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geography

DEPARTMENT OF GEO RAPHY & ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Title of the course: Environmental Impact Assessment

Course Code: GeES 3112

Credit Hour: 3

May 3, 2018

CHAPTER ONE
1. ENVIRONMENT
What is environment?
Environment refers to all of the external conditions that affect an organism or other specified
system during its life time, everything outside of a specified system. Environment simply
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means surroundings or environment is everything that is not me. Obviously, environment is a

concept that is relative to whatever objects it is which is surrounded. If used in that sense,
environment could include virtually anything and everything. Hence, there is a need for
specific definition for the word environment. The Environment Protection Act (1986) defines
environment as environment includes water, air, and land, and human beings, other living
creatures, plants, micro-organism and property. Environment is also defined as the totality of
all materials whether in their natural state or modified or changed by human; their external
spaces and the interactions which affect their quality or quantity and the welfare of human or
other living things, including but not restricted to, land, atmosphere, weather and climate,
water, living things, sound, odor, taste, social factors, and aesthetics. Generally, environment
is used broadly to denote everything that surrounds us, including the air, the land, the
ocean, and all living things.

For convenience, environment is classified in to the natural and human environment. The
natural environment can be classified in to two divisions:
1. Natural Environment
The natural environment can be classified in to two. These are:
a. The physical environment: This includes non-living things such as land, air and water or
three physical spheres are called the lithosphere (“lithos”= rock), hydrosphere (“hydro” =
water), and atmosphere (“atmos” = vapor).

b. The biological environment (biosphere (“bios”=life)): This includes all life forms
including the plants, animals and other living organisms.

2. Human Environment
The human environment includes social environment; legal environment; political
environment; economic environment; cultural environment

1.1. Dimensions of the environment

The environment can be structured in several ways, including components, scale/space and
time. The environmental components include all media susceptible to pollution, including air,
water and soil; flora, fauna and human beings; landscape, urban and rural conservation and
the built heritage. The environment has also economic and socio-cultural dimensions. It
also includes economic structure, labour markets, demography, housing and services. In
terms of scale it is global, regional and local.
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1.2. The nature of environmental impacts

Environmental impact is any alteration of environmental conditions, adverse or beneficial

caused or induced by an action or set of actions.
The environmental impacts of a project are that resultant changes/alteration in environmental
parameters, in space and time, compared with what would have happened had the project not
been undertaken.
The alteration may be caused in:
1. physical environment: temperature, humidity, noise level etc
2. chemical environment: acidity of water, composition of air etc
3. biological environment: depletion in species
4. social environment: creation of sense of well being, or social tensions
5. economic environment: change in per capita income or loss of jobs etc
6. political environment: change in voter preference due to impacts of project
New developments may produce harmful wastes but also produce much needed jobs in
areas of high unemployment. However, the correlation does not always apply.
A project may bring physical benefits when, for example, previously polluted and derelict
land is brought back in to productive use; similarly the socio-economic impacts of a major
project on a community could include pressure on local health services and on the local
housing market, and increases in community conflict and crime.
Projects may also have immediate and direct impacts that give rise to secondary and
indirect impacts later. A reservoir based on a river system not only takes land for the
immediate body of water but also may have severe downstream implications for flora and
fauna and for human activities such as fishing and sailing.

1.3. Environmental inventory

Environmental inventory is a complete description of the environment as it exists in an area
where a particular proposed action is being considered. The inventory is compiled from a
check of descriptors for:
 the physical-chemical environment
 biological environment
 cultural environment, and
 socio-economic environment
a. The major areas of the physical-chemical environment are:
 soil, geology, topography/landscape
 surface and groundwater resources
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 water quality
 air quality and
 climate (temperature, precipitation, wind direction,
etc)
b. Biological environment: - This refers to the flora and fauna of the area including species
of trees, grasses, fish, birds etc. In the biological environment specific reference must be
made to threatened and endangered plant and animal species.

c. Cultural environment: - It includes historic and archaeological sites and aesthetic

resources such as visual quality.
d. Socio-economic environment: - It is about issues which are related to human
environment. It is also about population growth rate, population distribution, and economic
indicator of human welfare such as educational system, transportation networks, water
supply, waste disposal, waste management, medical facilities, etc.

Therefore, environmental inventory

 serves as a basis for evaluating the potential impacts of a proposed action on the
environment
 include in EIS in the section referred to as “description of the existing environment”
 represents an initial step in the EIA processes
1.4. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and its historical origin
1. What is EIA?
Environmental impact assessment is the methodology or instrument of identifying, analyzing
and evaluating and forecasting in advance any impact, be it positive or negative, which
results from the implementation of a proposed project or public instruments. It is also defined
as a formal process for identifying the likely effects of particular activities or projects on the
biogeographical environment, and on human health and well-being, along with interpreting
and communicating information about these likely impacts.
EIA is a management tool, like economic analysis and engineering feasibility studies for
official and managers who must make important decisions about major development projects.
From this definition we can understand that EIA is for projects. To include other things we
need Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) that expands EIA from projects to policies,
programmes, and plans. SEA is a systematic and comprehensive process of evaluating the
environmental impacts of a policy, program, and plan prior to their implementation. In short,
EIA is for projects and SEA for policies, plans and programs (public instruments).
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The definition of the EIA, though includes the impact assessment of all types of programmes,
policies, and projects, but it is more certainly applied to the developmental projects, such as
the installation of a new industry, large scale animal farming projects, or a power plant, or a
major airport, or a major township, etc.
Most of the countries of the world, nowadays, almost mandatorily require preparations of
environmental impact assessment and to get clearance from the environmental authorities
before they are granted permissions to proceed with the designated classes of the work.
2. Origin of EIA
The EIA of major developments have been undertaken in developed countries, particularly in
USA, Europe, and Japan, etc; since 1950s or so. The main objective, however, was to ensure
that public safety and health were adequately protected. Separate documents, however, were
used to be submitted to each of the regulatory agencies involved, such as the water authority,
air pollution control authority, etc; and no attempt was made in those earlier years to prepare
a comprehensive overview. The prepared analyses were used to be reviewed by the various
regulatory bodies, although not by the public.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the environmental movement resulted in environmental groups
becoming more active in many countries. Responding to the demands of these pressure
groups, the governments accepted the principle that citizens organizations should get an
opportunity to participate in the decision making process of those major developments
that could have significant environmental impacts. As a consequence, the USA enacted the
first comprehensives environment legislation- the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
on January 1, 1970. This US action was followed by Canada, when the Canadian Federal
government established an environmental assessment and review process in 1973. Many
other countries then followed suit, particularly after the creation of the UN Environment
Programme (UNEP).

The EIA process has, thus, evolved since the early 1970s. In the initial years, however, the
emphasis was on assessing the impacts on measurable factors, particularly those for which
some prescribed standards are available (such as the air quality, water quality, solid waste
disposal, etc). After a few years, the EIAs began to include biological and ecological factors.
More recently, the EIAs have been broadened even further to include socio-economic factors
(such as employment opportunities, cultural impacts, recreational factors, etc.), so that the
trade-offs among socio-economic and environmental factors could be evaluated.
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It is pertinent to note that NEPA predated the 1972 UN conference in Stockholm where global
concerns about the state of the environment emerged, an indicator in its own right of the
mould as having the greatest international impact of any American legislation. Thus, the
initiation of EIA indicates that it was environmental crisis in the industrialized countries. So
for developing countries, like ours, it is the right time to apply EIA proactively than after
crisis learning from others.
1.4.1. The purposes of EIA(in general)
a. An aid to provide decision-making with
The primary purpose of EIA is to ensure that’”:
 impacts of projects, plans, policies and programs, etc are adequately and appropriately
considered and
 mitigation measures for adverse significant impacts incorporated when decisions are
taken
For the decision maker, for example a local authority, it provides a systematic
examination of the environmental implications of a proposed action, and sometimes
alternatives, before a decision is taken.
b. An aid to the formulation of development actions
Many developers no doubt see EIA as another set of hurdles to jump before they can proceed
with their various activities; the process can be seen as yet another costly and time consuming
activity in the permission process. However, EIA can be of great benefit to them, since it can
provide a framework for considering location and design issues and environmental issues in
parallel. It can be an aid to the formulation of development actions, indicating areas where a
project can be modified to minimize or eliminate altogether its adverse impacts on the
environment.
The consideration of environmental impacts early in the planning life of a development can
lead to
 environmentally sensitive development;
 improved relations between the developer, the planning authority and the local
communities;
 a smother planning permission process.
c. An instrument for sustainable development
The central and ultimate purpose of EIA is to achieve sustainable development: Development
that does not cost the Earth! Existing environmentally harmful development have to be
managed as best as they can. In extreme cases, they may be closed down.
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Sustainable development is defined as that development, which is free from environmental

degradation, poverty, and depletion of natural resource base. It is also defined as development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
[

The concept of sustainable development has challenged the society to change from its
destructive and exploitative philosophy to the one that fosters long-term protection of the
environment and its inhabitants. This concept has forced the scientists and other expertise to
not only developed technologies which are efficient, productive and profitable; but also to
keep into consideration their impacts on health and environment, resource and energy
conservation, waste management, and the social impacts such as the public inconveniences,
unemployment, crime, etc.
Over-fertilizing the land resources, converting forests in to crop and urban land, and over
harvesting forests to meet the needs of the growing population, are the short term solutions
that cannot continue any more. Ultimate global of sustainable development will, in fact,
require a stabilize population living in a secure social and physical environment.

In the past the environment failed to feature in holistic manner in the development endeavors
of the world, since project evaluation and decision making mechanisms were focused on
short term technical feasibility and economic benefits. For this reason, past development
practices failed short of anticipating, eliminating or mitigating potential environmental
problems early in the planning process.
In recent years, major projects have encountered serious difficulties because insufficient
account has been taken of their relationship with the surrounding environment. Some projects
have been unsustainable because of
 resources depletion
 public opposition
 financially encumbered by unforeseen costs
 liable for damages to natural resources
[[

Sometimes the activities which have the potential to cause harm exceeding their benefits
Example:
 Irrigation---waterborne disease, soil salination, people relocation,
sedimentation
 Health service ---------medical wastes
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 Rural infrastructures (roads) ---opening forests to exploitation, soil erosion,

etc.
Therefore, in order to ensure sustainable development it is essential to integrate
environmental concerns in to development activities, programs, policies, etc. So, EIA as one
of environmental management tools facilitates the inclusion of principles of sustainable
development operation well in advance at project planning stage.
1.4.2. EIA objectives
EIA objectives can be categorized in to long term and short term.
The long term objectives include the following:
 Conservation and sustainable use of natural resources
 Protection and enhancement of the quality of all life forms
 Integration of environmental considerations in development planning processes
The short-term objectives include the following:
 To assess the nature, intensity and duration of impact of proposed development projects
 To promote local community and public participation in the EIA processes of a project
 To promote social and cultural considerations in project design
 To provide a methodology for prevention and mitigation of expected impacts due to the
presence of a project
1.5. Legal framework of EIA
EIA needs:
 policy/policy making body
 legislation/legislation body
 directives
 enforcement
 coordination of the different authorities/ ministries/ bodies involved

It is also imperative to know/define:

 Who conducts EIA?
 Who reviews EIA?
 Which projects need EIA?
 What /which are the guidelines, norms etc. to prepare EIA?
All the above-mentioned points require a well-established legal system pertaining to
environmental impacts of development activities in a country or region.
1.5.1. Legal framework in Ethiopia
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The concept of sustainable development and environmental rights are enshrined in articles
43, 44 and 92 of the constitution of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
Article 43; right to development
Article, 44: Environment rights?
1. All persons have the rights to live in clean and healthy environment.
2. All persons who have been displaced or whose livelihoods have been adversely affected as
a result of state programmes have the right to commensurate monetary or alternative
means of compensation, including relocation with adequate state assistance.
Article, 92: Environmental objectivess
1. Government shall endeavor to ensure that all Ethiopians live in a clean and healthy
environment
2. The design and implementation of programmes and projects of development shall not
damage or destroy the environment.
3. People have the right to full consultation and the expression of views in the planning and
implementation of environmental policies and projects that affects them directly.
4. Government and citizens shall have the due to protect the environment.
The Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation (Federal Proc. No. 299/2002):- has
made it mandatory that development projects are required to be subjected to EIA scrutiny. It
means that EIA is a legal requirement.
1.6. Guiding principles of EIA

EIA should be:

 Purposive - the process should inform decision making and result in appropriate levels of
environmental protection and community well-being.
 Rigorous- the process should apply “best practicable” science, employing
methodologies and techniques appropriate to address the problems being investigated.
 Practical - the process should result in information and outputs which assist with
problem solving and are acceptable to and able to be implemented by proponents.
 Relevant - the process should provide sufficient, reliable and usable information for
development planning and decision making.
 Cost-effective - the process should achieve the objectives of EIA within the limits of
available information, time, resources and methodology.
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 Efficient - the process should impose the minimum cost burdens in terms of time and
finance on proponents and participants consistent with meeting accepted requirements
and objectives of EIA.
 Focused - the process should concentrate on significant environmental effects and key
issues; i.e., the matters that need to be taken into account in making decisions.
 Adaptive - the process should be adjusted to the realities, issues and circumstances of the
proposals under review without compromising the integrity of the process, and be
iterative, incorporating lessons learned throughout the proposal's life cycle.
 Participative - the process should provide appropriate opportunities to inform and involve
the interested and affected publics, and their inputs and concerns should be addressed
explicitly in the documentation and decision making.
 Interdisciplinary - the process should ensure that the appropriate techniques and experts
in the relevant bio-physical and socio-economic disciplines are employed, including use
of traditional knowledge as relevant.
 Credible - the process should be carried out with professionalism, rigor, fairness,
objectivity, impartiality and balance, and be subject to independent checks and
verification.
 Integrated - the process should address the interrelationships of social, economic and
biophysical aspects.
 Transparent - all assessment, decisions, and their basis, should be open and accessible to
the public.
 Systematic - the process should result in full consideration of all relevant information on
the affected environment, of proposed alternatives and their impacts, and of the measures
necessary to monitor and investigate residual effects.
1.7. Benefits of EIA
The potential benefits of EIA are: saving in capital and operating costs; environmentally
sound and sustainable design; increase project acceptance; facilitate better decisions; better
compliance with standards; better protection of the environment and human health.
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Chapter Two
2. Basic EIA procedures
EIA is a systematic process that examines the environmental consequences of development
actions, in advance. The emphasis, compared with many other mechanisms for environmental
protection, is on prevention. Therefore, the process involves a number of steps, as we can see
below.
2.1. Early information collection
In best practice, EIA proponents should begin research early in the life of the project. This
can include the collection of baseline data on local environment (both primary and
secondary data). Early identification of a potential problem can help the proponent to
minimize the impact by taking it into account in planning, in materials handling, and in
site layout.
2.2. Prescreening consultation
Prescreening is not normally taken as a part of a stage in the EIA process. However, its
application is recommended in recognition of its importance to enhance the over all
effectiveness of the EIA system.
Prescreening is a stage where the proponent and the respective environmental (Competent
Agency) and other sectoral agencies established contact and hold consultation on how best to
precede with EIA. The consultation may take the form of formal meeting, a telephonic
conversation or by means of electronic mail.

Undertaking of prescreening consultation is advisable because

 it saves time by avoiding delays caused by requests from the authority requiring
additional information occurring at a later stage, and
 fosters a mutual understanding.
 It also allows the authority to register the application

2.3. Screening- Is an EIA needed?

Before starting the screening phase of the EIA, it is recommended that the proponent must
appoint an independent consultant to assist in the process.
Screening is a process of determining whether or not a proposal should be subject to EIA and,
if so, at what level of detail.
The screening phase of the EIA should decide the following:
 the need for and level of assessment
 level of government to be responsible for the project
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 other necessary permits or approval process

 acceptability of the consultant to assist the proponent
 the public participation process; and
 the total life cycle of the project
In the screening process the proponent should submit to the Competent Agency a screening
report that contains the following:
 the title of the proposed activities;
 the name of the proponent and the consultant(s);
 the address of the proponent and the consultant(s);
 location of the proposed development;
 the extent of the proposed activity; and
 any potential environmental issues identified by the proponent (which may
include a short description of the affected environment)
2.3.1. Screening criteria
Different countries and donors use different criteria for screening project. Let us see the
following example.
European Union
Screening list A = projects requiring no environmental analysis
Screening list B = projects requiring further environmental analysis
Screening list C = projects requiring a full environmental assessment
World Bank
Category A = environmental analysis is normally required as the project may have adverse
and significant environmental impact
Category B = limited environmental analysis is appropriate, as the project may have specific
environmental impact
Category C = environmental analysis is normally unnecessary
Category D = environmental projects, for which separate EIAs may not be required as
environment would be a major focus of project preparation
EPA schedules
Schedule 1: projects which may have adverse and significant environmental impacts, and
may therefore, require full EIA (see Annex 1)
Schedule 2: projects whose type, scale or other relevant characteristics have potential to cause
some significant environmental impacts but not likely to warrant an
environmental impact study (see Annex 1)
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Schedule 3: projects which would have no impact and does not require environmental
impacts (see Annex 1)
Schedule 4: all projects in environmentally sensitive areas should be treated as equivalent to
schedule 1 activity of the nature of the project.

However, projects should be “screened in” based on

 the project scale (see Annex1).
 the project sectors
 the sensitivity of the project location and
 the expectation of adverse environmental impacts.
 The attitude of the society i.e. degree of public interest
 Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) as it provides:
 information about the proposal
 describes the proposal and examine alternatives
 identifies and addresses the concerns of the
community
 mitigates adverse effects and enhances potential
benefits
What are the outcomes of screening reports?
1. No EIA required
2. preliminary assessment – preliminary assessment is applied to
 projects with limited impacts which are not included in the project design
 project proposals with inadequate information
3. Full EIA
The output from the screening process is often a document called an Initial Environmental
Examination or Evaluation (IEE). For proposals which require EIA the next step in the
process is to agree on the issues that need to be analyzed in the EIA. This process is called
scoping.

2.4. Scoping – which impacts and issues to consider?

Scoping is the process of identifying and narrowing down the potential environmental
impacts associated with the intended development project. The level of scoping will depend
on
 the nature and scale of the development proposal and its complexity; and
 the sensitivity of the environment
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The objectives of scoping are to:

 identify key environmental concerns and set priorities
 identify significant effects and factors to be considered
 consider reasonable and practical alternatives
 inform potential affected people
 identify the necessary information for decision making
 establish terms of reference (TOR)
2.4.1. Who should be involved in scoping?
 the proponent
 the consultant
 the competent agency(EPA)
 affected and interested parties
 the wider community
Various techniques may be employed through the participation exercise, including:

 Public meeting
 telephone survey
 written information
 interview
 working with established groups ( eg.NGOs)
 workshops, seminars etc.

Scoping is generally carried out in discussions among the developer, the competent authority,
other relevant agencies and, ideally, the public. It is often the first stage of negotiations and
consultations between a developer and other interested parties. It is an important step in EIA
because it enables the limited resources of the team carrying issues that should later be
monitored. Scoping should be begin with the identification of individuals, communities, local
authorities and statutory consultants likely to be affected by the project; good practice would
be to bring them together in a working group and/ or meeting with the developer.
The process of scoping is that of deciding, from all of a project’s possible impacts and from
all the alternatives that could be addressed, which are the significant ones. An initial scoping
of possible impacts may identify those impacts thought to be potentially significant, those
thought to be not significant and those whose significance is unclear. Further study should
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examine impacts in the various categories. Those confirmed by such a study to be not
significant are eliminated; those in the uncertain category are added to the initial category of
other potentially significant impacts. This refining of focus on to the most significant impacts
continues throughout the EIA process. Good scoping has been shown to be a key factor in
good environmental impact statement.
2.5. Impact assessment study
Screening determines whether or not an EIA is required. Scoping identifies the issues that are
most important to investigate in details. The assessment phase of EIA is the time when most
of the work involved in impact assessment is carried out. It includes:
 Identifying impacts more specifically
 Analyzing impacts
 Determining impact significance or acceptability.
2.6. Identification of mitigation measures and alternatives
Mitigative measures can be taken before or after the occurrences of the impacts to rehabilitate
or compensate the negative impact already occurred. Mitigative measures should be clearly
spelt out in the EIA. Mitigative measures aim to minimize or eliminate negative impacts and
enhance the benefits. The mitigative measures should be prepared as an operational
management plan and could include a combination of the following mitigation options.
 alternative ways of meeting the needs
 changes in planning and design
 improving monitoring and management
 compensation in different forms (e.g. monetary)
 replacing, relocating, rehabilitating, etc.

Alternatives are generated and examined to determine the best method of achieving project
objectives, while minimizing environmental impacts. They can be grouped as follows:
 Demand alternatives e.g. using energy more efficiently versus building more
generating capacity
 Activity alternative e.g. providing public transport rather than increasing road
capacity
 Location alternatives either for the entire proposal or for components e.g. the location
of the processing plant for a mine
 Process alternative e.g. the reuse of processed water in an industrial plant, waste
minimizing or energy efficiency technology
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 Input alternative e.g. raw materials, energy sources

2.7. Reporting
Once impacts have been interpreted and mitigative measures have been set, it is essential
that the information be presented in a form that enables non-experts to comprehend. It is
important that the information in this report is as comprehensive as possible since a decision
regarding whether the project should go ahead or not, and whether an EIA is required to
further investigate issues and alternatives, will be made on the basis of this report. In many
cases where there are no major issues identified, the scoping report will be sufficient for a
decision to be made and no further studies will be required.

How do we make it comprehensive? To do so the report should reflect at least the following:
 a brief description of the project;
 all the alternatives identified during the scoping process;
 all issues raised by interested and affected parties and how these will be
addressed; and
 a description of the public participation process including a list of interested
and affected parts , and minutes of meeting
2.8. Reviewing
The EIA report should be submitted to the Competent Agency for review. The Competent
Agency should review the document to determine whether the process followed in preparing
the report has been adequate and that there has been sufficient consultation with
interested and affected parties.

Impacts identified in the document should be reviewed in terms of:

 socio-economic context and potential benefit
 effect on public health or risk to life
 scale, geographic extent such as regional, national or international importance
 duration and frequency
 reversibility or irreversibility
 ecological context
 degree of uncertainty

The review should also contain an analysis of the information provided to determine whether
due attention has been paid to possible project alternatives and whether the issues identified
have been afforded appropriate attention. The authority should complete the review within
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two weeks of receipt of the EIA report. Sometimes more time is required to revise depending
on the nature of the project. When the review has been completed, the competent agency
should decide whether to accept the application as it stands, reject the application or request
that the document be amended.
2.9. Record of decision and appeal
An application may be accepted or refused by the competent agency after the screening,
scoping or EIA phases. Competent agency must provide a record of decision report which
should be provided to the proponent be made available to any interested and affected party on
request. The record of decision report may form the basis of an environmental clearance
certificate if the project is approved and may contain the details of the conditions of approval.

A proponent or other interested party who is dissatisfied may object to actions, opinions or
decision made no later than four weeks after receipt of such a decision. Appeal should be
submitted in writing, clearly specifying the grounds for the appeal to the general manager of
the EPA depending on the competent agency for the EIA. The head of the competent agency
should make his decision within two weeks following the receipt of the appeal.

2.10. Condition of approval

The conditions of approval may be included into the record of decision but are typically
prepared as a separate document. The authority, in approving a proposal may wish to make
implementation of mitigation measures on condition of approval. The proponent may then
require submitting a detailed Environmental Management Plan (EMP). The EMP would
describe in detail how each mitigation measure should be undertaken. Monitoring criteria
should also be supplied and responsibilities clearly defined. Regular independent monitoring
would be undertaken at the cost of the proponent.
2.11. Internal monitoring and auditing
It is the responsibility of the proponent to conduct regular internal monitoring and auditing of
the environmental performance of the operation. The audits should be a systematic evaluation
of the activities of the operation in relation to the specified criteria of the condition of
approval. The auditing and monitoring results may be prepared in the form of an
environmental performance report, which should be submitted to the competent agency. The
auditing of the competent agency would be in the form of verification of internal reports.
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EIA process

Identification of
needs
Proposal description
Screening

EIA required No EIA

Scoping Public involvement

Assessing
1. Impact identification
2. Impact analysis/prediction
3. Impact significance

Mitigation
1. Redesign
2. Planning of impact management

Reporting Public involvement

Reviewing
Document quality
Stakeholder input
Proposal
Resubmit EIA audit & evaluation
Decision making

Redesign
Not Approved Monitoring
approved Impact
management

Fig.1. EIA process

CHAPTER THREE
3. Responsible bodies and their roles
This chapter begins with an outline of the principal actors involved in EIA and in the
associated planning and development process. Any proposed major development has an
underlying configuration of interests, strategies and perspectives. But whatever the
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development, be it a motorway, large animal farm project, water resource project, a reservoir
or a forest, it is possible to divide those involved in the planning and development process
broadly in to five main groups. These are:
1. the developers/proponent
2. the consultant
3. those directly or indirectly affected by or having an interest in the
development
4. the competent agency
5. licensing Agency
3.1. Proponent
The proponent
 is the project applicant (i.e. the developer)
 is responsible for complying with the requirements of the EIA and for all associated
costs incurred when following the EIA process.
 is responsible to appoint an independent consultant who will act on the proponent’s
behalf in the EIA process
 must ensure that adequate participation of the competent agency and interested and
affected parties and the public in general has been carried out.
 is responsible to ensure that the conditions of approval are carried out (including
monitoring and auditing).
3.2. Consultant
Statutory consultees are an important group in the EIA process. The planning authorities must
consult such bodies before making a decision on a major project requiring an EIA. The
independent consultant acts on behalf of the proponent in complying with the EIA process
and is responsible for showing that he/she has:
 expertise in environmental assessment and management;
 the ability to manage the required participation process;
 the ability to produce reports that are readable;
 a good working knowledge of environmental impact assessment
3.3. Licensing Agency
Licensing Agency is any organ of government empowered by law to issue an investment
permit, trade or operating license or work permit or register business organization as a case
may be. The licensing agencies have a legal duty to ask that environmental performance
criteria are included in the incentive structure to get environmental clearance certificate
 20

from the environmental (competent) agencies. These are required to ensure that renewal or
additional permits issuance should also consider environmental performance of the applicant,
thus required to seek advice or opinion from the appropriate environmental agency, etc.
3.4. Interested and affected parties
Interested and affected parties are important to a successful EIA and are responsible for
providing input and comments at various stages in the EIA process. Some local amenity
groups may also have a continuing role and an accumulation of valuable knowledge about the
local environment. Generally, consultation with the public in the EIA process can help to
ensure that the various groups’ views are adequately taken in to consideration in the decision–
making process.
One of the key aims of the EIA process is to provide information about a proposal’s likely
environmental impacts to the developer, public and decision-makers, so that a better
decision may be made.

3.4.1. Public participations/ public hearing

What is a public?
A public is any person, or group of people, that has a distinctive interest or stake in an issue.
Thus, the identification of public which would potentially be involved in the various stages of
an EIA is a basic element in the development of a public participation program.
Types of publics
There are several ways of categorizing various publics that might be involved in a public
participation program for an EIA study. However, the broad based system for grouping
publics consists of using four separate categories. These are:
1. persons who are immediately affected by the project and live in the vicinity of the project.
2. environmentalist and ecologists ranging from preservationists to those who want to
ensure that development are as effectively integrated in to the needs of the environment as
possible.
3. business and commercial developers who would benefit from initiation of the proposed
action.
4. the part of the general public comprising those who enjoy a high standard of living and
who do not want to sacrifice this standard in order to preserve wilderness or scenic areas
or to have pollution free air and water.
What is public participation?
 21

Public participation /public hearing can be defined as a continuous, two–way communication

process which involves promoting full public understanding of the processes and mechanisms
through which environmental problems and needs are investigated and solved by the
responsible agency. The basic purpose of including public participation programs or activities
in the environmental decision making process is to enable productive use of inputs and
perceptions from governmental agencies, private citizens and public interest groups in
order to improve the quality of environmental decision making.
In essence, public participation involves both information feed –forward and feed-back.
Feed forward is the process whereby information is communicated from public officials to
citizens concerning public policy, whereas feedback is the communication of information
from citizens to public officials regarding public policy. Feedback information is useful to
decision makers in reaching time and content decisions.
Consultation and participation can be useful at most stages of the EIA process:
 In determining the scope of EIA;
 In providing specialist knowledge about the site
 In evaluating the relative significance of the likely impacts
 In proposing mitigation measures
 In ensuring that the EIS is objective, truthful and complete
 In monitoring any conditions of the development agreement.
At such, how the information is presented, how the various interested parties use that
information, and how the final decision incorporates the results of the EIA and the views of
the various parties, are essential components in the EIA process.
Levels of public participation
Public participation should be associated with all stages of EIA including plans, programs and
policies. However, levels of citizen participation can range from situations in which the
citizens
 do not participate at all, to situations
 involving taken citizen participation, to situations where
 citizens share equally in planning, to situations where
 citizens actually control the planning process.
Public participation objectives
There are six types of objectives which should be considered in the design of a public
participation programs. These are:
1. information dissemination, education and liaisons
 22

2. identification of problems, needs and important values

3. idea generation and problems solving
4. reaction and feed back on proposals
5. evaluation of alternatives
6. conflict resolution by consensus
The basic reasons for identifying and classifying public participation objectives are:
 to prepare a public participation plan
 objectives change over the various stages of a study and
 some public participation techniques are better than others for achieving particular
objectives.
The above objectives are tied to the various stages of EIA study. Remember that the EIA
process can be considered to consist of the following stages:-
1. identification of issues and impacts (scoping)
2. conduction of base line studies of environment
3. prediction and evaluation of impacts
4. mitigation planning
5. comparison of alternatives
6. decision making relative to the proposed action, and
7. study documentation through the preparation of an environmental assessment or EIS
The relationships of these six objectives to the different stages of EIA study are shown in Table
1.
Table 1: Public involvement objectives at various EIA process stages
Stages ide B I M Co D Docum
of EIA ntifi a m i mp e entatio
cati s p t aris c n
on e a i on i
Objectiv of l c g of s
es issu i t a alte i
es n e t rnat o
& e v i ive n
imp a o
act s l n m
(sco t u a
pin u a p k
g) d t l i
y i a n
 23

o n g
n n
i
n
g
Informat
ion
dissemin
ation
Identify
problem
s ,needs ,
values
Identifyi
ng
problem
s solving
approach
es
Obtain
feed
back
Evaluate
alternati
ve
Resolve
conflicts

Public participation can perform three vital functions. These are:

1. it can serve as a mechanism for exchange of information
2. it may provide a source of information on local values
3. It can aid in establishing the credibility of the planning and assessment process.
Advantages and disadvantages of public participation
The major advantages of public participation are:
1. Benefits occur when affected person, likely to be unrepresented in EIA processes, are
provided an opportunity to present their views.
2. An added accountability is placed on political and administrative decision makers, since
the process is open to public view.
3. Openness exerts pressure on administrators to adhere to the required procedures in
decision making.
 24

4. Finally, through public participation, the agency is forced to be responsive to issues

beyond these immediately related to the project.
The disadvantages of public participation are:
1. Potential for confusion of the issue, since many new perspectives may be introduced
2. It is possible to receive erroneous information that results from lack of knowledge on the
part of the participants.
3. Uncertainty of the results of process, as well as project delay and increased project costs if
the public participation program is not properly planned.
3.5. Competent Agency
The government, at various levels, will normally have a significant role in regulating and
managing the relationship between the groups previously outlined. In Ethiopia, the principal
authority/ competent agency involved currently is the Environmental Protection Authority
(EPA) at Federal level and Environmental Protection Land Administration and Use authority
(EPLAUA) at regional level.
The competent agency is responsible to
 ensure that the proponent/consultant comply with the requirements of the EIA process
 provide general guidance on procedure and information required by the consultant
and the proponent
 ensure that the evaluation/review and decisions provided are done efficiently and
within reasonable time
 ensure that the proponent is informed of any shortfalls in the process as identified
through the reviews.
CHAPTER FOUR
4. IMPACT IDENTIFICATION
Environmental impact is the change in an environmental parameter, over a specific period
and within a defined area resulting form a particular activity compared with the situation,
which would have occurred, had the activity not been initiated. The aim of impact
identification is to ensuring that all potentially significant environmental impacts (adverse
or favorable) are identified and taken into account in the EIA process.
4.1. Types of impacts
The following are the major types of impacts.
1. Primary and secondary impacts
Primary impacts Secondary impacts
Project inputs cause primary impacts project out puts cause secondary impacts
 25

Easier to analyze and measure difficult to analyze and measure

Less significant more significant than primary
Eg. Change in vegetation composition Eg. landuse changes at the site

2. Short –term and long -term impacts

Identifying impacts as short –term and long-term is important as it enable the assessment of
the cumulative impacts of the proposed project which either significantly reduce or
enhance the state of the environment for future generation.
Short-term impacts denote immediate impacts of short duration such as those during
construction and initial use of materials, inputs, etc. It should exist between 0-5 years. E.g.
Noise from construction could be short-lived.
Long term impacts denote impacts lasting beyond the period of construction and initial use.
Impacts should exist for more than 15 years.
Eg.
 Noise from continuous operating equipment is permanent.

 Damaging of river: - permanently change river hydrology and seriously limit

future options of use of that river stretch.

 Proposed highway through constructions: - may fore close future choice of use
of those wetlands and permanently impair the eco-balance of the area.
 Application of pesticides/herbicides: - may remove undesirable species but
long-lasting/cumulative effects permanently damage other vegetative or results
in long term disruption of entire ecology
3. Reversible and irreversible impacts
Assessment of reversible and irreversible impacts involves consideration of all reversible and
irreversible commitments of resources which would be involved in the proposed action.
When we say resources we does not mean only the labour and material devoted to the action,
but also we mean the full range of natural and cultural resources likely to be lost or destructed
by the action.
Irreversible impacts apply primarily to non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels,
minerals, etc.
Reversible impacts are those effects that can be restored once the project/activity is stopped.
Eg. plant / animal species

Distinguishing impact based on their type is important:

 26

to manage the environmental impacts

to assess the significance of impacts
to minimize adverse impacts
for consideration of the alternatives
4.2. Impact significance
In order to determine the significance of environmental impacts it must be described
according to the following criteria:
 Nature of the impact: describe effects that a proposed activity will have on the
environment. Example positive, negative, direct, indirect, cumulative, etc.
 Extent: - showing the impacts may be realized local (e.g. dusts), regional (e.g. acid rain),
global (e.g. greenhouse gas).
 Timing: - timing of the impacts could be immediate (during construction, operation,
decommissioning) or the effect may take place much latter.
 Duration:-the duration of impacts range from short-lived to continuous impact.
 Intensity:- here it should be established whether the impact is destructive or innocuous
and should be described as low, medium or high
 Probability: - consider the likelihood of an impact occurring.
 Environmental component :- biophysical, social, economic, air, water, soil, etc
4.3. Techniques for impact identification
The aim of this section is to present a range of methods from the simplest checklists needed
for compliance with regulations to complex approaches (the use of interactive computer
programmes, networks) that developers, consultants and academics who aim to further “best
practice” may wish to investigate further. Many of the more complex methods were
developed for government agencies that deal with large numbers of fairly similar project
types. The methods are divided in to the following categories:
1. Ad-hoc approaches
2. Checklists
3. Delphi
4. Matrices
5. Networks or impact trees
6. Map overlay techniques
1. Ad hoc methods
Ad hoc method is a simple approach to identify the total impacts of a project and would
consider each environmental area. In this method, each environmental area e.g. air, water
 27

etc, are taken separately. The ad hoc method involves assembling a team of specialist to
identify impacts in their area expertise i.e. expert opinion. Expert opinion on the impact of
any activity can be sought by
 meeting with (panel discussion), or
 writing to the experts and asking their answers to specific questions.
 compiling, analyzing and reporting the already published or otherwise known opinion
of experts. This form of collection and collection of expert opinion is also termed as
content analysis or literature survey or plain survey.
Experts state the nature of impacts up on each environment as:
 no effect
 problematic
 short time /long time
 reversible /irreversible
It is for rough assessment of total impacts giving the broad areas of possible impacts and the
general nature of these possible impacts. For example, to explain the impact of a project on
plants and animals it uses the term minimal but adverse and to express impacts on regional
economy it uses the term significant or extremely significant. These statements are generally
qualitative and could be based on subjective assessment or qualitative interpretation of
quantitative data.
When the expert opinion is sought to be taken by calling a meeting /panel discussions of the
experts there can be the following additional pitfalls.
a. Halo effect
b. Decibel effect
c. Vanity effect
a. Halo effects:-those experts who are relatively more senior or eminent may cast a ‘ halo
effect’ on their junior or less eminent counter parts causing the later to adopt the views of the
former as ‘consensus’ even if, otherwise, there would have been dissent.

b. Decibel effect: - among a set of experts there are always some who exceptionally
vociferous and assertive as also some who are exceptionally soft-spoken and quite. In a
meeting the clamorous one tend to air their views forcefully and repeatedly, getting them
adopted as ‘consensus’ even if the views of the milder members may be different or more
valuable.
 28

c. Vanity effects: - often experts tend to cling to the views they might have expressed before,
or at the start, of the meeting even after realizing their flaws. They are either too vain to admit
that they were wrong or fear a loss of face.

The advantage of expert opinion data gathering techniques is its speed and inexpensiveness.
For these reasons expert opinion has been, and continues to be, very extensively used in EIA.
The limitation is that it is inherent subjectivity and biasness.

These limitations may not come only in the form of the opinion of the expert but also in the
choice of expert by the convener (of a meeting) or the compiler (of published opinion). A
convener of an expert meeting may pick and choose experts known to be leaning towards
view point desired by the convener. A compiler can similarly pick and choose opinions that
confirm to his/ her own bias.
2. Checklists
Checklists methods are developed from list of environmental features or activities that should
be investigated for possible /potential impacts. Checklists are an advance on ad hoc methods
in that they list biophysical, social and economic components, which are likely to be affected
by a development, in more detail. It combines a list of potential impact areas that need to be
considered in the EIA processes with an assessment of often qualitative of the individual
impacts.

EPA (Environmental Protection Authorities) may provide such checklist and guidelines for
different projects that all items deemed important by the authority are given due
consideration. This approach has been followed by a number of public agencies since it
ensures that the entire list of areas prescribed by the agency is considered in the assessment
processes. For example, there may be specific checklists for specific projects.

Checklists are “one dimensional” lists of potential impacts which tell whether an impact will
occur or not. It includes extensive data collection sheets. The collected data can then be used
to answer a series of questions to identify major impacts and to identify shortages of data.

It identifies impacts based on a set of questions to be answered. Some of the questions may
concern indirect impacts and possible mitigation measures. They may also provide a scale for
classifying estimated impacts; from highly adverse to highly beneficial (see Table 2). Shows
part of the questionnaire checklist.
 29

Table 2: Example of checklist.

Questions to be considered Yes/no Which characteristics of Is likely to be
the project could affect significant?
the environment? Why?
Will the project lead to risks of
contamination of water environment
 River
 Lake
 Water quality,etc.
Will the project affect the air environment
 Air pollution
 Climate change, etc.
Will the project result in land use change
such as
 Forestry
 Grazing
 Residential, etc
Is there a risk of long-term build up of
pollutants in the environment from these
sources? etc.

Checklist methods also involve assigning number values to each of the different factors
considered in impact assessment. The numbers may be chosen from pre set scales of say 0-
10. The major feature of this system is that environmental impact is expressed in
commensurate units.
Advantage
 It promotes thinking about the array of impacts in a systematic way and allows concise
summarization of effects.
 It is the simplest assessment methodologies
Limitations
 Checklists do not usually include direct cause-effect links to project activities.
 Checklist may be too general or incomplete
 They do not illustrate interactions between effects
 30

 The same effect may be registered in several places under heading that overlap in content
(double counting)
 The number of categories to be reviewed can be immense thus destructing attention from
the more significant impacts.
 The identification of effects is qualitative/subjective
3. Delphi
Delphi is a method of collecting opinions, from different expertise by building different
methods to minimize the various negative attribute of other opinion gathering methods
(mentioned earlier). This method can:
 side step halo, decibel and vanity effects
 handle large number of opinion givers than panels or brainstorming session can.

Procedure
1. A structured, formal and detailed questionnaire is given to the participants by mail or
in person.
2. The organizer of the Delphi then collects, analyses, combines and averages the
responses and represents them medians.
3. Questionnaire for second round are given with modification if necessary.
4. The averaged response of 1st questionnaire is provided to the participants (where the
participants may be asked to respond to scaled objective item.)
5. After scrutinizing 2nd round, respondents may be asked to justify the response
6. Further interactions are continued, if necessary
7. Convergence of opinion emerges (NOT BY FORCE)
Limitations
 There is pressure towards convergence and this may suppress other valid perspectives.
 The role of the Delphi coordinator is crucial and subjective biases may be introduced
through this route.
 Lack of item clarity or the common interpretation of scales and feedback may lead to
invalid results.
 Delphi is time consuming and if the questionnaires are long, one may tend to fill them
in a casual manner.
4. Matrices
Matrices are grid like tables used to identify the interaction between project activities and
environmental characteristics. Matrices are ‘two dimensional’ lists which also give an
 31

indication of the ‘magnitude’ of likely impacts. Matrices are thus checklists of a higher
dimension and contain more information than the latter.
There are different types of matrices. These are:
a. simple matrix
b. magnitude matrix
c. Leopold matrix
d. Weighted matrices
a. Simple matrices methods are basically generalized checklists where usually one dimension
of a matrix is a list of environmental, social, and economic factors likely to be affected by a
project. The other dimension is a list of actions associated with development activities (e.g.
construction, operation, decommissioning, buildings, access road, etc.). Impacts are identified
by placing a cross in the appropriate cell or marking cells representing a likely impact
resulting from the interaction of a facet of the development with environmental features.
Table 3 shows an example of a simple matrix.
Table 3: part of a simple matrix
Environmental component Project activities
Clearing Excavation Construction Operation Transportation
Soil and geology x x
Flora x x
Fauna x x
Air quality x
Water quality x x x
Population density x x
Employment x x
Traffic x x x x
Housing x
Community structure,etc. x x

b. Magnitude matrices is defined as the degree, or expensiveness or scale of impact (How

large an area, how severely affected). Magnitude matrices go beyond the mere identification
of impacts by describing them according to their magnitude, importance and/or time frame
(e.g. short, medium or long-term). Table 4 is an example of a magnitude matrix.
 32

Table 4: Part of a magnitude matrix

Environmental Project action
component
Clearing Excavation Construction Operation Transportation
Soil and geology •
Flora • O
Fauna O O
Air quality O •
Water quality . . O • O
Population density O
Employment • O .
Traffic • O O
Housing O
Community structure, etc.

• = large negative impact O=large positive impact

. = small negative impact o= small positive impact

c. Leopold matrix. Although there are many variants of the matrix approach, the best known
interaction matrix methods is the Leopold et al., developed in 1971. It is based on a
horizontal list of 100 project actions and a vertical list of 88 environmental components. In
each appropriate cell, two numbers are recorded. Table 5 shows sample matrix. The number
in the top left-hand corner represents the impact’s magnitude, from ten to one, with 10
representing a large magnitude and one, a small magnitude. That in the bottom right-hand
corner represents the impact’s significance, from 10 (very significant) to 1 (insignificant);
there is no negative significance. This distinction between magnitude and significance is
important: an impact could be large but insignificant, or small but significant.

Table 5: sample matrix.

Proposed action Deforestation Land use change Mining
Environmental Soil 5 2 6 3 9 3
component
Water 1 7 5 3 6 1
Land 5 2 6 3 2 1
Vegetation 6 3 7 4 6 4
 33

Advantage
The Leopold matrix is easily understood, can be applied to a wide range of developments,
and is reasonably comprehensive for first-order, direct impacts.

Disadvantages
 It cannot reveal indirect effects of developments.
 It gives no indication whether the data on which these values are based are qualitative
or quantitative;
 it does not specify the probability of an impact occurring;
 it excludes details of the techniques used to predict impacts; and
 the scoring system is inherently subjective and open to bias.
d. Weighted matrices were developed in an attempt to respond to some of the above
problems. Importance weightings are assigned to environmental components, and sometimes
to project components. The impact of the project (component) on the environmental
component is then assessed and multiplied by the appropriate weighting(s), to obtain a total
for the project. Table 6 shows a small weighted matrix that compares three alternative project
sites.
Steps
1. List down all environmental components which are likely to be affected by the
intended project
2. Each environmental component is assigned an importance weighting (a), relative to
other environmental components.
3. The magnitude (c) of the impact of each project on each environmental component is
then assessed on a scale 0-10, and multiplied by (a) to obtain a weighted impact (ac).
For instance, site A has an impact of 3 out of 10 on air quality, which is multiplied by 21 to
give the weighted impact, 63. For each site, the weighted impacts can then be added up to
give a project total. The site with the lowest total, in this site B, is the least environmentally
harmful. However, the evaluation procedure depends heavily on the weightings and impact
scales assigned.
Table 6: a weighted matrix: alternative project site
Environmental Alternative sites
component (a)
Site A Site B Site C
 34

(c) (axc) (c) (axc) (c) (axc)

Air quality 21 3 63 5 105 3 63
Water quality 42 6 252 2 84 5 210
Noise 9 5 45 7 63 9 81
Ecosystem 28 5 140 4 112 3 84
Total 100 500 364 438
a = relative weighting of environmental component (100)
c= impact of project at particular site on environmental component (0-10)
5. Network /impact tree methods
Network methods illustrate the multiple links between project activities and environmental
characteristics. It also recognizes the interactive nature of environment components.
Environmental sub systems are interconnected and any impact on one of the subsystems
effects several other subsystems. That is why a ‘primary’ impact may lead to ‘secondary’,
‘tertiary’ and higher order impacts. Therefore, it takes an ecological approach for identifying
the secondary, tertiary and higher order impacts.

Impact identification using networks involves following the effects of development through
changes in the environmental parameters in the model.
Environmental impacts can result either directly from a development action or indirectly
through induced changes in environmental conditions. A change in environmental conditions
may result in several different types of impact. This method should lead to the identification
of remedial measures and monitoring schemes.

Procedure
 Start with a project activity and identify the types of impacts which would initially occur.
 Select each impact and identify the impacts which may be induced as a result. This
process is repeated until all possible impacts have been identified. Sketching results in
‘impact tree’ (see Fig.2).
 35

DO depletion etc.
Stagnation
Change in regime
 36

River water quality Loss of fisheries etc.

etc.

etc.

Increase in crime
m Deforestation etc. etc.
da
Political fall out
of Social tension
on Displacement of people etc.
ucti Cost of rehabilitation
nstr
Co Construction activities
etc.

etc.
Higher crop
Availability of water yields
Loss of productivity
Water logging
Mosquito menace
Salinization
etc.

Fig.2: Typical example of impact tree– some branches

Disadvantage
 It does not establish the magnitude or significance of interrelationships between
environmental components, or the extent of change.
 It requires considerable knowledge of the environment.

Advantage
Their main advantage is their ability to trace the higher-order impacts of proposed
developments.
6. Map overlay/GIS techniques
Overlay maps have been used in environmental planning since the 1960s, before the NEPA
was enacted. A series of transparencies is used to identify, predict, assign relative significance
 37

to and communicate impacts. In this technique a base map is prepared, showing the general
area within which the project may be located. Successive transparent overlay maps are then
prepared for the environmental components that, in the opinion of experts, are likely to be
affected by the project.
The project’s degree of impact on the environmental feature is shown by the intensity of
shading, slight-shading and unshading. Unshaded areas are those where a development
project would not have a significant impact. We can also assign different importance
weightings to the impacts: this enables a sensitivity analysis to be carried out.
The overlay maps method is particularly useful for identifying optimum corridors for
developments such as electricity lines, roads, and grazing land, for comparisons between
alternatives, and for assessing large regional developments.

Limitations
 It does not consider factors such as the likelihood of an impact, secondary impacts or
the difference between reversible and irreversible impacts.
 It requires the clear classification of often indeterminate boundaries (such as between
forest and field), and so is not a true representation of conditions on the ground.
 It relies on the user to identify likely impacts before it can be used.
However, the choice of impact identification techniques depends on
 Type and choice of proposal
 Type of alternatives being assessed
 Nature of the likely impacts
 Experience of EIA team with the impact identification methods
 The resource available –cost, information, time, personnel.
 38

CHAPTER FIVE
5. IMPACT PREDICTION, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
5.1. Impact Prediction
EIA deals not only with the assessment of already occurred impacts of a past or presently
ongoing activities but also with the forecasting of further impacts if the ‘as –it- is’ situation
continues or changes (as in terms of capacity expansion of an industry or commissioning
of new industries in an area). Once the range of impacts has been identified the potential
size of each one must be predicted.

Impact prediction is the heart of the EIA process, although the process is not linear.
Prediction is often not treated as an explicit stage in the process. Indeed the whole EIA
exercise is about prediction.

Objectives of prediction
The objective of prediction is to
 identify the magnitude and other dimensions of identified change in the
environment with a project or action, in comparison with the situation without that
project or action.
 provide the basis for the assessment of significance.

To predict the impact we should know the following.

A. what to predict
B. how to predict (the methods and models used in prediction) and
C. living with uncertainty (the limitations implicit in such exercises)

A. Dimensions of prediction (what to predict)

The impacts of the project should be predicted:
4. on socio-economic environment
5. biological environment (flora and fauna)
6. water environment
7. air environment
8. land
9. cultural environment
10. Other indirect and secondary effects associated with the project
 Effects from traffic (road, rail, air, water) related to the development.
 39

 Effects arising from the extraction and consumption of material, water, energy or
other, resources by the development.
 Effects of other development associated with the project, e.g. new roads, sewers,
housing power lines, pipelines, telecommunications, etc.
 Effects of association of the development with other existing or proposed
development.
 Secondary effects resulting from the interaction of separate direct effects listed above.

1. human beings, buildings and man-made features

 Change in population arising from the development, and consequential environment
effects.
 Visual effects of the development on the surrounding area and landscape.
 Levels and effects of emissions from the development during normal operation.
 Levels and effects of noise from the development.
 Effects of the development on local roads and transport.
 Effects of the development on buildings, the architectural and historic heritage,
archaeological features, and other human artifacts, e.g. through pollutants, visual
intrusion, vibration.

2. on flora, fauna and geology

 Loss of, and damage to, habitats and plant and animal species.
 Loss of, and damage to, geological, palaeotological and physiographic features.
 Other ecological consequences.

3. on land
 Physical effects of the development e.g. change in local topography, effect of earth-
moving on stability, soil erosion, etc.
 Effects of chemical emissions and deposits on soil of site and surrounding land.
 Land-use/resource effects:
a. quality and quantity of agricultural land to be taken;
b. sterilization of mineral resources;
c. other alternative uses of the site, including the ‘‘do-nothing’’ option;
d. effect on surrounding land uses including agriculture;
e. waste disposal.
4. on water
 40

 Effects of development on drainage pattern in the area.

 Changes to other hydrographic characteristics, e.g. groundwater level, watercourses,
flow of underground water.
 Effects on coastal or estuarine hydrology.
 Effects of pollutants, waste, etc. on water quality.
5.on air and climate
 Level and concentration of chemical emissions and their environmental effects.
 Particulate matter.
 Offensive odours.
 Any other climatic effects.
Impact prediction should also identify
 direct and indirect impacts (simple cause-effect diagrams may be useful here),
 the geographical extent of impacts (e.g. local, regional, and national), whether the
impacts are beneficial or adverse, and
 the duration of the impacts.
 Predictions should also include estimates of the probability that an impact will occur,
which raises the important issue of uncertainty.

Another dimension is the unit of measurement, and the distinction between quantitative and
qualitative impacts. Some indicators are more readily quantifiable than others (e.g. a change
in the quality of drinking water, in comparison, for example, with changes in community
stress associated with a project).

B. Methods and models for prediction (how to predict)

 There are many possible methods to predict impacts.
 For example, a study undertaken by Environmental Resources Ltd for the Dutch
government in the early 1980s identified 150 different prediction methods used in just
140 EIA studies from The Netherlands and North America.
 None provides a magic solution to the prediction problem.
Prediction should not be used sophisticated prediction method i.e. should be kept in
proportion to the scope of the EIA and the importance of the particular impact. If possible,
impact should be predicted quantitatively.
All predictions are based on conceptual models of how the universe functions; they range
 41

in complexity from those that are totally intuitive to those based on explicit assumptions
concerning the nature of environmental processes…the environment is never as well
behaved as assumed in models.
Predictive methods can be classified based on: scope, their form.
In terms of scope, all methods are partial in their coverage of impacts, but some seek to be
more holistic than others.
Partial methods are extrapolative, i.e. predictions are made that are consistent with past and
present data. Extrapolative methods include:
 trend analysis (extrapolating present trends, modified to take account of changes
caused by the project)
 scenarios (common-sense forecasts of future state based on a variety of assumptions),
 analogies (transferring experience from elsewhere to the study in hand) and
 intuitive forecasting (e.g. the use of the Delphi technique to achieve group consensus on
the impacts of a project).
Methods can also be classified according to their form, as the following types of model
illustrate.

1. Mathematical and computer-based models

Mathematical models seek to represent the behavior of aspects of the environment through
the use of mathematical functions. They are usually based upon scientific laws, statistical
analysis or some combination of the two, and are often computer based.
2. Physical/architectural models and experimental methods
Physical, image or architectural models are illustrative or scale models that replicate some
element of the project-environment interaction. For example, a scale model (or computer
graphics) could be used to predict the impacts of a development on the landscape or built
environment.
Field and laboratory experimental methods use existing data inventories, often supplemented
by special surveys, to predict impacts on receptors. Field tests are carried out in unconfined
conditions, usually at approximately the same scale as the predicted impact; an example
would be the testing of a pesticide in an outdoor pond.
3. Expert judgments and analogue models
All predictive methods in EIA make some use of expert judgment. Such judgment can make
use of some of the other predictive methods, such as mathematical models and cause-effect
networks or flow charts.
 42

Generally, impact can be predicted by

Professional judgment
Mathematical models
Experiments and case studies
C. Living with uncertainty
Environmental impact statements often appear more certain in their predictions than they
should. All predictions have an element of uncertainty. There are three sources of uncertainty
relevant to the EIA process as a whole. These are:
a. uncertainties about the physical, social and economic environment;
b. uncertainties about guiding values such as policy guidance; and
c. uncertainties about related decisions such as planning, negotiation ,etc.
All three classed of uncertainty may affect the accuracy of predictions, but the focus in an
EIA study is usually on uncertainty about the environment. This may include the use of
inaccurate and/or partial information on the project and on baseline environmental conditions,
unanticipated changes in the project during one or more of the stages of the life cycle, and
oversimplification and errors in the application of methods and models.
5.2. Prediction and assessment of impacts on the environment
5.2.1. Prediction and assessment of impacts on the air environment
In this section we will try to addresses the basic concepts of and a methodological approach
for conducting a scientifically based analysis of the potential air quality impacts of proposed
projects and activities.

The most important projects that exhibit air quality impacts are construction and operation of
 Fossil fuel-fired power plants
 Petroleum refineries
 Petrochemical operations
 Iron and still miles
 Hazardous waste incinerators
 Major highways or freeways and air ports
 Dams
 Waterways
 Industrial parks
 Highway, etc
These activities cause emission of particulate and gaseous air pollutants.
 43

The basic steps associated with prediction of changes in air quality and assessments of the
impact of these changes are as follows:

Step 1: Identification of air pollutants

The first step associated with prediction and assessment of air quality impact involves
identification of the types1 and quantities of air pollutants emitted from construction and
operation of the proposed development project. The suggested approach is use of emission
factor information organized according to project type or activity.
Emission factor (EF) is defined as the statistical average of the rate at which a pollutant is
released into the atmosphere as a result of some activity, such as production, by industry or
combustion, divided by the activity. It relates the types and quantities of pollutants emitted to
indicators such as production capacity, quantity of fuel burned or vehicles miles traveled by
an automobile. These facts are used to calculate the total quantity of air pollution anticipated
from the given activity. This information is basic to the prediction of the mesoscale air quality
impact of the alternatives for a proposed action.

A considerable body of information exists on emission factor for a variety of projects and
associated activities (see Table 7). For conventional air pollutants (such as CO, HC, NOx,
CO2) EF information should be readily available.
Table 7: Pollution emission factors for passenger vehicles
Transport mode C Organic Carbon Nitrogen Sulfur
ar compounds monoxide oxides dioxide
b g/pm g/pm g/pm g/pm
o
n
di
o
xi
d
e
(
1
The two major classes of gaseous air pollutants are inorganic gases and organic vapors. Examples of widely
occurring inorganic gases includeSO2, NOx, CO, hydrogen sulfide; and organic vapors include hydrocarbons,
alcholes, ketones, and esters.
Particulate air pollutants are any dispersed matter, solid or liquid, in which the individual aggregates are
larger than single small molecules (about 0.0002 mm in diameter) but smaller than about 500mm.
 44

p
o
u
n
d
s/
p
a
ss
e
n
g
er
-
m
il
e)
Truck (gasoline) 1. 3.2 27.46 2.05 0.23
-single 5
-average 5
0. 1.68 14.45 1.08 0.12
8
1
Car 1. 2.57 20.36 1.61 0.14
-single 1
-average 2

0. 1.51 11.98 0.95 0.08

6
8
Bus(diesel) 0. 0.25 1.21 1.81 negligible
Transit 3
9
Rail 1.12 0.6 0.9 0.51
-diesel 0.
 45

-electric 4
3
0. negligible 0.05 1.1 2.07
2
6
Aircraft 0. 0.5 0.52 1.08 0.08
5
7
Bicycle 0 0 0 0 0
Walk 0 0 0 0 0
g/pm = grams/passenger-mile

Step 2: Description of existing AIR quality level

The second step in the process is to assemble information on existing air quality level in the
area of the project, particularly for those air pollutants anticipated to be emitted from the
construction and operational phase of the project. Air quality information should compile
from the following sources:
 Environmental protection authority
 Meteorological service agency
Step 3: Determination of air pollution dispersion potentials
The next step is to gather information on the general characteristics of the area with regard to
air pollution dispersion. This information will be useful in evaluating the mesoscale impact of
the proposed action. There are several useful parameters for this step, including mixing
height, inversion height, annual wind speeds, high air pollution potential advisories, and
episode days.
The first general indicator of air pollution dispersion potential is mixing height, which can be
defined as the vertical distance available above the earth’s surface at a given location and at a
given time period for the mixing of the pollutant. The mixing heights vary daily, seasonally,
and topographically (such information can be obtained from the Meteorological Service
Agency).
Inversion occurs when temperature increases with the height above the earth’s surface.
Inversions typically are present during the night of early morning hours due to the heating,
and cooling pattern at the earth’s surface. One of the characteristics of inversion is that they
are often accompanied by wind speeds less than 7 mi/hr; thus they often represent time
 46

periods when there is limited horizontal and vertical dispersion. The maximum inversion
height is about 500m above the earth’s surface.
Step 4: Assemblage of basic meteorological data
Information that is associated with general air pollution dispersion potential, but is more
relevant to specific calculations of microscale impact, includes monthly records of
precipitation, temperature, wind speed and direction, solar radiation relative humidity and
other items. The information is generally presented for the most recent 30 years period for
those stations that have been collecting information for that length of time. Graphical
presentation of monthly, seasonal, or annual patterns of various parameters should be
considered.
Step 5: Presentation of air quality standards
One of the major points of concern in assessment of air quality impacts is the question of
whether air quality standards will be exceeded. Two types of standards are relevant; ambient
air standards and emission standards. Ambient air quality standards apply to the general
ambient atmosphere, whereas emission standards refer to pollutant materials that can be
emitted from a source into the ambient atmosphere.
Step 6: Emission inventory
An emission inventory is the compilation of the quantities of air pollutants from all sources in
a defined geographical area entering the atmosphere in a given time period (typically a one
year period is used). A properly developed emission inventory provides information
concerning all source emission and defines the location, magnitude, frequency, duration and
relative contribution of these emissions. Information on existing air quality levels in the area
will be useful as a base line for establishing the impact of the particular proposed action.
Additionally, it can be used in a comparative context with regard to data from other nearby
geographical area.
The steps associated with compiling a comprehensive emission inventory are:-
a. Classification of all pollutants and sources of emissions in the geographical area being
addressed.
b. Identification and aggregation of information on emission inventory for each of the
identified pollutants and sources
c. Determination of the daily quantity of materials handled, processed or burned; or other
unit production information, depending up on the individual identified sources
d. Computation of the rate at which each pollutant is emitted to the atmosphere, with this
rate typically expressed on an annual basis.
 47

e. Summation of the specific pollutant emissions from each of the identified source
categories.
Necessary data can be grouped in to three categories. These are:
 data which is indicative of general air pollution dispersion characteristics of
the study area
 data which can be used to qualitatively describe the atmosphere dispersion
of air pollution from project activity
 data which is necessary for the use of mathematical models for determining
actual pollutant dispersion.

If emission inventory is maintained by government agency, this could be probably be

accomplished by making only periodic checks with the agency.
Generally, emission inventory provides a summary of air pollutant emission under current
conditions in the vicinity of the proposed project activity. Thus it is useful for general air
quality management and trend analysis. However, emission inventory does not include
consideration of atmospheric reactions and the damage associated with a given weight of
pollutants.
Step 7: Impact prediction
Air quality prediction can be based on one to several approaches including:-

a. mass balance approach

b. use of mathematical models
c. other consideration
a. mass balance approach: - this approach will necessitate the development of inventory
representing a mass balance of the total air pollutant emission from all sources for proposed
project or activity entering in to the atmosphere during the project phase. The best approach
is meso-scale calculation. This approach involves calculation of estimated annual quantity of
air pollutants that would be emitted from the construction and operational phases of each
alternative for the proposed action. This calculation can be done based on emission factors
and information regarding the size or type of activity. The calculated quantities of air
pollutants should then be compared with the regional or local emission inventory
information, and percentage increases should be calculated based on the proposed action. It
requires the consideration of increase in existing inventory for one/more pollutants as a result
of activity. It should be done for significant air pollutants.
 48

Basic mathematical relationships is as follows

project activity emission inventory inf ormation
percentage increase in inventory  x 100
existing emission inventory

b. use of mathematical models:-in this case two approaches are very important. These are

Box model approaches. It is a simple atmospheric dispersion model that can be used to
calculate ground level concentration of air pollutants anticipated from each alternative for the
proposed action during both the construction and operational phases.
The two basic factors that influence movement of pollutants from their point of origin to
some other location are horizontal wind speed and direction and the vertical temperature
structure of the atmosphere. These two parameters, which influence the vertical and
horizontal motion of pollutants, can be combined and is called atmospheric stability.
of concern emitted from the project activity.
Air quality dispersion: - from a used perspective, air-quality dispersion models can be
classified according to
i. Source types
 elevated points,
 ground levels point
 ground level area
ii. Pollutant type
 gas or particulate
iii. Averaging times:-
 short term, 24 hr, monthly or annual
iv. Atmospheric reaction:-
 deposition, photochemical smog formation/acid rain, etc

c. other consideration

Air quality impact analysis of emission from project activity should address the issue of
accidental release (risk analysis will give the answer), issues such as human health effects as
a result of atmospheric emission of pollutants. For example, a quantitative health risk
assessment approach for setting ambient air quality standard has developed.
Let us see the following example.

How do you predict air pollutant/s which emit from vehicular movement/ mobile
emissions? This can be done as follows.
 49

Mobile emissions are generated due to the movement of vehicles in the project area. They are
the functions of factors as vehicle trips, average vehicle speed, mileage covered. The mobile
emissions, expressed as grams/day, quantified as:
Mobile emissions = Pollution emission factor g/mile* usage rate (i.e) vehicle miles traveled
per day* average number of vehicles per dwelling unit* number of dwelling unit.
Average number of vehicles per dwelling unit is estimated by random survey (40-50 dwelling
units).
What pollutants could be there? The most dominants pollutants are Co 2, Co, Sox, Nox, Hc and
particulates. Let us take Co.
Pollution emission factor (PEF) for Co:-
Ax B xC E
PEF Co
 x
D F
Where,
A – weight fraction of carbon in the fuel
B- combustion factor
C – fraction of carbon that converts to Co
D- number of miles per liter of fuel
E- molecular weight of Co
F- atomic weight of carbon
Let A=80%, B=90%, C=3% and D=25 miles: E and F are 28 and 12 respectively. Then

0.8 x 0.9 x 0.03 28

PEF Co
 x = 20.16*10-4g/mile
25 12

Let the usage rate be 100 mile/day. Number of vehicles per dwelling be 0.33 and number of
dwellings be 4,500.

Therefore total Co released = 20.16*10-4 * 100 * 0.33 * 4500

= 299.376 g/day

Table 8: Possible impacts on air quality and their mitigative measures

Possible Impacts Some mitigative measures
1 Depletion of  control the emission of SOx, NOx, Co and other applicable
. ozone layer and chemicals by scrubbing with water or alkaline solutions,
climatic change incineration or absorption by other catalytic processes.
 50

due to emission of  recycle wastes to reduce the amount of pollutants released

some gases (SO2, to the atmosphere
CO2, NO2,  choose environmentally friendly processes, technologies or
fluoride, CO, raw materials.
CFCS etc.) to the  treat effluent gases to reduce the amount of pollutants.
atmosphere.  establish treatment plant
2 Reduction of air  control particular matters by scrubbers, fabric filter
. quality due to collectors or electrostatic precipitators.
dust  choice of environmentally friendly processes, technologies
or raw materials reduce the amount and significance of
pollutants
 watering of the area form which dust is generated;
 51

5.2.2. Prediction and assessment of impacts on biological environment

Basic steps for prediction and assessment
Projects that can cause terrestrial habitat loss are the following:
a. land conversion to industrial and residential land use
b. land conversion to agricultural use
c. land conversion to transportation use
d. timbering practices
e. grazing practices
f. mining practices
g. water management practices
h. military, recreational and other activities, etc.
These causal activities contribute to the degradation and loss of ecological values, including
 animal and plant species;
 ecosystem structure (abundance-biomass, community composition, species richness,
species diversity, trophic organization and spatial structure); and
 ecosystem function (energy flow, nutrient cycling and water retention).
The following are very important to identify the biological impacts of a project.
Step 1: Description of biological setting
The first step in the process of prediction and assessment of impacts on the biological
environment involves the preparation of an adequate description of the environmental setting
from the biological perspective. One of the first considerations is to define the general
community2 types and to describe types in accordance with their geographical distribution.

The second part of this step is to develop species descriptions for each community type. to do
so we can use list of species as it provides both the scientific and the common names of
flora and fauna within the study area. The most effective way to present species information
is to organize the data by community type and where possible, provide quantitative
information indicating the population density of the particular species. If population density
information is unavailable, the likelihood of occurrence denote that the species can be
indicated as ranging from common to occasional to rare. Common occurrence denotes that
the species occurs in many localities within the community type in large numbers. Occasional
denotes occurrences in several localities in small numbers, and rare denotes highly localized
occurrences that are restricted by scarcity of habitat or low numbers.
2
All organisms in a given area interacting with the abiotic environment.
 52

Step 2: Identification of rare and endangered species

One of the critical aspects of environmental impact assessment is the potential impact of any
activity on any rare and endangered plant and animal species within the area of interest
should be investigated. Information on rare and endangered species can be obtained from
responsible agency such as wildlife and park development bureau.
To identify endangered or threatened species we can follow the following procedures:
a. determine whether any endangered, threatened, rare or protected species is within the
project or activity boundary and study area. (state on federal agencies)
b. assemble pertinent information on any such listed, proposed and candidate species.
Examples of pertinent information include the species
 breeding and nesting requirement
 life cycle features and
 other unique requirement that may be of importance in considering the impacts of
alternatives.
c. review information on why the species is included on the federal or state list or why it is
being proposed or considered as a candidate species.
d. if the listed species has had a critical habitat type identified, then develop information on
the location and condition of such habitat in the study area. (similar consideration for
candidate species)
e. determine whether or not the proposed project will have an effect on each listed candidate
plant and animal species or on each critical, habitat in the study area. (If negative effects
are anticipated identity and evaluate approximate impact).
Step 3. Procurement of relevant laws, regulation, or criteria related to biological
resources and protection of habitat or species.
The primary sources of information on pertinent legislation, regulations, criteria or guidelines
related to the biological environment include:
 environmental protection agency(EPA/EPLAUA)
 key federal legislations
 local agencies or conservation groups
 natural resources minister

Procurement of this information will facilitate the evaluation of base line conditions and the
data obtained can serve as a basis for impact significance determination. Most of the
biological-environment legislation, regulations, criteria or guidelines are qualitative in terms
 53

of specific requirement. This is in contract to the substantive areas of air quality, surface and
environmental quality, soil quality and environmental noise. Therefore sound professional
judgment must be exercised in applying the qualitative requirements for the biological
environment in this step.
Step 4. Impact predication activities: using analogies (case studies), physical modeling
and mathematical modeling and based on professional judgment.
The most technical demanding step in addressing the biological environment is the
predication of the impacts of the project-activity, and various alternatives, on the biological
environment. Several options are available for impact prediction-approaches including:
 qualitative description of impacts
 the use of habitat based methods or ecosystem models

a. Qualitative approaches .Qualitative description could be associated with a description of

land use or habitat changes.

b. Habitat-based methods or model approaches. If habitat-based methods have been used to

describe the biological environment setting, these can also form the basis for impact
prediction. The usage of habitat-based methods does require predication of changes in
acreage as well as changes in several habitat parameters. The ability to accurately predict
over long periods of time is questionable.

Biological impacts associated with many alternatives are related to resultant land-use
changes. Land-use changes interfere with community types and, in turn, interfere with the
individual species within community types.

One way of identifying the multiple impacts of a proposed action on the biological
environmental setting is to utilize a checklist approach that considers the relevance of
individual potential impacts on various flora and fauna in the area of interest. A list of
possible impacts that can occur on the biological environment includes but not limited to the
following:

1. Effects on animal production

2. Effects on aquatic macro invertebrate
3. Effects on population density of fish
4. Effects of sediment load on fish growth
5. Effects of sediment load on fish spawning
 54

6. Effects on species diversity of the aquatic biota

7. Effects on localized survival of rare plant and animal species
8. Effects on endangered plant and animal species
9. Effects on vegetation communities of denuded areas
10. Effects on wildlife refuges and sanctuaries .
.
11. Effects on vegetation recovery rates
12. Effects on migratory bird species
13. Effects on terrestrial microbial communities
14. Effects on the amount of forest removed
15. Effects on population density of past species
16. Effects on domestic animal species
17. Effects on the amount of grassland removed
18. Effects on expansion of population range for both plant and animal species
19. Effects on the potential for wildlife management
20. Effects on species diversity of the terrestrial biota
21. Effects on nutrient supply available to terrestrial biota
22. Effects on relic vegetation types
23. Effects on water-temperature stability
24. Effects on water quality and dependent biota
25. Effects on natural biological character loss

Step 5:- Assessment of impact significance

Interpretation of the anticipated impacts of a proposed project should be considered not only
in terms of individual species, but also relative to the general characteristic of the affected
habitats and overall ecosystem. One of the bases for significance determination is to apply the
institutional information including relevant laws, regulations, criteria and guidelines.
Another basis for impact interpretation is the professional interpretation approach. This
involves the application of professional judgment and knowledge of biological-ecological
principles, and it demonstrates why it is necessary for a biological scientist to be a part of an
inter-disciplinary study steam.

Step 6:- Identification and incorporation of mitigation measures

Many Projects (and activates) can cause undesirable impacts on terrestrial or aquatic
ecosystem. Examples of such impacts include:
 55

 habitat degradation through overgrazing practices

 wetland drainage for agricultural, industrial or urban development practices;
 habitat loss, with attendant consequences on fish and wildlife because of excessive
deforestation practices;
 changes in habitat and associated fish and wildlife species due to the construction and
operation of hydropower projects;
 loss of critical habitat for endangered or threatened species as result or timber
harvesting, recreational developments, and or military training activities;
 multiple aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem effects from acid rain formed as a
consequence of SO2 emissions from coal-fired power plants; and
 potential toxic effects to plants and or animals as a result of air-or water pollutant
discharges or of waste disposal activities of industries and municipalities.
Mitigation measures for biological impacts can include:-
 avoidance
 minimization
 rectification
 preservation and
 compensation

Table 10: Summary of possible impacts on flora, fauna and ecosystem and mitigative
measures
Possible Impacts Some mitigative measures
1 Loss of flora and  locate projects far away from sensitive areas;
fauna  carry out necessary rehabilitation measures when phasing out
a project
2 Stability and  plant with native species in vicinity of a project and adjacent
health of an areas to wildlife to provide additional habitats and migration
ecosystem may be routes/corridors for local animals;
affected when  fence wildlife areas to avoid people interference if possible
habitat is also establish a legal protection system/framework;
fragmented.
3 Direct killing of  at important areas use of tunnels/bridges reduces interference
animals like and collision rates
collisions with  fencing or plant barriers can reduce the interference of
vehicles human beings and traffics to wildlife ;
 56

 take measures, like speed break on roads, to reduce the speed

of vehicles where road crosses protected areas.
4 Disturbance of  avoid, if possible, the extraction of sand, gravel etc from
ecosystem because river bottom/water bodies.
of extraction of  use alternative site to exploit the resources
sand, gravel or  avoid the use of dynamite/explosive in water bodies
rock  avoid construction materials during breeding seasons in both
water and terrestrial ecosystems
5 Exploitation of  before the establishment of projects planting appropriate tree
natural resources species, which can be used for different purposes, to
(flora and fauna) minimize burden on the sitting natural resources
because of  use alternative energy resources and construction materials
immigrants to  use proper waste management technology
project area  make clear demarcation between the resource and project
area.
6 Flora and fauna in  avoid the excessive clearance of vegetation from stream
wetlands are banks
affected  locate projects as much as far as possible from wetlands
 avoid the releaser or minimize the use of hazardous
chemicals in the catchments of vulnerable wetlands;
 if possible, the project should not modify water flow/course
 use soil and water conservation measures in the catchments
to reduce siltation.
7 Introduction of  if needed research on invasive exotic species should be
new species or carried out in enclosed areas
change of  avoid the use of invasive exotic species for landscaping,
cultivation may reforestation or for other purposes
cause for  control the importation of uncertified seed or germ plasm to
development of the region to avoid import of plant pests/disease;
pests, diseases or
weeds.
8 Direct or indirect  use integrated pest management to avoid mass killing of
killing of aquatic animals
and terrestrial  the concentration and length of time to chemicals should be
animals spreading to the level of the standard.
 57

of  use appropriate and trained man power for application of

pesticide/insecticid chemicals
e for different  avoid the use of very poisonous pesticides in particular, on
purposes. fields sloping down to watercourses during rain seasons with
heavy precipitation
 apply pesticide, when a number of fauna are at the side. E.g.
timing.
9 Contamination or  use of chemicals or disposal of wastes in a proper way reduce
use of polluted the impact;
water may affect  handling of unused/used poisonous chemicals until they are
wild life and treated and disposed properly
nearby  be sure that effluents are treated to the standard before
communities to the joining water bodies.
project area.  avoid the use of very poisonous pesticides in particular on
fields sloping down to water courses during seasons with
heavy precipitation.
 proper disposal of expired chemicals prevents the potential
impacts on flora and fauna.
 proper disposal of wastes reduces siltation and pollution of
water
1 Improper use of  regulate/control importation of varieties to avoid genetic
0 modern erosion;
biotechnology or  regulate import of species to avoid the spoiling of the natural
introduction of means of existence of existing fauna.
genetically  avoid the use of invasive exotic species for landscaping,
modified varieties reforestation, research or for other purposes;
to the region may  care has to be taken in activities related to modern
lead to genetic biotechnology to reduce/avoid the impacts on indigenous
erosion species or genetic erosion;
1 Change of the  design carefully diversion wears, dams/reservoirs etc. to
1 living condition of allow aquatic species to swim against the current;
fish when its  use filters not to get away fishes to irrigation canals
migration route is  construct ladders so that the fishes jump and migrate against
blocked by the flow of the water.
constructions e.g.
 58

dams/reservoirs
1 Water logging may  digging of canals to lower the water table
2 affect the flora  planting high water consuming species
(especially deep  minimizing over irrigation
rooted plants) and
fauna of the area.
1 Depletion of  restrict or limit the optimum amount to be
3 resources beyond exploited/harvested according to the management plan done
their for the specific resource
 use recycling methods
5.2.3. Impact Assessment of Socio-Economic Environment
Social environment is people surroundings: human being and their products, their property,
their groups, their influence, their heritage. There is no single social environment; there are
many. Each event be it the construction of a major facility, a reservoir of power project,
proposed legislation, etc., as long as it is at a different place-has its own social environment,
its own surroundings.

Many major impacts associated with certain proposed actions are evidenced by changes in
socio-economic factors in the project area and surrounding region. Socio-economic changes
may be beneficial or detrimental. This section is addressed to the data needs and associated
technology for predicting and assessing impacts of proposed actions on the socio-economic
environment.

Basic steps associated with prediction of changes in the socioeconomic environment and
assessments of the impact of these changes are as follows:
Step 1: Description of Socio-economic environmental setting.
The first step is to assemble pertinent data and information that will enable description of the
environmental setting in terms of various selected socio-economic factors (see Table 11).
Table11: Examples of Socio-Economic Factors and Their Potential Changes Resulting from
Project Implementation
Factors Potential changes
General characteristics and trends in population Increase or decrease population
Population density Increase or decrease
Migrational trends Increase or decrease in migrational trends
Population characteristics such as distributions by age, sex, Increase or decrease in various population
ethnic groups, educational level and family size. distribution; people relocations
Natural increase Increase or decrease
 59

Distinct settlements of ethnic groups or deprived Disruption of settlement patterns; people

economic/ minority groups. relocations
Economic history or activity Increase or decrease in economic patterns
Employment and unemployment patterns including Increase or decrease in overall employment or
occupational distribution and location and availability unemployment levels and change in

of work force occupational distribution

Income levels and trends Increase or decrease income levels
Land-use patterns and controls Change in land usage mayor may not be in
compliance with existing land use plans.
Land values Increase or decrease in land values
Housing characteristics including types of housing and Changes in types of housing and occupancy
occupancy levels and age and condition of housing. levels

Health and social services including health Changes in demand on health and social
manpower, law enforcement, fire protection, water services
supply, waste-water treatment facilities, solid waste
collection and disposal, and utilities
Public and private educational resources including junior Changes in demand on educational resources
college and universities.
Transportation systems in study area, including highway, Changes in demand on transportation systems
road, air and waterway. and availability

Community attitudes and lifestyles, including history of Change in attitudes and life styles
area voting patterns
Community cohesion, including organized community Disruption of cohesions
groups
Tourism and recreational opportunities in study area Increase or decrease in tourism and recreational
potential

Religious patterns and characteristics in study area Disruption of religious patterns and
characteristics
Areas of unique significance such as cemeteries or Disruption of unique areas
religious camps

Step2: Identification of critical socio-economic factors

The purpose of this step is to identify any socio-economic factors that represent critical items
relative to the human environment. Examples of critical items include locations where water
and waste-water treatment plants are operated in excess of design capacity or where existing
school systems are overcrowded.
 60

Step 3: prediction of changes in socio-economic factors

The primary purpose of Step 3 is to quantitatively predict, or at least qualitatively describe,
changes in socio-economic factors outlined in Step 1. Particular attention should be addressed
to critical factors identified in Step 2. Anticipated changes in socio-economic factors should
be developed for the various alternatives under consideration, including the no-action
alternative.

The changes in the social impact are predicted for the without project situation (no action
alternative) as well as for each of the alternatives. Changes may be examined on local
housing, schools, hospitals, local government operations, etc.
Economic impact of a project may be examined on conditions (income, employment) or
structure (output by sector, employment by sector) per capita income; total personal income,
etc. Accessibility to various transportation systems within the study area is also addressed.
Attention is also given to the quality and quantity of transportation facilities such as roads
and highways, railroads and airports.
Unemployment trends for a period are examined and compared to national averages for the
same period.

Community cohesion is descriptive of the degree of stability within a given area.

Step 4: Discussions of Implications of Changes
The final step in predication and assessment of impacts on the socio-economic environment
is a discussion of the implications of the changes for each of the socio-economic factors,
considering both without-and with-project conditions. Changes could be presented relative to
percentages differences based on current conditions or relative to current standards for certain
socio-economic factors. Particular attentions should be paid to socio-economic factors
identified as critical items in Step 2 above. In addition, socio-economic factors that will
become marginal or critical as a result of the implementation of the selected alternative
should be discussed.

Table 12: Possible socio-economic impacts and their mitigative measures

Possible Impacts Some mitigative measures
1. Lifestyles, travel  sitting the project far from human settlement
patterns, health area to reduce disruption of social and cultural
and social way of life; and disturbance, nuisance from
 61

problems like noise, dust etc;

disease, alcohol  employing the local people to reduce the
abuse and number of immigrants
unemployment,  conduct awareness raising program
etc.  establishment of health centers
2. Loss of traditional  Aware about the project so that it can keep the
sense of self- norms/bylaws of indigenous people.
identity because of
new settlers
3. Loss of  wastes generated from the project have to be
agricultural, forest properly disposed.
or grazing lands  minimize the amount of wastes released to the
by huge amount of area by using alternative technologies,
waste generated processes etc.
from the project,
for example from
mine tailings.
4. Destruction of  giving due attention to blasting and
resources by fire, combustible raw materials that generate fire
which can be  provide fire protective instruments.
generated from an  precaution measures as fire proofing
activity instruments have to be used.
 curative measures have to be in place
5. Land use and  compensation may need to be considered for
tenure conflict those whose housing, land resources, welfare
may occur when or livelihood are directly affected by projects,
the area is  give employment opportunity
occupied
6. Physical conflict  provide short-term support and/or skills or an
may breakout alternative livelihood to minimize the effect.
between settler  aware the project so that it can keep the
and the indigenous norms/bylaws of indigenous people.
people as the latter
try to reclaim their
heritage
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7. increase  increase the supply of resources and services.

competition  use of alternative technologies that efficiently
between utilize the resources
indigenous and the
project for existing
resources
8. People are  preconditions have to be fulfilled for settlers
exposed to further when resettlement is found to be mandatory;
social and  conducting awareness raising program on the
economic crises resettlement program
when they are  involve/participate the community in the whole
resettled to new process of the project
area as their
original place is
occupied by
project

5.2.4. Impact assessment of cultural environment

Cultural resources are becoming more important with the growing realization that our
environment and civilization are the products of history. Some of the cultural resources are
nonrenewable, and this feature in itself is one reason that these resources are important.
Basic steps associated with prediction of changes in the cultural environment and assessment
of the impact of these changes is as follows:

Step 1: Identification of known cultural resources

The first step in prediction and assessment of impacts on cultural resources consists of
identifying known resources in the area of interest. These sources should include historical
and archeological sites, areas of ecological, scientific, or geological significance; and areas of
ethnic importance. Information on known historical and archeological sites can be obtained
from state historic preservation officers and National Register of Historic Places,
Archeological resources etc.
 63

Local resources of importance to ethnic groups, such as burial grounds and cemeteries or
areas of unique religious importance, can be identified through contact with local government
officials as well as organized groups in the area of interest or having responsibility therein.
Step 2: Identification of Potential Cultural Resources
Potential historic sites and potential cultural resources of ecological, scientific, or
geological interest or of ethnic importance can be identified through contact with the historic
preservation officer, as well as state and local historical commissions, societies, clubs, local
government organizations, ethnic groups, and professional societies. in the area of interest can
be determined through contact with etc.
In order to identify previously unknown archeological resources in the area of interest, a
preliminary reconnaissance is necessary.
Step3: Determine significance of known and potential cultural resources relative to
local, regional and national concerns.
Every archeological site is of importance to our understanding of human history. Other
cultural resources are important from past as well as future historical perspectives. However,
not every cultural resource can be preserved or carefully and completely excavated.
Decisions must often be made with regard to which sites should be preserved, which sites
should be investigated, and the nature and intensity of investigation.

Step4: Selection of proposed action and impact mitigation

Selection of the proposed action from alternatives can be based upon elimination of one or
more alternatives due to their potential impact on cultural resources, or selection of the
alternative least likely to cause an impact on potential cultural resources. After this develop
mitigation measures for impact minimization and cultural resources preservation.
Table 13: Possible impact on cultural heritages and their mitigative measures
Possible Impacts Some mitigative measures
1. Historical relics,  consider alternative sites for project establishment to
burial sites and other avoid the impact
objects may be  avoid establishment of projects across or in known
affected when the area cultural, historical sites or landscapes having scenic
is occupied by value;
projects.
2. Scenic value or the  avoid the damages of historical relics, burial sites,
appearance of other objects, and landscapes;
landscape may be  relocate artifacts or ruing from a site when it is
 64

impaired because of mandatory and possible;

different activities for  if possible avoid the natural landscape disturbance, if
instance massive not compensate by rehabilitation measures;
excavation of sand
etc.
3. Cultural monuments  involving the indigenous people in the whole process
and archeological sites of planning and implementation of projects
may be damaged by  maintaining or repairing without changing its original
different activities for design;
instance massive  honoring norms and taboos before the implementation
excavation of sand of projects
etc.
4. Subsequent breaching  structural, soil and rock stabilization; control of
of dams may also groundwater levels, vegetative stabilization, and site
result for local surveillance is required;
earthquake. Or  daily follow up of sensitive has to be carried out;
Landslides/unsuitabilit  establish projects in relatively stable areas
y or danger of rock
falling at the faces etc.
may lose scenic values
5. Spoiling of landscapes  appropriate site for waste disposal has to be selected
or recreational areas and dispose properly;
could be occurred  conduct reuse and recycling methods
when projects are
established in the
vicinity area
6. Change of channeling  water flow modification should not affect the scenic
of waterway may value of landscape/cultural heritages in downstream
result in loss of areas.
aesthetic value  consider alternative site for project establishment
7. Loss of scenic value  take the advantage of natural openings in the existing
of an area due to vegetation; or use bare areas
deforestation

5.2.5. Impact assessment of water environment

Introduction
One of the major impacts from many developmental, constructional, industrial activities is
glaringly observed in the water quality both in the vicinity and downstream of the project
 65

areas. Construction of reservoirs, power plants, industrial parks, and pipelines will cause
short-term impacts on the water environment: and operation of these same facilities will
result in longer-term impacts.
Almost any activity of man offers the potential for impact on surface water through
generation of waterborne wastes, alteration of the quantity and/or quality of surface run-off,
direct alteration of the exchanges between surface and groundwaters through direct or indirect
consumption of surface water or other causes.

The hydrologic environment is composed of two interrelated phases: groundwater and surface
water. Impacts initiated in one phase eventually affect the other. The complete assessment of
an impact dictates consideration of both groundwater and surface water. Pollution at one point
in the system can be passed throughout, and thus consideration of only one phase does not
characterize the entire problem.

General impacts on the water environment are related to hydraulic and hydrologic cycle
changes as well as to the introduction of suspended and dissolved materials into receiving
waters.

Water pollution can be defined in a number of ways; however, the basic elements of most
definitions are the concentrations of particular pollutants in water for sufficient periods of
time to cause certain effects. If the effects are health related, such as those caused by
pathogenic bacterial intrusion, the term "contamination" is appropriate. Effects that have to do
with limitations on water availability due to certain water quality requirements related to
usage can serve as a basis for defining a condition of water-pollution. "Nuisance" refers to
aesthetically displeasing effects created by oils, grease, or other floating materials.
Water quality can be described in terms of physical, chemical and bacteriological attributes.

Physical attributes of surface water could be categorized as relating to either the physical
nature of the water body or to the physical properties of the water contained therein. Physical
parameters include colour, odour, temperature, solids (residues), oils, and grease.
Colour can be defined relative to type and density, the type being related to whether it is true
colour (dissolved) or apparent colour (filterable).
Odour is described by type and threshold odour number, which is related to the odour-free
water required for diluting an odorous water sample to a non-odorous level.
 66

Various solids parameters used in water quality characterization. Total solids are comprised of
suspended and dissolved solids, and each of these fractions can be further divided into organic
(volatile) and inorganic (fixed) components. Turbidity is another measure of the solids
content, and it is related to light transmittance through water. Settleable solids describe the
materials present in solution that will settle by gravity in a l-hour period. Specific
conductance (conductivity) is a measure of the inorganic dissolved solids present in ionic
form. In surface water courses oil and grease is of interest relative to nuisance considerations.

Many types of activities could influence the physical properties of water. A few examples are
clearing of land and construction of hardstands, roads and rooftops (which might accelerate
erosion, flooding, and sedimentation) discharge of scale-laden boiler waters, and discharge of
cooling waters.
Chemical attributes could be categorized conveniently as organic or inorganic chemicals.
Inorganic parameters of potential interest in water quality characterization include salinity,
hardness, pH, acidity, alkalinity, and the content of iron, manganese, chlorides, sulfates,
sulfides heavy metals (Hg, Pb, Cr, Cu, Zn), nitrogen (organic, ammonia nitrite nitrate), and
phosphorous. Salinity and chloride contents are a measure of the salt in water. Hardness is
caused primarily
by divalent metallic-cations that have soap consuming potential, the major ones being calcium
and magnesium. Nitrogen and phosphorus contents are of interest due their nutrient
characteristics.
Some inorganic chemicals (like cadmium, lead and mercury) may have grave consequences
to human health; some (notably phosphorus and dissolved oxygen) have severe effects on the
water environment, while others (such as calcium: manganese, and chlorides) relate mainly to
man's economic and aesthetic value of water in his commercial, industrial and domestic uses.

Several tests can be employed to describe the organic characteristics of water. The most used
test is the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)3 and the chemical oxygen demand, total
organic carbon, and total oxygen demand.

Bacteriological parameters include coliforms, fecal coliforms, specific pathogens, and

viruses. Total coliform and fecal coliform organisms are used as indicators of the presence of

3
BOD is defined as the amount of oxygen required by bacteria in decomposing organic material in a sample
under aerobic conditions at 20°C over a 5-day incubation period.
 67

pathogens. Pathogenic (disease-causing) agents include certain virus, bacteria, protozoa, and
other organisms, and they originate almost exclusively from human wastes. Aquatic life refers
to the microorganisms and microscopic plants and animals, including fish, which inhibit
water bodies. They are affected directly or indirectly by almost any natural or manmade
change in a water body.
The total waste load in a stream is represented by the sum of all point and non-point source
pollutants. Soil erosion is one of the major water pollutants in terms of quantity. The total
quantity of solids from soil erosion is approximately 700 times greater than the total from
municipal waste-water discharges.

The effects of water pollutants on receiving water quality are manifold and depend upon the
type and concentration of pollutants. Soluble organics, as represented by high BOD wastes,
cause depletion of oxygen. Trace quantities of certain organics cause undesirable tastes and
odours, and some may be biomagnified in the food web.
Suspended solids decrease water clarity and hinder photosynthetic processes; if solids settle
and form sludge deposits, changes in benthic ecosystems result. Colour, turbidity, oils and
floating materials are of concern due to their aesthetic undesirability and possible influence
on water clarity and photosynthetic processes. Excessive nitrogen and phosphorus can lead to
algal overgrowth with concomitant water treatment processes. Chlorides cause a salty taste to
be imparted to water, and in sufficient concentration limitations on water usage can occur.
Acids, alkalis, and toxic substances have the potential for causing fish kills and creating other
imbalances in stream ecosystems. Thermal discharges can also cause imbalances as well as
reductions in stream waste assimilative capacity.

Water of high quality is essential to human life, and water of acceptable quality is essential
for agricultural, industrial, domestic and commercial uses. In addition, most recreation is
water based; therefore, major activities having potential effects on water environment should
be assessed.

Step 1: Identification of Water Pollutants

The first step in prediction and assessment of water quality impacts involves identification of
types and quantities of water pollutants emitted from construction and operation of a
 68

development project. One approach for identifying water pollutants is to review EIS prepared
for similar projects. Another approach is to calculate the amount of waste generated4.
Quantifying solid waste generation
Solid waste = solid waste per capita* average number of people per dwelling unit* number of
dwelling unit.
Let us say
-per capita waste generated is 470 gms /day
-number of people /dwelling be say 4.7
- Number of dwelling be, say, 4,500
Therefore, solid waste generated is = 0.47*4.7* 4500= 9940.5 kg/day

Generation of sewage
Sewage generated = cubic meter sewage per capita* average number of people per dwelling
unit * number of dwelling units.
Assume per capita sewage generated be 80% of water use/per capita and the per capita use
be, say 175 liters/day. Then
 per capita sewage generated = 175*0.8 =140 liters/day
 number of people per dwelling unit = 4.7 and
 number of dwelling units = 4500
Therefore total sewage generated =140*4.7*4500
= 296.1 * 104 liters per day

Step 2 : Description or Existing Water Quantity and Quality Levels

The second step involves assembling information on existing water quantity and quality
levels in the area of the project, particularly focusing on quality parameters related to
anticipated water pollutants to be emitted from construction and operational phases of the
project. Sources of water quality information include relevant city, water resources bureau,
etc.
Since water quality standards vary with the beneficial uses assigned for particular streams or
stream segments, it may be necessary to evaluate existing water quality relative to various
standards.
4
It is defined as the amount of a pollutant which is released to a drainage area or watercourse
as a result of some activity, such as land clearing or production by industry, etc.
 69

Step 3: Unique Pollution Problems

The primary purpose of this step is to identify any unique pollution problems that have
occurred in the project area. This is necessary in order to adequately describe the
environmental setting, to indicate a familiarity with the area, and to focus on environmentally
sensitive parameters. Examples of unique pollution problems that should be identified
included fish kills, excessive algal growth, and thermal discharges causing stratified flow.
Many sources can be used to obtain information on unique pollution problems.
Step 4: Description of Groundwater Quantity and Quality
This particular step may not be required for all project types, but for alternatives that have
potential for groundwater impact, this is a necessary step. The basic purpose is to determine
the depth to the groundwater table in the area and to identify the direction of groundwater
from the area should be enumerated, as well as historical trends in groundwater depletion for
quality deterioration.
Step 5: summary of meteorological information
Meteorological data are required in order to predict and assess air quality impacts associated
with proposed actions. In addition certain climatological factors such as precipitation,
evaporation, and air temperature are important in terms of predicting and assessing water
quality impact.
Step 6: water quality standards
List the water quality standards for different uses.

Step 7: Waste Load Allocation Study

The purpose of this step is to summarize the waste load allocation study for the particular
surface watercourses in the vicinity of proposed alternatives. It is also important to
identify numbers and types of water users in the area, particularly those downstream
from the project site. Water quantity concerns are of major importance in water deficient
areas. The type of water uses are important since quality requirements vary for different
users.
Step 8: Mesoscale Impact Calculation
The purpose of this step is to examine the impact of alternatives in terms of their relative
contributions to existing waste loads in streams. The approach consists of calculating the
estimated daily quantities of water pollutants from the alternatives during both construction
and operational phases and comparing these to existing waste loads in the drain area.
Determine the percentage increase in these waste loads.
 70

Step 9: Construction Phase Impacts

The primary water quality impact during construction results from sediment that is eroded
from the construction site, transported to local surface watercourses, and then dispersed or
deposited.
1. Consider construction phase impacts in terms of the following factors:
a) Time period of construction and the resultant time period of decreased water
quality. Specific stream discharges and quality variations that would be
anticipated during the construction phase.
b) Anticipated distance downstream of decreased water quality
c) Implications of decreased water quality relative to downstream water users. If
there are users that required certain water qualities, identify the required raw
water quality characteristics and discuss the effects of decreased quality during
the construction phase.
d) Specific construction specifications directed towards pollutant minimization.

Step 10: Microscale Impact Calculation

The next step involves calculation of downstream concentrations of various water pollutants
from the project area for each alternative during both the construction and operational phases.

Step 11: Pollution Control Measures

If it is determined that water quality standards are exceeded by the proposed action then
abatement strategies or control measures should be presented.

Table 14: Possible impacts on water and mitigative measures

Possible Impacts Some mitigative measures
1 Flooding,  leaving sufficient enough buffer zones of undisturbed vegetation
. channel between the site of the project and water bodies
modificati  use water flow speed reduction measures e.g. soil conservation
on, river measures
canal  plan carefully to avoid the change/modification of the previous
siltation channel flow/natural flow of water.
2 Reduction/  locate those water-consuming projects, if possible, in areas where
. lowering availability of ground or surface water is not a problem
of surface  choose the most appropriate techniques to minimize the amount of
or water consumed
groundwat  ensure that the utilization of groundwater is within the capacity of
 71

er table. natural system to replenish itself

 re-use the recycled wastewater
3 Excess  sitting projects far away from susceptible areas to erosion in order
. increment to reduce chemical pollution of water bodies
of  carry out soil conservation measures
nutrients  leaving sufficient enough buffer zones of undisturbed vegetation
in water between the site of the projects and water bodies
bodies  avoid direct waste disposal into or near water bodies
(eutrophic  reduce the amount of inlet of both chemical and biological
ation). fertilizers to water bodies
4 Pollution  sitting projects far away form susceptible areas to erosion in order
. of to reduce chemical pollution of water bodies
surface  leaving sufficient buffer zones of undisturbed vegetation between
and the site of the project and water bodies
groundw  install silting basins to reduce silt, pollutants and debris from
ater runoff before it is discharged to adjacent water bodies
through  monitoring pipeline systems and impoundments for leaks to reduce
direct or contamination of groundwater. E.g. Preparing waterproof waste
indirect water collectors
addition  monitor sites even after the project has been closed (as necessary)
of toxic  reclaiming landscapes where devastating activities have been
chemical taken place to reduce water pollution
s.  recycling wastes to reduce water pollution
 use treatment techniques especially in industrial activities
 choice of the most appropriate technique, replacing processing
equipment
 dispose safely/properly expired toxic chemicals
5 Increment  sitting projects far away from susceptible areas to erosion in order
. of to reduce siltation, turbidity and chemical pollution of water bodies
suspended  carry out soil conservation measures
solids  leaving sufficient enough buffer zones of undisturbed vegetation
(turbidity) between the site of the project and water bodes.
in water  installing silting basins to reduce silt, pollutants and debris from
bodies runoff before it is discharged to adjacent water bodies
through
 72

soil
erosion or
direct
release of
waste
from
different
activities.
6 Increment  Minimize the area of ground clearance; provide good vegetative
. of the cover or; control the volume and speed of water flows
amount of  careful design/plan of projects can avoid soil erosion;
silt/sedime  carry out soil conservation measures.
nt in  leaving sufficient enough buffer zones of undisturbed vegetation
downstrea between the site of the project and water bodies.
m area
including
agricultura
l land,
reservoirs,
etc.

Table 15: Possible impacts on soil and their mitigative measures

Possible impacts Some mitigative measures
1 Soil erosion  replanting right species of trees, shrubs and grasses in a right
. and loss of time on disturbed areas.
nutrients due to  minimize the area of ground clearance.
different  careful design/plan of projects
activities  carry out soil conservation and or agro-forestry measures.
 reducing harvest removal.
2 Soil  using appropriate machineries/mechanization in appropriate
. compaction time.
due to  planting leguminous plants improve soil structure.
mechanization  improve soil structure by planting species that improve soil
and structure or by adding organic matter
 73

machineries.
3 Salinization  adding organic matter/neutralizing
. due to  planting salt tolerant species
irrigation with
saline water.
4 Soil acidity  reduce the addition of artificial/organic chemical
.  adding alkaline substance like lime
 appropriate use/disposal of chemicals
5 Imbalance of  appropriate use of wastes/toxic chemicals
. biological  take any measures that are used to minimize loss of
activities as a nutrients.
result of  adding organic mater (green maturing, compost).
contamination  promote cleaner production (preventing/minimizing waste)
of soil with
toxic chemicals
and loss of
organic
nutrients due to
soil erosion.
6 Productive  collect and reuse the excavated top soil to form a superficial
topsoil covered layer.
by proposed  conversions of borrow pits and spoil dumpsites in to scenic
activities or lookouts.
removal of  use vertical space than horizontal.
productive top
soil for
temporary or
permanent
purposes
Table 16: Possible of noise impacts and their mitigative measures
Possible Impacts Some mitigative measures
1. Continuous noise  establish the project far away from noise
exposure creates sensitive areas;
communication  provide protective measures for workers in the
problem, behavioral project
 74

and health effects,  keep the noise at a standard level

 use of noise barriers are among the most
common mitigative measures
 install sound dampers in ventilation systems in
stationed sources
 enclose machine or use sound barrier walls to
reduce the effect of noise
 consider wind direction at the design stage in
terms of sources of noise to minimize its effect;
 reduce noise at the sources to minimize its effect
on wildlife and people living along or around
the project;
2. Vibration can cause  establish the project far away from noise
detrimental effect on sensitive areas (buildings)
structures particular  install sound dampers in ventilation systems in
to cultural heritage stationed sources. Enclose machine or use sound
sites, standing near barrier walls to reduce the effect of noise.
the project  reduce noise at the sources to minimize its effect
on wildlife and people living along or around
the project;
3. Noise can cause  establish the project far away from noise
wild animals to sensitive areas;
leave their original  use of noise barriers are among the most
habitat that may common metigative measures
exposes them to  consider wind direction at the design stage in
further danger terms of sources of noise to minimize its effect.
 reduce noise at the sources to minimize its effect
on wildlife and people living along or around
the project;
 use alternative technologies that reduce noise
 regulating the sound level to a fairly a constant
level
Table 17: Possible impacts on human health and safety; and their mitigative measures
Possible Impacts Some mitigative measures
1. Transmission of  sanitary or precaution measures can be
 75

disease between accomplished through a comprehensive health

human and from awareness campaign
plants/animals to  curative measures should be in place
humans
2. Fire, explosions,  establishing projects far away from settlements
emission of toxic  curative measures have to be in place if accidents
gases, vapors, dust, from different activities can happen.
emission of toxic  provide fire proofing of structures, safety buffer
liquid, radiation and zones around the plant boundary, escape routes
their cumulative and others.
effects badly affect  store properly easily flammable/explosive gases
human health in and or toxic chemicals.
around the project  preventive/protective instruments have to be
provided
3. Health effects on  prevent accidents through proper design of
workers due to projects
fugitive dust,  train responsible personnel how to properly
material handling, handle chemicals;
and noise,  use protective measure, for example ear/eye
mechanical or masks etc.
chemical contact
can be occurred.
4. noise and  site selection can be taken as preventive
congestion may be measures..
created and
pedestrian hazards
could be aggravated
by heavy trucks
5. Death and injuries to  facility should implement a safety and health
human beings and program designed to identify, evaluate, monitor
damages to property and control health hazards
could be happened  site selection can be taken as a preventive
in factories, roads measure to minimize risk of accidents especially
etc. in road projects.
 prevent accidents through proper design of
 76

projects
 use protective measure, for example ear/eye
masks etc.
6. Extraction of sand  Sanitary or precaution measures can be
or gravel may from accomplished through a comprehensive health
unnecessary pond, awareness campaign.
which creates  avoid stagnating water and give consecutive
suitable condition awareness to reduce the occurrence of malaria
for malaria and and other related diseases.
water vector borne
disease
7. In mining activities  proper design has to be done well in such away
workers are injured that rocks doesn’t collapse.
when rocks/soils are  curative measures have to be in place
collapsed,

6.4. Impact evaluations

An impact evaluation is a stage that follows from prediction and involves an assessment of
the relative significance of the impacts. Evaluation methods include cost benefit analysis
(CBA), multi-criteria/multi-attribute methods, comparison, etc.

1. Comparison
The most formal evaluation method is the comparison of likely impacts against legal
requirements and standards (e.g. air quality standards, building regulations etc). Of course,
for some type of impacts including socio-economics, there are no clear–cut standard. Socio-
economic impacts provide a good example of fuzziness in assessment, where the line
between being significant or not significant extends over a range of values which build on
perceptions as much as facts. Socio-economics impacts can raise in particular the
distributional dimensions to evaluation, who wins and who loses. Beyond the use of
standards and legal requirements, all assessments of significance either implicitly or
explicitly apply weights to the various impacts (i.e. some are assessed as more important than
others). The social effects of resource allocation decisions are too extensive to allow the
decision to emerge from some opaque procedure free of over political.

2. Cost -benefit analysis and input-output methods

 77

Cost-benefit analysis is an impact evaluation method that seeks to apply monetary values to
costs and benefit. The basic principle of CBA is to measure the cost and benefit in monetary
terms as money is the common measures of value; and monetary values are best understood
by the community and decision makers. CBA methods seek to treat environmental impacts in
monetary terms as if the environment was a machine in which some monetary inputs
(environmental costs) result in some monetary outputs (material benefits).

CBA has several stages: project definition, the identification and enumeration of costs and
benefits, evaluation of costs and benefits, and the discounting and presentation of results. If
the benefit-to-cost ratio comes out greater than one the activity causing environmental impact
may be declared acceptable. In other words, if the net social benefit minus cost is positive,
then there may be a presumption in favor of a project. However, the final outcome may not
always be that clear. The presentation of results should distinguish between tangible and
intangible costs and benefits, as relevant, allowing the decision makers consider the trade-off
involved in the choice.

Cost benefit analysis has excited both advocates and opponents. It does have many problems,
including identifying, enumerating and monetizing intangibles. Many environmental impacts
fall in to the tangible category, for example the loss of a rare species, the urbanization of a
rural landscape and the saving of a human life. The incompatibility of monetary and non-
monetary units makes decision making problematic. For several types of impacts one has no
idea of the costs such as extinction of certain species; extreme human sufferings such as death
can not be compensated by any amount of profit.

Another problem is the choice of discount rate: for example, should a very low rate be used to
prevent the rapid erosion of future costs and benefits in the analysis? The choice of rate has
profound implications for the evaluation of resources for future generations, there is also the
underlying and fundamental problem of the use of the single evaluation criterion of money,
and the assumption that one birr is worth the same to any person, whether a tramp or a
millionaire, a resident of a rich commuter belt or of a poor and remote rural community. CBA
also ignores distribution effects and aggregates costs and benefits to estimate the change in
the welfare of the society as a whole. Supporters say that such problems of ascertaining sign
and importance exist with all EIA methodologies.
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3. Scoring and weighting and multi-criteria methods

Multi-criteria and multi –attribute methods seek to overcome some of the deficiencies of
CBA; in particular they seek to allow for a pluralist view of society, composed of diverse
stakeholders with diverse goals and with differing values concerning environmental changes.
Most of the methods use –and sometimes misuse- some kind of simple scoring and weighting
system; such systems generate considerable debate. Here we discuss some key elements of
good practice, and then offer a brief overview of the range of multi-criteria / multi-attribute
methods available to the analyst.

Scoring may use quantitative or qualitative scales, according to the availability of information
on the impact under consideration. These systems seek to standardize the impact scores for
purposes of comparison. Where quantitative data are not available, ranking of alternatives
may use other approaches, for example using letters (A, B, C, etc.) or words (not significant,
significant, very significant etc).

Weighting seeks to identify the relative importance of the various impacts type for which
scores of some sort may be available (for example, the relative importance of a water
pollution impact, the impact on a rare flower). Different impacts may be allocated weights
(normally numbers) out of a total budget (e.g. 10 points to be allocated between 3 impacts).
But by whom?

Multi-criteria /multi- attribute methods seek to recognize the plurality of views and weights in
their methods; the Delphi approach also uses individuals’ weights, from which group weights
are then derived. In many studies, however, the weights are those produced by the technical
team. Indeed the decision –makers may be unwilling to reveal all their personal preferences,
for fear of undermining their negotiating positions. This internalization of weighting exercise
does not destroy the use of weights, but it does emphasize the need for clarification of scoring
and weighting systems and, in particular, for the identification of the origin of the weightings
used in an EIA. Wherever possible, scoring and weighting should be used to reveal the trade-
offs in impacts involved in particular projects or in alternatives. For example, Table 19 shows
that the main issue is the trade-off between the impact on flora of one scheme and the impacts
on noise of the other scheme.
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Several approaches to the scoring and weighting of impacts have already been introduced in
the outline of impact identification methods. Leopold matrix includes measures of the
significance of impacts as well as of their magnitude. The matrix approach can also be
usefully modified to identify the distribution of impacts among geographical areas/and or
among various affected parties.
Table 19: Weighting, scoring and trade-offs
Impact Weight(w) Scheme A Scheme B
Score(a) (aw) Score(b) (bw)
Noise 2 5 10 1 2
Loss of flora 5 1 5 4 20
Air pollution 3 2 6 2 6
Total 21 28
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CHAPTER SIX
6. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING, AUDITING AND REPORT WRITING
6.1. Environmental monitoring
Environmental monitoring is defined as the continuous assessment of environmental or socio-
economic variables by the systematic collection of specific data in space and time.
Environmental monitoring can be used to:
 Document the baseline conditions at the start of the EIA
 Assess performance and monitor compliance with agreed conditions specified in
construction permits and operating licenses and modify activities or mitigation
measures if there are unpredicted harmful effects on the environment.
 Identify trends in impacts.
 Verify the accuracy of past prediction of impacts and the effectiveness
of mitigation measures in order to transfer this experience to future activities of the
same type.

6.1.1. Types of environmental monitoring and issues to be considered

No. Types Definitions Issues to be considered Systems of approac
1 Baseline It is the measurement of Identifying the resource base Baseline data collect
monitoring environmental parameters during a before the implementation of the
pre-project period proposed activities
2 Impact It is the measurement of Identify/detect changes in the  Visual observatio
monitoring environmental parameters during parameters  Interview
project construction and  Document review
implementation
3 Compliance Unlike the previous monitoring Check against regulatory  Document review
monitoring activities, takes the form of periodic requirements and standards e.g.  Interview
sampling or process emissions to in relation to emission of  Visual observatio
ensure that regulatory requirements pollutants.  Sample testing
are observed and standards are met.

There are several types of environmental monitoring. The following are the most common
ones with common issues.

6.2. Environmental auditing

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Environmental auditing is part of the overall environmental management system. It is used to

check systems and procedures against legal requirement, standards, best practices and
professional judgment.
6.2.1. Types of and issues to be considered
The following are few of major environmental auditing and the most common issues to be
considered.
Types of Audit Definition Issues to be considered Systems of ap
Compliance audit It is the verification process where by the Check against that all relevant  Interview
company established the extent to which it is environmental legislation and  Visual obser
complying with environmental legislation standards are being considered  Document r

with environmental legislation, discharge and

emission consent limits, building permit
(standards).
Environmental It is the process of conducing an assessment  Assess conditions & working  Interview
risk audit to identify potential risk points in the chain procedures  Visual obser
from receipt of raw material through the  Assess the likelihood of an  Document r
production processes to storage and environmentally damaging
distribution occurrence and the consequences
of the event.
Reacquisition This is commonly undertaken before the  Assess contaminated land  Interview
audit transfer of ownership from one individual to buildings  Document r

another.  Undertake historical survey  Visual obser

 Laboratory t
through identifying past and
current activities
 Undertake site assessment
 Undertake sample test
Management It is the process of checking the system or  Check operations against written  Interview
systems audit procedures against the existing policy and procedures  Visual obser

standard and relevance of those standards and  Check their continual  Document r
procedures for ensuring continual improvement program
improvement in environmental performance.
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6.3. Environmental impact assessment report writing

6.3.1. Background
Report writing is an important part of any EIA study that enable to communicate the
findings of the study to a wide range of professionals, decision makers, administrators and
the public. Each individual EIA report should ideally be tailored to fit the circumstances of
the project. However, it is useful to follow certain general guidelines to fit together the
essential components of the study so as to generate a coherent advisory report helpful to the
decision makers as well as the general public. A brief description of the typical contents of
each section of an EIA report is given below.
6.3.2. Contents of EIA report
I) Executive summary
The summary has to be concise and present the highlight of the main issues pertinent to
decision makers on the project. It should be developed in non-technical terms such that
decision makers and other stakeholders may readily understand it.
II) Details of the report
1. Introduction
This part would be introductory in nature and should provide a background of the project. It
presents a review of the existing situation and demonstrates the need for the proposed project.
Details regarding the composition of the EIA study team, the budget adequacy (in
professional person), work plan and the report organization should also form a part of this
category.
2. The site and surroundings
The site and surrounding area should be described in this part. This part should include the
following information.
 A description of the location and layout, including a vicinity map.
 Existing land use patterns should be described.
 Existing water body and water use in the area.
 Demographic profile which includes population density, sex, age, etc
 Soil profiles, including identification of soil types, erosion, geology etc
 Hydrology and water quality, resources.
 Meteorological data and air quality etc.
 Ecological data would be included.
3) About the project
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This part should describe the relevant systems of the proposed project. This should include
the plant layout, inclusive of the drainage system, description of materials utilized and
produced (mass balance), design criteria adopted and the access ways to be used. Project
information should be described in terms of the following activities, such as site preparation,
operation on site, transportation, welfare and closure.
4) Environmental effects of project operation
The anticipated impacts of the project operation on the environment should be described in
this part. EIA methods such as matrix and network, together with tools such as predication
models, may be useful at this stage. All direct and indirect impacts should be speculated at
this stage.
5) Evaluation and analysis of impact
The type of evaluation method or tool, for example, matrix, network, GIS, cost-benefit
analysis, etc used to quantitatively evaluate the impact due to the proposed action, should be
highlighted in this part of the report.
6) Design of mitigation measures
In this part of the report, mitigative measures, which are established to prevent, reduce or
compensate for impacts mentioned under part 5 are detailed. Finding better ways of doing
things, minimize or eliminate negative impacts, enhance benefits and protect public and
individual rights to compensation are common mitigative measures.
7) Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
This part should describe in detail the implementation plan to be adopted by the proponent
during implementation for mitigation, protection or enhancement measures which are
recommended in part 6. This part is the most crucial and significant part of the entire EIA
report. It is therefore essential that this part should be presented with precision and clarity.
The outline may be structured as follows:
 Objective;
 Work plan/Implementation schedule;
 Resources requirements;
 Manpower
 Material provision/availability
 Budgetary provision for EMP.
8) Environmental monitoring programs
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The proposed monitoring programs to be implemented to monitor environmental impacts due

to the operation of the project should be described in this part. The programs should be
initiated prior to the commencement of the construction activities.
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Reference
1. Caldwell, L.(1998). Implementing Policy Through Procedure: Impact Assessment and
the National Environment Policy Act (NEPA), Fargo Press, USA.
2. Clark, B. (1984).Environmental Impact Assessment: Scope and Objectives: In
Perspectives on Environmental Impact Assessment. London, UK.
3. Coles,T. Et Al.(2000). Practical Experience of Environmental Assessment in the UK.
Lincolnshire: Institute of Environmental Assessment.
4. Department Of Environment (1996). Changes in the Quality of Environmental Impact
Statements. London, UK.
5. EPA, 2003. Environmental Impact Assessment Procedural Guideline (Drafts). Addis
Ababa.
6. Leopold, L. Et Al. (1971).A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental Impact.
Washington DC, USA.
7. Mcnab, A. (1997). Scoping and Public Participation. In Planning and EIA in Practices,
UK.
8. Parkin,J. (1992). Judging Plans and Projects. London, UK.
9. Peter, M.(2001).Methods Of Environmental Impact Assessment, London, UK.
10. Sorensen, J. (1973). Procedure and Programs to Assist in the Environmental L Impact
Assessment Process, University of California.
11. Therive, R. (2004). Strategic Environmental Assessment In Action. London, UK.
12. VROM (1984). Prediction in Environmental Impact Assessment. The Hague: Netherlands
Ministry of Public Housing, Physical Planning and Environmental Affairs.
13. Wood,C.(2003). Environmental Impact Assessment: Comprehensive Overview, UK.