Guidlines Etika Penelitian Who
Guidlines Etika Penelitian Who
Guidlines Etika Penelitian Who
Commentary on Guideline 4
General considerations. Participants in health research are often exposed to a variety of interventions or procedures, many of
which pose some risk. In this Guideline, the term “intervention” refers to the objects of study, such as new or established
therapies, diagnostic tests, preventive measures and various techniques (for example, financial incentives) that might be used to
modify health-related behaviours. The term “procedure” refers to research activities that provide information about the object of
study, for example the safety and efficacy of a new therapy. Procedures include surveys and interviews, clinical exams,
monitoring (for example, an electrocardiogram), blood draws, biopsies, imaging, as well as methods used in the conduct of the
research, such as randomization.
Many research interventions and procedures pose risks to participants. Risk is generally understood as an estimate of two factors:
first, how likely it is that a participant will experience a physical, psychological, social or other harm; and second, the magnitude
or significance of the harm. This understanding of risk implies that discomfort, inconvenience or burdens are harms of a very
small magnitude that are almost certain to occur. The ethical justification for exposing participants to risks is the social and
scientific value of research, namely the prospect of generating the knowledge and means necessary to protect and promote
people's health (see Guideline 1 – Scientific and social value and respect for rights). However, some risks cannot be justified,
even when the research has great social and scientific value and adults who are capable of giving informed consent would give
their voluntary, informed consent to participate in the study. For example, a study that involves deliberately infecting healthy
individuals with anthrax or Ebola - both of which pose a very high mortality risk due to the absence of effective treatments -
would not be acceptable even if it could result in developing an effective vaccine against these diseases. Therefore, researchers,
sponsors, and research ethics committees must ensure that the risks are reasonable in light of the social and scientific value of the
research, and that the study does not exceed an upper limit of risks to study participants.
What constitutes an appropriate risk-benefit ratio cannot be expressed in a mathematical formula or algorithm. Rather, it is a
judgment that results from a careful assessment and reasonable balancing of a study's risks and potential individual benefits. The
steps outlined in this Guideline are intended to ensure protection of the rights and welfare of study participants.
It is important to evaluate the potential individual benefits and risks of proposed research in consultation with the communities to
be involved in the research (see Guideline 7 – Community engagement). This is because a community's values and preferences
are relevant in determining what constitute benefits and acceptable risks. Evaluating risks and potential individual benefits also
requires a good understanding of the context in which a study is to be conducted. This is best obtained in consultation with
communities. Moreover, the risk-benefit ratio of a study can change as it progresses. Researchers, sponsors and research ethics
committee should therefore re-evaluate the risks and potential individual benefits of studies on a regular basis.
Evaluation of individual research interventions and procedures. To evaluate the risks and potential individual benefits of a
research study, researchers, sponsors, and research ethics committees must first assess the risks and potential individual benefits
of each individual research intervention and procedure, and then judge the aggregate risks and potential individual benefits of the
study as a whole. Taking these successive steps is important because overall judgments of the risk-benefit profile of a study as a
whole are more likely to be inaccurate because they may miss concerns raised by individual interventions. For example, a study
may involve research procedures that do not pose significant risks, yet the procedures fail to yield important information. Global
risk- benefit judgments would likely miss this concern. In contrast, scrutiny of each individual research intervention and
procedure in the study would result in removing duplicative procedures and thereby minimize risks to participants.
Potential individual beneffts. Research has a range of potential individual benefits. It generates the knowledge necessary to
protect and promote the health of future patients (the social and scientific value of research; see Guideline 1 – Scientific and
social value and respect for rights). A study intervention offers a prospect of clinical benefit when previous studies provide
credible evidence that the intervention's potential clinical benefits will outweigh its risks. For example, many investigational
drugs in Phase III trials offer a prospect of potential individual benefit. Researchers, sponsors and research ethics committees
must maximize the potential individual benefits of studies for both future patients and study participants. For instance, the social
and scientific value of studies can be maximized by making data or specimens available for future research (see Guideline 24 –
Public accountability for health-related research). Potential clinical benefits to participants can be maximized by targeting
populations who stand to benefit most from the intervention under study. Measures to maximize potential individual benefits
need to be carefully balanced with competing considerations. For example, sharing data or specimens for future research can pose
risks to participants, especially when adequate safeguards to protect confidentiality are not in place.
Risks to research participants. To evaluate the acceptability of risks in a given study, researchers, sponsors and research ethics
committees must begin by ensuring that the study poses a socially valuable research question and employs sound scientific
methods for addressing this question. They must then determine for each intervention and procedure in the study that the
associated risks to participants are minimized and that mitigation procedures are in place. This can involve ensuring that plans
and procedures exist to adequately manage and reduce risks, for example by:
► monitoring the study and providing mechanisms for responding to adverse events;
► establishing a Data Safety and Monitoring Committee (DSMC) to review and decide on data on harms and benefits as a study
progresses;
► instituting clear criteria for stopping a study;
► installing safeguards to protect the confidentiality of sensitive personal data;
► seeking exemptions, where possible, from requirements to report information about illegal activities of study participants (such
as sex work in countries where prostitution is forbidden by law);
► avoiding unnecessary procedures (for example, by performing laboratory tests on existing blood samples instead of drawing
new blood, where scientifically appropriate); and
► excluding participants who are at a significantly increased risk of being harmed from an intervention or procedure.
Measures to minimize risks need to be carefully balanced with competing considerations regarding the scientific and value of
research and fair subject selection. For example, decisions to stop a trial due to early, significant findings have to be balanced
with the need to collect robust data on investigational interventions that are adequate to guide clinical practice.
Researchers, sponsors and research ethics committees must then ensure that the risks of each intervention and procedure, once
minimized, are appropriately balanced in relation to the intervention's prospect of benefit for the individual participant and the
social and scientific value of the research. For interventions that have a prospect of potential individual benefit, risks are
acceptable if they are outweighed by the potential individual benefits for the individual participant and the intervention's risk-
benefit profile is at least as advantageous as any established effective alternative. Participants in the control group of a clinical
trial must be provided with an established effective intervention; exceptions to this general rule are set out and discussed in
Guideline 5 – Choice of control in clinical trials.
Judgments about the risk-benefit profile of study interventions, and how they compare with the risk- benefit profile of any
established alternatives, must be based on the available evidence. Therefore, researchers and sponsors have an obligation to
provide, in the research protocol and other documents submitted to the research ethics committee, a comprehensive and balanced
overview of the available evidence that is relevant for evaluating the risks and potential individual benefits of the research. In
research protocols for clinical trials, researchers and sponsors must clearly describe results from preclinical studies and, where
applicable, early phase or exploratory trials of the study intervention involving humans. They must also note in the documents
sent to the committee any limitations of the available data as well as any disagreement about the foreseeable risks and potential
individual benefits, including potential conflicts of interests that might influence conflicting opinions. Researchers should provide
a credible interpretation of the available evidence to support their judgment that an investigational agent has a favourable
risk-benefit ratio, and that its risk-benefit profile is at least as advantageous as the risk-benefit profile of any established
alternatives. It is important to note, however, that the risks and potential individual benefits of study interventions can be difficult
to predict before larger clinical trials have been conducted. This means that sponsors, researchers and research ethics committees
may need to judge the risk-benefit profile of such interventions under conditions of considerable uncertainty.
Finally, researchers, sponsors and research ethics committees must ensure that the aggregate risks of all research interventions or
procedures in a study are acceptable. For example, a study may involve numerous interventions or procedures that each pose
limited risks, but these risks may add up to an overall significant level of risk that is unacceptable in relation to the social and
scientific value of the study. To guard against this possibility, researchers, sponsors and research ethics committees must
complete risk-benefit evaluations with an overall judgment about the risks and potential individual benefits of the given study.
The minimal-risk standard. The minimal-risk standard is often defined by comparing the probability and magnitude of anticipated
harms with the probability and magnitude of harms ordinarily encountered in daily life or during the performance of routine
physical or psychological examinations or tests. The purpose of these comparisons is to determine the level of acceptable
research risk by analogy with the risks of activities in other areas of life: when the risks of an activity are considered acceptable
for the population in question, and the activity is relatively similar to participating in research, then the same level of risk should
be considered acceptable in the research context. These comparisons typically imply that research risks are minimal when the risk
of serious harm is very unlikely and the potential harms associated with more common adverse events are small.
One difficulty with these risk comparisons, however, is that different populations can experience dramatic differences in the risks
of daily life or in routine clinical examinations and testing. Such differences in background risk can stem from inequalities in
health, wealth, social status, or social determinants of health. Therefore, research ethics committees must be careful not to make
such comparisons in ways that permit participants or groups of participants from being exposed to greater risks in research
merely because they are poor, members of disadvantaged groups or because their environment exposes them to greater risks in
their daily lives (for example, poor road safety). Research ethics committees must be similarly vigilant about not permitting
greater research risks in populations of patients who routinely undergo risky treatments or diagnostic procedures (for example,
cancer patients). Rather, risks in research must be compared to risks that an average, normal, healthy individual experiences in
daily life or during routine examinations. Furthermore, risk comparisons must not be made to activities that pose unacceptable
risks themselves, or in which people choose to participate because of the associated benefits (some sporting activities, for
example, are thrilling precisely because they involve an elevated risk of harm). When the risks of a research procedure are judged
to be minimal, there is no requirement for special protective measures apart from those generally required for all research
involving members of the particular class of persons.
Minor increase above minimal risk. While there is no precise definition of a “minor increase” above minimal risk, the increment
in risk must only be a fraction above the minimal risk threshold and considered acceptable by a reasonable person. It is
imperative that judgments about a minor increase above minimal risk pay careful attention to context. Thus, research ethics
committees need to determine the meaning of a minor increase above minimal risk in light of the particular aspects of the study
they are reviewing.
Risks to groups. In order to achieve the social and scientific value of research, results must be made public (see Guideline 24 –
Public accountability for health-related research). However, research results in certain fields (for example, epidemiology,
genetics, and sociology) may present risks to the interests of communities, societies, families, or racially or ethnically defined
groups. For example, results could indicate – rightly or wrongly – that a group has a higher than average prevalence of
alcoholism, mental illness or sexually transmitted disease, or that it is particularly susceptible to certain genetic disorders.
Research results could therefore stigmatize a group or expose its members to discrimination. Plans to conduct such research
should be sensitive to these considerations and minimize risks to groups, notably by maintaining confidentiality during and after
the study and publishing the resulting data in a manner that is respectful of the interests of all concerned.
Similarly, conducting research may disrupt or interfere with providing health care to the local community and thereby pose risks
to the community. Research ethics committees must ensure, as part of evaluating the risks and potential individual benefits of
research studies, that the interests of all who may be affected are given due consideration. For example, researchers and sponsors
could contribute to the local health infrastructure in a way that compensates for any disruption caused by the research.
In assessing the risks and potential individual benefits that a study presents to a population, research ethics committees should
consider the potential harm that could result from forgoing the research or from failing to publish the results.
Risks to researchers. In addition to participants, investigators themselves can be exposed to risks that result from research
activities. For example, research involving radiation can expose researchers to risks and studies on infectious disease can pose
risks to laboratory staff who are handling samples. Sponsors should carefully assess and minimize risks to researchers; specify
and explain the risks of undertaking the research to investigators and other research staff; and provide adequate compensation in
case any members of the research team incur harm as a result of the research.