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Diagnosis and Management of Testicular Torsion,

Torsion of the Appendix Testis, and Epididymitis


Shan Yin, MD, MPH, ⁎ Jennifer L. Trainor, MD†

Because acute scrotal pain, swelling, and/or inflammation are a potential surgical
emergency, prompt and accurate diagnosis is crucial. The 3 most common etiologies of
acute scrotal pain in the pediatric age group are epididymitis, torsion of the appendix testis,
and testicular torsion. There are numerous other causes of scrotal pain, which include
hernia, hydrocele, trauma, Henoch-Schonlein purpura, idiopathic scrotal edema, and
neoplasm, but only testicular torsion requires emergent surgery. History and physical
examination, along with adjunctive imaging, can provide important keys to the diagnosis.
This article reviews the differential diagnosis and management of the acute scrotal pain in
the pediatric population, specifically focusing on testicular torsion, epididymitis, and
torsion of the appendix testis.
Clin Ped Emerg Med 10:38-44 © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

KEYWORDS testicular torsion, torsion of the appendix testis, epididymitis, ultrasonography,


acute scrotal pain

T esticular torsion, epididymitis, and torsion of the


appendix testis constitute the top 3 etiologies of the
acute scrotal pain in pediatrics; however, the relative
examination. In these case series, it is the ultrasonographer
who makes the diagnosis and not the surgeon. Universally
accepted criteria for ultrasound diagnosis of epididymitis
proportion of each varies widely among different published have not been established. There is some thought that
case series. Testicular torsion is generally quoted as torsion of the appendix testis may be misdiagnosed as
affecting approximately 1 in 4000 patients younger than epididymitis on ultrasound because inflammation surround-
25 years [1]. However, in 8 large case series, the percentage ing the ischemic appendage may mimic the focal hyperemia
of children with acute scrotal pain ultimately diagnosed seen with true epididymitis. Interestingly, in a case series
with testicular torsion ranges from 12% to 45% [2-9]. from Australia in which 92% of boys who presented with
Epididymitis, once thought to be an uncommon entity in acute testicular pain (N = 187) underwent surgical explora-
children, is diagnosed as the cause of acute testicular pain tion, torsion of the appendix testis accounted for 56% of all
from 5% to 62% of the time depending on the case series. cases, torsion of the testis 21%, and epididymitis 13%. In this
Torsion of the appendix testis ranges from 14% to 67% in
the same series [2-9].
The great variability in the rates quoted is dependent on ⁎Division of Emergency Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of
Colorado School of Medicine, The Children's Hospital Denver, Denver
how the diagnosis was made and the potential referral bias in
Health Medical Center, University of Colorado, Denver, CO.
the populations studied. Moreover, although there is clearly †Division of Emergency Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Feinberg
a criterion standard for the diagnosis of testicular torsion, School of Medicine, Children's Memorial Hospital, Northwestern
operative findings of an ischemic or dead testicle, there is no University, Chicago, IL.
such standard for epididymitis and torsion of the appendix Reprint requests and correspondence: Shan Yin, MD, MPH, Division of
Emergency Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of
testis. With the advent of nearly universal access to
Colorado School of Medicine, The Children's Hospital Denver,
ultrasonography, most children with acute scrotal pain Denver Health Medical Center, University of Colorado, 777 Bannock
who do not have clear clinical evidence to support testicular St, MC 0180, Denver, CO 80204. (E-mails: yin.shan@tchden.org,
torsion (and even some who do) undergo ultrasound j-trainor@northwestern.edu)

38 1522-8401/$ - see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cpem.2009.01.010
Testicular torsion, torsion of appendix testis, & epididymitis 39

case series, only 16 patients had an ultrasound performed Kadish and Bolte [5] and in 38 (92.7%) of 41 patients with
preoperatively. Of these, 9 had demonstration of increased torsion in the study of Karmazyn et al [6]. The presence of
flow to the epididymis. Only 3 were diagnosed operatively a diffusely tender testicle was not explicitly reported in the
with epididymitis; 3 others had torsion of the appendix testis other 2 studies.
[4]. This suggests that ultrasound findings alone may In addition, patients with torsion were more likely to
overdiagnose epididymitis. present earlier and have an abnormal testicular orientation
than patients with epididymitis [3,5,6]. With the exception
of the Rabinowitz study in which the methodology is
Testicular Torsion unclear, these studies are all retrospective. In the
Torsion of the testicle results from twisting of the spermatic Karmazyn and Ciftci studies, it is not clear who was
cord, which then compromises the blood supply. Torsion may documenting the physical examination findings and how
occur extravaginally (twisting proximal to the tunica patients were classified if no physical examination findings
vaginalis) or intravaginally (twisting within the tunica were charted. Lastly, Karmazyn produced a clinical scoring
vaginalis). Extravaginal torsion occurs in the perinatal age system in which a patient receives one point for each of the
group and makes up a small percentage of the total number of following findings: pain less than 6 hours, diffusely tender
cases of testicular torsion. Intravaginal torsion occurs in older testicle, and absent or decreased cremasteric reflex. Of the
children and is believed to be due to abnormal fixation of the 30 patients in his series who had 0 points or none of the
testis within the tunica vaginalis. In either case, the resulting findings, none had testicular torsion [6]. A prospective
ischemia can lead to changes in testicular morphology, sperm validation of this scoring system is necessary before any
formation, or even complete testicular loss. recommendations can be made regarding its use in ruling
Pediatric testicular torsion has a bimodal age presenta- out testicular torsion.
tion with a small peak in neonates and a second larger
peak in peripubertal children. Peripubertal children
The Role of Imaging
classically present with nausea, vomiting, and severe Because history and physical examination are not entirely
acute testicular pain, whereas infants with prenatal torsion reliable in diagnosing testicular torsion, many studies have
typically are asymptomatic with a hard firm testicle [8]. examined the use of ultrasound as an adjunctive tool. The
The remainder of this section will be devoted to a published sensitivity of color Doppler ultrasonography for
discussion of torsion outside infancy. Neonatal torsion diagnosing testicular torsion has a wide range of 63% to
will be addressed separately. 100% with a specificity of 80% to 100% [5,6,8,9,11-15].
These studies primarily used the absence of preserved
blood flow to diagnose torsion. However, in multiple case
Physical Findings and Historical Clues to series, there are examples of torsion with preserved blood
Testicular Torsion flow on ultrasound, accounting for the lowered sensitivity
Various studies have compared the clinical presentation of in some of the case series [12,16-18].
epididymitis, torsion of the appendix testis, and testicular Figure 1 is an example of preserved testicular flow on
torsion to distinguish between the 3. Four separate scrotal ultrasound in a 16-year-old boy who presented to
retrospective studies have shown that an absent or
decreased cremasteric reflex is the most sensitive physical
examination sign for diagnosing testicular torsion [10]. A
positive or normal cremasteric reflex is seen when the
testicle retracts after light stroking of the inner ipsilateral
thigh. In separate studies by Rabinowitz [10] and Kadish
and Bolte [5], the cremasteric reflex was absent in 100% of
patients (56 and 13 patients, respectively) with torsion.
Although absence of the cremasteric reflex did not confirm
the diagnosis of torsion, in these 2 studies, the presence of
the cremasteric reflex effectively ruled it out. However, 2
other studies have failed to reproduce 100% sensitivity for
this examination finding. Karmazyn et al [6] reported that
only 28 (90.3%) of 31 of patients with torsion in their case
series had an absent or decreased cremasteric reflex, and
Ciftci et al [3] demonstrated that an absent cremasteric
reflex had a 92% sensitivity in diagnosing 36 patients with
torsion. Another finding that performed well was the
presence of a diffusely tender testicle. This finding was Figure 1 Testicular ultrasound in missed torsion case demonstrat-
present in 13 of 13 patients with torsion in the study of ing presence of flow.
40 S. Yin, J.L. Trainor

the emergency department with a 2-day history of scrotal


pain and was ultimately determined to have testicular
torsion. He was initially diagnosed with epididymitis based
on the presence of an enlarged supratesticular mass seen
on ultrasound (Figure 2). On closer inspection of the mass
from a different angle, there is blood flow in a corkscrew
linear pattern through the mass, revealing that this is the
twisted edematous spermatic cord and not the epididymis
(Figure 3).
Indeed, studies that have examined direct imaging of
the spermatic cord for signs of twisting, as well as color
Doppler for blood flow, show promising results. In a
study by Kalfa et al [13], high-resolution direct
ultrasound imaging of the spermatic cord was able to
correctly identify 44 patients with torsion, whereas color
Doppler would have missed 13 of those patients [16].
Furthermore, a multicenter study examining the use of
Figure 3 Mass seen in Figure 2 when evaluated with color Doppler
high-resolution ultrasound imaging of the cord combined
from a different angle is revealed to be the cork-screwed
with color Doppler showed a sensitivity of 100% and a spermatic cord.
specificity of 99% in 208 patients with testicular torsion.
However, the sensitivity of ultrasound is heavily depen-
dent on operator experience [13]. Any decision to with multiple episodes of significant testicular pain that
discharge a patient based on a negative ultrasound should resolves spontaneously may have intermittent testicular
be made with consideration of the ultrasound technician's torsion. Notably, a horizontal lie, even in an asympto-
experience, the radiologist's experience interpreting matic child, is suggestive of torsion [19,20]. Although it
pediatric scrotal ultrasounds, as well as history and may resolve spontaneously, intermittent testicular torsion
physical examination findings. In a patient where the is associated with the bell clapper deformity [19,21], and
diagnosis is virtually certain given history and physical elective scrotal exploration should be considered because
findings, an ultrasound may add an unnecessary delay to earlier orchiopexy improves the salvage rate in these
definitive surgical treatment. patients [21].
Intermittent testicular torsion is another possible cause Historically, scintigraphy has also been used as an
for a false-negative ultrasound. A child who presents adjunctive diagnostic modality. Testicular scintigraphy is
a nuclear medicine imaging technique that typically uses
technetium Tc 99m pertechnetate as a radionuclide.
Studies comparing scintigraphy with ultrasound have
consistently failed to demonstrate that either modality is
superior [22-24]. A study by Wu et al [25] showed
scintigraphy to be superior largely because ultrasound
performed extremely poorly in their study. Given that
other studies have consistently demonstrated ultrasound
to be highly sensitive and specific, the poor results in
this study can perhaps be attributed to operator error.
Because of concern for the exposure to radiation and
potential sequelae in children, ultrasound is generally
considered the modality of choice. Some authors
recommend that if ultrasound is not definitive, then
scintigraphy can be performed to aid in the diagnosis.
There are no outcome-directed studies that evaluate this
strategy, and there is insufficient evidence available to
make this a clear recommendation. In addition, if the
clinical suspicion for testicular torsion is strong,
obtaining another study may add an unnecessary
delay. However, if ultrasound is not available but
nuclear medicine is, testicular scintigraphy remains a
Figure 2 Mass visualized on ultrasound initially identified as the viable option for adjunctive imaging in clinically
enlarged epididymis. equivocal cases.
Testicular torsion, torsion of appendix testis, & epididymitis 41

Testicular Salvage Rates stratified prenatal from postnatal torsion, one of the 3
Early surgical exploration with restoration of blood flow infants had a testicle that was salvageable [31]. It
clearly improves the rate of testicular salvage. Visser and remains to be seen whether this infant will have long-
Heyns [26] examined both the salvage and late atrophy term atrophy of the salvaged testicle. In another study, 4
rate in 2 meta-analyses of 1140 patients from 22 case series of 10 neonates with postnatal torsion had testicular
and 535 patients in 8 case series. In their meta-analysis, salvage. The authors were able to follow the 4 salvaged
exploration within 6 hours yielded a testicular salvage rate patients at 6 months of age and noted normal growth of
of higher than 90%, which then dropped consistently to the testes [34]. Given this low published salvage rate,
approximately 20% at 24 to 48 hours. This same analysis one might infer that there is a delay in presentation for
found the testicular atrophy rate to approach 0% when postnatal torsion. Even so, an infant with a normal
salvaged within 6 hours and higher than 70% when testicular examination result at birth who then presents
salvaged at more than 24 hours. The methodology used in with an acute scrotal pain should be surgically explored
conducting this meta-analysis is unclear, but the results immediately. The role of ultrasound in diagnosing
appear consistent with other published rates [4,27]. Testes neonatal torsion is controversial, with some authors
salvaged greater than 8 hours after presentation showed a reporting 100% sensitivity with experienced operators
significant decrease in postpubertal size and exocrine and others acknowledging false-negative as well as false-
function [28]. All evidence indicates that surgical explora- positive results. Blood flow to the neonatal testis may be
tion and repair should be done as quickly as possible. A difficult to evaluate with Doppler ultrasonography even
small but significant percentage of late presenters can be when present and normal [32-34].
salvaged so urologic consultation should not be deferred
Manual Detorsion
for patients with late presentations.
Because of the urgency involved in restoring blood flow
to the affected testis, manual detorsion has been
Neonatal Torsion suggested as a treatment modality for torsion outside
Traditionally, neonatal torsion has been treated as a single the neonatal period. Traditionally, torsion of the testicle
entity. Recently, there have been efforts in the literature to was thought to occur primarily in a medial direction so
change the terminology to encompass 2 distinct entities: that an attempt at detorsion would involve twisting the
(1) in utero or prenatal torsion and (2) postnatal torsion affected testis in a lateral direction in a maneuver similar
[29]. Approximately 70% to 80% of perinatal torsion is to opening a book. Numerous studies have demon-
prenatal [30,31]. Prenatal torsion is almost universally strated good success rates ranging from 68% to 86%
unsalvageable. Brandt et al [29] showed that 23 of 23 with manual detorsion [35-37]. However, caution should
patients presenting with an abnormal scrotal examination be observed before attempting this technique. Sessions et
result at birth and surgically explored had no viable or al [35] observed that 54 (33%) of 162 of torsions
salvageable testes. The case series published by Kaye et al occurred in a lateral direction. Therefore, manual
[31] and John et al [32] found that 13 of 13 and 24 of 24 manipulation to the lateral direction in many patients
testes were unsalvageable, respectively. would worsen the degree of torsion. Immediate relief of
However, Pinto et al [30] were able to salvage 2 of 30 symptoms is described with successful manual detorsion;
testicles in neonates with torsion. Both of these patients therefore, increasing severity of symptoms with
were explored within 6 hours of diagnosis, and salvage was attempted detorsion may be an indication that lateral
defined as no testicular atrophy at 1 year of age. One of torsion is present.
their patients likely had postnatal torsion and was Another potential pitfall of manual detorsion is failure to
diagnosed at 21 hours of life. The other patient was completely untwist the cord, because torsion may involve
diagnosed at birth [30]. Management of prenatal torsion multiple revolutions. In the study by Sessions et al [35] in
remains controversial in the urologic literature, with some which 70 patients underwent orchiectomy for torsion, the
authors recommending immediate exploration and others median amount of rotation observed was 540°, with a
recommending observation or delayed exploration range of 180° to 1080°. One manual rotation will reduce
[29,33]. In the emergency department, immediate urologic the torsion by 180° to 360°. This may cause a significant
consultation is recommended for any newborn infant reduction in pain if some blood flow is restored, but it may
presenting with suspected torsion. not result in complete resolution. Hence, manual detorsion
In contrast to infants with prenatal torsion, infants is not a substitute for exploration and fixation. Manual
with postnatal torsion tend to present with the classic detorsion with the aid of ultrasound is likely the most
signs of acute inflammation (erythema, swelling, and prudent approach because ultrasound can provide infor-
tenderness). However, the parental complaint may be mation about the direction of twist as well as evidence of
increased fretfulness or irritability. The outcome of successful detorsion. This requires either expertise in use
postnatal torsion may not be as bleak as that seen in of bedside ultrasound or immediate availability of radio-
prenatal cases. In a recent case series that specifically logic assistance.
42 S. Yin, J.L. Trainor

Epididymitis presumptive treatment of chlamydial or gonococcal


infection should be started, pending culture results.
Epididymitis is the result of inflammation of the epididy-
To summarize, epididymitis in the neonatal age group
mis, a small structure that lies on the testicle and connects
the efferent ducts of the testicle to the vas deferens. and the sexually active teenager should be treated with
Epididymitis in the pediatric population can be divided antibiotics. The first episode of epididymitis in a well-
into 3 distinct clinical groups: (1) the neonate, (2) the appearing prepubescent boy can likely be observed without
prepubescent child, and (3) the sexually active teenager. antibiotics pending the result of a urine culture.
The diagnosis should be made only after ruling out
testicular torsion. As stated previously, torsion cannot be The Role of Adjunctive Imaging
effectively ruled out with history and examination alone. Because epididymitis was traditionally thought to be due to
However, studies do indicate that epididymitis is likely to an ascending bacterial infection, renal ultrasound and
present with localized pain of the epididymis (90%-97%) voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG) have been recom-
[5,38], scrotal erythema (67%-80%) [5,38], and delayed mended as adjunctive studies after resolution of the
presentation as compared with testicular torsion [5]. In the acute episode of epididymitis. A few studies have examined
past, Prehn's sign (relief of pain with elevation of the the incidence of anatomical genitourinary abnormalities in
scrotum) had been thought to distinguish epididymitis children diagnosed with epididymitis. Al-Taheini [43] et al
from torsion. In fact, Prehn's sign was positive in only 8% found that 15 of 15 patients with epididymitis who had
of patients with epididymitis in one case series [38]. either an intravenous pyelogram or renal ultrasound had
Ultrasound typically demonstrates increased blood flow to normal study results and 12 of 13 patients with
the testicle [39]. epididymitis who had a VCUG had normal study results.
Traditionally, acute epididymitis was thought to be the Interestingly, 10 of their 16 patients had positive urine
result of an ascending bacterial infection, and all cases were cultures. These authors, however, still recommended renal
treated with antibiotics. Indeed, this appears to be the case ultrasound and VCUG in patients with epididymitis and a
with neonatal epididymitis. Chiang et al [40] described a positive urine culture. Merlini et al [44] found that 3 (21%)
cohort of 7 infants younger than 3 months diagnosed with of 14 of older children with epididymitis had genitourinary
orchitis/epididymo-orchitis between 1994 and 2004. Six of malformations. One of the 3 also had a urinary tract
these infants were checked for urinary tract infections, and infection. In a study by Siegel et al [45], 5 (42%) of 12
all 6 were positive. prepubescent children with epididymitis had underlying
In prepubescent boys, however, multiple studies have urogenital anomalies. All of these children also had
demonstrated that epididymitis is generally not an acute positive urine cultures. Cappele et al [46] found that 7
infectious process and will resolve without antibiotics (18.4%) of 38 children with epididymitis had anatomical
[38,41,42]. Lau et al [41] showed bacterial growth in anomalies, although only one required surgery, and the
only 4 (8.3%) of 48 patients with epididymitis. In authors concluded that follow-up imaging was not
addition, one patient had pyuria without bacterial necessary after one episode of aseptic epididymitis.
growth. Thirty-six patients had negative urine study Again, the case definition of epididymitis was either not
findings and were managed without antibiotics. The stated in these case series or was variable.
remaining 7 patients did not have urine tested, were There is no strong evidence currently that a well-
pretreated with antibiotics, or were treated with anti- appearing child with a single episode of aseptic epididy-
biotics despite negative urine study findings. Haecker et mitis requires further imaging. On the other hand,
al [38] showed that 2 of 49 patients with epididymitis neonates and infants diagnosed with epididymitis appear
had bacteriuria, but only 14 patients had urine cultures to be at an elevated risk for anatomical abnormalities, and
performed in this series. Three of 38 patients tested had present evidence suggests that they all deserve further
pyuria, and all patients received antibiotics. In a imaging. In different case series, neonates and infants with
prospective study by Somekh et al [42], only 1 of 44 epididymitis have a high rate of genitourinary malforma-
children with epididymitis diagnosed by ultrasound had tions ranging from 73% to 75% [44,45]. Because of this
a positive urine culture. In addition, these authors association, infants with epididymitis should receive
demonstrated that these patients had significantly higher VCUG and renal ultrasound.
rates of positive titers for mycoplasma, enterovirus, and
adenovirus when compared with healthy controls
suggesting a postinfectious etiology. The case definition Torsion of the Appendix Testis
for epididymitis in these studies was somewhat variable, There can be multiple testicular appendages normally
making their interpretation problematic. found in the male child. Any one of these can twist and
In the sexually active teenager, epididymitis should be cause pain. The 2 most commonly found types are
treated in the same manner as with adults. Testing for appendages of the testis and of the epididymis, which
sexually transmitted illness should be performed, and constitute remnants of the müllerian and wolffian ducts,
Testicular torsion, torsion of appendix testis, & epididymitis 43

respectively. Torsion of the appendix testis makes up about ultrasonography alone. The true incidence and etiology
91% to 95% of torsed appendices [20]. of pediatric epididymitis remains to be determined.
The presentation of torsion of a testicular appendage can However, a school-aged child with a normal urinalysis
be similar to testicular torsion or epididymitis. Patients and a negative urine culture who is diagnosed with
typically present with sudden onset of pain. These patients epididymitis via ultrasound is unlikely to have a bacterial
are more likely to have isolated tenderness to the superior illness or require antibiotic treatment.
pole of the testicle than patients with testicular torsion or
epididymitis [5]. In the study by Kadish and Bolte [5], References
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