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Chapter 1: Introduction and

Basic Concepts

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand how thermodynamics and heat transfer are related to
each other,
• Distinguish thermal energy from other forms of energy, and heat
transfer from other forms of energy transfer,
• Perform general energy balances as well as surface energy
balances,
• Understand the basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which are
conduction, convection, and radiation, and Fourier's law of heat
conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan–Boltzmann
law of radiation,
• Identify the mechanisms of heat transfer that occur simultaneously
in practice,
• Develop an awareness of the cost associated with heat losses, and
• Solve various heat transfer problems encountered in practice.

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Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

• The science of thermodynamics deals with the
amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a
process from one equilibrium state to another,
and makes no reference to how long the process
will take.
• The science of heat transfer deals
with the determination of the rates
of energy that can be transferred
from one system to another as a
result of temperature difference.

Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states
and changes from one equilibrium state to
another. Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals
with systems that lack thermal equilibrium, and
thus it is a nonequilibrium phenomenon.
• Therefore, the study of heat transfer cannot be
based on the principles of thermodynamics alone.
• However, the laws of thermodynamics lay the
framework for the science of heat transfer.

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Heat Transfer
• The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence
of a temperature difference.
• The second law requires that heat
be transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
• The temperature difference is the driving force for heat
transfer.
• The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends
on the magnitude of the temperature gradient in that
direction.
• The larger the temperature gradient, the higher the rate
of heat transfer.

Application Areas of Heat Transfer

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Heat and Other Forms of Energy

• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
– thermal,
– mechanical,
– kinetic,
– potential,
– electrical,
– magnetic,
– chemical, and
– nuclear.
• Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a
unit mass basis) of a system.
• The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called
the internal energy of a system.

• Internal energy may be viewed as the sum of

the kinetic and potential energies of the
molecules.
• The kinetic energy of the molecules is called
sensible heat.
• The internal energy associated with the phase of
a system is called latent heat.
• The internal energy associated with the atomic
bonds in a molecule is called chemical (or bond)
energy.
• The internal energy associated with the bonds
within the nucleus of the atom itself is called
nuclear energy.

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Internal Energy and Enthalpy

• In the analysis of systems
that involve fluid flow,
we frequently encounter
the combination of
properties u and Pv.
• The combination is
defined as enthalpy
(h=u+Pv).
• The term Pv represents
the flow energy of the
fluid (also called the flow
work).

Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and

Solids
• Specific heat is defined as the energy required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by
one degree.
• Two kinds of specific heats:
– specific heat at constant volume cv, and
– specific heat at constant pressure cp.
• The specific heats of a substance, in general, depend
on two independent properties such as temperature
and pressure.
• For an ideal gas, however, they depend on
temperature only.

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Specific Heats
• At low pressures all real gases approach ideal gas
behavior, and therefore their specific heats depend on
temperature only.
• A substance whose specific volume (or density) does
not change with temperature or pressure is called an
incompressible substance.
• The constant-volume and constant-pressure specific
heats are identical for incompressible
substances.
• The specific heats of incompressible
substances depend on temperature
only.

Energy Transfer
• Energy can be transferred to or from a given mass by two
mechanisms:
– heat transfer, and
– work.
• The amount of heat transferred during a process is denoted by Q.
• The amount of heat transferred per unit time is called heat
transfer rate, and is denoted by Q. ⋅
• The total amount of heat transfer Q during a time interval ∆t can
be determined from ∆t
Q = ∫ Qdt

(J) (1-6)
0
• The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction of
heat transfer is called heat flux, and the average heat flux is
expressed as Q


q = (W/m 2 ) (1-8)
A

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Example 1-1

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The First Law of Thermodynamics

• The first law of thermodynamics states that energy
can neither be created nor destroyed during a process;
it can only change forms.
Total energy Total energy Change in the
- (1-9)
entering the leaving the = total energy of
system system the system

• The energy balance for any system undergoing any

process can be expressed as (in the rate form)
E
in − E
out = dEsystem dt (W) (1-11)

Rate of net energy transfer Rate of change in internal

by heat, work, and mass kinetic, potential, etc., energies

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• In heat transfer problems it is convenient to write

a heat balance and to treat the conversion of
nuclear, chemical, mechanical, and electrical
energies into thermal energy as heat generation.
• The energy balance in that case can be expressed
as
Qin − Qout + Egen = ∆Ethermal , system (J) (1-13)
Net heat Heat Change in
transfer generation thermal energy
of the system

Energy Balance
Closed systems Steady-Flow Systems
• Stationary closed system,• For system with one inlet and
no work: one exit:
Q = mcv ∆T (J) m
in = m
out = m
(kg/s)
(1-15) • When kinetic and potential
energies are negligible, and
there is no work interaction
Q
= m
∆h = mc

p ∆T (kJ/s)
(1-18)

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Example 1-2

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Example 1-3

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Example 1-4

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Heat Transfer Mechanisms

• Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
– conduction,
– convection,
– radiation.
• All modes of heat
transfer require the
existence of a temperature difference.
• All modes are from the high-temperature
medium to a lower-temperature one.

Conduction
• Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
• Conduction can take place in solids,
liquids, or gases
– In gases and liquids conduction is due to
the collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion.
– In solids conduction is due to the
combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy
transport by free electrons.

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Conduction
( Area )( Temperature difference )
Rate of heat conduction ∝
Thickness
T −T ∆T
Q
cond = kA 1 2 = − kA (W) (1-21)
∆x ∆x

where the constant of proportionality k is the

thermal conductivity of the material.
In differential form
dT
Q
cond = −kA (W) (1-22)
dx
which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

Thermal Conductivity
• The thermal conductivity of a material is a
measure of the ability of the material to conduct
heat.
• High value for thermal conductivity
good heat conductor
• Low value
poor heat conductor or insulator.

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Thermal Conductivities of Materials

• The thermal conductivities
of gases such as air vary by
a factor of 104 from those
of pure metals such as
copper.
• Pure crystals and metals
have the highest thermal
conductivities, and gases
and insulating materials the
lowest.

Thermal Conductivities and

Temperature
• The thermal conductivities
of materials vary with
temperature.
• The temperature
dependence of thermal
conductivity causes
considerable complexity in
conduction analysis.
• A material is normally
assumed to be isotropic.

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Thermal diffusivity
Heat conducted k
α= = ( m2 s ) (1-23)
Heat stored ρcp
• The thermal diffusivity represents how fast heat
diffuses through a material.
• Appears in the transient heat conduction analysis.
• A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a
low heat capacity will have a large thermal diffusivity.
• The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the
propagation of heat into the medium.

Example 1-6

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Example 1-7

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Convection
Convection = Conduction + Advection
(fluid motion)
• Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion.
• Convection is commonly classified into three sub-
modes:
– Forced convection,
– Natural (or free) convection,
– Change of phase (liquid/vapor,
solid/liquid, etc.)

Convection
• The rate of convection heat transfer is expressed by
Newton’s law of cooling as
Q
conv = hAs (Ts − T∞ ) (W) (1-24)
• h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in
W/m2°C.
• h depends on variables such as the
surface geometry, the nature of fluid
motion, the properties of the fluid,
and the bulk fluid velocity.

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Example 1-8

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Radiation
• Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules.
• Heat transfer by radiation does not require the presence of
an intervening medium.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal
radiation (radiation emitted by bodies because of their
temperature).
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon. However, radiation
is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for
solids that are opaque to thermal radiation.

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Radiation - Emission
• The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at a thermodynamic temperature Ts (in K or R) is given
by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as
Q
= σ A T 4 (W)
emit ,max s s
(1-25)
• σ =5.670X108 W/m2·K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
• The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate
is called a blackbody.
• The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the
radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, and
is expressed as
Q
emit ,max = εσ AsTs4 (W) (1-26)

0 ≤ ε ≤1
• ε is the emissivity of the surface.

Radiation - Absorption
• The fraction of the
radiation energy incident
on a surface that is
absorbed by the surface is
termed the absorptivity α.

0 ≤α ≤1
• Both ε and α of a surface depend on the temperature
and the wavelength of the radiation.

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Example 1-9

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Example 1-10

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Example 1-11

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Example 1-12

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Example 1-13

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Example 1-14

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