A

PROJECT REPORT ON

SOLAR REFRIGERATOR SYSTEM

A MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the
Award of the degree
Of
Bachelor of Technology
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Mr.Shubham Singh Yadav Mr.Anurag Kumar Singh

Project Guide HOD

Submitted by
Name: Ajay Kumar Patel
Roll No:1538440007
Name:Manish Kumar Singh
Roll No:1538440057
Name:Rahul Kumar
Roll NO:1538440073
Name:Sachin Mishra
Roll No:1538440086
Name:Vishal Maurya
ROLL NO:1538440111

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SHEAT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
BABATPUR, VARANASI-221006
UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA

Session : 2018-19
 CERTIFICATE
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
THIS IS CERTIFY THAT PROJECT TITLED
“SOLAR REFRIGERATOR SYSTEM”
Submitted by

Ajay Kumar Patel-1538440007

Manish Kumar Singh-1538440057

Rahul Kumar-1538440073

Sachin Mishra-1538440086

Vishal Maurya-1538440111

of B.tech 8th semester, Mechanical Engineering in partial fulfillment of the

requirement for the degree of bachelor of technology in “Mechanical Engineering”
AKTU, Uttar Pradesh,during the academic year 2018-19 is there original endeavor
carried out under my supervision and guidance and has not been presented
anywhere else.

Mr.Shubham Singh Yadav

Project Guide
 CERTIFICATE APPROVAL

The foregoing project report on “SOLAR REFRIGRATOR SYSTEM” here by

approved as a creditable study and has been presented in the satisfactory

manner to warrant its acceptance as a prerequisite to the degree for

which it has been submitted.it is understood that by this approval, the

undersigned do not necessarily endorse any conclusion drown or opinion

expressed their in, but approve the project for the purpose of which it is

submitted.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Head of Department
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are extremely grateful and remain indebted to our guide “Mr.Shubham Singh

Yadav” for being a source of inspiration and for his constant support in the design,

Implementation and evaluation of the project. We are thankful to them for their

constant constructive criticism and invaluable suggestions which benefited us a lot

while developing the project.

I take immense pleasure in thanking “Er.Anurag kumar singh” , Head of

Department Mechanical Engineering , SHEAT College of Engineering , our beloved

guide for having permitted me to carry out this project work.

I wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to our other faculty members and

our friends who helped me to completing this project work.

 Contents
SOLAR PANELS
1Theory and construction
2History
3Efficiencies
4Technology
4.1Thin film
5Smart solar modules
6Performance and degradation
7Maintenance
8Recycling
9Production
10Price
11Mounting and tracking
12Standards
13Connectors
14Applications
15Limitations
16Gallery
17See also
18References
 Solar panel

Solar PV modules (top) and two solar h

ot water panels (bottom) mounted on rooftops

Photovoltaic solar panels absorb sunlight as a source of energy to

generate electricity. A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connected assembly of
typically 6x10 photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic
array of a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in
commercial and residential applications.
The most common application of solar energy collection outside agriculture is solar
water heating systems.
 Theory and construction
Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline
silicon cells or thin-film cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can
either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical
damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones based on thin-
film cells are also available. The cells must be connected electrically in series, one to
another.
A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and it is its output
interface.Externally, most of photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors type to
facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. Also, USB power
interface can be used.
Module electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage
or in parallel to provide a desired current capability (amperes). The conducting wires
that take the current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic
conductive transition metals. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in
case of partial module shading, to maximize the output of module sections still
illuminated.
Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused
by lenses or mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost
per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.
Solar panels also use metal frames consisting of racking components, brackets,
reflector shapes, and troughs to better support the panel structure.[2]

History

In 1839, the ability of some materials to create an electrical charge from light exposure
was first observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel.[3] Though the premiere solar
panels were too inefficient for even simple electric devices they were used as an
instrument to measure light.[4] The observation by Becquerel was not replicated again
until 1873, when Willoughby Smith discovered that the charge could be caused by light
hitting selenium. After this discovery, William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans
Day published "The action of light on selenium" in 1876, describing the experiment
they used to replicate Smith's results.[3][5] In 1881, Charles Fritts created the first
commercial solar panel, which was reported by Fritts as "continuous, constant and of
considerable force not only by exposure to sunlight but also to dim, diffused
daylight."[6] However, these solar panels were very inefficient, especially compared to
coal-fired power plants. In 1939, Russell Ohl created the solar cell design that is used
in many modern solar panels. He patented his design in 1941.[7] In 1954, this design
was first used by Bell Labs to create the first commercially viable silicon solar cell.[3]
Efficiencies

Reported timeline of champion solar module energy conversion efficiencies since 1988
(National Renewable Energy Laboratory)

Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC),
and typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts (W). The efficiency of a module determines
the area of a module given the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 W module will
have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module. There are a few commercially
available solar modules that exceed efficiency of 24%[8] [9]
Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range
of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range
(specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the
incident sunlightenergy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher
efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept
is to split the light into six to eight different wavelength ranges that will produce a
different color of light, and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those
ranges.[10] This has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%.
A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations
contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of
photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a battery pack for storage, interconnection wiring,
and optionally a solar tracking mechanism.
Scientists from Spectrolab, a subsidiary of Boeing, have reported development
of multi-junction solar cells with an efficiency of more than 40%, a new world record for
solar photovoltaic cells.[11] The Spectrolab scientists also predict that concentrator solar
cells could achieve efficiencies of more than 45% or even 50% in the future, with
theoretical efficiencies being about 58% in cells with more than three junctions.
Currently, the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency) is
around 21.5% in new commercial products[12] typically lower than the efficiencies of
their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar modules[disputed –
discuss]
have power density values of up to 175 W/m2 (16.22 W/ft2).[13]
Research by Imperial College, London has shown that the efficiency of a solar panel
can be improved by studying the light-receiving semiconductor surface
with aluminumnanocylinders similar to the ridges on Lego blocks.
The scattered light then travels along a longer path in the semiconductor which means
that more photons can be absorbed and converted into current. Although these
nanocylinders have been used previously (aluminum was preceded by gold and silver),
the light scattering occurred in the near infrared region and visible light was absorbed
strongly. Aluminum was found to have absorbed the ultraviolet part of the spectrum,
while the visible and near infrared parts of the spectrum were found to be scattered by
the aluminum surface. This, the research argued, could bring down the cost
significantly and improve the efficiency as aluminum is more abundant and less costly
than gold and silver. The research also noted that the increase in current makes
thinner film solar panels technically feasible without "compromising power conversion
efficiencies, thus reducing material consumption".[14]

 Efficiencies of solar panel can be calculated by MPP (maximum power point) value
of solar panels
 Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power by performing MPPT process:
solar inverter samples the output Power (I-V curve) from the solar cell and applies
the proper resistance (load) to solar cells to obtain maximum power.
 MPP (Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP voltage (V mpp)
and MPP current (I mpp): it is a capacity of the solar panel and the higher value can
make higher MPP.

Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel, which produces more output than
normal panels which are wired in series with the output of the series determined by the
lowest performing panel (this is known as the "Christmas light effect"). Micro-inverters
work independently so each panel contributes its maximum possible output given the
available sunlight.[15]
Technology
Main articles: Crystalline silicon and Thin film solar cell

Market-share of PV technologies since 1990

Most solar modules are currently produced from crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar
cells made of multicrystalline and monocrystalline silicon. In 2013, crystalline silicon
accounted for more than 90 percent of worldwide PV production, while the rest of the
overall market is made up of thin-film technologies using cadmium
telluride, CIGS and amorphous silicon[16]
Emerging, third generation solar technologies use advanced thin-film cells. They
produce a relatively high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other solar
technologies. Also, high-cost, high-efficiency, and close-packed rectangular multi-
junction (MJ) cells are preferably used in solar panels on spacecraft, as they offer the
highest ratio of generated power per kilogram lifted into space. MJ-cells are compound
semiconductors and made of gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor
materials. Another emerging PV technology using MJ-cells is concentrator
photovoltaics ( CPV ).
Thin film[edit]
In rigid thin-film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same
production line. The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the
electrical connections are created in situ, a so-called "monolithic integration". The
substrate or superstrate is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet,
usually another sheet of glass. The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe,
or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight
conversion rate of 6–12%
Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by
depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate. If
the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film)
then monolithic integration can be used. If it is a conductor then another technique for
electrical connection must be used. The cells are assembled into modules
by laminating them to a transparent colourless fluoropolymer on the front side
(typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the
other side.

Smart solar modules

Main articles: Smart module and Solar micro-inverter

Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This enables
performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module individually, and
the measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault detection at module
level. Some of these solutions make use of power optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter
technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems.
As of about 2010, such electronics can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a
shadow falling across a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more
strings of cells in the module to fall to zero, but not having the output of the entire
module fall to zero.

Performance and degradation

Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions
(STC): irradiance of 1,000 W/m2, solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at
25°C.
Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open circuit
voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power
voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, (watt-peak, Wp), and
module efficiency (%).
Nominal voltage [17]refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best suited to
charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar modules were only used to
charge batteries. The actual voltage output of the module changes as lighting,
temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at
which the module operates. Nominal voltage allows users, at a glance, to make sure
the module is compatible with a given system.
Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the module can produce when
not connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be measured with
a voltmeterdirectly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its disconnected cable.
The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test conditions (not
the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure approximately
1 m × 2 m or 3 ft 3 in × 6 ft 7 in, will be rated from as low as 75 W to as high as 350 W,
depending on their efficiency. At the time of testing, the test modules are binned
according to their test results, and a typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5
W increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.[18][19][20]
Solar water heater
The ability of solar modules to withstand damage by rain, hail, heavy snow load, and
cycles of heat and cold varies by manufacturer, although most solar panels on the U.S.
market are UL listed, meaning they have gone through testing to withstand
hail.[21] Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a limited warranty that
guarantees electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25
years at 80%.[22]
Potential induced degradation (also called PID) is a potential induced performance
degradation in crystalline photovoltaic modules, caused by so-called stray
currents. [23]This effect may cause power loss of up to 30%.[24]
The largest challenge for photovoltaic technology is said to be the purchase price per
watt of electricity produced, new materials and manufacturing techniques continue to
improve the price to power performance. The problem resides in the enormous
activation energy that must be overcome for a photon to excite an electron for
harvesting purposes. Advancements in photovoltaic technologies have brought about
the process of "doping" the silicon substrate to lower the activation energy thereby
making the panel more efficient in converting photons to retrievable electrons.[25]
Chemicals such as Boron (p-type) are applied into the semiconductor crystal in order
to create donor and acceptor energy levels substantially closer to the valence and
conductor bands.[26] In doing so, the addition of Boron impurity allows the activation
energy to decrease 20 fold from 1.12 eV to 0.05 eV. Since the potential difference (E B)
is so low, the Boron is able to thermally ionize at room temperatures. This allows for
free energy carriers in the conduction and valence bands thereby allowing greater
conversion of photons to electrons.

Maintenance
Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20% range, is reduced by dust,
grime, pollen, and other particulates that accumulate on the solar panel. "A dirty solar
panel can reduce its power capabilities by up to 30% in high dust/pollen or desert
areas", says Seamus Curran, associate professor of physics at the University of
Houston and director of the Institute for NanoEnergy, which specializes in the design,
engineering, and assembly of nanostructures.[27]
Paying to have solar panels cleaned is often not a good investment; researchers found
panels that had not been cleaned, or rained on, for 145 days during a summer drought
in California, lost only 7.4% of their efficiency. Overall, for a typical residential solar
system of 5 kW, washing panels halfway through the summer would translate into a
mere $20 gain in electricity production until the summer drought ends—in about 2 ½
months. For larger commercial rooftop systems, the financial losses are bigger but still
rarely enough to warrant the cost of washing the panels. On average, panels lost a
little less than 0.05% of their overall efficiency per day.[28]

Recycling
Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 95% of certain
semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals.[29]Some private companies and non-profit organizations are currently
engaged in take-back and recycling operations for end-of-life modules.[30]
Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:

 Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are dismantled
manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill and
the different fractions are separated - glass, plastics and metals.[31] It is possible to
recover more than 80% of the incoming weight.[32] This process can be performed
by flat glass recyclers since morphology and composition of a PV module is similar
to those flat glasses used in the building and automotive industry. The recovered
glass for example is readily accepted by the glass foam and glass insulation
industry.
 Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such as the
use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor
materials.[33] For cadmium telluride modules, the recycling process begins by
crushing the module and subsequently separating the different fractions. This
recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the
semiconductor materials contained.[34] Some commercial-scale recycling facilities
have been created in recent years by private companies.[35] For aluminium flat plate
reflector: the trendiness of the reflectors has been brought up by fabricating them
using a thin layer (around 0.016 mm to 0.024 mm) of Aluminum coating present
inside the non-recycled plastic food packages.[36]
Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together manufacturers,
recyclers and researchers to look at the future of PV module recycling. [37][38]
Production
See also: List of photovoltaics companies

Top Module Producer Shipments in 2014 (MW)

Yingli 3,200

Trina Solar 2,580

Sharp Solar 2,100

Canadian Solar 1,894

Jinko Solar 1,765

ReneSola 1,728

First Solar 1,600

Hanwha SolarOne 1,280

Kyocera 1,200

JA Solar 1,173

In 2010, 15.9 GW of solar PV system installations were completed, with solar PV

pricing survey and market research company PVinsights reporting growth of 117.8% in
solar PV installation on a year-on-year basis.
With over 100% year-on-year growth in PV system installation, PV module makers
dramatically increased their shipments of solar modules in 2010. They actively
expanded their capacity and turned themselves into gigawatt GW players.[39] According
to PVinsights, five of the top ten PV module companies in 2010 are GW players.
Suntech, First Solar, Sharp, Yingli and Trina Solar are GW producers now, and most of
them doubled their shipments in 2010.[40]
The basis of producing solar panels revolves around the use of silicon cells.[41] These
silicon cells are typically 10-20% efficient[42] at converting sunlight into electricity, with
newer production models now exceeding 22%.[43] In order for solar panels to become
more efficient, researchers across the world have been trying to develop new
technologies to make solar panels more effective at turning sunlight into energy. [44]
In 2014, the world's top four solar module producers in terms of shipped capacity
during the calendar year of 2014 were Yingli, Trina Solar, Sharp Solar and Canadian
Solar.[45]
Price
See also: Grid parity

Swanson's law states that with every doubling of production of panels, there has been
a 20 percent reduction in the cost of panels.[46]
The price of solar electrical power has continued to fall so that in many countries it has
become cheaper than ordinary fossil fuel electricity from the electricity grid since 2012,
a phenomenon known as grid parity.[47]
Average pricing information divides in three pricing categories: those buying small
quantities (modules of all sizes in the kilowatt range annually), mid-range buyers
(typically up to 10 MWp annually), and large quantity buyers (self-explanatory—and
with access to the lowest prices). Over the long term there is clearly a systematic
reduction in the price of cells and modules. For example, in 2012 it was estimated that
the quantity cost per watt was about US$0.60, which was 250 times lower than the
cost in 1970 of US$150.[48][49] A 2015 study shows price/kWh dropping by 10% per year
since 1980, and predicts that solar could contribute 20% of total electricity consumption
by 2030, whereas the International Energy Agency predicts 16% by 2050.[50]
Real world energy production costs depend a great deal on local weather conditions. In
a cloudy country such as the United Kingdom, the cost per produced kWh is higher
than in sunnier countries like Spain.
According to .S. Energy Information Administration, prices per megawatthour are
expected to converge and reach parity with conventional energy production sources
during the period 2020-2030. According to EIA, the parity can be achieved without
need for subsidy support and can be accomplished through organic market
mechanisms, namely production price reduction and an technological advancement.

Short term normalized cost comparisons demonstrating value of various electric

generation technologies[51]
Long term normalized cost comparisons demonstrating value of various electric
generation technologies[52]
Following to RMI, Balance-of-System (BoS) elements, this is, non-module cost of non-
microinverter solar modules (as wiring, converters, racking systems and various
components) make up about half of the total costs of installations.
For merchant solar power stations, where the electricity is being sold into the electricity
transmission network, the cost of solar energy will need to match the wholesale
electricity price. This point is sometimes called 'wholesale grid parity' or 'busbar
parity'.[47]
Some photovoltaic systems, such as rooftop installations, can supply power directly to
an electricity user. In these cases, the installation can be competitive when the output
cost matches the price at which the user pays for his electricity consumption. This
situation is sometimes called 'retail grid parity', 'socket parity' or 'dynamic grid
parity'.[53] Research carried out by UN-Energy in 2012 suggests areas of sunny
countries with high electricity prices, such as Italy, Spain and Australia, and areas
using diesel generators, have reached retail grid parity.[47]

Mounting and tracking

Main articles: Photovoltaic mounting system and Solar tracker

Solar modules mounted on solar trackers

Ground-mounted photovoltaic systems are usually large, utility-scale solar power
plants. Their solar modules are held in place by racks or frames that are attached to
ground-based mounting supports.[54][55] Ground based mounting supports include:

 Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in concrete.
 Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings
 Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure
the solar module system in position and do not require ground penetration. This
 type of mounting system is well suited for sites where excavation is not possible
such as capped landfills and simplifies decommissioning or relocation of solar
module systems.
Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by racks or
frames attached to roof-based mounting supports.[56]Roof-based mounting supports
include:

 Rail mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may use additional
rails for attaching the module racking or frames.
 Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure
the panel system in position and do not require through penetration. This mounting
method allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no
adverse effect on the roof structure.
 All wiring connecting adjacent solar modules to the energy harvesting equipment
must be installed according to local electrical codes and should be run in a conduit
appropriate for the climate conditions
Solar trackers increase the amount of energy produced per module at a cost of
mechanical complexity and need for maintenance. They sense the direction of the Sun
and tilt or rotate the modules as needed for maximum exposure to the
light.[57][58] Alternatively, fixed racks hold modules stationary as the sun moves across
the sky. The fixed rack sets the angle at which the module is held. Tilt angles
equivalent to an installation's latitude are common. Most of these fixed racks are set on
poles above ground.[59] Panels that face West or East may provide slightly lower
energy, but evens out the supply, and may provide more power during peak
demand.[60]

Standards
Standards generally used in photovoltaic modules:

 IEC 61215 (crystalline silicon performance), 61646 (thin film performance) and
61730 (all modules, safety)
 ISO 9488 Solar energy—Vocabulary.
 UL 1703 from Underwriters Laboratories
 UL 1741 from Underwriters Laboratories
 UL 2703 from Underwriters Laboratories
 CE mark
 Electrical Safety Tester (EST) Series (EST-460, EST-22V, EST-22H, EST-110).

Connectors
Outdoor solar panels usually includes MC4 connectors. Automotive solar panels also
can include car lighter and USB adapter. Indoor panels (including solar pv glasses, thin
films and windows) can integrate microinverter (AC Solar panels).
Applications
There are many practical applications for the use of solar panels or photovoltaics. It
can first be used in agriculture as a power source for irrigation. In health care solar
panels can be used to refrigerate medical supplies. It can also be used for
infrastructure. PV modules are used in photovoltaic systems and include a large variety
of electric devices:

 Photovoltaic power stations

 Rooftop solar PV systems
 Standalone PV systems
 Solar hybrid power systems
 Concentrated photovoltaics
 Solar planes
 Solar-pumped lasers
 Solar vehicles
 Solar panels on spacecrafts and space stations

Limitations
 Pollution and Energy in Production
Solar panel has been a well-known method of generating clean, emission free
electricity. However, it produces only direct current electricity (DC), which is not what
normal appliances use. Solar photovoltaic systems (solar PV systems) are often made
of solar PV panels (modules) and inverter (changing DC to AC). Solar PV panels are
mainly made of solar photovoltaic cells, which has no fundamental difference to the
material for making computer chips. The process of producing solar PV cells (computer
chips) is energy intensive and involves highly poisonous and environmental toxic
chemicals. There are few solar PV manufacturing plants around the world producing
PV modules with energy produced from PV. This measure greatly reduces the carbon
footprint during the manufacturing process. Managing the chemicals used in the
manufacturing process is subject to the factories' local laws and regulations.
 Impact on Electricity Network
With the increasing levels of rooftop photovoltaic systems, the energy flow becomes 2-
way. When there is more local generation than consumption, electricity is exported to
the grid. However, electricity network traditionally is not designed to deal with the 2-
way energy transfer. Therefore, some technical issues may occur. For example in
Queensland Australia, there have been more than 30% of households with rooftop PV
by the end of 2017. The famous Californian 2020 duck curve appears very often for a
lot of communities from 2015 onwards. An over-voltage issue may come out as the
electricity flows from these PV households back to the network.[61] There are solutions
to manage the over voltage issue, such as regulating PV inverter power factor, new
voltage and energy control equipment at electricity distributor level, re-conducting the
 electricity wires, demand side management, etc. There are often limitations and costs
related to these solutions.
 Implication onto Electricity Bill Management and Energy Investment
There is no silver bullet in electricity or energy demand and bill management, because
customers (sites) have different specific situations, e.g. different comfort/convenience
needs, different electricity tariffs, or different usage patterns. Electricity tariff may have
a few elements, such as daily access and metering charge, energy charge (based on
kWh, MWh) or peak demand charge (e.g. a price for the highest 30min energy
consumption in a month). PV is a promising option for reducing energy charge when
electricity price is reasonably high and continuously increasing, such as in Australia
and Germany. However for sites with peak demand charge in place, PV may be less
attractive if peak demands mostly occur in the late afternoon to early evening, for
example residential communities. Overall, energy investment is largely an economical
decision and it is better to make investment decisions based on systematical
evaluation of options in operational improvement, energy efficiency, onsite generation
and energy storage.[62][63]

See also

 Renewable energy portal

 Energy portal

 Battery (electricity)
 Daisy chain (electrical engineering)
 Digital modeling and fabrication
 Domestic energy consumption
 Grid-tied electrical system
 Growth of photovoltaics
 List of photovoltaics companies
 MC4 connector
 Powerbank
 Rooftop photovoltaic power station
 Sky footage
 SolarCity
 Solar charger
 Solar cooker
 Solar oven
 Solar roadway
 Solar still