15.

Transition Metals
Sc 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s23d1 Sc 3+ [Ar] 4s03d0
General properties of transition metals Ti 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s23d2 Ti 3+ [Ar] 4s03d1
V 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s23d3 V 3+ [Ar] 4s03d2
transition metal characteristics of elements Sc 
Cu arise from an incomplete d sub-level in ions Cr 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s13d5 Cr 3+ [Ar] 4s03d3
Mn 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s23d5 Mn 2+ [Ar] 4s03d5
Fe 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s23d6 When Fe 3+ [Ar] 4s03d5
these characteristics include Co 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s23d7 forming Co 2+ [Ar] 4s03d7
•complex formation, ions lose
Ni 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s23d8 4s before Ni 2+ [Ar] 4s03d8
•formation of coloured ions, Cu 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s13d10 Cu 2+ [Ar] 4s03d9
3d
•variable oxidation state
Zn 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s23d10 Zn 2+ [Ar] 4s03d10
•catalytic activity.

Why is Zn not a transition metal?

Zn can only form a +2 ion. In this ion the Zn2+ has a complete d orbital and so does
not meet the criteria of having an incomplete d orbital in one of its compounds.

Why is Sc not a transition metal?

Sc can only form a +3 ion. In this ion the Sc3+ has an empty d orbital and so
does not meet the criteria of having an incomplete d orbital in one of its ions.

The successive ionization energies for the elements Sc to Zn show a gradual increase in ionisation
energy until all the 4s and 3d electrons have been removed. There is then a big jump as electrons start
to be removed from the inner core electrons

Complex formation
2+
complex :is a central metal ion surrounded by ligands. OH2
H2O OH2
ligand.: An atom, ion or molecule which can donate a lone electron pair
Cu
H2O OH2
Co-ordinate bonding is involved in complex formation.
Co-ordinate bonding is when the shared pair of electrons in the covalent bond OH2
come from only one of the bonding atoms.
Co-ordination number: The number of co-ordinate bonds formed to a central
metal ion

ligands can be monodentate (e.g. H2O, NH3 and Cl- 3+

A complex with bidentate
CH2
) which can form one coordinate bond per ligand or NH2
ligands e.g.
H2 C [Cr(NH2CH2CH2NH2)3]3+
bidentate (e.g. NH2CH2CH2NH2 and ethanedioate NH2 NH2 CH2
ion C2O4 2- ) which have two atoms with lone pairs Cr
CH2 There are 3 bidentate
and can form two coordinate bonds per ligand NH2 NH2
ligands in this complex
or multidentate (e.g. EDTA4- which can form six NH2
H2 C each bonding in twice
coordinate bonds per ligand). CH2 to the metal ion
The EDTA4- anion has the formula
It has a coordination number of 6
O O
O
-O C CH2 CH2 C O- C 3-
O O
N CH2 CH2 N C

O O A complex with
-O C CH2 CH2 C O- O
C
Cr
bidentate ethanedioate
C
ligands e.g. [Cr(C2O4)3]3-
O O O O O

with six donor sites(4O and 2N) and forms a 1:1 O C O

C
complex with metal(II) ions O

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Formation of coloured ions

Colour changes arise from changes in

1. oxidation state, O2 In this
2. co-ordination number [Co(NH3)6]2+ (aq)  [Co(NH3)6]3+ (aq) +e- equation only
3. ligand. yellow brown oxidation state
is changing

Cu(H2O)62+ + 4Cl-  [CuCl4]2- + 6H2O

blue greem
Co(H2O)62+ + 6 NH3  Co(NH3)62+ + 6H2O
In this equation both ligand and co-
Pink yellow brown
ordination number are changing
In this equation only the ligand is changing

How colour arises

dz2 dx2- y 2
Colour arises from electronic transitions from the
E
ground state to excited states: between different d
orbitals Average energy of
A portion of visible light is absorbed to promote d d orbitals in field of
electrons to higher energy levels. The light that is not ligands dxy dxz dyz
absorbed is transmitted to give the substance colour.
Octahedral complex ion
A solution will appear blue if it absorbs orange light.
Ligands cause 5 d orbitals to
split into two energy levels

Changing colour
Changing a ligand or changing the coordination number will alter the energy split between the d- orbitals,
changing E and hence change the frequency of light absorbed.

Compounds without colour

Scandium is a member of the d block, its ion In the case of Zn2+ ions and Cu+ ions the d shell is full
(Sc3+) hasn't got any d electrons left to move e.g.3d10 so here there is no space for electrons to
around. So there is not an energy transfer equal to transfer. So there is not an energy transfer equal to that
that of visible light of visible light

Spectrophotometry
Absorption of visible light is used in spectrometry to
If visible light of increasing frequency is passed through a
determine the concentration of coloured ions.
sample of a coloured complex ion, some of the light is
absorbed. method
The amount of light absorbed is proportional to the •Add an appropriate ligand to intensify colour
concentration of the absorbing species. •Make up solutions of known concentration
Some complexes have only pale colours and do not •Measure absorption or transmission
absorb light strongly. In these cases a suitable ligand is •Plot graph of results or calibration curve
added to intensify the colour. •Measure absorption of unknown and compare

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Shapes of complex ions
transition metal ions
transition metal ions commonly form square planar Ag+ commonly forms
commonly form octahedral tetrahedral complexes complexes are also linear complexes
complexes with small with larger ligands formed, e.g. e.g. [Ag(NH3)2]+,
ligands (e.g. H2O and NH3). (e.g.Cl- ). cisplatin [Ag(S2O3)2]3- and
[Ag(CN)2]- (all
2+ Cl 2- colourless).
NH3 H 3N Cl
H3 N NH3 Pt +
Ni Cu H 3N H3 N Ag NH3
H3 N Cl
NH3
NH3 Cl Cl
Cl

Platin binds to DNA of cancer cells and

Cisplatin
stops cancer cells dividing
The Pt(II) complex cisplatin is used as an anticancer drug.
H 3N Cl Cl NH3
The cisplatin version only works as two chloride ions are displaced and
the molecule joins on to the DNA. In doing this it stops the replication of Pt Pt
cancerous cells. H 3N Cl H 3N Cl
In the body one Cl ligand is subsituted by a water molecule
cisplatin transplatin
Pt(NH3)2Cl2 + H2O  [Pt(NH3)2Cl(H2O)]+ + Cl–
Be able to apply your knowledge of bonding to given information It can also prevent the replication of
in the question to explain how it bonds to DNA molecule- generally healthy cells by bonding on to
a combination of dative covalent bonding and hydrogen bonding healthy DNA which may lead to
unwanted side effects like hair loss

Fe(II) in haemoglobin enables oxygen to be transported in the blood. Haem is an iron(II) complex with a
multidentate ligand.

CO is toxic to humans as CO can from a strong coordinate bond with haemoglobin and replaces oxygen in a
ligand exchange reaction. This is a stronger bond than that made with oxygen and so it prevents the oxygen
attaching to the haemoglobin.

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Variable oxidation states
When transition metals form ions they
Transition elements show variable oxidation states lose the 4s electrons before the 3d

Transition metals form various oxidation states. They are able to donate and receive electrons and are
able to oxidize and reduce. This is because the ions contain partially filled sub-shells of d electrons that
can easily lose or gain electrons. The energy differences between the oxidation states are small.

General trends
•Relative stability of +2 state with respect to +3 state increases across the period
•Compounds with high oxidation states tend to be oxidising agents e.g MnO4-
•Compounds with low oxidation states are often reducing agents e.g V2+ & Fe2+

Vanadium
Vanadium has four main oxidation states The ion with the V at oxidation state +5 exists as a solid
compound in the form of a VO3- ion, usually as NH4VO3
VO2+ Oxidation state +5 ( a yellow solution) (ammonium vanadate (V). It is a reasonably strong
oxidising agent. Addition of acid to the solid will turn into
VO2+ Oxidation state + 4 (a blue solution) the yellow solution containing the VO2+ ion.
V3+ Oxidation state + 3 (a green solution)
V2+ Oxidation state + 2 (a violet solution)

Addition of zinc to the vanadium (V) in acidic solution will reduce the vanadium down through each successive
oxidation state, and the colour would successively change from yellow to blue to green to violet

Redox Equation Eo Values

VO2+(aq) + 2H+(aq) + e-  VO2+(aq) + H2O +1.00 V
VO2+(aq + 2H+(aq) +e-  V3+(aq) + H2O +0.34 V
- 0.26 V
V3+(aq) + e-  V2+(aq)

Zn2+ + 2e-  Zn E=-0.76V

As zinc has a more negative electrode potential than all the vanadium half equations, zinc will
reduce down to V2+

Sn2+ + 2e-  Sn E=-0.136V

Tin metal will only reduce the vanadium to the +3 state

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 Chromium Reactions

Reducing Chromium Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 3Zn  2Cr3+ + 7H2O + 3 Zn2+

Cr3+ (green) and then Cr2+ (blue) are formed by reduction of Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 4Zn  2Cr2+ + 7H2O + 4 Zn2+
Cr2O72- (orange) by the strong reducing agent zinc in (HCl) acid
solution. Fe2+ is a less strong reducing agent and will only reduce Keeping the zinc/dichromate under a
the dichromate to Cr3+ hydrogen atmosphere is needed to reduce it
to Cr2+, because O2 in air will oxidise Cr2+
up to Cr3+
The Cr2+ state can be stabilised by forming a stable complex ion with a ligand such as the ethanoate
ion. If the blue Cr2+ ions are bubbled through sodium ethanoate, a stable red precipitate of chromium(II)
ethanoate is formed.

The Fe2+ and Cr2O7 2- in acid solution reaction can be used Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6Fe2+  2Cr3+ + 7H2O + 6 Fe3+
as a quantitative redox titration. This does not need an Orange green
indicator
Redox Potentials

Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e-  2Cr3+ + 7H2O E +1.33V

The electrode potential of Iron(II) is in between
Fe3+(aq) + e–  Fe2+(aq) E +0.75V the two chromium half equations, so Fe2+ will
reduce chromium down to Cr3+

Cr3+(aq) + e–  Cr2+(aq) E -0.41V

As zinc has a more negative electrode potential
Zn2+ + 2e-  Zn E=-0.76V than all the chromium half equations, zinc will
reduce chromium down to Cr2+

Oxidising Chromium
When transition metals in low oxidation states are in alkaline It is easier to remove an electron
solution they are more easily oxidised than when in acidic solution from a negatively charged ion

excessNaOH
[Cr(H2O)6]3+ (aq) [Cr(OH)6]3- (aq) The metal ions can be oxidised by using
Acidified alkaline oxidising agents such as hydrogen peroxide
Not easy to oxidise easier to oxidise

H2O2 Reduction :H2O2 + 2e-  2OH-

Cr(OH)63- (aq) CrO42- (aq) Oxidation: [Cr(OH)6]3- + 2OH- CrO42- + 3e- + 4H2O
Green solution yellow solution 2 [Cr(OH)6]3- + 3H2O2 2CrO42- +2OH- + 8H2O

Half equations in alkaline conditions:

For change Cr(OH)63- CrO42-
These are more difficult to do than half
equations under acidic conditions. The Add H2O to balance O: [Cr(OH)6]3- CrO42- + 2H2O + 3e-
easiest way of doing it is to balance as
Add H+ to balance H: [Cr(OH)6]3- CrO42- + 2H2O + 2H+ + 3e-
if under acidic conditions then add OH-
ions to both sides to convert to Add OH- to both sides
alkaline. to cancel out H+: [Cr(OH)6]3- +2OH-  CrO42- + 2H2O + 2H+ +2OH- + 3e-
[Cr(OH)6]3- + 2OH- CrO42- + 3e- + 4H2O

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 Chromate/ dichromate equilibrium
The chromate CrO42- and dichromate Cr2O72- ions can be converted This is not a redox reaction as both
from one to the other by the following equilibrium reaction. the chromate and dichromate ions
have an oxidation number of +6. This
2 CrO42- + 2H+ Cr2O72- + H2O is an acid base reaction.
Yellow solution orange solution

Addition of acid will by application of le Chatelier push the equilibrium to the dichromate.
Addition of alkali will remove the H+ ions and, by application of le Chatelier, push the equilibrium to
the chromate.

Chromium Summary

acid
+6 Orange
Cr2O72- (aq) solution CrO42- (aq) Yellow
solution
alkali

Zinc and HCl

H2O2
Or Fe2+
acidified
with HCl

Excess Limited
NaOH Excess
NH3 NaOH
or NH3
[Cr(NH3)6]3+ [Cr(H2O)6]3+ (aq) green [Cr(OH)6]3-
+3 Cr(H2O)3(OH)3 s)
purple solution Green
Green
solution solution
Zinc and HCl precipitate
O2 Hydrogen atmosphere

+2 [Cr(H2O)6]2+ (aq) blue

solution

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Reactions of Inorganic Compounds in Aqueous Solution
Lewis acids and bases
In the formation of complex ions the ligand is the Lewis
Definitions: Lewis acid: electron pair acceptor base because it is donating a pair of electrons in the
Lewis base: electron pair donator dative covalent bond and the metal ion is the Lewis acid.

Metal-aqua ions
Metal aqua ions are formed in aqueous solution. In solution Cr(III) often appears green and
Fe(III) appears yellow/brown due to
[M(H2O)6]2+, limited to M = Fe (green) , Co(pink) and Cu (blue); hydrolysis reactions. The ruby and violet
[M(H2O)6]3+, limited to M = Cr (ruby) and Fe (violet) colour is only really seen in solid hydrated
salts that contain these complexes.
Acidity or hydrolysis reactions

The following equilibria happen in aqueous solutions of metal ions.

The equilibria lead to generation of acidic
[M(H2O)6]2+ + H2O [M(H2O)5(OH)]+ + H3O+ solutions with M3+ ions, and very weakly
acidic solutions with M2+ ions. The 3+ ions
[M(H2O)6]3+ + H2O [M(H2O)5(OH)]2+ + H3O+ are noticeably more acidic.

The acidity of [M(H2O)6]3+ is greater than that of [M(H2O)6]2+ in terms of the greater polarising power
(charge/size ratio) of the 3+ metal ion. The greater the polarising power, the more strongly it attracts the water
molecule. This weakens the O-H bond so it breaks more easily.

Reaction with limited OH- and limited NH3

The bases OH- and ammonia when in limited
M(OH)2(H2O)4 (s) : Cu blue ppt, Co blue ppt, Fe (II) green ppt
amounts form the same hydroxide
M(OH)3(H2O)3 (s) :Cr (III) green ppt, Fe(III) brown ppt,
precipitates. They form in deprotonation
acid base reactions
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)  Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 (s) + 2H2O (l) [Co(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 2NH3 (aq)  Co(H2O)4(OH)2 (s) + 2NH4+ (aq)
[Cr(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3OH- (aq)  Cr(H2O)3(OH)3 (s) + 3H2O (l) [Fe(H2O)6]3+ (aq) + 3NH3 (aq)  Fe(H2O)3(OH)3 (s) + 3NH4+ (aq)

This process can happen step wise removing one proton at a time. Be able to write equations for this too.
e.g. [Cr(H2O)6]3+ (aq) + OH- (aq)  [Cr(H2O)5(OH)]2+ (aq) + H2O (l)
Here the NH3 and OH- ions are acting as
[Cr(H2O)5(OH)]2+ (aq) + OH- (aq)  [Cr(H2O)4(OH)2]+ (aq) + H2O (l) Bronsted-Lowry bases accepting a proton

Reaction with excess OH-

With excess NaOH, the Cr hydroxide dissolves. This hydroxide is classed as amphoteric
Cr becomes [Cr(OH)6]3- (aq) green solution. because they react and dissolve in both acids
and bases.

Cr(H2O)3(OH)3 (s) + 3OH- (aq ) [Cr(OH)6]3- (aq) + 3H2O(l) Cr(H2O)3(OH)3 (s) + 3H+ (aq ) [Cr(H2O)6]3+(aq)

Reaction with excess NH3

With excess NH3 ligand substitution reactions occur with Cu, Co and Cr and their precipitates dissolve.
Cr becomes [Cr(NH3)6]3+ purple solution
The ligands NH3 and H2O are similar in size and are
uncharged. Ligand exchange occurs without a change Co becomes [Co(NH3)6]2+ pale yellow solution
of co-ordination number for Co and Cr. Remember this Co complex is oxidised to +3 on
standing in air.
This substitution may, however, be incomplete as
in the case with Cu. Cu becomes [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ deep blue solution

Cr(OH)3(H2O)3(s) + 6NH3 (aq)  [Cr(NH3)6]3+(aq) + 3H2O(l) + 3OH- (aq) In these reactions NH3 is
acting as a Lewis base
Cu(OH)2(H2O)4(s) + 4NH3 (aq)  [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2OH- (aq) donating an electron pair.
Co(OH)2(H2O)4(s) + 6NH3 (aq)  [Co(NH3)6]2+(aq) + 4H2O (l) + 2OH- (aq)
7
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Ligand exchange reactions with chloride ions
Addition of conc HCl to aqueous ions of Cu
Addition of a high concentration of chloride ions (from conc HCl or and Co lead to a change in coordination
saturated NaCl) to an aqueous ion leads to a ligand substitution number from 6 to 4
reaction. [CuCl4]2- yellow/green solution
[CoCl4]2- blue solution
The Cl- ligand is larger than the uncharged H2O and NH3
These are tetrahedral in shape
ligands so therefore ligand exchange can involve a
change of co-ordination number.
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ + 4Cl-  [CuCl4]2- + 6H2O
Be careful: If solid copper chloride (or any other metal )is
dissolved in water it forms the aqueous [Cu(H2O)6]2+ complex [Co(H2O)6]2+ + 4Cl-  [CoCl4]2- + 6H2O
and not the chloride [CuCl4]2- complex

Stability of complexes

The substitution of monodentate ligand with a bidentate or a multidentate ligand leads to a more stable complex.

This chelate effect can be explained in terms of a positive entropy change in these reactions as more
molecules of products than reactants

[Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + EDTA4- (aq)  [Cu (EDTA)]2- (aq) + 6H2O (l)

The copper complex ion has changed from having monodentate ligands to a multidentate ligand
In this reaction there is an increase in the entropy of the system because there are more moles of
products than reactants (from 2 to 7), creating more disorder.

The stability of the EDTA complexes has many applications. It can be added to rivers to remove
poisonous heavy metal ions as the EDTA complexes are not toxic. It is in many shampoos to remove
calcium ions present in hard water, so helping lathering.

Ethane-1-2-diamine

Ethane-1-2-diamine is a common bidentate ligand.

There are 3 bidentate ligands in this
Cu(H2O)62+ + 3NH2CH2CH2NH2  [Cu(NH2CH2CH2NH2)3]2+ + 6H2O complex each bonding in twice to the
metal ion
CH2 3+
[Co(NH3)6]2+ + 3NH2CH2CH2NH2  [Co(NH2CH2CH2NH2)3]2+ + 6NH3 H2 C
NH2

NH2 NH2 CH2

This reaction has an increase in entropy because of in the increase
Cr
in moles from 4 to 7 in the reaction. ΔSsystem is positive. NH2 NH2
CH2
Its enthalpy change ΔH (and ΔSsurroundings) is close to zero as the
NH2
number of dative covalent and type (N to metal coordinate bond) H2 C
CH2
are the same so the energy required to break and make bonds will
be the same.
It has a coordination number of 6
Therefore ΔSTotal will be positive and the complex formed is stable Octahedral shape
Bond angle around Cr 90o

Ethane-1-2-diamine, as a base, can also carry out the deprotonation reactions

(similar to those of ammonia) forming hydroxide precipitates.
2[Al(H2O)6]3+ (aq) + 3 H2NCH2CH2NH2 (aq)  2Al(H2O)3(OH)3 (s) + 3 [H3NCH2CH2NH3 ]2+ (aq)

Note small molecules such as NH2NH2 cannot act as bidentate ligands because even though they have two
lone pairs they are too close together and would not be able to fit around the metal ion

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More on some common ligands
O

Ethanedioate C2O42- C 3-
O O A 6 coordination number
C
complex with bidentate
O
O O
C ethanedioate ligands e.g.
Cu(H2O)62+ + 3C2O42- [Cu(C2O4)3]4- + 6H2O Cr [Cr(C2O4)3]3-
C
O O O

Cr(H2O)63+ + 3C2O42- [Cr(C2O4)3]3- + 6H2O O C O Octahedral shape with

C 90o bond angles
O

Partial substitution of ethanedioate ions may 2-

occur when a dilute aqueous solution containing OH2
ethanedioate ions is added to a solution O O O O
C
containing aqueous copper(II) ions. In this C
Cu
reaction four water molecules are replaced and C C
O O O O
a new complex is formed.
OH2
Cu(H2O)62+ + 2C2O42- [Cu(C2O4)2(H2O)2]2- + 4H2O

Using Silver nitrate to work out formulae of chloride containing complexes

Sometimes a compound containing a complex may have Cl- ions acting as ligands inside the complex and
Cl- ions outside the complex attracted ionically to it. If silver nitrate is added to such a compound it will only
form the silver chloride precipitate with the free chloride ions outside of the complex.

e.g. Co(NH3)6Cl3 reacts on a 1:3 e.g. Cr(NH3)5Cl3 reacts on a 1:2 e.g. Cr(NH3)4Cl3 reacts on a
mole ratio with silver nitrate as mole ratio with silver nitrate as 1:1 mole ratio with silver
there are three free Cl- ions. So there are two free Cl- ions. So 1 nitrate as there is one free
all 3 Cls are outside the complex Cl is a ligand and 2 are outside Cl- ion. So 2 Cl’s are ligands
the complex and 1 is outside the complex

NH3
3+ +
H3N NH3 - NH3
2+ NH3
Co 3Cl H3N NH3 -
H3N NH3 -
Cr Cl
H3N NH3 Cr 2Cl -
- H3N Cl
NH3 H3N Cl -
Cl
NH3

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 2+ Ion Summary

[MCl4]2-

[CuCl4]2- green sol

[CoCl4]2- blue sol

excess OH-
water Conc Cl-

Few drops OH - [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+

or NH3 excess NH3 deep blue solution
[M(H2O)6]2+ M(OH)2 (H2O)4 [Co(NH3)6]2+
H+ yellow/light brown solution
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ blue sol Cu(OH)2(H2O)4 blue ppt
[Fe(H2O)6]2+ green sol Fe(OH)2(H2O)4 green ppt
[Co(H2O)6]2+ pink sol Co(OH)2(H2O)4 blue ppt Air or H2O2

Air or H2O2
[Co(NH3)6]3+ brown sol

M(OH)3 (H2O)3

Fe(OH)3(H2O)3 brown ppt

Co(OH)3(H2O)3 brown ppt

3+ Ion Summary
Cr2O72- orange sol

H+ OH-

H2O2
[Cr(OH)6]3- green sol CrO42- yellow sol

excess OH-

Few drops
OH- or NH3 excess NH3
[M(H2O)6]3+ M(OH)3 (H2O)3 [Cr(NH3)6]3+ violet sol

H+
[Cr(H2O)6]3+ violet sol
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ yellow sol Cr(OH)3(H2O)3 green ppt
Fe(OH)3(H2O)3 brown ppt

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Catalysis

Catalysts increase reaction rates without getting used up. They do this by providing an alternative
route with a lower activation energy

Transition metals and their compounds can act A heterogeneous catalyst is in a different phase from the reactants
as heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts. A homogeneous catalyst is in the same phase as the reactants

Heterogeneous catalysis
Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids whereas the Adsorption of reactants at active sites on the surface may
reactants are gaseous or in solution. The reaction lead to catalytic action. The active site is the place where
occurs at the surface of the catalyst. the reactants adsorb on to the surface of the catalyst. This
can result in the bonds within the reactant molecules
becoming weaker, or the molecules being held in a more
reactive configuration. There will also be a higher
Strength of adsorption concentration of reactants at the solid surface so leading to
The strength of adsorption helps to determine the a higher collision frequency
effectiveness of the catalytic activity
Some metals e.g. W have too strong adsorption and so
Transition Metals can use the 3d and 4s e- of atoms on the
the products cannot be released
metal surface to form weak bonds to the reactants.
Some metals e.g. Ag have too weak adsorption, and the
reactants do not adsorb in high enough concentration
Ni and Pt have about the right strength and are most
Advantages of heterogeneous catalysts
useful as catalysts
Heterogeneous catalysts can be filtered off and are easy
to separate from any liquid or gaseous products. They
are also suited to continuous processes rather than batch
processes
Surface area:
Increasing the surface area of a solid catalyst will improve
its effectiveness. A support medium is often used to
maximise the surface area and minimise the cost (e.g. Rh
on a ceramic support in catalytic converters).

Example of heterogeneous catalysts

V2O5 is used as a catalyst in the Contact Process.

Note the oxidation number of the vanadium changes and then
Overall equation : 2SO2 + O2  2SO3
changes back. It is still classed as a catalyst as it returns to its
step 1 SO2 + V2O5  SO3 + V2O4
original form
step 2 2V2O4 + O2  2V2O5

Catalytic converters

These remove CO, NOx and unburned hydrocarbons Steps in Heterogeneous Catalysis in catalytic converter
(e.g. octane, C8H18) from the exhaust gases, turning
them into ‘harmless’ CO2, N2 and H2O. 1. CO and NO molecules form bonds with atoms at
active sites on the surface of the catalyst -
2 CO + 2 NO  2 CO2 + N2 adsorbed onto the surface
C8H18 + 25 NO  8 CO2 + 12½ N2 + 9 H2O 2. As a result bonds in the reactants are weakened
and break
3. New bonds form between the reactants held close
Converters have a ceramic honeycomb coated
together on catalyst surface
with a thin layer of catalyst metals Platinum,
Palladium, Rhodium – to give a large surface 4. Desorption of CO2 and N2 product molecules from
area. the surface of the catalyst

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 Developing New Catalysts
Over the years the catalyst used for this
Making ethanoic acid from methanol and carbon monoxide is a reaction has been developed using different
preferable industrial production method because it has a high transition metal catalysts.
atom economy. This has lead to greater selectivity of the
catalysts, cheaper catalysts, milder conditions
CH3OH + CO  CH3COOH being used and improved separation processes.
A iridium/iodine based catalyst is currently used.

The scientific community reports and validates new discoveries by publishing new discoveries in scientific journals
that are peer reviewed.

Homogeneous catalysis
When catalysts and reactants are in the same The intermediate will have a different oxidation state to the
phase, the reaction proceeds through an original transition metal. At the end of the reaction the original
intermediate species oxidation state will reoccur. This illustrates importance of
variable oxidation states of transition metals in catalysis

Transition metals can act as homogeneous catalysts because they can form various oxidation states. They are able to donate
and receive electrons and are able to oxidize and reduce. This is because the ions contain partially filled sub-shells of d
electrons that can easily lose or gain electrons.
Example of homogeneous catalysts

Reaction between iodide and persulfate ions

The uncatalysed reaction is very slow because the reaction
The reaction between I- and S2O82- catalysed by Fe2+ needs a collision between two negative ions. Repulsion
overall S2O82- + 2I-  2SO42- + I2 between the ions is going to hinder this – meaning high
activation energy

S2O82- +2e-  2SO42- Eo+2.01V For a substance to act as a homogenous catalyst its electrode
potential must lie in between the electrode potentials of the two
Fe3+ + e-  Fe2+ Eo+0.77V
reactants, so it can first reduce the reactant with the more positive
electrode potential and then in the second step oxidize the
I2 + 2e-  2I- Eo+0.54V reactant with the more negative electrode potential

Catalysed alternative route Both of the individual stages in the catalysed mechanism
stage 1 S2O82- + 2Fe2+  2SO42- + 2Fe3+ involve collision between positive and negative ions and will
stage2 2I- + 2Fe3+  2Fe2+ + I2 have lower activation energies.
Using E values to find a catalyst only shows that catalysis is possible. It does not guarantee that the rate of
reaction will be increased
Fe3+ ions can also act as the catalyst because the two steps in the catalysed mechanism can occur in any order

Constructing a catalysed mechanism for a reaction Example

The following reaction is catalysed by Co2+ ions in an acidic solution. SO32– + ½ O2  SO4 2–.
Write a mechanism for the catalysed reaction by writing two equations involving Co 2+ and Co3+ ions

Split full equation into its two ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e-  H2O

half equations SO32– + ½ O2  SO4 2–
SO32– + H2O  SO4 2– + 2H+ + 2e-
Add in cobalt to make two
new redox equations.
Making sure the oxidised Co2+  Co3+ + e- ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2Co2+  H2O + 2Co3+
cobalt equation is combined
with the original reduced half
Co3+ + e-  Co2+ 2Co3+ + SO32– + H2O  SO4 2– + 2H+ + 2Co2+
equation and vice versa
Check your two mechanism equations add up to
the original full non catalysed equation

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 Autocatalytic Reaction between Ethanedioate and Manganate ions
The autocatalysis by Mn2+ in titrations of C2O4 2- with MnO4-
This is an example of autocatalysis where one of the
overall 2 MnO4- +5 C2O42- + 16 H+  2Mn2+ + 10 CO2 + 8 H2O products of the reaction can catalyse the reaction.

Mixture with only

Catalysed alternative route reactants showing
Step 1 4Mn2+ + MnO4- + 8 H+  5Mn3+ + 4 H2O effect of autocatalysis
Step 2 2Mn3+ + C2O42-  2Mn2+ + 2 CO2
The initial uncatalysed reaction is slow because the reaction is a
collision between two negative ions which repel each other
leading to a high activation energy. Mixture with
The Mn2+ ions produced act as an autocatalyst and therefore the added catalyst
reaction starts to speed up because they bring about the Mn2+ at start
alternative reaction route with lower activation energy.
The reaction eventually slows as the MnO4- concentration drops.

Following the reaction rate

This can be done by removing samples at set times and titrating to work out the concentration of MnO 4- .
It could also be done by use of a spectrometer measuring the intensity of the purple colour. This method has the
advantage that it does not disrupt the reaction mixture, using up the reactants and it leads to a much quicker
determination of concentration.

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