) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
Example of a Validity Probl > Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, GI
TaskTitle: Was t h e Civil War civil? ApproximateTime Frame: t w o periods (plus out-of-class work)
Social studies social studies

s t u d e n t s will understand 5 t u d e n t s will demonstrate
t h e causes and effects of knowledge of topog ra p hica I
t h e Civil War.
What is the purpose of this assessment task? U Formative Ll Summative
Through what authentic performance task will students demonstrate understanding?

~~
Task Overview (include GRASPS: goal, role, audience, situation, product or petformance, and standards)
You are opening a new museum on t h e Civil War. The museum is designed t o inform and engage
young people. select a decisive Civil War battle, research t h e battle, and construct a diorama of
t h e battle. A t t a c h an index card t o your diorama, containing t h e battle's date, names o f t h e
opposing generals, number of casualties on each side, and t h e victor. Finally, create a topographical
map t o show an aerial view o f t h e battlefield.
Remember: Your rnap m u s t be drawn t o scale. Neatness and spelling count!
Diorama of a Civil War Topographical rnap of a
w Actual Civil War battle is w Diorama is neat and w Map is drawn t o scale.
depicted. col0 r f u I. w Map includes compass rose.
Information is accurate on w 5pelling is correct. Armies are correctly placed.
index card. w Typography is accurate.
Ll Analytic rubric U Holistic rubric Cl Criterion (performance) list U Checklist
256 01999 A W 3 ' All tights tesetved

FIGURE B A C K W A R D D E S I G N P R @ C E S S

B B Essential Ruestions D B Performance Tasks H B Sequence of learning
C B Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint ID) Experiences and Instruction
E B Ruiues, Tests, Prompts
G B Self-Assessment
Stage 3 Blueprinl for Other Evidence (E, F, G)
Do students know what the overall unit goal is, what is most important and why,
what the performance requirements are, and what criteria or standards will be used
to assess their work?
Level 3 The unfolding of the first few lessons reveals where the unit is headed. Students clearly know
the unit goals, as well as the tasks, criteria, and standards by which their understanding will be
determined.They are fully mindful of the priorities-what is most important and why.
Level 2 Students are not completely clear about the unit goals or about the tasks, criteria, and
standards by which their understanding will be determined.They are somewhat mindful of the
priorities-what is most important and why.
Level 1 Students are unclear about what they are to do and why.They have little sense of the unit
priorities.They do not understand the tasks, criteria, and standards by which their
understanding will be determined until it is too late.
Indicators that students are likely to understand where the unit is headed
rn Students do not ask questions about where the lessons are headed.
rn Students can articulate the unit priorities-what is most important and why.
rn Students know what to study and how to prepare for the culminating assessments.
rn Students propose alternative ways to demonstrate their understanding.
rn Peer reviewers do not see where the unit is headed.
Indicators that students do not likely understand where the unit is headed
Students ask these questions:
Why are we doing this? Where is the unit headed?
Does this count? How am I doing? How does this relate to ?
Is this right? Is this what you want?
Students do not know what to do to prepare for the culminating assessments.
20.10 Stage 1: Stage 2 Stage 3

A b Enduring Understandings kidence and Instxuction
C D Knowledge and Skills F Performance Task Blueprint ID) Experiences and lnstruction
G D Self-Assessment
Stage 3 F Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, G)
Level 3
r Are provocative introductory experiences provided early in the unit, and is student
interest likely to be held as the unit unfolds?
The unit has a powerful hook stimulated by thought-provoking experiences early on. Students
will likely pay more attention than usual and take a greater interest than usual in complex ideas.
1
They are likely to be so engaged (or puzzled) by the opening activities that they want to know
more about the unit's big ideas. The unit's unfolding maintains heightened interest.
Level 2 A clear attempt to hook students with a thought-provoking and accessible entry to the topic is
evident, but the attempt is either too oriented toward adult interests or the hook is too
tangential to the unit's big ideas; or the opening hook is creative and provocative, but the unit is
not likely to sustain student interest; or both.
Level 1 The opening lessons have little to hook students. Students do not display a heightened interest
in the unit's ideas.The unit unfolds in a typically linear and predictable manner.
Indicators that the unit has a powerful hook for students and holds their interest
U The unit addresses an engaging issue, problem, or puzzle for students of this age.
U The unit has a refreshing lack of predictability as it opens and unfolds.
U The unit's work provides a provocative mystery or counterintuitive elements to cause initial wonder
and sustained engagement.
The unit is likely to generate more discussion, argument, and proposed investigations from students
than usual.
Indicators that the unit does not have a hook for students
Too much information is front-loaded.
U The unit has an overly academic entry to the topic and a highly predictable unfolding (such as
beginning with the next chapter in the textbook).
U The unit begins with what appears to be a transparent attempt or irrelevant trick to make students
more attentive.
258 01999 1*3' 'All tightc iesenled

20.1 1 Stage 1: Stage 2 Stage 3

Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning Erperiences
AD Enduring Understandings Evidence and lnsbuction
C D Knowledge and Skills h Performance Task Blueprint( 0 ) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
(Stage 3 h Blueprint for Other Evidence (E, F, G)
Level 3
r Are students equipped to demonstrate understanding through their culminating
performances?Are students provided with experiences to help them explore key
ideas?
The unit moves beyond the facts to fully explore key ideas through illuminating experiences.
Lessons and activities equip students to effectively prepare for their final performance tasks to
demonstrate the targeted understandings.
Level 2 The unit's key ideas are treated somewhat superficially (e.g., in textbook-driven ways); or
lessons and activities do not thoroughly prepare students for all that the final performance
tasks demand; or both.
Level 1 The unit does not go beyond a superficial or abstract treatment of the topic, which is sufficient
only for an assessment of recall; or the unit does not adequately prepare students for the final
performance tasks; or both.
Indicators that the unit will adequately equip students

rn The textbook is treated as a resource for inquiry, not as a complete syllabus.
rn Students are instructed and coached in important procedural and strategic abilities required by the
culminating performance tasks (e.g., instruction and coaching in basic debate skills before a class
debate).
rn Students are given ample opportunity to practice or rehearse for the final performances.
Indicators that the unit will not adequately equip students or

allow in-depth exploration of the big ideas
rn The textbook seems to be the only source of content to be understood.The unit design allows for little
or no inquiry, exploration, or questioning.
rn The unit design assumes students have all needed performance skills.
Students do not have adequate time to practice or rehearse.
01999 _WCA"'Aff rights reserved. 259

C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint (D) Experiences and hStrUCtiOn
G D Self-Assessment
Stage 3 Blueprint for Omer Evidence (E,F, G)
Level 3
Are students provided with opportunities to rethink key ideas and revise their work
based on feedback?
The unit is clearly built in an iterative way, requiring students to rethink key ideas as further
1
learning and inquiry occur.The unit has built-in opportunities to revise work or performance in
progress on the basis of feedback or unexpected results.The culminating products and
performances reveal deeper understanding as a result of rethinking and revising.
Level 2 The unit may ask students to consider different points of view or strategies of performance
throughout, but the unit does not require much rethinking and revision. Opportunities to get
and use feedback to rethink and refine may occur, but they may be optional, not integral to the
unit design.
Level 1 The unit provides only a linear march through content, requiring students to merely give back
what was taught.The big ideas are made to seem straightforward and unproblematic; hence, no
rethinking is needed. Opportunities to revise work are inadequate or nonexistent.
Indicators that the unit will require appropriate rethin king, rehearsal, or revision
rn Later activities and inquiries are likely to cause students to realize, without the teacher saying so, that
earlier views need to be rethought or revised.
rn The unit design allows students to view the same ideas from different perspectives.
rn Students must construct and test some key theories or answers inductively.
rn Students self-assess their work or assess peer work, and self-adjustment is required before the final
performances.
rn Students must keep confronting the same recurring questions in their work.
Indicators that the unit will not require much rethinking, rehearsal, or revision
rn The lessons and their sequence mirror the paging of the textbook.
rn The work primarily demands a plugging-in of knowledge and skill as opposed to a questioning of what
is being learned.
rn The unit does not provide opportunities for ongoing self-assessment and self-adjustment.
260 01999 ,i!:3’”AH tights reserved


Identify Desired Resutts Determine Acceptable Plan Learning Experiences
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and Insbudion
C D Knowledge and Skills F Performance Task Blueprint (0) Experiences and lnstruction
G D Self-Assessment
Stage 3 F Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. F, G)
f 1
Are students provided with opportunities to evaluate their work and consider
next steps?
Level 3 The unit culminates by providing students with opportunities to consider the quality of their
work, the value and meaning of the unit, and plans for logical next steps (e.g., pursue the issues
raised in the unit or identify needed skill development).
Level 2 The unit culminates by providing students with an opportunity to make a final self-assessment,
but larger questions about the meaning of the work and possible plans for future inquiry and
skill development are not addressed.
Level 1 The unit ends with no formal opportunity for self-assessment and future planning.
Indicators that the unit provides adequate opportunities for self-assessment
At least an entire lesson addresses the questions, So what? and, Now what?
w Students are required to make an improvement plan as a result of the unit, and the curriculum allows
them to act on that plan.
Indicators that the unit does not provide adequate opportunities for self-assessment
w The unit ends on the day of the test.
w Students are not required to formally self-assess their work in the unit.
The course moves on, irrespective of results.
01999 -A11 rights reserved. 261

20.14 Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3:

C D Knowledge and Skills * Performance Task Blueprint ( 0 ) Experiences and Instruction
I )I
. .
G D Self-Assessment
(Stage3 Blueprint for Other Evidence(E. F, G)
Is the unit logical and coherent from the students' perspective?
Level 3 Students see the logic of the unit-how the lessons and activities are connected and flow
together. They understand that the unit is clearly focused on big ideas, overarching questions,
and appropriate culminating performance tasks. Most students know clearly what is most
important and how the lessons and activities are directed toward important ideas or
cu Im inat ing perform a nce tasks.
Level 2 The sequence of lessons and activities is likely to be somewhat illogical to the students, even
though the sequence might make sense from an adult's point of view.The lessons may be
logically sequenced, but no clear or explicit relation to the overarching understandings and
culminating performance tasks is evident. Students are not always clear about what is most
important or why they are doing what they are doing.
Level 1 The sequence of lessons and activities is likely to be confusing, incomplete, or illogical to the
students. Lessons and activities seem strung together in a disconnected fashion- not heading
toward a synthesis of important ideas or culminating performance tasks. Most students have no
clear idea of what is most important or why they are doing what they are doing.
Indicators that the unit design lacks coherence from the students' perspective
Most students exhibit passive or aimless behavior.

The teacher regularly hears, Why are we doing this?
Students seem unprepared for and surprised by final performance tasks.
The logic of the unit does not seem to tell an unfolding story or to be mindful of the need to make
students feel competent and goal directed.
The unit seems driven more by the goal of coverage than by the students' needs to make sense of and
use the content in meaningful ways.
262 0 1 9 9 9 -All rights reserved.

Our profession rarely subjects
and assessments to this Zevt
Nonetheless, we have found st
guided by design standards, to be
to both teachers and their designs.
S MCTIGHE,1998, P 179
W I G G I N&
MO
The primary purpose of peer review is to provide feedback to designers to help
them improve their unit designs. There are also residual benefits. Participants in
peer review sessions regularly comment on the value of the opportunity to share
and discuss curriculum and assessment designs with colleagues. We believe that
such sessions provide a powerful approach to professional development because
the conversations focus on the heart of teaching and learning. What is worthy of
understanding in this unit? What counts as evidence that students really under-
stand and can use what is taught? What knowledge and skills must be taught to
enable them to achieve and apply their understandings in meaningful ways?
In addition to the benefits of the process, the quality of the products is
enhanced when teachers can refine their unit designs using feedback and guidance
about the strengths of their designs and suggestions for improvement. Peer review
provides an opportunity to see alternate design models-“Gee, I never thought
about beginning this unit with a problem. I think I’ll try that the next time I teach
this unit.”
263
The Peer Review Process

In this section, we describe a process for involving teachers in a peer review of
their unit designs. The review is based on the design standards and the accompa-
nymg tests (see Module 20 for the design standards and tests).
Session 1 : Review Without the Designer

1. The designer provides a brief overview of the unit to the review group and
states any issues the designer wishes highlighted in the feedback session (Session
2). Then the designer leaves the review group.
2. The reviewers review and discuss the unit design criteria for the design
standards and for the specific tests that follow each stage of backward design.
3. The reviewers individually read the unit and review unit materials (e.g., the
template, rubrics, and handouts).
4. The reviewers silently assess the strengths of the design, then the areas
needing improvement-in relation to the specific design criteria, not reviewer
tastes.
5. Each reviewer completes the Individual Review Form for a Unit Design
(Worksheet 2 1.l),summarizing the design’s strengths and areas needing improve-
ment before the entire review group discusses the design.
6. The review group discusses individual responses.
7. The review group completes the Group Review Form for a Unit Design
(Worksheet 2 1.2),summarizing the group’s key feedback and guidance. The
reviewers rate the unit if appropriate, using the tests or the design standards.
Session 2: Review with the Designer

1. The review group establishes roles (e.g., imekeeper and facilitator) and sets
a specific time frame for group feedback and guidance. The facilitator’s key job is
to gently but firmly ensure that the designer listens (instead of defending).
2. The designer clarifies any technical or logistical issues, only as requested,
without elaborating on rationale or justifying the intent, history, and reasons for
choices. The design must stand by itself as much as possible.
3. The reviewers give feedback, making clear the basis for their comments in
the match (or mismatch) among targeted achievements, assessments, and design of
M O D U L E 2 1 : P E E R R E V I E W
learning and teaching, using the design standards as a reference. Phrasing feedback
about possible mismatches in question or conditional form may be appropriate; for
example, “We wondered about the validity of the assessment task, in light of the
specified goal” or, “If your aim is critical thinking, the assessments don’t seem to
demand more than recall.”
4. The reviewers give guidance in each area where they perceive a gap
between intent and effect or some confusion about the design’s purpose or execu-
tion. Guidance should improve the designer’s intent, not substitute the reviewers’
tastes or goals for the unit.
5 . The designer takes notes, asks clarifying questions, and thinks aloud about
possible implications.
6. After the feedback and guidance session, the group and designer may want
a debriefing session to discuss general design lessons and questions that the review
raised. During the feedback and guidance session, general design questions, issues,
and dilemmas should be noted for the debriefing discussion.
Tips for an Effective Peer Review Session

The reviewers should serve as friendly, honest consultants (critical friends) to
the designer. The reviewers’job is twofold. First, they give useful feedback-Did
the effect match the intent? Second, they give useful guidance-How might the
gaps in intent versus effect be removed? How might the design be improved?
The designer’s intent is the basis of the review. The aim is to improve the
designer’s idea, not replace it with the reviewers’ teaching priorities, style, or
favorite design activities. The key criterion for judging the review’s success is that
the designer feels that the design was understood by peers and improved (or vali-
dated) by the subsequent critique and discussion.
Consider the following guidelines when planning or conducting a peer review:
1. The reviewers should begin by paraphrasing or summarizing the designer’s

stated intentions.
2. The best feedback describes in detail how the elements of a unit did or did
not meet the design criteria. Written and oral feedback should be based upon the
tests or the design standards (see Module 20). For example,
265
rn Will the assessment plan provide valid evidence of the targeted

understandings?
rn Are the unit questions appropriately incorporated into the design of the
activities and assessments?
Will the proposed lessons equip all, especially weaker, students for suc-
cessful performance?
3. Designers typically assume that the design is more self-evident than it really
is, Imagine yourself as a student:
Would you know what to do?

rn Would the flow of the unit be obvious?
Is it clear how you will be assessed and how your performance will be
judged?
Do you see the purpose of the work?
4, The reviewers should begin the feedback session by highlighting those

areas where the design most conforms to the design criteria, describing in detail
how and where the design meets those criteria. For example,
rn “Your task was authentic. This is clearly the kind of work that a scientist
routinely does; the constraints are realistic.”
rn “The unit effectively honors the ‘ W in WHERE. By beginning with an
analysis of previous student work and developing rubrics together, your
design is clear, so that students will know what is expected of them in the
unit. ”
5. Giving feedback about problems in the design is always difficult but made
easier by casting it more as a question or conditional response rather than as a firm
declaration. Useful phrasing for beginning critical comments include
rn “We had a few questions about the validity o f . . .”

rn “I had a hard time finding the link between . . .”
w “We weren’t sure about the target . . .”
266
“If your goal was to , then am concerned about whether students

will see . . .”
Avoid using these types of phrases:
rn “It was obvious to us that . . .”

“Your assessment didn’t make sense . . .”
w “Kids would never . . .”
6. Remember that the designer’s role during the peer review discussion is pri-
marily that of a listener and note taker. Designers should avoid explaining, defend-
ing, or justifylng their unit designs.
The goal of peer review is to provide helpful feedback and guidance, not to make a 4
value judgment about a colleague’s work. The distinction between feedback and MlSCONCEPTlON
guidance is almost universally misunderstood. Despite common parlance, feedback
ALERT
merely describes what happened, not how one feels about it or what should be
changed.
As a result of this misconception, a common mistake in peer review is to
assume that the peer review process is meant to offer advice on what to do differ-
ently. Such advice is far less important than accurately describing the design‘s
strengths and weaknesses-based on design standards-so that the designer will
understand why advice is offered.
This is my first exDerience with peer review, and I found it enormously benefi-
el and a Ilumber of prac-
ucai iaeas - _ - renninp
- _ _ _ _ - Tor - _-----
-
11. ror
-0 -
examDie.
- - -
- 7 1-
one reacner suwestea a 1ueriurrrrdriw
00
task that will work well for one of my understandings-that the USDA food
amid provides relative guidelines, but that dietary requirements vary
267
according to individual needs. The task asks students to write a letter to Mr. and
Ms. Jack Spratt, explaining the potential health risks of their diets (especially
Ms. Sprattk) and suggesting a more balanced diet (for one week) based on the
needs of each person. Not only did I benefit from the review, but I believe I pro-
vided some helpful feedback and guidance to my fellow teachers.
After the review, several of us were commenting that our required insewice
days could be more valuable if we could have more opportunities for such rich
discussions with colleagues.
WORKSHEET
21.1
I stage 1:
B A C K W A R D
Stage 2:
D E S I G N P R O C E S S
stage 3:
l d e h Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Lcaming Experkmm
A D Enduring Understandings Evidence and lnstn~ction
C B Knowledge and Skills Performance Task BlueprintID) Experiences and hSttIICtiOn
G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence (E. E G)
Reviewer: .................................... Unit Title: ..................................... Date:
Strengths (in reference to the design criteria)
...........................................................
....................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
...............................
9reas needing improvement (in reference to the design criteria)
.............................
. .
.............................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
. . ........................
01999 , i i I " A l l rights reserved. 269

WORKSHEET
21.2
1 I Staae 1:
B A C K W A R D
Staae 2:
D E S l G N P R O C E S S
Stage 3
~~
'I
I d e h Desired Results Determine Acceptable Plan Learning Experiences
'I C B Knowledge and Skills PerformanceTask Blueprint ( 0 )

G D Self-Assessment
Blueprint for Other Evidence(E, F, G)
Experiences and Instruction
Reviewer: .. . . . .. .... . . .. . . ..... .. . . . . . .... . .. UnitTitle: .. . . . ... .. . . . .. . . ..... . . . .. . . . . . ..... Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
Feedback: comments on intent versus effect of the design and on the review criteria
Guidance: advice based upon feedback; that is, what revisions would enable the design to meet the criteria?
270 01999 , i i i M A I I rights reserved.


C D Knowledge and Skills Performance Task Blueprint (D) Experiences and Instruction
G D Self-Assessment
G L O S S A R Y
academic prompt A form of assessment between an authentic performance

task and a short-answer test or quiz. Academic prompts are open-ended, written
performance tests. They occur only in school or exam situations. Students are
prompted by a tester to respond to a particular quote, idea, or request for perfor-
mance. Such prompts are not authentic because typical school constraints are
placed on the situation, such as access to resources, time allotted, and limits on
talking to others. Contrast authentic assessment task; quiz.
achievement target A specific educational goal. Common synonyms include

goal, objective, outcome, and intended result. A target is more specific than a goal,
more cognitively complex than an objective, and more exclusively focused on
intellectual matters than an outcome. A target about complex intended learnings
must be cast in measurable terms. An assessment is designed to measure the degree
to which a target was “hit”by a learner’s work. When focusing on matters of under-
standing, a target is best stated as a specific proposition a teacher wants students
to understand; for example, Living things adapt to harsh environments to survive.
See also outcome.
analytic rubric Also called analytic scoring rubric. A rubric that applies several
distinct criteria to evaluate student products and performances. In effect, a perfor-
mance is assessed several times, using the lens of a separate criterion each time. For
example, when using an analytic rubric to evaluate essays, a teacher might evalu-
ate five traits: organization, use of detail, attention to audience, persuasiveness, and
conventions. Contrast holistic rubric. See also rubric.
273
anchors Samples of work or performance used to set the specific performance

standard for each level of a rubric. For example, attached to a paragraph describ-
ing a six-level performance in writing would be two to three samples of writing
that illustrate what a six-level performance is. The anchor for the top score is often
called the exemplar.
Anchors contribute significantly to scoring reliability A rubric without anchors
is typically too ambiguous to set a clear standard for judges and performers alike.
Such phrases as “sophisticated and persuasive” or “insightful mathematical solu-
tion” mean little unless teachers have examples of work that give concrete and sta-
ble definition to them. Anchors provide students with tangible models of quality
work. See also exemplar; rubric.
application One of the six facets of understanding. The ability to apply knowl-
edge and skill in new situations and diverse contexts. See also empathy; explana-
tion; interpretation; perspective; self-knowledge.
assess To thoroughly and methodically analyze student accomplishments against

specific goals and criteria.
assessments Techniques to analyze student accomplishments against specific

goals and criteria. Includes paper-pencil tests, exhibits, interviews, surveys, and
observations. Good assessment requires a balance of techniques because each tech-
nique is limited and prone to error.
Assessment is sometimes synonymous with evaluation, though a subtle differ-
ence exists. A teacher might assess the strengths and weaknesses of a student’s per-
formance without placing a value or a grade on that performance.
authentic assessment task A task designed to simulate or replicate impor-

tant, real-world challenges, such as asking a student to use knowledge in contexts
where the purposes, audiences, and situational variables are genuine. Thus, the
context of the assessment-not just the task itself-is what makes the work
authentic (e.g.,the messiness of a problem, ability to seek feedback and revise, and
access to apt resources).
An authentic task directly measures students on performances teachers value.
By contrast, multiple-choice tests are indirect measures of performance. For exam-
ple, compare the road test (a direct test) to the written test (an indirect test) for get-
ting a driver’s license. In the field of measurement, authentic tests are called direct
tests.
Not all performance-based testing is authentic, and not all authentic tasks are
valid. A standardized writing prompt or laboratory experiment is a complex per-
formance task, but it is not authentic. The timed nature of the task, enforced
silence, test security, and absence of resources make the task inauthentic, even
though the test result might be valid. If a written test for a driver’s license corre-
lates with driving records and accident rates, the test is valid, even though it is an
inauthentic test of driving performance. The reverse is true also: A task can be
274
G L O S S A R Y
authentic but not properly designed to allow for valid inferences about the targeted
understanding. For example, asking a new driver to drive around the block is
authentic but not sufficiently challenging or varied to permit valid inferences about
driving ability. (See Wiggins [1998] for a more thorough account of authenticity
and validity in the design of student assessment.)
backward design A process to designing a curriculum or unit by beginning

with the end in mind and designing toward that end. Why is such a view back-
ward when it seems logical? Many teachers begin their unit design with textbooks,
favored lessons, and time-honored activities rather than deriving it from targeted
goals or standards. In backward design, one starts with the end-the desired
results-and then identifies the evidence necessary to determine that the results
have been achieved-the assessments. With the results and assessments clearly
specified, one can determine the necessary (enabling) knowledge and skill, and
then the teaching needed to equip students to perform.
benchmark (1)A developmentally appropriate content or performance standard.

For example, many districtwide systems have set benchmarks for grades 4, 8, 10,
and 12. Also called a milepost standard. (2) The best possible samples of work to
anchor an assessment. This usage comes from industry, where benchmark is often
used as a verb and a noun. As a verb, benchmark means to search for a best per-
formance or achievement specification for a particular objective anywhere in the
world. The resulting benchmark (noun) sets the highest possible performance
standard, a goal to be met or exceeded locally.
big ideas The core concepts, principles, theories, and processes that should serve
as the focal point of curriculums, instruction, and assessment. Big ideas are impor-
tant, enduring, and transferable beyond the scope of a particular unit. An example
of a big idea is, Thriving organisms adapt to harsh environments.
concept A mental construct represented by a word. Concepts include both tan-

gible objects (e.g., a chair or rabbit) and abstract ideas (e.g., democracy and bravery).
content standard A goal statement that identifies the knowledge and skills to
be learned in the content areas. A content standard specifies what we want students
to know and be able to do. See also performance standard.
coverage A teaching approach that superficially teaches and tests content knowl-
edge, irrespective of student understanding or engagement. The phrase generally has
a negative connotation: It implies that the goal is to march through a body of mater-
ial (often a textbook) within a specified time frame. Contrast uncoverage.
criteria The qualities that must be met for work to measure up to a standard. To
ask, What are the criteria? means to ask, What should teachers look for when
275
examining student products or performances to know if they were successful? How

will teachers determine acceptable work?
Criteria should be considered prior to designing specific performance tasks,
though this order may seem odd to novice teachers. For example, if teachers want
to design a task that measures critical thinking, they need to know beforehand
what the indicators of such thinking are, and then design the task to require such
traits to be demonstrated through performance.
An assessment must determine how much weight each criterion should
receive relative to other criteria. For example, if teachers agree that spelling, orga-
nization, and the development of ideas are all important in judging writing, are
they of equal importance? If not, what percentage should be assigned to each?
The criteria used in judging performance, like a test itself, can be valid or in-
valid, and authentic or inauthentic. For example, one can assign students to do
original historical research (an authentic task), but grade the work only on whether
four sources were used and whether the report is exactly five pages long. Such cri-
teria would be invalid because one can easily imagine a piece of historical work
that does not meet those two criteria but is still excellent research. Criteria should
correspond to the qualities of masterful performance.
Five different types of criteria are at play in any complex performance: impact,
methods, work products/performances, content validity, and degree of sophistica-
tion. The analysis is useful when one observes how often performance assessments
undervalue impact criteria and overvalue (look only for) content validity and
craftsmanship in methods used. (See Chapters 5 and 6 in Wiggins [ 19981 for more
on these types of criteria.)
curriculum The explicit and comprehensive plan developed to honor a frame-

work of standards. A curriculum is thus a course or program of study composed
of numerous units.
design As a verb, means to “plan the form and structure” of something; as a

noun, the “pattern or motif’ of a work of art. In education, teachers are designers
in both senses, aiming to develop purposeful, coherent, effective, and engaging
lessons, units, and courses of study and accompanying assessments to achieve
identified results.
Something that happens by design occurs through thoughtful planning as
opposed to by accident or by winging it. At the heart of Understanding by Design
is the idea that the planning a teacher does before teaching is as important as the
teaching itself.
design standards The specific standards that evaluate the quality of unit
designs. Design standards have a dual purpose: to guide self-assessment and peer
reviews to identify design strengths and needed improvements; and to provide a
mechanism for quality control as a means of validating curricular designs.
276
G L O S S A R Y
empathy One of the six facets of understanding. The ability to walk in another’s
shoes; to escape one’s own beliefs and emotional reactions to grasp another’s. See
also application; explanation; interpretation; perspective; self-knowledge.
enduring understandings The important ideas or core processes that have

lasting value beyond the classroom. Such understanding are generally abstract in
nature, so they require uncoverage through sustained inquiry. To determine endur-
ing understandings for a unit or course, teachers are encouraged to ask, What do
we want students to understand and be able to use several years from now, after
they have forgotten the details? Sec also uncoverage.
entry question A simple, thought-provoking question that opens a lesson or

unit. It often introduces a key idea or understanding in an accessible way. See also
essential question.
essential question A provocative question designed to engage student inter-

est and guide inquiry into the important ideas in a field of study Rather than yield-
ing pat answers, essential questions are intended to stimulate discussion and
rethinking over time There are two types of essential questions overarching and
topical See also entry question; overarching question; topical question
exemplar The anchor for the top score in a rubric. See also anchors; rubric.
explanation One of the six facets of understanding. Sophisticated and apt expla-
nations and theories, which provide knowledgeable and justified accounts of
events, actions, and ideas. Soe also application; empathy; interpretation; per-
spective; self-knowledge.
facets of understanding The six different kinds of understanding identified

in Understanding by Design explanation, interpretation, application, perspective,
empathy, and self-knowledge Understanding (or lack of it) reveals itself in differ-
ent, mutually reinforcing ways In other words, the more a student is able to
explain, apply, or offer multiple points of view on the same idea, the more likely it
is that the student understands that idea See alco application; empathy; expla-
nation; interpretation; perspective; self-knowledge.
generalization A general rule that describes a relationship among concepts. The

Understanding by Design approach suggests that targeted understanding be
framed as generalizations or propositions, not just phrases that refer to a topic or
content standard. See also proposition.
holistic rubric A rubric used to obtain an overall impression of the quality of a

performance or product. Typically, a holistic evaluation yields a single score.
Contrast analytic rubric. Sec also rubric.
277
ill-structured A term used to describe a question, problem, or task that has no

recipe or obvious formula to answer or solve it. Often the problem is fuzzy and
needs to be further defined or clarified before a solution can be offered. Such ques-
tions or problems thus demand more than knowledge-they demand good judg-
ment and imagination.
Most problems in life are ill-structured; most test items are not because they
have a single, unambiguous right answer.
intelligent tool A tool that puts abstract ideas and processes in a tangible form.
An intelligent tool enhances performance on cognitive tasks, such as the design of
learning units. For example, an effective graphic organizer like a story map helps
students internalize the elements of a story in ways that enhance their reading and
writing of stories. Likewise, routinely using intelligent tools like the unit planning
template and the Understanding by Design tools should help users develop a men-
tal template of the key ideas of Understanding by Design.
interpretation One of the six facets of understanding. Interpretations, narratives,

and translations that provide meaning. See also application; empathy; explana-
tion; perspective; self-knowledge.
iterative approach A process that continually revisits earlier work. Synonyms

include recursive, circular, and spiral-like. An iterative approach is the opposite of
a linear or step-by-step process. The curricular design process is always iterative:
Teachers keep revisiting their initial ideas about what they are after, how to assess
it, and how they should teach to it as they keep working on each element of their
design.
open-ended A phrase used to describe tasks and questions that do not lead to
a single right answer. Rather, many different acceptable answers are possible. Such
answers are justified, plausible, or well-defended as opposed to correct. Essay test
questions, for example, are open-ended, whereas multiple-choice tests are not (by
design).
outcome Shorthand for intended outcome of instruction. A desired result or a

specific goal to which an educator can commit. In Understanding by Design,
achievement target describes such intents, although goal is sometimes used for the
sake of variety. See also achievement target.
overarching question A provocative essential question that transcends the par-

ticular topic of a unit, pointing toward larger, transferable ideas.
perform To act upon and bring to completion. See also performance task.
performance See performance task.
278
G L O S S A R Y
performance standard An established level of achievement, quality of perfor-

mance, or degree of proficiency. A performance standard specifies how we71 students
are expected to achieve or perform. See also content standard.
performance task Also called performance A task that uses one’s knowledge
to effectively act or bring to fruition a complex product in which one’s knowledge
and expertise are revealed Music recitals, oral presentations, art displays, and auto
mechanic competitions are performance tasks
Many educators mistakenly use performance assessment to mean performance
test (see assessments) A performance assessment uses more than a single test of
performance and may use other modes of assessment as well (such as surveys,
interviews of the performer, observations, and quizzes)
Tests of performance, whether or not authentic, are different from multiple-
choice oi short-answer tests In a test of performance, a student must put every-
thing together in the context of ill-structured, nonroutine, or unpredictable
problems or challenges By contrast, most conventional short-answer or multiple-
choice tests are more like the drills in sports than tests of performance Real
performers-whether they are athletes, debaters, dancers, scientists, or actois-
must learn to innovate and use their judgment as well as their knowledge Multiple-
choice test items merely ask a student to recall, recognize, or plug in isolated,
discrete knowledge or skill, one at a time Because many types of performances are
ephemeral actions, a fair and technically sound assessment typically requires the
creation of a product Such a requirement ensures adequate documentation and the
possibility of appropriate review and oversight in scoring the performance
perspective One of the six facets of understanding Critical and insightful points
of view When one understands, one can get at a distance from what is known and
avoid getting caught up in the mews and passions of the moment See also appli-
cation; empathy; explanation; interpretation; self-knowledge.
portfolio A representative collection of one’s work. The work is fashioned for a

particular objective and carried from place to place for inspection or exhibition. In
academic subject areas, a portfolio often has two purposes: to prolride documenta-
tion of a students work, and to serve as the basis for evaluation of work-in-progress
or work over time. The documentation typically serves three functions: to reveal a
student’s control over all the major areas, techniques, genres, and topics of a course
or program; to allow a student to reflect on and show off best work (by letting the
student select which works will go in the portfolio); and to provide evidence of
how works evolved and were refined.
prerequisite knowledge and skill The knowledge and skill required to accom-
plish the goals of a unit in a culminating and complex performance task. Typically,
prerequisites identify the more discrete knowledge and know-how required to put
everything together in a meaningful final performance. For example, knowledge of
the USDA food pyramid guidelines would be considered a prerequisite to the task
of planning a healthy and balanced diet for a week.
279
process In the context of assessment, refers to the intermediate steps students

take in reaching a final performance or end-product specified by an assessment.
Process includes all strategies, decisions, subskills, rough drafts, and rehearsals
used in completing a given task.
When evaluating the process leading to a final performance or product, an asses-
sor is sometimes asked to explicitly judge a student’s intermediate steps, independent
of what can be inferred about those processes from the end result. For example, an
assessor might rate a student’s ability to work within a group or prepare an outline
as a prewriting component of a research project-independent of the ultimate prod-
uct the group or individual writer produces. Educators should be cautious, however,
of evaluating process skills separately. The emphasis should be on whether the final
product or performance met the standards set, irrespective of how the student got
there. See also backward design.
product A tangible result of a performance and the processes that led to it. A
product is valid for assessing a student’s knowledge to produce it to the extent that
the product reflects the knowledge taught and is an appropriate sample from the
whole curriculum of the relative importance of the material.
project A complex set of intellectual challenges, typically occurring over lengthy

periods of time. Projects usually involve extensive student inquiry, culminating in
student products and performances. A unit might be composed of a single project
but include multiple tasks and other forms of assessment evidence, such as
quizzes, tests, and observations, along the way.
prompt See academic prompt.
proposition A statement that describes a relationship among concepts. The

Understanding by Design approach suggests that targeted understanding be
framed as specific generalizations or propositions to be understood, not just phrases
that refer to a topic or content standard. Propositions include principles, general-
izations, axioms, and laws. See also generalization.
question See entry question; essential question; overarching question; top-

ical question.
quiz A selected-response or short-answer test (oral or written) where the sole

purpose is to assess for discrete knowledge and skill. Contrast academic prompt.
reliability In measurement and testing, refers to the accuracy of a score. Is it suf-

ficiently free of error? What is the likelihood that the score or grade would be con-
stant if the test were retaken or the same performance were rescored by someone
else? Error is unavoidable; all tests, including the best multiple-choice tests, lack
100 percent reliability. The aim is to minimize error to tolerable levels.
G L O S S A R Y
In performance assessment, the reliability problem typically occurs in two

forms: (1) To what extent can one generalize from the single or small amount of
performances to a student’s likely performance in general? or, Is the score truly rep-
resentative of the student’s general capacities and patterns of results? and (2) What
is the likelihood that different judges will see the same performance in the same
way? The second question involves what is typically termed interrater reliability.
rubric A criterion-based scoring guide that enables assessors to make reliable

judgments about student work and enables students to self-assess. A rubric answers
the question, What does understanding or proficiency for an identified achieve-
ment target look like?
A typical rubric is based on a continuum of performance quality, built upon a
scale of different possible score points to be assigned. Scores often range from 6 as
the top score, down to 1 or 0 for the lowest score. A rubric identifies the key traits
or dimensions to be examined and assessed (e.g., “syntax” or “Understanding of the
scientific method”). It provides key features of performance for each level of scar-
ing, using descriptors that signify the degree to which the criteria have been met,
thus enabling a judge to assign an appropriate score. See ulso analytic rubric;
holistic rubric.
sampling All unit and test design involves the act of sampling from a vast
domain of possible knowledge, skills, and tasks. Like the Gallup polls, sampling
enables an assessor to draw valid inferences from a limited inquiry if the sample of
work or answers is appropriate and justified.
Unit and test design use two different kinds of sampling: sampling that
involves the wider domain of all possible curricular questions, topics, and tasks;
and sampling that assesses only a sample (or subset) of an entire student popula-
tion instead of testing everyone. These two kinds of sampling are combined in
large-scale testing systems to form matrix sampling, whereby one can test many or
all students using different tests to cover as much of the domain of knowledge as
possible.
When teachers attempt to sample the domain of subject matter in a unit
through a specific task, they must ask, What feasible and efficient sample of tasks
or questions will enable us to make valid inferences about a student’s overall per-
formance (because we cannot possibly test the student on everything that was
taught and learned)?
scoring guide See rubric.
secure test A test in which one does not have prior access to the test questions
to prepare for the test. Most multiple-choice tests must be secure or their validity
is compromised because they rely on a small number of uncomplicated questions.
Many valid performance assessments are not secure (e.g.,a road test for getting a
driver’s license).
281
self-knowledge One of the six facets of understanding. The accuracy of self-

assessment and awareness of the biases in one’s understanding brought about by
favored styles of inquiry, habitual ways of thinking, and unexamined beliefs.
Accuracy of self-assessment means that one clearly understands what one does
not understand. See also application; empathy; explanation; interpretation;
perspective.
standardized A term used to describe the administrative conditions and proto-

col that are uniform for all students. In other words, if all students face similar
guidelines for logistics, time, material, and feedback, plus constraints to take a test,
then the test is standardized.
standards See content standard; design standards; performance standard.
target See achievement target.
task See performance task.
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Classification of Educational

Goals. Handbook I ; Cognitive Domain. A book written by Bloom (1956)
and his colleagues to classify the range of possible intellectual objectives, from the
cognitively easy to the difficult-in other words, to classify degrees of understand-
ing. They identified six cognitive levels: knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, with the last three commonly referred to as
“higher order.” The authors used application in a narrower sense than educators
use it today. In the taxonomy, application means applying discrete knowledge or
skill in an exam setting, such as constructing a sentence or solving a math word
problem. Today’s usage refers to a more sophisticated act of drawing upon a reper-
toire to solve a complex, multifaceted contextualized problem. The taxonomy
authors’ description of synthesis better fits the meaning of application used in
Understanding by Design in particular and the performance assessment movement
in general.
template. A guide or framework for designers. In its original usage, a template

was a thin form-constructed of paper, wood, or sheet metal-whose edge pro-
vided a guide for cutting a particular shape. In Understanding by Design, the unit
planning template provides a conceptual guide to apply the elements of backward
design in developing or refining a unit of study. Each page of the template contains
key questions and graphic organizers for recording design ideas.
tool See intelligent tool.
topical question An engaging and focusing essential question that frames a

particular unit of study. It is a more narrowly focused and content-specific form of
282
G L O S S A R Y
an essential question than an overarching question. See also entry question;

essential question; overarching question.
transferability The ability to use knowledge appropriately and fruitfully in a

new or different context from that in which it was initially learned. For example, a
student who understands the concept of “balanced diet” (based on the USDA food
pyramid guidelines) applies that understanding when evaluating hypothetical diets
for their nutritional values and by creating nutritional menus that meet the food
pyramid recommendations.
uncoverage A teaching approach that is required for all matters of understand-

ing. To uncover a subject is to do the opposite of covering it, namely, to go into
depth. Three types of content typically demand such uncoverage. The content may
be principles, laws, theories, or concepts that are likely to have meaning for a student
only if they are seen as sensible and plausible; that is, the student can verify,
induce, or justify the content through inquiry and construction. The content may
be counterintuitive, nuanced, subtle, or otherwise easily misunderstood ideas, such as
gravity, evolution, imaginary numbers, irony, texts, formulas, theories, or concepts.
The content may be the conceptual or strategic element of any skill (e.g., persuasion
in writing or “creating space” in soccer). Such uncoverage involves clarifying effec-
tive and efficient means, given the ends of skill, leading to greater purposefulness
and less mindless use of techniques.
unit Short for unit of study. Though no hard and fast criteria exist for what
makes up a unit, educators generally think of a unit as a body of subject matter
that is somewhere in length between a lesson and an entire course of study; that
focuses on a major topic (e.g.,the Revolutionary War) or process (e.g., the research
process); and that lasts from a few days to a few weeks.
validity The inferences one can confidently draw about student learning based
on the results of an assessment. Does the test measure what it purports to measure?
Do the test results correlate with other performance results educators consider
valid? Does the sample of questions or tasks accurately correlate with what students
would do if tested on everything that was taught? Do the results have predictive
value; that is, do they correlate with likely future success in the subject in question?
Some or all of these questions must have a yes answer for a test to have validity.
WHERE Acronym for, Where the work is headed; Hook students through engag-
ing and provocative entry points; Explore the subject in depth and equip students
with required knowledge and skill to perform successfully on final tasks; Rethink
with students the ideas and answers as students rehearse and revise; and Evaluate
results and develop action plans through self-assessment of results.
283
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What are enduring understandings and how are they identified?

What are enduring understandings and how are they identified?

How are units framed around essential questions?

How are units framed around essential questions?

Jay McTighe and Grant Wiggins

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

Gene R. Carter, Executive Director

Printed in the United States of America.

Stage 2: Determine Acceptable Evidence (Modules 7-11)

Testing and Peer Review (Modules 20-21)

Worksheet 0.3: An Analytic Rubric Frame . . . . ,174 Worksheet 4.2: Anticipating

Stage I: Stage 2: Stage 3:

ADVI O U T U S I N G THE HANDBOO

At the heart of the confusion, we believe, is that understanding is different

Differentiates revolutionary from nonrevolutionary thinkers is almost never a

A key difference between knowledge and understanding based on knowledge is

of it as dispassionate critical analysis; at other times, as empathetic response.

We have developed a multifaceted view of what makes up a mature understand-

Can explain: provide thorough, supported, and justifiable accounts of phe-

The facets reflect the different connotations of understanding, yet a com-

We see something moving, hear a sound unexpectedly, smell an unusual odor,

running, two persons conversing, an explosion of gunpowder, we say that we

Facet 1 involves the kind of understanding that emerges from a well-developed

Knowledge of Why and How

Explanatory understanding go beyond true opinions (mere right answers) to

Implications for Instruction and Assessment

Instructionally, this facet suggests that we deliberately seek a better balance

The object of interpretation is understanding, not explanation. Understanding is

d A grandfather tells stories about the Depression to illustrate the importance

meaning of a Spanish sentence.

Mea n i ngs Tra ns f o r m Und e r st a nd i ng s

Explanation and Interpretation

meaning, we mean that handing them prepackaged “interpretations,”without their

Implications for Instruction and Assessment

[By understanding] I mean simply a sufficient grasp of concepts, principles, or

d A young couple uses their knowledge of economics (e.g., the power of

Matching Ideas to Context

Gardner’s definition of genuine performance mentioned earlier echoes what

Teachers frequently say: “If a student really comprehends something, he can

Application also needs to reflect real-world situations:

Problems should be as close as possible to the situation in which a scholar/artist/

Understanding involves matching one’s idea or action to context. To show that

student understanding is revealed by a student’s innovation when applying knowl-

Real comprehension of a notion or a theory implies the reinvention of this the-

Implications for Instructions and Assessment

An important symptom of an emerging understanding is the capacity to repre-

d A 10-year-old girl recognizes the fallacy in TV advertising of using popular

look at gun control.

Seeing f r o m a Critical Distance

I .. . followed a golden rule that whenever a published fact, a new observation

Perspective as an aspect of understanding is a mature achievement, an escape

Implications for Instruction and Assessment

Facet 4 suggests that instruction include explicit opportunities for students

d An Israeli adolescent empathizes with the restrictive and constrained life of

players because he cannot relate to their struggles in learning the game.

Empathy as a Form of Insight

Empathy is linked to self-knowledge (Facet 6) because we must bracket our

The hermeneutical attitude supposes only that we self-consciously designate our

An example of the need for empathy can be found in the U.S.