Lecture02 - Hubert - Melting and Fining Processes

IMI-NFG Course on Processing in Glass
Spring 2015
(available online www.lehigh.edu/imi)
Lecture 2: Melting and Fining processes in industrial

glass furnaces
Mathieu Hubert, PhD
CelSian Glass & Solar

Eindhoven, The Netherlands
mathieu.hubert@celsian.nl
Introduction
• In Lecture 1, the preparation of the batch has been described, from
the selection of the raw materials to the charging of the batch in the
furnace via the doghouse (or day-hopper)
• The batch is introduced in the furnace at high temperature, and the

energy provided to the batch is used to convert the batch into a
glass melt
• The batch-to-melt conversion implies a series of chemical

reactions (decarbonation, dehydration, solid-state reactions,
formation of low-melting eutectics, dissolutions)
• This lecture will highlight these different reactions and processes,

from the introduced batch to an homogeneous and bubble-free glass
melt (before the forming processes)
IMI-NFG Course on Processing of Glass - Lecture 2: Industrial glass melting and fining processes
mathieu.hubert@celsian.nl 2
Outline of this lecture
1. Melting of the batch

 From the batch to the melt
 Chemical reactions
 Sand dissolution
2. Fining of the melt
 Dissolved gases
 Fining mechanisms
 Removal of bubbles and seeds
Schematic of an industrial glass melting tank
* This is a schematic representation, but many different furnace designs exist

(more on that in Lecture 3)
Melting and fining in the furnace
Batch blanket
Melting and sand dissolution Primary Secondary

fining fining
(refining)
Batch
Batch input ≈ 1200 Kg
25°C
Rough melt
Batch melting ≈ 1001 Kg
1200°C
Sand grain Seedy melt

≈ 1001 Kg
dissolution 1400°C
Clear melt
Fining ≈ 1000 Kg
1500°C
Refining and Conditioned melt

conditioning 1000 Kg
1250°C
Inspired from R. Conradt, Thermodynamics and Energy Demand for Batch-to-Melt Conversion, presented at the 6th ICG
summer school, Montpellier, France, July 2014
Batch
Batch input ≈ 1200 Kg
25°C
Relatively fast (~ 1h)

Rough melt -
Batch melting ≈ 1001 Kg
1200°C Requires significant
energy input
Sand grain Seedy melt
≈ 1001 Kg
dissolution 1400°C
Longer process
(~ 24h)
Clear melt
Fining ≈ 1000 Kg -
1500°C
Requires significant
lower energy input
Refining and Conditioned melt
conditioning 1000 Kg
1250°C
Inspired from R. Conradt, Thermodynamics and Energy Demand for Batch-to-Melt Conversion, presented at the 6th ICG
summer school, Montpellier, France, July 2014
Batch melting-in
• The melting-in process occurs mainly by reactions within the

batch blanket forming liquid phases.
• In the heated batch piles or blanket:
 The first aggressive melt phases are formed, which will
strongly attack and largely dissolve the components that are
difficult to dissolve, like quartz sand or feldspar/china clay
particles.
 The melt phases thus formed flow from the batch blanket
area into the glass melt. So the batch blanket becomes
increasingly thinner
 Still some of the non-dissolved sand particles will arrive in
the glass melt itself, where these particles will have to
dissolve further by diffusion of SiO2 in the molten glass,
away from the sand grain surface.
Melting process of the batch blanket
combustion space
heat transfer
gas release reaction zone
figure 1b
glass melt layer
temperature
profile
thick- glass
ness normal batch level
reaction zone
glassmelt figure 1c
flow heat
transferred
From Ungan and Viskanta, "Melting Behavior of Continuously Charged Loose Batch Blankets in Glass Melting
Furnaces", Glastechische Berichte, 59 (10), 1986, pp. 279-291
Detailed representation of batch melting process
o
1500 C
Layer
glassmelt
melts
Dissolution loose batch

sand grains sand
grains
gas
melting
melting reactions
reactions carbonates
(soda/lime)
dissolution sand
gas grains
batch
sand
grains o
glass melt 1400 C
b. top of batch blanket c. bottom side of batch blanket
From Ungan and Viskanta, "Melting Behavior of Continuously Charged Loose Batch Blankets in Glass Melting
Furnaces", Glastechische Berichte, 59 (10), 1986, pp. 279-291
Different steps of the melting process
• Melt reactions
• Melt energy (enthalpy of heating the batch and decomposition

melting/fusion reactions)
• Melting kinetics / heat transfer
• Melting parameters:
 effect of the temperature
 grain size (especially for sand and alumina raw materials)
 glass composition
Melt reactions
Melting reactions
• De-hydration of some raw materials and water evaporation
• Solid state reactions between individual raw materials
• Formation of primary melt phases and melting of alkali rich
carbonates. (typically in the temperature range: 700-900°C)
• Dissociation or decomposition reactions of Ca- and Mg-
containing carbonates (e.g. limestone and dolomite), resulting in
development of CO2-gas. (Temperature range 500-1000°C)
(Na2CO3 will not decompose spontaneously, but reacts with sand or
limestone).
• Dissolving of the SiO2 in the alkali rich carbonate melt phases,
typically above 1000°C. Sand reacts between about 750-1000°C
with sodium silicates or soda to form liquid sodium silicates
(associated with the release of CO2-gas when limestone or soda or
dolomite is reacting with sand)
Dehydration
• Takes place at ± 100°C for physically bonded water
• In case of clay in the batch, de-hydration may occur up to 650-

700°C
• Dehydration (water evaporation) is very energy intensive, and it is

represents an important part of the total energy consumption
Sand dissolution
• Pure silica melts at very high temperature (> 1700°C)
• In standard glasses (except e.g. pure silica glass) sand is

incorporated in the glass melt by dissolution, and not by melting
• Sand dissolution is a critical step in industrial melting process
• It is highly dependent on the initial grain size distribution of the

sand grains in the batch, as well as the presence of aggressive
molten phases (e.g. alkaline phases)
• Sand grains react with other batch components or dissolve in the

obtained melt in most glass melting processes. The optimum grain
size depends on the glass type.
Grain size distribution of quartz sand, recommended for
different applications, values in mass%
Application Indication Grain size (mm)
Size class <0.03 <0.06 <0.125 <0.25 < 0.35 <0.5 <1.0
Container glass Coarse - - 1 25 55 75 95
sand
Container & Float Medium - - 10 50 75 95 100

sand
Float glass Fine sand - 1 5 70 85 100 100

Float glass Very fine 3 15 85 100 100 100
sand
E-glass & alkali- Coarse 40 70 95 100 100 100 100

borosilicate silica
powder
E-glass Medium 70 95 99 100 100 100 100

silica
powder
E-glass Fine silica 98 100 100 100 100 100 100
powder
Solid-state reactions in the batch
• Solid-state reactions can be divided into two routes: the carbonate

route and the silicate route
• The carbonate route (path) is characterized by reactive
dissolution of silica sand with a binary melt phase of soda ash
and limestone below about 900°C. Soda ash and limestone, in
contact with each other, may form a double carbonate by a solid
state reaction forming the species Na2Ca(CO3)2
• At about 820°C, this intermediate reaction product starts to melt and
becomes suddenly more reactive (better contact) towards silica
sand grains.
• Silica reaction with Na2Ca(CO3)2 forms a viscous Na2O·CaO·SiO2
melt plus CO2 gas.
Solid-state reactions in the batch
• The silica/silicate route is based on eutectic melting of a mixture

of components, including the sodium disilicate phase, formed by
solid state reactions between sand and soda.
• The eutectic melting of SiO2 and Na2O·2SiO2 takes place at 799°C
and silicate rich melts are formed.
• The degree to which these reactions occur depends on the mutual

contact between the components.
 Within a compacted batch (pellets, granules) the reactions
will be more intensive than in a loose powder batch.
 Finer powders may give a better contact between the
interacting raw material grains compared to coarse
powders. Thus finer powdered batch is often more reactive
and may give a better glass homogeneity
Melting reactions – Silicate route for SLS batch
• Solid state reactions, formation of silicates, e.g.: High amount of
Carbonate route < 900oC at fast heating rate heat required
Carbonate
 Na2Ca(CO3)2 (melts at ±820oC) (550-850oC)

route
Na2CO3 + CaCO3
Na2Ca(CO3)2 +2SiO2  Na2SiO3/CaSiO3 + 2CO2 reaction enhances > 820oC
Na2CO3 + 2SiO2  Na2Si2O5 + CO2 (silica route) (700-860oC)

Silicate
forms eutectic
route
melt with SiO2
Na2CO3 + SiO2  Na2SiO3 + CO2 (silica route)
The rate of the reactive calcination of soda ash with silica increases sharply
when heating above 825oC up to about 855oC.
• Formation of primary melt phases (alkali rich carbonates), e.g.:
Tm Na2CO3 = 850oC
Tm Na2Ca(CO3)2 = 820oC
Limestone –sand solid-state reactions
• The main part of the limestone or dolomite will decompose above

the thermodynamic calcination temperature of limestone, this
depends on the CO2 partial pressure in the batch. Some limestone
may react directly with silica:
2 CaCO3 + SiO2  Ca2SiO4 + 2 CO2  (600 - 900C)
• These reactions occur only on the contacting interfaces and they are
much slower than solid state/liquid reactions.
Melting reactions – Silicate route for SLS batch
• Reactive calcination:
Na2CO3 + 2SiO2  Na2O·2SiO2 + CO2↑ T > 790oC
 forms with SiO2 an eutectic melt
• Or at further heating
 fast Na2O·SiO2 formation (850oC) plus limestone decomposes and:
2CaO + (SiO2 + Na2O·2SiO2 )eutectic melt  Na2O·2CaO·3SiO2 (> 900oC)
• Silicate route:
Silicate melt + SiO2  silica enriched melt T > 1000-1100oC
Eutectic melt phases are formed above ±800-840oC

Silicate melting points / eutectics
The melting points of the meta-silicate Na2SiO3 and of the di-silicate

Na2Si2O5 are:
• Ts (Na2SiO3) = 1089oC,
• Ts (Na2Si2O5) = 874oC.
Eutectics:
• Teut (Na2O  2SiO2 + SiO2) = 793oC.
• Teut (Na2O  2SiO2 + Na2O  SiO2) = 846oC.
• Teut (2Na2O  SiO2 + Na2O  SiO2) = 1020oC.
In combination with calcium oxide, an even lower (ternary) eutectic

temperature may occur:
• Teut (Na2O3CaO  6SiO2 + SiO2 + Na2O  2SiO2) = 725 oC.
Silicate melting points / eutectics
Phase diagram for the system Na2O – SiO2 showing eutectic sodium
silicate melt phases
100 % SiO2
Dissociation – decomposition reactions
• Decomposition reactions of (Ca- and Mg-) carbonates:
CaCO3 + heat  CaO + CO2↑ (910oC at pressure 1 bar)
MgCO3 + heat  MgO + CO2↑ (540oC at pressure of 1 bar)
MgCO3·CaCO3 + heat  MgO + CaCO3 + CO2↑ (650oC, 1 bar)
MgO still present up to 1150oC.
Gas release during melting-in
• During these initial (melting) reactions in most batches, much CO2-

gas is released.
• About 14 - 20 % of the mass of normal soda-lime-silica batches

is transferred into volatile CO2
• This means that from 1 kg of normal batch about 100 liters of gas
at normal pressure and room temperature (or about 500 liters gas,
at the furnace temperature level), will be released in the furnace.
• Besides CO2-gas, the melting loss consists of water vapor (several

mass percents, depending on: batch humidity, water content in cullet
and presence of hydrated raw materials) and any possible
evaporation products
(SO2, HBO2, HCl, NaCl, HCl, KOH, PbO, Pb, NaOH, Se-components).
Summary of the different reactions
1089 oC: Ts Na2SiO3
910 oC : CaCO3  CaO + CO2 (gas)
850 oC : Ts Na2CO3
820 oC : Ts Na2Ca(CO3)2
793 oC : Teut Na2O.2SiO2 + SiO2
740 oC : Teut Na2Ca(CO3)2 + Na2CO3
650 oC : MgCO3.CaCO3  MgO+CaCO3+CO2 (gas)
540 oC : MgCO3 -> MgO + CO2 (gas)
Dissolution of SiO2, CaO,

MgO, Al2O3 e.d. in melt
phases
primary melts
decomposition
carbonates
solid state reactions
volatilisation of water / de-hydratation
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

o
 Temperature in C
Energy demand (enthalpy)
The quantity of required energy (excluding energy losses) is

determined by:
• the heat needed to bring the raw materials up to the reaction
temperatures
• the net heat required for the fusion reactions (determined by both
endothermic reactions, requiring energy and exothermic reactions
that generate thermal energy)
• the heat required for the further heating of the melt phases and the
volatile reaction products up to the temperature at the furnace exit
(throat, canal, exhaust ports).
Paths of energy consumption (theoretical)
• Heating of from ambient T of batch till first reactions: H1

• Further heating of batch H2 plus adding net energy during batch
reactions H3 for endothermic reactions
• Extra energy supply to heat the released gases to the combustion
chamber exit temperature: H4
• Further heating of the melt till maximum temperature: H5
• Decrease of temperature for melt from maximum temperature to
outlet temperature (throat, canal), heat delivered: H6
Thus, total energy input for melting in the furnace:
H1 + H2 + H3 + H4 + H5 - H6.
Chemical energy demand
10 Overall chemical energy demand

MgCO3·CaCO3(s) -> MgO(s) + CO2(g) + CaCO3(s)
batch ·K ]
-1
CaCO3(s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)

-1
8
Na2CO3(s) + SiO2(q) -> Na2O·SiO2(s) + CO2(g)
Chemical energy consumption rate [kJ·kg
Na2CO3(s) -> Na2CO3(l)
6 Na2CO3(l) + SiO2(q) -> Na2O·SiO2(s) + CO2(g)
Na2O·SiO2(s) + SiO2(q) -> NS(l)
CaO(s) + melt
4
0
600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
-2
Temperature [°C]
Typical values for theoretical heat demand of
several batch types (without cullet)
Soda lime Lead glass Sodium boro- E-glass
glass (19 % PbO) silicate glass
(8 % B2O3)
[kJ/kg] [kJ/kg] [kJ/kg] [kJ/kg]
Tangible heat of melt 1775 1603 1609 1588

(0 - 1400 oC)
Reaction heat 487 403 412 roughly 400
Tangible heat volatile
reaction products 293 166 140 577
(0 - 1500 oC)
TOTAL 2555 2172 2161 2565
Effect of cullet on required energy:

• Less reaction energy and less gaseous reaction products
• Faster batch heating due to better heat transfer
Kinetics of batch melting
• The rates of batch conversion processes (formation of silicates,
decomposition of carbonates) depend on the reaction kinetics and
the diffusion rates of for instance the dissolving components in the
melt
• Both of them are strongly determined by the temperature
• So the heat transfer into and within the batch blanket (heat
conduction and radiation) is very important for the rate of the initial
melting, and is the limiting factor for the fusion/melting kinetics
• This means, that as soon as a certain temperature level has been
reached, the reactions will become fast, but below this temperature
level reaction rates are very low
• The compactness of the batch and grain sizes may have an
important effect on heating rate and contact area between reacting
grains and thus on the overall reaction rates, especially in the
regime of solid state reactions
Dissolution rate of sand grains in silicate melt
• The dissolution rates of single silica grains in silicate melts are

diffusion-controlled
• The SiO2 at the grain surface dissolved in the surrounding melt has
to be transferred into the melt by diffusion.
• The driving force for the quartz sand
grain
glass melt [SiO2] = C in mass%
diffusion process is the reaction SiO2 with molten glass

difference of the 85 mass%
W e= concentration SiO2 at
equilibrium concentration interface
of SiO2 in the molten glass SiO2-diffusion
(maximum SiO2 solubility in

the glass melt at that W s = concentration SiO2 in melt =
temperature) that exists about 72 mass%
at the interface of the silica

dissolution of SiO2
Ce is maximum SiO2 solubility (depends

on glass composition and temperature)
Examples: effect of batch composition and grain
size on batch free time for SLS glasses
At 1427°C
batch free time
CaO +
MgO in
mass-%
Grain diameter
Na2O in mass-%
How to increase the melting kinetics
• Increase of batch heating rate

 Higher packing density of batch materials
 Higher cullet%
 Promotion of occurrence of low melting glassy phases
• Increase of reaction rate and dissolution kinetics of batch

 Dissolution of sand particles
 Temperature should not be too high: loss of fining agent
 Sand grain size distribution should no be wide
 Depends on grain size, temperature, convection and glass
composition
 Dissolution of other slowly dissolving components (alumina,
zircon, ..)
 Depends on grain size, temperature, convection and glass
composition
Fluxing agents
• Formation of early melt phases in the batch,

Examples: blast furnace slag, lithium-containing ingredients
(spodumene), nitrates and salt cake (Na2SO4) in combination
with sulfide
• Decrease of the surface tension of the melt phases.
• Increase of the heat conductivity of the batch.
Example: Cullet, compacted batch/pellets/granules of
compacted fine batch materials.
• Reduction of the reaction (endothermic) enthalpy
Examples: Addition of quick-lime (CaO) instead of limestone,
Cullet
Fining of the glass melts
Gases in glass (dissolved) or in bubbles
• Many chemical conversions are taking place during the heating &
the melting-in of the mixture of raw materials.
• Removal of gas bubbles is essential in order to obtain a (molten)
glass without fine bubbles (seeds) or blisters.
• After melting of the raw materials, the glass melt may contain a large
number density of bubbles: Typically in the order of 105 per kg.
• Melts that are almost saturated with dissolved gases are sensitive
for formation of new bubbles or growth of very small bubbles when:
 changing the chemistry of the melt
 changing temperature
 agitating the melt mechanically
• The gases (SO2 and CO2) released from the melting batch do have
a mixing effect within the batch blanket, increasing the dissolution
rate of the sand grains
10 mm
Glass just after batch melting

- sample thickness ± 5 mm
Gases in glass (dissolved) or in bubbles
• Besides formation of the desired silicate melt phases, a large

amount of gases is produced:
 From carbonates: CO2 gas is formed
 From carbonates and cokes: CO gas
 Hydrated ingredients give water vapor
 From nitrates: O2 gas, N2/NOx gases;
 Sulfates and sulfides can give sulfur gases, such as
SO2, S2, H2S or even COS.
• Degassing the glass melt and removing all bubbles including also
all very small bubbles (seeds) from the molten glass.
• The very small bubbles (D=0.1-0.4 mm) are called seeds, the larger
bubbles are called blisters. Bubbles with diameters smaller than 0.1
are often called micro-seeds.
Other gases
• Air (volume concentration Ar:N2 = 0.9 : 80)
 Inclusions of air (pores) in batch blanket
 From open cracks in refractory walls
 Oxygen from, air is generally dissolved in glass melt
• Furnace atmosphere gases (N2, Ar, H2O, CO2)
 Oxygen from furnace atmosphere generally dissolves
completely in glass
• Volatile glass & batch components or decomposition gases:
 NOx, CO2, H2O, SeO2, …
• Refractory gases (CO, N2, CO2, oxygen bubbles)
 Refractory-glass melt interaction
 Blistering of refractory
• Contamination of melt by corrosion products of electrodes, carbon
(soot) deposits etc.
Fining agents
• To promote the removal of bubbles from the glass melt, fining

agents are added
• The function of a fining agent is the production of fining gases at

the temperatures, being achieved by all glass melt trajectories in
the tank at lowest level of its viscosity.
• The process of high temperature decomposition of a fining agent in

a low viscous melt will result in simultaneous bubble growth,
gas stripping plus high ascension rates.
• NB: Excessive fining may lead to formation of foam (may lead to

defects in the glass, may be detrimental for heat transfers in the
glass furnace => Lecture 4)
Schematic of an industrial glass melting tank
* This is a schematic representation, but many different furnace designs exist

(more on that in Lecture 3)
Occurrence of gases in glass melts
• Physically dissolved:
 Interstitial in open space of silicate network
 No chemical bonding with silicate component
 N2, Ar, He are mainly physically dissolved in oxidized glass melt
• Chemically dissolved:
 Absorbed by melt by chemical reaction
 Orders of magnitude higher than physical solubility
 CO32- (CO2), OH- (H2O), Sb2O5 (O2), N3-(N2), SO2 & O2 (SO42- )
• In gas bubbles:
 When concentration of gases > maximum solubility in melt
 Sizes of bubbles: 10 mm – few mm
Two fining steps
• First step: primary fining

 High temperatures
 Bubble agglomeration and bubble size growth
 Dissolved gases diffuse from melt in to bubbles (like bubbles
in soda drinks)
 Ascension of growing bubbles to glass melt surface
•Second step: Secondary fining/Refining

 Dissolution of (small) remaining bubbles
 Only effective if bubble contains gases (CO2, O2, SO2+O2)
that dissolve in cooling melts
 Glass melt should be lean in dissolved gases
Primary fining
III. Fining gases and

other dissolved
gases diffuse
strongly into bubble
II. start of fining:

gases diffuse into
bubble
I. static bubble
Reaction in melt: release of fining gases

Pgases melt > pt (pt is pressure in bubble)
Primary fining – Example sulfate fining
Often used fining agent: Sodium sulfate Na2SO4 (salt cake)
Fining reaction: T > TFining onset pSO  pO 2

K = ' 2
Na2SO4(m)  Na2O(m)+SO2 (gas)+1/2 O2 (gas) [SO 3 ]
Cm CO2 CO2
SO2
Stripping of CO2
and N2 from melt O2
Cm N2 N2
Dilution of N2 & CO2 in bubble by fining gases
Acceleration of bubble ascension
ρ : density of the glass melt [Kg/m3]
𝑐. 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑅2 η : viscosity of the glass melt [Pa.s]
𝑣𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = R : bubble radius [m]
η g : gravity [9.81 m/s2]
c : factor (e.g. Stokes c =2/9)
Primary fining
Time to reach glass surface (1 meter)
Time to reach glass level at 1 meter [h]
250
Float glass melt
1400 OC
200
1450 OC 1350 OC
150 At higher temperatures
=> melt with lower viscosity
100
1500 OC
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Bubble diameter [μm]
Primary fining – video example
Temperature:
(°C)
Secondary fining – during controlled cooling
• The secondary fining (or refining) corresponds to the dissolution

of the remaining bubbles in the melt
• It takes place in a rather narrow temperature window
• The solubility of the gases in the melt increases with decreasing
temperature
• Because a temperature decrease will reverse the fining reactions
(meaning that the fining gases will be chemically absorbed again),
the fining gases (e.g. O2, SO2) can re-dissolve into the melt during
controlled cooling down of the melt (refining) if the melt is
sufficiently lean of dissolved gases after the primary fining process.
• The gases of the bubbles will dissolve into the glass melt. The
bubble shrinks and disappears (it “dissolves”). This mechanism is
especially important for the remaining smaller bubbles (< 100 μm),
which are hardly able to rise.
Sulfur solubility in SLS glass melt
Fe2+/Fetotal 80 70 60 40 25 15 %
0.6
Sulfur only in Sulfur in form of SO42-, S2- Sulfur only in
form of S2- (probably also SO32-?) form of SO42-
Sulfur retention (mass% SO 3)
0.5
0.4
0.3
1400 oC
0.2
1500 oC
0.1
0.0
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
10
Log pO2 in the melt at 1400°C (bar)
Redox number: -30 -20 -10 0 +10 +20
Secondary fining – video example
• Controlled cooling of the melt

• Bubbles are re-dissolved into the melt
• The bubble shrinks and disappears
Ex: for float glass: secondary fining occurs at

about 1350-1275°C
Fining agents
• Depending on the type of glass produced, the temperatures involved

and/or potential limitations on the composition of the glass, different
fining agents may be emloyed
• The most commonly used fining agents include:

 Sodium sulfate (with/without cokes)
 Arsenic oxide
 Antimony oxide
 Tin oxide
 Sodium chloride
Sodium sulfate – Na2SO4
• 90 mass-% of world’s glass production uses sulfate raw materials

in the batch
• Sodium sulfate is used especially for fining of:
 container glass
 float glass
 E-glass for continuous filament fibres (textile, reinforcement)
 some technical glasses
 soda-lime-silica tableware glasses
 soda-lime-silica glass tubes
 C-glass for insulation glass wool (here fining is not essential)
• The fining onset temperature for sodium sulfate will depend on the
redox state of the glass melt
• NB: Na2SO4 also helps improving melting kinetics (in the primary
melting phases it will reduce the surface tension of these phases)
Sodium sulfate in oxidized melts
• In oxidized melts, thermal sulfate decomposition is often the main

sulfate fining mechanism:
Na2SO4 (molten glass)  Na2O (melt) + SO2 (g) + ½O2 (g)
This reaction takes place at temperatures of 1430-1480°C

(fining onset temperature)
• Sodium sulfate can also react with the sand particles:

Na2SO4 + nSiO2 (sand)  Na2O·(SiO2)n+ SO2(g) +1/2 O2(g)
This reaction is generally not observed below 1100oC
Sodium sulfate in reduced melts
• Some sulfate reacts with reducing agents in batch (cokes or oganic

contamination, i.e. carbon). Examples of reactions:
 2 C + Na2SO4 → 2 CO + Na2S
formation of sulfides S2-
 4 CO + Na2SO4 → 4 CO2 + Na2S around 700-800°C
 4C + Na2SO4 → 4 CO + Na2S
• Then, sulfate-sulfide reactions occur in the temperature interval

1140-1350°C (one example below, but other reactions are also
possible)
xNa2S + yNa2SO4 + pSiO2  (Na2O)(x+y)·(SiO2)p+ (x+y) SO2 + [(y-3x)/2] O2
Sodium sulfate in reduced melts
• Sulfates can also react directly with the reducing agent

 C + 2Na2SO4 + mSiO2 → CO2 + 2 SO2 + (Na2O)2.(SiO2)m
 CO + Na2SO4 + nSiO2 → CO2 + SO2 + (Na2O).(SiO2)n
These reactions occur in the temperature interval 900-1100°C
 For sulfate fining, the control of the redox is of utmost important.

 The optimal fining range depends on the glass produced and
can be optimized (to a certain extent) by controlling the redox
(addition of oxidizing or reducing agents)
 Organic contaminations may lead to fluctuations on the fining range,
and thus to defects (bubbles, seeds) in the final product
Gas evolution for an oxidized batch with sulfates
10 1000
CO2
Concentration CO, O 2 & SO 2

Concentration CO 2 in purge
CO Thermal sulfate
in purge gas [vol ppm]

8
decomposition 800
SO2
O2
gas [vol%]
6 Reaction of sulfide 600

and sulfate
4 400
2 200
0 0
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Temperature [°C]
Gas evolution for an reduced batch with sulfates
Na 2S  3Na 2SO4  nSiO2 
10 (Na 2O) 4  (SiO2 )n  4SO2 1000
CO2
Concentration CO & SO 2 in
Concentration CO 2 in purge
CO
8 800
purge gas [vol ppm]

SO2
gas [vol%]
6 Direct reaction 600

sulfate with
reducing
4 400
component
2 200
0 0
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Temperature [°C]
Arsenic oxide – As2O3
• Arsenic oxide is an important fining agent up to a temperature of

1400 - 1500oC for glasses being melted under strongly oxidizing
conditions
• Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) is added in combination with oxidants,
e.g. nitrates (NaNO3) to convert trivalent arsenic into pentavalent
arsenic which will be dissolved into the melt as As2O5
5As2O3 + 4NaNO3  5As2O5 + 2Na2O + 2N2
• Arsenates (arsenic in 5+ valence state) can also be used

• During fining, in the molten glass, at temperatures exceeding
1250oC, oxygen gas starts to be formed, creating arsenic (III) oxide:
As2O5  As2O3 + O2(g) (oxygen fining gas)
Antimony oxide – Sb2O3
• Similar to arsenic oxide, this component is also applied together

with an oxidant.
• The fining mechanism is similar to the action of arsenic oxide:
Sb2O5  Sb2O3 + O2 (g)
Thus, also here, similar as for arsenic fining, oxygen is the fining gas.
Reduction of antimony and arsenic oxide as a function of the
temperature in a glass melt in equilibrium with air
Sb3+/Sbtotal
concentration ratio
As3+/Astotal
concentration ratio
o
Temperature in C
Tin oxide – SnO2
• For alkali free glasses, such as LCD display glass products, with
high melting temperatures, other fining agents are required than
arsenic oxides or antimony oxides.
• The fining gas formation reaction (oxygen gas) is:

SnO2  SnO + 1/2O2 (gas)
• Nitrates are generally applied to keep the tin valence in the 4+ state
during melting
Oxygen release is observed between 1500-1630oC
Halogenides (Sodium Chloride NaCl)
• For glass types, which can only be melted at relatively high

temperatures (like some borosilicate glasses), the application of
sodium sulfate is less effective, because fining gases are released
at temperatures where the viscosity of the glass melt still is too high
• In such situations often NaCl is used as a fining agent. Addition of
halogenide salts (NaCl, NaBr, NaI, KCl, KBr, KI) to a raw material
batch will lead to limited solubility of these salts in the molten glass
obtained
• The fining temperature will depend on the type of glass and the
amount of fining agent added
• Important: in NaCl-fined glasses, the emissions of environmentally
hazardous chlorides from the melter in the form of HCl-gas may
cause problems (increased particulates emissions, corrosion of
refractories and/or mold materials)
Sodium Chloride - NaCl
Fining temperature (calculated, Koepsel, 2000) as function of

chloride concentration in the glass (fining onset: pNaCl = 1 bar)
1750
Hard borosilicate
Fining onset temperature in
1700
C (pNaCl = 1 bar)
Neutral borosilicate
1650
Soda-Lime-Silica glass (16 mol%
1600
Na2O, 10 mol% CaO, 74 mol% SiO2)
1550
1500
o
1450
1400
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Mass-% Cl in glass
Bubbles in glass and origin of the bubbles
• In case of high levels of reject caused by large bubbles or
unacceptable large numbers of bubbles/seeds in the glass, it is
important to find to origin/cause of these bubbles.
• Important information is:
 size of bubbles,
 distribution / location of bubbles in the product,
 internal bubble pressure and gas composition.
 base level and type of bubbles during normal production
 sometimes bubbles contain deposits (often very small
droplets of condensation products) that can be observed by
using light microscopy.
• Based on these information (collected on a sufficiently high number
of bubbles analyzed), the origin of the problem can be identified
(requires experienced analysts) and corrected
Conclusions - 1/2
• During industrial glass melting, a multitude of reactions occur to go

from the introduced batch to the molten glass (dehydration, solid-
state reactions, formation of primary molten phases,
decompositions, dissolution of sand grains...)
• Glass melting is an energy intensive process, and effort is put to

reduce the amount of energy required
• The kinetics of glass melting are often determined by the sand

dissolution, which requires a long time
• Optimization of grain size, primary molten phase formation,

increased heat transfer, good convection of the glass melt can help
increase the sand dissolution rate
Conclusions - 2/2
• The reactions involved in glass melting lead to the formation of a

very high amount of bubbles in the melt, which have to be
removed by the fining process
• The fining process can be divided into primary fining (growth and
ascension of bubbles) and secondary fining (refining) (dissolution
of the remaining seeds).
• The fining efficiency will notably depend on the type of fining agent
used and the viscosity of the glass melt at fining temperature
• The choice of fining agent will depend on the desired fining range
(and thus on the type of glass produced)
• Redox plays a major role in the efficiency of the fining process, and
should be carefully controlled
References and further reading
• Book “Introduction to Glass Science and Technology”, J. Shelby (RSC

publishing, 2nd edition 2005)
• Book “Fundamentals of Inorganic Glasses”, A. Varshneya (Elsevier, 1993)
• Glass Technology journals (e.g. European Journal of Glass Science and

Technology)
• NCNG’s Glass Technology course and handbook 2013
• Proceedings of GlassTrend meetings and seminars (www.glasstrend.nl)
• Proceedings of “Glass Problem Conferences” (Wiley, every year)
• Youtube video: Production of Glass Bottles - How it's made
Home assignment
• A multiple choice questionnaire (MCQ) including questions on

industrial glass melting and fining processes is provided with this
lecture
• The MCQ will be available online on IMI’s website
Thank you for your attention
Questions ?
Visit us in Eindhoven
Contact me via email:
mathieu.hubert@celsian.nl

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IMI-NFG Course on Processing in Glass

Lecture 2: Melting and Fining processes in industrial

Mathieu Hubert, PhD

CelSian Glass & Solar

• The batch is introduced in the furnace at high temperature, and the

• The batch-to-melt conversion implies a series of chemical

• This lecture will highlight these different reactions and processes,

1. Melting of the batch

2. Fining of the melt

* This is a schematic representation, but many different furnace designs exist

Melting and sand dissolution Primary Secondary

Sand grain Seedy melt

Refining and Conditioned melt

Relatively fast (~ 1h)

• The melting-in process occurs mainly by reactions within the

Dissolution loose batch

• Melt energy (enthalpy of heating the batch and decomposition

• Melting kinetics / heat transfer

• Takes place at ± 100°C for physically bonded water

• In case of clay in the batch, de-hydration may occur up to 650-

• Dehydration (water evaporation) is very energy intensive, and it is

• Pure silica melts at very high temperature (> 1700°C)

• In standard glasses (except e.g. pure silica glass) sand is

• Sand dissolution is a critical step in industrial melting process

• It is highly dependent on the initial grain size distribution of the

• Sand grains react with other batch components or dissolve in the

Container & Float Medium - - 10 50 75 95 100

Float glass Fine sand - 1 5 70 85 100 100

E-glass & alkali- Coarse 40 70 95 100 100 100 100

E-glass Medium 70 95 99 100 100 100 100

• Solid-state reactions can be divided into two routes: the carbonate

• The silica/silicate route is based on eutectic melting of a mixture

• The degree to which these reactions occur depends on the mutual

 Na2Ca(CO3)2 (melts at ±820oC) (550-850oC)

Na2Ca(CO3)2 +2SiO2  Na2SiO3/CaSiO3 + 2CO2 reaction enhances > 820oC

Na2CO3 + 2SiO2  Na2Si2O5 + CO2 (silica route) (700-860oC)

melt with SiO2

Na2CO3 + SiO2  Na2SiO3 + CO2 (silica route)

• The main part of the limestone or dolomite will decompose above

2 CaCO3 + SiO2  Ca2SiO4 + 2 CO2  (600 - 900C)

2CaO + (SiO2 + Na2O·2SiO2 )eutectic melt  Na2O·2CaO·3SiO2 (> 900oC)

Eutectic melt phases are formed above ±800-840oC

The melting points of the meta-silicate Na2SiO3 and of the di-silicate

In combination with calcium oxide, an even lower (ternary) eutectic

• Decomposition reactions of (Ca- and Mg-) carbonates:

CaCO3 + heat  CaO + CO2↑ (910oC at pressure 1 bar)

MgCO3 + heat  MgO + CO2↑ (540oC at pressure of 1 bar)

MgCO3·CaCO3 + heat  MgO + CaCO3 + CO2↑ (650oC, 1 bar)

MgO still present up to 1150oC.

• During these initial (melting) reactions in most batches, much CO2-

• About 14 - 20 % of the mass of normal soda-lime-silica batches

• Besides CO2-gas, the melting loss consists of water vapor (several

Dissolution of SiO2, CaO,

solid state reactions

volatilisation of water / de-hydratation

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

The quantity of required energy (excluding energy losses) is

• Heating of from ambient T of batch till first reactions: H1