CHAPTER 3: THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1857-58

Reasons of the War of Independence:

Political: The British introduced the Doctrine of Lapse in 1852 an act which allowed them to confiscate the territory of
any local ruler who did not have a real male heir. This did not please the Indian landlords as they were being deprived
for their lands and thus rebelled. Oudh (Awadh) was annexed in 1856 to control Shias and Sunnis which were mainly
coming in Bengal garrisons from Oudh. Jhansi and Kanpur were also annexed by the British.
Political: In 1857 the Mughal Emperor Bahahur Shah Zafar II had little power left but was still an important symbolic
figure. The British moved the Royal family form the Red fort of Delhi to Agra. Muslims felt this as mistreatment and
were very depressed at the end of the Empire.
Political: At a lower level of society there was a resentment of the lack of opportunities for native Indians in the Civil
service. This resulted in more hatred for the British as their rights were not considered.
Political: 1834, English replaced Persian as the official language of administration. This created resentment because it
wasn’t only seen as cultural intervention but also increased Indian unemployment as they didn’t know English. Western
education was also made compulsory in India which was not accepted to Muslims particularly.

Military: The Greased Cartridges which were also introduced which were to be bitten off from mouth before inserting
the gun powder into the rifles.
Military: Most of the sepoys were Indians, whereas officers were always British with more authority on sepoys.
Military: They sent Indian troops to fight in Afghanistan. Unpopular as Hindus didn’t want to leave ‘Mother India’ and
Muslims didn’t want to fight other fellow Afghan Muslims.

Religious: Furthermore, regular rumours that Muslim, Hindu, Sikh soldiers would be forced to convert to Christianity.
Angered Indian soldiers who felt that their religion was under threat.
Religious: Many Indian sepoys who were asked to serve the British Army overseas were not pleased. Particularly the
Hindus who believed that crossing the sea would make them casteless.
Religious: Hindu tradition Suttee was abolished in 1829, widow remarriage allowed. Parda (veil) was ridiculed by the
British which was displeasing for the Muslims.
Religious: Christian Missionaries made schools, taught Christianity, expected locals to give up own religion. Employers
sometimes offered incentives for this as they believed their children would become pro-Christians.

Social: British had a very low view of the Indians. The tried to spread their own culture, and considered the Indians
inferior and were reluctant in giving them high posts. They considered education of India far below their levels.
Social: The British were tried in special courts, but Indians/Locals were tried in ordinary courts. Judgments were made
by the British and were often cruel/harsh and biased.

Economic: More taxes were imposed on Indians and everyone was bound to pay. Agrarian tax was disruptive.
Economic: The Cotton Textile Industry had spoiled the economic condition of the Indians. Many Indians had gone
beyond poverty due to cheaper cloth made by the British yet they had given up their job of hand weaving.
 Events of the War:

January 1857: The British introduced new ‘Enfield Rifles’ and replaced the old Brown Busket Rifles. The
new greased cartridges were also introduced with paper cartridge coated with wax which were to be
bitten off from mouth before inserting the gun powder into the rifles.

March 1857: At Meerut, a rumour was spread that the wax used to grease the cartridges was made of
cows’ and pigs’ fat. Cow was sacred to Hindus and pigs are forbidden for Muslims. Therefore, a group
of sepoys denied to use the cartridges. Their leader was Mangal Panday. He, along with many other
soldiers was trialed and was hanged.

May 1857: The news spread and the mutiny started at Meerut and other places. The Indian sepoys
killed many British and tried to march towards Delhi. They were joined by other garrisons too.

Battle of Cawnpore: The groups were joined by Nana Sahib at Kanpur. He gave a serious tough time
and killed the British force, 300 women and children but it was controlled by the British. The violence
and bloodshed was controlled by hanging people, shot out of the mouth of cannons, burned alive and
Muslims were even sewn into pigskins and hanged.

June 1858: Rani Laxmibai was killed by the British. By September 1857 Delhi was regained by the
British.

The British were able to win over the Indians as they had better weapons than Indians, they were more
experienced in handling warfare and were more organized. They had a proper strategy in the war. The
Maharaja of Kashmir, Ghulab Singh had sent 200 Kashmiri soldiers who fought from the side of the
British. The British were able to control the sepoys as Bombay, Bengal and Punjab garrisons never
participated in the war. Some other leaders of the state never participated as they were loyal to the
British.

On the other hand, the Indians had no major strategy of war. They lacked experience and skill which
the enemy had. Some of the groups like Sikhs were not happy fighting for the British. The Indians had
no communication which could help them in fighting strong. The lack of leadership played an
important role in bringing problems for them.
 Reasons for failure of War of Independence:

Disunity: There was disunity among the rebels. They lacked a common purpose and everyone fought for
personal interest, often refused to fight unless they were harmed. Nana Sahib, only interested in getting
Doctrine of Lapse of 1852 reversed and was ready to come to terms if this demand was accepted. Thus, Muslims
lacked a common cause from the Indians, weakening them.

Disunity: Some of the princely state rulers supported the British in order to maintain their own power. Such as
the ruler of Kashmir, who sent 2000 troops to help the British. Thus their strength against the war grew, and the
Indians were less united.

Disunity: Lord Canning, the Governor General, adopted a conciliator policy towards the rebels. He allowed
many concessions for them: Announcing the rebels who gave up their arms were to be forgiven. Thus, quite a
few leaders left the battlefield to join in negotiations with the government.

Disunity: There had been a great deal of vandalism in the war, thus the local population was harmed and
became displeased with the rebel’s nefarious activities. Instead, they sympathized with the British who stood
for law and order. Hence the British strength increased even further, rebels weakened.

British Strength: Punjab and Sindh had been conquered by the British with their troops from Bengal and Central
Asia. So, when the troops rebelled in 1857, the Punjabis and Sindhis did not support. Meaning a much smaller
number of rebels against the British might not win over them. The Bengal, Bombay and Punjab garrisons
refused to take part in the war with the fear of losing their job.

British Strength: The Last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II, who was considered the main leader of the
revolt showed incompetence during the war. More interested in poetry and luxury, and neglected the affairs of
combat. Thus, Zafar’s poor administration meant weak control.

British Strength: The British had experienced the Industrial Revolution and were technologically much more
superior. Thus they had advanced weaponry, giving them an edge over the Mughal/Indian forces who had
traditional and outdated weaponry.

British Strength: The British were a superpower at that time and had well trained, confident soldiers led by
outstanding generals such as Edwards and Neil. Who fought with devotion and loyalty to the British Queen. The
rebel leaders in comparison were indecisive and short sighted and hence were easily defeated by the British.
 Results of the War of Independence

Negative: The Indians failed their main objective of ending British Rule/Driving them out of the subcontinent.
They not only failed, but ended as slaves to the British. They British attained complete autonomy over the
country and established a rather tyrannical rule over the Indians.

Negative: The Mughal Empire was removed from the Indian political scene forever as the country came directly
under the British Crown by the 1858 proclamation by Queen Victoria. The Muslims were greatly hurt by this, as
the main figure of Mughal rule was exiled.

Negative: The war left a trail of mutual fear and distrust in the minds of the ruler. The British became cautious,
rigid, reactionary in their attitude towards the Indians especially the Muslims, considering to be solely
responsible for the revolt, since they wanted to restore the Mughal Empire. Thus the British began to develop a
policy of suppressing the Muslims in their every walk of life. This hatred continued for half a century.

Negative: The army taking the initiative in the War of Independence was thoroughly revised. The number of
British Soldiers was increased from the ratio of 1:5 to 1:2. Dismaying the Indians, who took part in an attempt to
gain better posts and salaries through the revolt. Instead, some soldiers became jobless.

Negative: The forces that had rebelled were executed by the British. Cruel punishments, such as being blown to
pieces by a canon were used.

Negative: In 1878, the British passed the Vernacular Press Act to control press and publications in India so that
no news of the any possible future war could be published further. Arms Act was passed in India by which no
India was allowed to carry weapons.

Positive: The British tried to being about a change in their administration and policies. They ended the “British
East India Company to the happiness of the Indians who were now relieved of the Company’s tyranny. Thus
there now to be ruled through a new, possibly less cruel ruler.

Positive: New reforms and constitutional changes were introduced. An act for the better government of India
was passed and introduced. It involved a Secretary of State with a council of 15 members to help him. Policy of
centralization in the 1833 act was changed, and new principles of decentralization and indianisation were
recognized. And Indians could now be elected in provincial councils and thus attain power at a provincial level.

Positive: Moreover, the 1861 Indian Councils Act restored legislative powers to the governments of Bombay and
Madras. New Legislative Councils were established in many provinces including Punjab, Bengal etc. Thus, Indians
were given much more political say, which had been an aim of theirs in the War of Independence.

Positive: The British policy of annexation was changed. The Queen declared no more extensions to their present
territorial possessions and the Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned. Indians could now inherit their lands with
ease.

Positive: Greased Cartridge supply stopped. Indians relieved of a very sensitive Religious issue.

Positive: In 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in a magnificent ceremony in Delhi. More
Indians were promised to be included in the Civil Service of India however the promise was not fulfilled as the ICS
Examinations were held in London which was difficult for an Indian to join.