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Advances in Animal and Veterinary Sciences. 2 (2): 67 – 72
http://www.nexusacademicpublishers.com/journal/4

Review Article
Biomedical Waste Management
Sandip Chakraborty1*, Belamaranahally Veeregowda2, Leena Gowda2, Saritha Nelamakanahally Sannegowda3,
Ruchi Tiwari4, Kuldeep Dhama5, Shoor Vir Singh6
1
Animal Resources Development Department, Pt. Nehru Complex, Agartala, Pin – 799006; 2 Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bengaluru,
Karnataka, Pin – 560024; 3Institute of Animal Health and Veterinary Biologicals (IAH & VB); 4Department of Veterinary Microbiology
and Immunology, Uttar Pradesh Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhayay Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwa Vidyalaya Evam Go–Anusandhan
Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura (U.P.) – 281001; 5Division of Pathology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly
(U.P.)– 243122; 6Microbiology Laboratory, Animal Health Division, Central Institute for Research on Goats (CIRG), Makhdoom,
PO–Farah, Dist. Mathura, Pin– 281122. India
*Corresponding author: sandipchakraborty53@yahoo.com

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT

Received: 2013–11–19 Interaction of micro– (internal) and macro– (surrounding) environment of human beings
Revised: 2013–12–02 determines the status of health of an individual or of community at–large. On daily basis,
Accepted: 2013–12–03 generation and disposal of biomedical wastes has become a emerging problem not only in
India but the world over. These are being produced during the process of sampling, testing,
diagnosis, therapy, immunization and surgery of humans, animals, and in research
Key Words: Antibiotic experiments. Several categories of biomedical wastes have been discussed along with steps
resistance, Biomedical waste, involved in the management of biowaste include segregation, storage in containers, labeling,
Ecology, HIV, Hepatitis, handling, transport, treatment, disposal and waste minimization. Potential implications of
Microbe, Nosocomial biomedical wastes include transmission of diseases like Hepatitis B, C, E, dengue and HIV
infection, Public health, through improperly contained contaminated sharps; proliferation and mutation of
Vector, Management. pathogenic microbial population in the municipal waste through dumping of untreated
biomedical waste; physical injury and health hazards. Certain other implications include
degradation of the environment esthetically by careless disposals, having negative effect on
public health; increased risk of nosocomial infections; change of microbial ecology and spread
of antibiotic resistance; increased density of vector population, resulting in spread of diseases
in public. Sensitization and public awareness is important to protect environment and public
health globally.
All copyrights reserved to Nexus® academic publishers
ARTICLE CITATION: Chakraborty S, Veeregowda B, Gowda L, Sannegowda SN, Tiwari R, Dhama K and Singh SV (2014).
Biomedical waste management Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci. 2 (2): 67 – 72.

INTRODUCTION sound, odour and taste along with certain biological factors
Status of health of an individual or community is viz., animals, plants etc. These factors play significant role in
determined by interplay and integration of micro (internal) regulations’ formulation for appropriate management of
environment of human beings and macro (external or biological wastes (Hegde et al., 2007; Centre for
surrounds) environment. Imbalance in these two may have Environment Education and Technology, 2008).
serious repercussion on the national well being. Therefore a Medical wastes in hospitals are otherwise known as clinical
balance has to be maintained in order to increase living wastes. Normally, waste products is the term applied for
standard and promote healthy society (Neema and those wastes which are produced in healthcare premises
Gareshprasad, 2002; Murthy et al., 2011). (hospitals and clinics; offices of doctors and veterinary
There has been generation of insignificant amount of hospitals) (National Research Council Recommendations
waste by human population throughout the history of Concerning Chemical Hygiene in Laboratories, 2013). So far
mankind due to lower societal levels of exploitation of management of wastes in medical profession was not
natural resources. Mainly ashes as biodegradable wastes considered an issue. In 1980s concerns have been raised
were commonly produced during the times of pre–modern regarding exposure to human immunodeficiency virus
era and had been released back in the local ground with (HIV) and hepatitis B viruses (HBV). Disposal of biomedical
environmental impact becoming minimum. Certain wastes has thus become a major emerging problem in India
civilizations are however more prolific in their output of and worldwide as well. There is urgent need for planning,
wastes than others for which management of wastes has implementation of procedures practices that are updated at
become a pre–requisite (http://www.siemens.com). Physical various levels of plan concerning management of biomedical
as well as social factors in and around surroundings of man’s wastes associating it with health of the environment
environment includes land, water, atmosphere, climate, (Patnaik, 2007; Gautam et al., 2010).

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Biomedical waste (BMW) is the waste produced (www.bundesabfallwirtschaftsplan.at/dms/BAWP_2006_en

during the process of sampling, testing, diagnosis, therapy, glish.pdf).
immunization and surgery of humans, animals, and in As per the report of World Health Organization
research experiments. This includes categories mentioned in (WHO), among the non–hazardous materials 85% are
Schedule I of BMW (Management and Handling) (second hospital wastes; wastes that are not of hospital origin (rest
Amendment) Rules, 2000 amended by Ministry of 15%) are divided into two: infectious (10%); and non–
Environment and Forests Notification. Common Biomedical infectious but wastes of hazardous nature (5%). This can
Waste Treatment Facility (CBWTF) is a set up that range from 15 – 35% in the country like India that depends
necessitates biomedical waste treatment generated from on generation of overall waste materials (Glenn and Garwal,
numerous healthcare units reducing the adverse effects. It 1999; Chitnis et al., 2005).
must be managed properly for protecting public particularly As far as the management of biomedical wastes is
the healthcare and sanitation workers who are exposed to concerned its proper management has become a
biomedical wastes on regular basis leading to occupational humanitarian topic worldwide. Hazardous and poor waste
hazard (http://www.initial.co.uk/medical– management (biomedical) has become a matter of concern
services/regulations/index.html). Wastes that are treated particularly in the light of its effects that are far reaching
may be dispatched finally to dump in landfill or recycling. affecting human and animal health and the environment
Recently as a major concern biomedical waste (Sharma and Chauhan, 2008; Mathur et al., 2012). Present
management has emerged as an issue both to hospitals as review discusses in brief the biomedical wastes and their
well as authorities of nursing home and so also to the management.
environment. From health care units the biomedical wastes
that is generated depend upon several factors viz., methods Definition of Biomedical Waste
of waste management; various types of units of health care; As per Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling)
health care unit occupancy; health care unit specialization; Rules, 1998 of India, BMW is defined as “Any waste
reusable items and their ratio in use; infrastructure and generated during the process of diagnosis and treatment or
resources and their availability (Mandal and Dutta, 2009). immunization of human beings or animals or in research
As a humanitarian topic the biomedical waste and their activities contributing to the biological production or
proper management has become a global issue. Worldwide testing” (Govt. of India, 1998). One of the major
hazards of biomedical wastes and their poor management achievements of India has been modification of the health
have raised a concern especially on the ground of its far operators’ attitudes to accommodate in waste management
reaching effects on human as well as health and concerning health care nicely in their operation routinely
environment (Govt. of India, 1998). During the care of (Bekir Onursal, 2003).
patients several hospital wastes are generated that have Classification of Biological Wastes
several harmful as well as adverse effects to the Non–Hazardous Wastes
environment. To the workers associated with health care In most of the set–ups of health–care approximately 85% of
too hospital wastes possess a health hazard potentially. An generated wastes is constituted by non–hazardous wastes.
increasing issue of concern to the hospitals as well as other This includes wastes constituting remnants of food and
health care workers is the problems of disposal of wastes peels of fruit; wash water as well as paper cartons;
(Sharma and Chauhan, 2008). packaging materials etc. (Hegde et al., 2007)
The objectives of biomedical waste management Hazardous Wastes
involve mainly prevention of disease transmission from one Potentially Infectious Wastes
patient to another; to health workers from patients and vice In the scientific documents as well as in the regulations and
versa; prevention of injury to the workers in health care guidance various terms for infectious wastes have been used
units as well as workers involved in support services. This over the years. These include: infectious as well as infective;
helps in turn in prevention of exposure to the deleterious medical and biomedical; hazardous and red bag;
effects of the cytotoxic as well as genotoxic and chemical contaminated; infectious medical wastes; along with
wastes in general that are generated in the hospitals. regulated wastes in the medical profession. Basically all
Management of waste can be relatively effective as well as these terms indicate the similar types of wastes even though
efficient practice that is related to compliance when the terms involved in regulation are defined usually in more
designing is done properly (Pasupathi et al., 2011). specific manner (Block, 2001).
For implementation of the industrial programme for Biomedical Waste Management (Bwm) Rules and
medical wastes a pilot project has been launched improving Schedules
separation of hazardous as well as non–hazardous wastes Biomedical waste disposal is a legal issue. In 1998,
that can cause reduction of wastes that are hazardous in Biomedical Waste Management & Handling Rules (1998)
this sector. Special type of containers (for medical wastes came into power in India. In agreement with such rules, it is
that are hazardous in nature) disposal have been used by the responsibility of each “inhabitant” to take all necessary
various employees of the hospitals to dispose off various steps to make certain that generated waste is managed /
types of wastes that are harmless in nature. Generation of handled without any unfavorable human health effects as
medical wastes that are hazardous in nature can be well as safeguarding environmental aspects too. Six
significantly reduced by provision of on–site informations schedules are included viz. schedule I–VI. Schedule I
along with appointment of a training officer who acts as an consists of 10 categories of biomedical waste. Category 1
in charge of continuing education for personnels in the consists of wastes in human anatomy that includes body
hospitals parts as well as organs and body tissues. Category 2 consists
of wastes from animals that includes parts of carcasses and

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bleeding along with fluids and bloods; animals kept for disinfection and destruction or shredding must be collected
experimentation; hospital (both medical and veterinary) in white puncture proof translucent container, which will
and animal house generated wastes. Category 3 consists of be encapsulated or can go for recycling as final disposal. The
microbiological and biotechnological wastes from chemical waste (solid), out dated medicines and cytotoxic
laboratory cultures; stocks or microbes; vaccines (live drugs which goes for disposal in secured land fill should be
attenuated); human and animal cell cultures used for collected in black bin or bag with cytotoxic label. All the
research activities; toxins; wastes from biological products; bins and bags should have biohazard label except on black
cell culture transferring dishes and devices. Category 4 colored bin or bag on which cytotoxic label need to be
consists of sharp wastes starting from needle and syringe till inserted (Ndiaye et al., 2003; Friends of the Earth, 2008).
blade and glasses for puncturing and cutting. Category 5 This step also includes management of wastes of
consists of medicines and cytotoxic drugs that are discarded various kinds in several containers at the point of generation
as they are backdated and contaminated. Category 6 (reuse, recycle and reduction). Reuse of chemicals, medical
consists of wastes that are soiled and include blood and equipments etc. translates into cost saving. Recycling of
body fluid contaminated wastes (cotton and dressings; specific materials like disinfected and shredded plastic helps
plaster casts, lines and beddings that are soiled). Category 7 a secondary industry reducing generation of wastes that
includes solid wastes produced from items that are decrease cost of waste disposal. The spread of infection is
disposable but not sharps (tubings, catheters and intra– contained through segregation thereby reducing the chances
venous sets). Category 8 consists of liquid materials viz., of health care workers’ infection. Laceration or puncture
laboratory and washing generated wastes; during cleaning; injuries causing wastes need to be disposed of as “sharps”
and those generated from activities of housekeeping and and they must be separated from rest of the wastes.
disinfection procedures. Category 9 includes ashes that are Intermixing of sharp metals as well as glasses that are
incinerated. Category 10 consists of wastes generated during broken is permitted but not with waste that are non–sharp.
biological production along with those for disinfection Commingling of glass or plastic wastes with inflammable
(chemical wastes). Schedule II consists of coding of color wastes or biological wastes with chemical wastes or certain
and type of container used for management of biomedical laboratory trash must be avoided (Sita, 2004).
waste. Schedule III comprises of Biomedical Waste Waste Storage
Containers’/Bags’ labels. Lastly, Schedule IV consists of The wastes must be stored like what is required as per the
Biomedical Waste Containers/Bags, labels required for Biomedical Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 1988.
transportation. Between waste generation point and waste treatment and
disposal site event of storage of wastes occur. There may be
Constrains Associated with BMW Management temporary withholding of biological wastes under
Due to adaptation of improper and indiscriminate manner of refrigerated condition before safe disposal without causing
waste disposal by some health care centers, the biowaste problem aesthetically. Near the waste treatment sites
regulation is not up to the mark. There has been admixing of location of storage areas are present. There must not be floor
wastes from hospital with wastes in general that has made drains for containing spills which should be recessed for
streams dangerous. The consequence of this improper holding liquid. Imperviousness to liquid is required for
admixing ultimately resulted in incorrect waste disposal floors and walls, with easy follow up of cleaning procedures.
method. This in turn causes pollution of the environment Regular disinfection is also mandatory. There is requirement
along with impressible odour along with insects as well as for refrigeration for storing putrifiable and other wastes for
rodents or worms growth. It ultimately favors transmission a prolonged period of time. There must be a post in the
of diseases like typhoid, cholera, hepatitis and AIDS via storage area showing ‘EXPLICIT’ signs (Da Silva et al., 2005;
injuries from contaminated sharps (CEET, 2008). This www.purdue.edu).
facilitates easy incoming movement of flies, insects, rodents Containers and their Labeling
as well as cats and dogs that widely spread the diseases like Non–leaky containers must be used along with proper
plague and rabies. It is thereby necessary to undertake labeling and maintenance of their integrity, provided
waste management appropriately for maintaining good treatment is done chemically and thermally. Containment
standard environment and lessening health hazards. for biohazardous material must be sealed. Use of containers
Steps in Waste Management that are leak–proof having the capability of withstanding
For effective management of biomedical wastes several steps thermal as well chemical treatment must be employed for
are necessary to be followed from gathering of such wastes chemicals. Rigid containers that are resistant to puncture
till disposal, which are briefed as below. and can be encapsulated well must be used for metal sharps
Waste Segregation for proper disposal and it must be able to withstand 40 psi
Segregation is a very important factor in waste management pressure without getting ruptured. Plastic bags of heavy–
system. Depending upon the treatment and disposal option duty standard or other such containers must be used for
for various categories of wastes, specific colored containers non–hazardous materials along with symbol of Biohazard.
are required to segregate and store these at temporary Biohazard bags of red or orange colour must not be used for
central storage place till disposal within 48 hours. The materials that are non–hazardous. Rigid as well as
waste going for incineration or deep burial should be puncture–proof containers must be used for pasteur
collected in yellow plastic bag or bin. The waste which is pipettes as well as glasswares that are broken (plastic,
planned for autoclaving or microwaving or chemical heavy cardboard or metal) and sealing should be done in
treatment and finally to secured landfill or for recycling, "Biohazard bags" that are made up of heavy–duty plastic and
should be collected in red or blue bin or bag. The waste are autoclavable. No labeling is required unless there is any
sharps such as needles, blades etc. which are used for chance of recycling of the wastes and in such instances the

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container must be labeled as ‘Do Not Recycle’. a. Animal waste (Biohazardous): Thermal or
Wastebaskets must not be used for syringes that are loose chemical treatment for incineration and
or any other kind of sharps (Khan et al., 2001; Gayathri and disinfection.
Kamala, 2005; www.envirovigil–bmwm.com; b. Animal waste (Non–hazardous): Using as
www.epa.gov). Each bag or container must have label that compost or fertilizer.
is backed by adhesive with generator information that are 3. Chemical waste: It should be treated by using 1%
placed into the bags that contains medical wastes. Building sodium hypochlorite solution or any other equivalent
services should provide with special labels having space for chemical agent thereby ensuring proper disinfection.
recording dates along with contact person and such labels After treating for liquids and securing landfills for
must be applied to all the containers placed inside the solids discharging into drains is required (Saurabh and
medical waste boxes (www.web.princeton.edu). Clear Ram, 2006).
identification of every container of biohazardous wastes 4. Genetic material: National Institute of Health (NIH)
that are untreated along with their proper labeling with the guidelines must be followed for disposing off materials
symbol of Biohazard must be done. that contain recombinant DNA or organisms that are
Handling and transport genetically altered.
Biomedical wastes must be collected and transported in a 5. Human pathological waste
way of avoiding any possible peril to health of human and a. Dead body, recognizable body parts: cremation or
environment. Biohazardous waste that remains untreated burial for disposing off.
must be handled or transported by only technical b. Other solids – incineration or disinfection for
personnels who have undergone proper training. Soon after discarding.
generation of the wastes segregation into containers or bags c. Body fluids – disinfection by thermal or chemical
that are specifically color coded must be followed. Reducing treatment for discharging into the drain system
the risk of needle prick injury and infection is required 6. Metal sharps: Preventing laboratory as well as
while handling these wastes. No other forms of waste custodial and landfill workers’ injuries metal sharps are
should be mixed with biomedical waste. Transportation of needed to be discarded along with encapsulation.
untreated waste from the facility of generation to another Needles, blades etc. possess the threat of biohazard
treatment site and disposal is required if medical waste even after sterilization or capping and in the original
remains untreated on site (Kautto and Melanen, 2004; container. If there is requirement of autoclaving an
Marinkovic et al., 2005). autoclave indicator tape strip must be placed in
Following points need to be considering for container before the process of autoclaving. Rinsing of
transportation of BMW: gas chromatography needles must be done for
1. Split cabins should be provided for the vehicle carrier removing chemicals (hazardous) along with their
person and the containers of biomedical wastes. disposal with glasswares that are broken (non–
2. Verification of the waste cabin base for leak proof contaminated) (Patil and Pokhrel, 2004).
quality. 7. Microbiological waste: Treatment thermally or
3. Designing of the waste cabin must be done in such a chemically is required for discharging into the sewer
way that it can be easily cleaned with disinfectants, system.
and facilitates preserving containers of wastes in tiers. 8. Non–hazardous biological waste.
4. Minimize water stagnation; the inner surface of the a. Autoclaving or treating chemically all microbial
cabin should be smooth enough. products is necessary for good laboratory practice
5. There should be provision for sufficient rear openings even if the materials are non–hazardous.
and/or sides for easy loading or unloading of waste b. Solid – Trash dumpster placement of the wastes.
containers. c. Liquid – Discharging into sewer system.
6. Labeling of vehicle with BMW symbol is required. 9. Plastic waste, pasteur pipets; glassware (broken):
Treatment and Disposal Methods Disinfection by treating thermally or chemically or
The basic principle involved in the treatment of biological encapsulation and trash dumpster placement if there is
wastes is that mutilation or shredding must be able to contamination with biohazardous material. If these are
prevent unauthorized reuse. In the simplest form 1 per cent not contaminated, place in a trash dumpster.
solution of hypochlorite is used for chemical treatment. On Glassware and plastics should not be incinerated
the other hand incineration procedure does not involve any (Ravikant et al., 2002).
pre–treatment. Procedure of deep burial is required in 10. Radioactive waste: Freezer temperatures are required
towns only wherein the population of human is less than 5 for withholding animal carcasses that are radioactive
lakhs (www.hercenter.org; www.mppcb.nic.in). Treatment for decaying for their half–lives (ten). Health physics/
of wastes moreover should be done as near to the point of programme for radiation safety must be implemented
origin as much as possible (http://www. chemsoc.org/ especially for metal sharps that having radioactive
networks/gcn/ industry.htm). Keeping all these points in materials’ contamination (hpl@colorado.edu).
mind the treatment and disposal methods of various kinds Packaging and shipping of carcasses containing long–
of wastes must be carried out cautiously and appropriately lived radionuclides is mandatory by Federal as well as
1. Animal carcasses and body parts – Incineration, State authorities and are needed to be sent to a
biodigestion or landfill. repository site where nuclear materials are approved.
2. Animal waste; solid (bedding, manure, etc) The radiation safety requirement generally while
disposing off wastes that are radioactive in nature is that the
degree of exposure to radiation of the waste treatment plan

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at large or personnel should not exceed the following values: mercury for the wastes that are infectious environment will
as an effective dose 0.01 mSv a year. The preparation of be contaminated by mercury (Singh et al., 1996).
waste treatment plan is required to be done by a responsible Non–Incineration
party who can discharge into the sewer system or Four basic processes are included in non–incineration
environment radioactive material (www.ec.europa.eu). treatment viz., thermal and chemical, irradiative and
For generators that dispose medical wastes the biological. Thermal as well as chemical processes are
methods of disposal that are followed include truck service employed in majority of the non–incineration technologies.
on site and mail–back disposal. Treatment on site uses Decontamination of wastes by destruction of pathogens is
equipments that are very expensive and only large hospitals the most important purpose of this treatment technology. In
carry out such activities. Medical wastes are hired by truck order to meet the state criteria of disinfection facilities
services having trained employees for collecting medical should be provided (Thornton et al., 1996).
wastes in containers that are special. Treatment is carried Plasma Pyrolysis
out in an area that is planned to hold a huge concentration Direct use of waste products as combustion fuel or their
of medical wastes. Similar is mail back disposal of medical indirect processing into another kind of fuel helps in
wastes except the fact that shipping of the wastes is done harnessing the energy contents. In this context pyrolysis has
through postal services instead of haulers (private) been found as a related form of thermal treatment wherein
(Guidance on Closed containers, 2013). high temperatures are used for treating waste materials
Waste Minimization with limited supply of oxygen (www.ec.europa.eu). A
Preventing waste material (also known as waste reduction) state–of–the–art is plasma pyrolysis technology that ensures
is a significant method of management of wastes. disposal safe of medical wastes. It is an environment–
Manufacturing processes in industries can be used more friendly technology converting organic wastes into
efficiently and materials that are of better quality will result byproducts that are commercially useful. Disposal of various
in reduction of waste production. The techniques involving types of wastes that include solid waste of municipality,
minimization of waste materials and their application biomedical waste and hazardous waste safely as well as
technique has led to innovative as well as commercially authentically are enabled by plasma generated intense heat.
successful replacement products’ development. Pyrolysis of medical wastes into carbon–mono–oxide and
Minimization of wastes has been proven beneficial to hydrogen, hydrocarbons is possible when it comes in close
industries and helps in creating value along with increasing contact of plasma–arc. Such gases generate high
work quality (Royal Commission of Environmental temperature (1200 °C) when burned (Surjit et al., 2007;
Pollution, 2007). The methods of avoidance include re–using www.envfor.nic.in).
of second–hand products, repairing of broken items instead Accumulation of Wastes and their Storage
of buying new designer products, ability of their refilling Between the generation point of wastes and treatment of
and reusing. Consumers get encouraged by that way to waste sites, waste disposal accumulation and their storage
avoid disposable products’ use; removing any remains of occurs. Wastes when temporarily held in small quantities
food/ liquid from cans; for using lesser material for are referred to as accumulation while waste storage is
packaging as well as designing for achieving the same characterized by holding period for longer period and large
purpose (Kvist et al., 2004; Rao and Prabhakar, 2013; quantity of wastes. The location of treatment of wastes
www.ene.gov.en). needs to be in vicinity to storage areas. Storage also includes
Technologies Associated with Treatment and Disposal of any offside holding of wastes. Floor drains should be
Biomedical Wastes avoided in order to contain spills and must be recessed.
Incineration Impervious nature of floors and drains are mandatory that
This is considered as a thermal process requiring high helps to easily contain liquid and cleaning also becomes
temperature under controlled waste combustion conditions easy. For prolonged storage refrigeration is necessary in case
in order to convert them into materials that are inert in of putrifiable as well as other wastes. ‘EXPLICIT’ signs must
nature along with gases. For hospital wastes use of three be posted in the storage area (Hegde et al., 2007).
different kinds of incinerators are in vogue: multiple hearth Potential Implications of Biomedical Wastes
type; rotary kiln and air types (controlled). Both primary as  Greatest infectious risk due to biomedical wastes is
well as secondary combustion chambers are provided in all associated with containment of sharps improperly
the three types ensuring combustion at optimal level. These resulting in Hepatitis B, C, E and HIV transmission.
are interestingly refractory lined (Gravers, 1998). Most of  The dumping of untreated biomedical waste in
the wastes in the medical hospitals are incinerated but the municipal bins may increase the chance of survival
solid as well as medical wastes that are regulated are burnt along with proliferation and mutation of pathogenic
in reality thereby creating problems to the health care microbial population in such wastes. This causes
workers. Incinerators (medical wastes) use to emit air epidemics as well as increased incidence and
pollutants that are toxic in nature as well as residues of prevalence of communicable diseases in the
toxic ashes that possess in the environment the major community.
source of dioxins. In the landfills the toxic ashes that are  Pathogen associated health risk may lead to
sent for disposing have got the potential of leaching into the aerosolization during the processes of compacting,
ground water. For avoiding production of dioxin plastic grinding or shredding which is seen in association with
bags that are non–chlorinated are required to be introduced certain management of wastes of medical profession or
into the incinerator. Incineration of red bags must be with practices of treatment.
avoided as cadmium is present in red colour causing toxic  There is also association of physical injury as well as
emissions as if a red bag is filled in with items that contain
hazardous health with the temperatures of incinerators

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as well as steam sterilizers that are highly operating Gravers PD (1998). Management of Hospital Wastes– An overview.
Proceedings of National Workshop on Management of Hospital
along with poisonous gases that are emitted into the Waste, pp. 55 – 56.
atmosphere post treatment of wastes. Guidance on Closed Containers. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved
 There is confinement of the public impact to 15 May 2013.
Hegde V, Kulkarni RD and Ajantha GS (2007). Biomedical waste
degradation esthetically in the environment that management. J. Oral and Maxillofacial Pathol. 11 (1):5 – 9
prevents disposal as well as environmental impact of hpl@colorado.edu.
incinerators that are operated improperly or other http://www. chemsoc.org/ networks/gcn/ industry.htm.
equipments that are used for treating biomedical http://www.initial.co.uk/medical–services/regulations/index.html.
http://www.siemens.com.
wastes. Kautto P and Melanen M (2004). How does industry respond to waste policy
 Poor management of wastes leads to enhanced risk of instrument–Finnish experiences. J. Cleaner Prod. 12:1 – 11.
nosocomial infections. Khan FI, Natrajan BR and Revathi P (2001). GreenPro: a new methodology
for cleaner and greener process design. J. Loss Prevention in the
 Chances of vectors becomes high like that of Process Industries, 14:307 – 328.
mosquitoes, flies, cats, rats and stray dogs getting Kvist S, Pongrácz E and Keiski RL (2004). Waste minimization in a small
infected or becoming carriers which can spread furniture manufacturer. Proc. Waste Minimization and Resources Use
Optimiation Conference, University of Oulu, Finland.
diseases among the public. Mandal SK, Dutta J (2009) Integrated Bio–Medical Waste Management Plan
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