QUANTITATIVE ECONOMICS With Python PDF

QUANTITATIVE ECONOMICS with Python
Thomas Sargent and John Stachurski
January 26, 2016

2
T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

CONTENTS
1 Programming in Python 7
1.1 About Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Setting up Your Python Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3 An Introductory Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4 Python Essentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.5 Object Oriented Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.6 How it Works: Data, Variables and Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
1.7 More Language Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
1.8 NumPy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
1.9 SciPy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
1.10 Matplotlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
1.11 Pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
1.12 IPython Shell and Notebook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
1.13 The Need for Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2 Introductory Applications 181

2.1 Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
2.2 Finite Markov Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
2.3 Shortest Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
2.4 Schelling’s Segregation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
2.5 LLN and CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
2.6 Linear State Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
2.7 A Lake Model of Employment and Unemployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
2.8 A First Look at the Kalman Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
2.9 Uncertainty Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
2.10 A Simple Optimal Growth Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
2.11 Optimal Growth Part II: Adding Some Bling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
2.12 LQ Dynamic Programming Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
2.13 Discrete Dynamic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
2.14 Rational Expectations Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
2.15 Markov Perfect Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
2.16 Markov Asset Pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
2.17 The Permanent Income Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
3 Advanced Applications 409
3
3.1 Continuous State Markov Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
3.2 The Lucas Asset Pricing Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
3.3 The Aiyagari Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
3.4 Modeling Career Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
3.5 On-the-Job Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
3.6 Search with Offer Distribution Unknown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
3.7 Optimal Savings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
3.8 Covariance Stationary Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
3.9 Estimation of Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
3.10 Robustness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
3.11 Dynamic Stackelberg Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
3.12 Optimal Taxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
3.13 History Dependent Public Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
3.14 Optimal Taxation with State-Contingent Debt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
3.15 Optimal Taxation without State-Contingent Debt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
3.16 Default Risk and Income Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
4 Solutions 653
5 FAQs / Useful Resources 655

5.1 FAQs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
5.2 How do I install Python? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
5.3 How do I start Python? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
5.4 How can I get help on a Python command? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
5.5 Where do I get all the Python programs from the lectures? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
5.6 What’s Git? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
5.7 Other Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
5.8 IPython Magics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
5.9 IPython Cell Magics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
5.10 Useful Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
References 659
CONTENTS 5
Note: You are currently viewing an automatically generated PDF version of our on-
line lectures, which are located at
http://quant-econ.net
Please visit the website for more information on the aims and scope of the lectures
and the two language options (Julia or Python). This PDF is generated from a set of
source files that are oriented towards the website and to HTML output. As a result, the
presentation quality can be less consistent than the website.

CONTENTS 6

CHAPTER
ONE
PROGRAMMING IN PYTHON
This first part of the course provides a relatively fast-paced introduction to the Python program-
ming language
1.1 About Python
Contents
• About Python
– Overview
– What’s Python?
– Scientific Programming
– Learn More
Overview
In this lecture we will

• Outline what Python is
• Showcase some of its abilities
• Compare it to some other languages
When we show you Python code, it is not our intention that you seek to follow all the details, or
try to replicate all you see
We will work through all of the Python material step by step later in the lecture series
Our only objective for this lecture is to give you some feel of what Python is, and what it can do
What’s Python?
Python is a general purpose programming language conceived in 1989 by Dutch programmer

Guido van Rossum
7
1.1. ABOUT PYTHON 8
Python is free and open source

Community-based development of the core language is coordinated through the Python Software
Foundation
Python is supported by a vast collection of standard and external software libraries
Python has experienced rapid adoption in the last decade, and is now one of the most popular
programming languages
This alternative index gives some indication of the trend
Common Uses Python is a general purpose language used in almost all application domains
• communications
• web development
• CGI and graphical user interfaces
• games
• multimedia, data processing, security, etc., etc., etc.
Used extensively by Internet service and high tech companies such as
• Google
• Dropbox
• Reddit
• YouTube

1.1. ABOUT PYTHON 9
• Walt Disney Animation, etc., etc.

Often used to teach computer science and programming
For reasons we will discuss, Python is particularly popular within the scientific community
• academia, NASA, CERN, Wall St., etc., etc.
We’ll discuss this more below
Features
• A high level language suitable for rapid development
• Relatively small core language supported by many libraries
• A multiparadigm language, in that multiple programming styles are supported (procedural,
object-oriented, functional, etc.)
• Interpreted rather than compiled
Syntax and Design One nice feature of Python is its elegant syntax — we’ll see many examples
later on
Elegant code might sound superfluous but in fact it’s highly beneficial because it makes the syntax
easy to read and easy to remember
Remembering how to read from files, sort dictionaries and other such routine tasks means that
you don’t need to break your flow of thought in order to hunt down correct syntax on the Internet
Closely related to elegant syntax is elegant design
Features like iterators, generators, decorators, list comprehensions, etc. make Python highly ex-
pressive, allowing you to get more done with less code
Namespaces improve productivity by cutting down on bugs and syntax errors
Scientific Programming
Over the last decade, Python has become one of the core languages of scientific computing
It’s now either the dominant player or a major player in
• Machine learning and data science
• Astronomy
• Artificial intelligence
• Chemistry
• Computational biology
• Meteorology
• etc., etc.

1.1. ABOUT PYTHON 10
This section briefly showcases some examples of Python for scientific programming
• All of these topics will be covered in detail later on
Numerical programming Fundamental matrix and array processing capabilities are provided
by the excellent NumPy library
NumPy provides the basic array data type plus some simple processing operations
For example
In [1]: import numpy as np # Load the library
In [2]: a = np.linspace(-np.pi, np.pi, 100) # Create array (even grid from -pi to pi)
In [3]: b = np.cos(a) # Apply cosine to each element of a
In [4]: c = np.ones(25) # An array of 25 ones
In [5]: np.dot(c, c) # Compute inner product

Out[5]: 25.0
The SciPy library is built on top of NumPy and provides additional functionality For example,
R2
let’s calculate −2 φ(z)dz where φ is the standard normal density
In [5]: from scipy.stats import norm
In [6]: from scipy.integrate import quad
In [7]: phi = norm()
In [8]: value, error = quad(phi.pdf, -2, 2) # Integrate using Gaussian quadrature
In [9]: value
Out[9]: 0.9544997361036417
SciPy includes many of the standard routines used in

• linear algebra
• integration
• interpolation
• optimization
• distributions and random number generation
• signal processing
• etc., etc.
Graphics The most popular and comprehensive Python library for creating figures and graphs
is Matplotlib

• Plots, histograms, contour images, 3D, bar charts, etc., etc.

• Output in many formats (PDF, PNG, EPS, etc.)
• LaTeX integration
Example 2D plot with embedded LaTeX annotations
Example contour plot

Example 3D plot
More examples can be found in the Matplotlib thumbnail gallery
Other graphics libraries include
• Plotly
• Bokeh
• VPython — 3D graphics and animations
Symbolic Algebra It’s useful to be able to manipulate symbolic expressions, as in Mathematica

or Maple
The SymPy library provides this functionality from within the Python shell
In [10]: from sympy import Symbol
In [11]: x, y = Symbol('x'), Symbol('y') # Treat 'x' and 'y' as algebraic symbols
In [12]: x + x + x + y
Out[12]: 3*x + y


We can manipulate expressions

In [13]: expression = (x + y)**2
In [14]: expression.expand()
Out[14]: x**2 + 2*x*y + y**2
solve polynomials
In [15]: from sympy import solve
In [16]: solve(x**2 + x + 2)
Out[16]: [-1/2 - sqrt(7)*I/2, -1/2 + sqrt(7)*I/2]
and calculate limits, derivatives and integrals

In [17]: from sympy import limit, sin, diff
In [18]: limit(1 / x, x, 0)
Out[18]: oo
In [19]: limit(sin(x) / x, x, 0)
Out[19]: 1
In [20]: diff(sin(x), x)
Out[20]: cos(x)
The beauty of importing this functionality into Python is that we are working within a fully
fledged programming language
Can easily create tables of derivatives, generate LaTeX output, add it to figures, etc., etc.
Statistics Python’s data manipulation and statistics libraries have improved rapidly over the last
few years
Pandas One of the most popular libraries for working with data is pandas
Pandas is fast, efficient, flexible and well designed
Here’s a simple example
In [21]: import pandas as pd
In [22]: import scipy as sp
In [23]: data = sp.randn(5, 2) # Create 5x2 matrix of random numbers for toy example
In [24]: dates = pd.date_range('28/12/2010', periods=5)
In [25]: df = pd.DataFrame(data, columns=('price', 'weight'), index=dates)
In [26]: print(df)
price weight

2010-12-28 0.007255 1.129998

2010-12-29 -0.120587 -1.374846
2010-12-30 1.089384 0.612785
2010-12-31 0.257478 0.102297
2011-01-01 -0.350447 1.254644
In [27]: df.mean()
out[27]:
price 0.176616
weight 0.344975
Other Useful Statistics Libraries

• statsmodels — various statistical routines
• scikit-learn — machine learning in Python (sponsored by Google, among others)
• pyMC — for Bayesian data analysis
• pystan Bayesian analysis based on stan
Networks and Graphs Python has many libraries for studying graphs
One well-known example is NetworkX
• Standard graph algorithms for analyzing network structure, etc.
• Plotting routines
• etc., etc.
Here’s some example code that generates and plots a random graph, with node color determined
by shortest path length from a central node
"""
Filename: nx_demo.py
Authors: John Stachurski and Thomas J. Sargent
"""
import networkx as nx
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np
G = nx.random_geometric_graph(200, 0.12) # Generate random graph

pos = nx.get_node_attributes(G, 'pos') # Get positions of nodes
# find node nearest the center point (0.5,0.5)
dists = [(x - 0.5)**2 + (y - 0.5)**2 for x, y in list(pos.values())]
ncenter = np.argmin(dists)
# Plot graph, coloring by path length from central node
p = nx.single_source_shortest_path_length(G, ncenter)
plt.figure()
nx.draw_networkx_edges(G, pos, alpha=0.4)
nx.draw_networkx_nodes(G, pos, nodelist=list(p.keys()),
node_size=120, alpha=0.5,

node_color=list(p.values()), cmap=plt.cm.jet_r)
plt.show()
The figure it produces looks as follows
Cloud Computing Running your Python code on massive servers in the cloud is becoming eas-
ier and easier
A nice example is Wakari
See also
• Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud
• The Google App Engine (Python, Java, PHP or Go)
• Pythonanywhere
• Sagemath Cloud
Parallel Processing Apart from the cloud computing options listed above, you might like to
consider
• Parallel computing through IPython clusters
• The Starcluster interface to Amazon’s EC2
• GPU programming through PyCuda, PyOpenCL, Theano or similar

1.2. SETTING UP YOUR PYTHON ENVIRONMENT 16
Other Developments There are many other interesting developments with scientific program-
ming in Python
Some representative examples include
• Jupyter — Python in your browser with code cells, embedded images, etc.
• Numba — Make Python run at the same speed as native machine code!
• Blaze — a generalization of NumPy
• PyTables — manage large data sets
• CVXPY — convex optimization in Python
Learn More
• Browse some Python projects on GitHub

• Have a look at some of the Jupyter notebooks people have shared on various scientific topics
• Visit the Python Package Index
• View some of the question people are asking about Python on Stackoverflow
• Keep up to date on what’s happening in the Python community with the Python subreddit
1.2 Setting up Your Python Environment
Contents
• Setting up Your Python Environment
– Overview
– First Steps
– Jupyter
– Additional Software
– Alternatives
– Exercises
Overview
This lecture is intended to be the first step on your Python journey

In it you will learn how to
1. get a Python environment up and running with all the necessary tools
2. execute simple Python commands
3. run a sample program

4. install the Python programs that underpin these lectures
Warning: The core Python package is easy to install, but not what you should choose for these
lectures. The reason is that these lectures require the entire scientific programming ecosystem,
which the core installation doesn’t provide. Please read the following carefully.
First Steps
By far the best approach for our purposes is to install one of the free Python distributions that
contains
1. the core Python language and
2. the most popular scientific libraries
While there are several such distributions, we highly recommend Anaconda
Anaconda is
• very popular
• cross platform
• comprehensive
• completely unrelated to the Nicki Minaj song of the same name
Anaconda also comes with a great package management system to organize your code libraries
All of what follows assumes that you adopt this recommendation!
Installing Anaconda Installing Anaconda is straightforward: download the binary and follow
the instructions
Important points:
• Install the latest version, which is currently Python 3.5
• If you are asked during the installation process whether you’d like to make Anaconda your
default Python installation, say yes
• Otherwise you can accept all of the defaults
What if you have an older version of Anaconda?
For most scientific programmers, the best thing you can do is uninstall (see, e.g., these instructions)
and then install the newest version
Package Management The packages in Anaconda contain the various scientific libraries used in
day to day scientific programming
Anaconda supplies a great tool called conda to keep your packages organized and up to date

One conda command you should execute regularly is the one that updates the whole Anaconda
distribution
As a practice run, please execute the following
1. Open up a terminal
• If you don’t know what a terminal is
– For Mac users, see this guide
– For Windows users, search for the cmd application or see this guide
– Linux users – you already know what a terminal is
2. Type conda update anaconda
(If you’ve already installed Anaconda and it was a little while ago, please make sure you execute
this step)
Another useful command is conda info, which tells you about your installation
For more information on conda
• type conda help in a terminal
• read the documentation online
Get a Modern Browser We’ll be using your browser to interact with Python, so now might be a
good time to
1. update your browser, or
2. install a free modern browser such as Chrome or Firefox
Once you’ve done that we can start having fun
Jupyter
Jupyter notebooks are one of the many possible ways to interact with Python and the scientific
Python stack
• Later we’ll look at others
Jupyter notebooks provide a browser-based interface to Python with
• The ability to write and execute Python commands directly in your browser
• Formatted output also in the browser, including tables, figures, animation, etc.
• The ability to mix in formatted text and mathematical expressions between cells
While Jupyter isn’t always the best way to code in Python, it is a great place to start off
Jupyter is also a powerful tool for orgainizing and communicating scientific ideas
In fact Jupyter is fast turning into a major player in scientific computing

• for a slightly over-hyped review, see this article

• for an example use case in the private sector see Microsoft’s Azure ML Studio
• For more examples of notebooks see the NB viewer site
Starting the Jupyter Notebook To start the Jupyter notebook, open up a terminal (cmd for Win-
dows) and type jupyter notebook
Here’s an example (click to enlarge)
The output tells us the notebook is running at http://localhost:8888/

• localhost is the name of the local machine
• 8888 refers to port number 8888 on your computer
Thus, the Jupyter kernel is listening for Python commands on port 8888 of our local machine
Hopefully your default browser has also opened up with a web page that looks something like
this (click to enlarge)
What you see here is called the Jupyter dashboard
If you look at the URL at the top, it should be localhost:8888 or similar, matching the message
above
Assuming all this has worked OK, you can now click on New at top right and select Python 3 or
similar
Here’s what shows up on our machine:
The notebook displays an active cell, into which you can type Python commands
Notebook Basics Let’s start with how to edit code and run simple programs


Running Cells Notice that in the previous figure the cell is surrounded by a green border
This means that the cell is in edit mode
As a result, you can type in Python code and it will appear in the cell
When you’re ready to execute the code in a cell, hit Shift-Enter instead of the usual Enter
(Note: There are also menu and button options for running code in a cell that you can find by
exploring)
Modal Editing The next thing to understand about the Jupyter notebook is that it uses a modal
editing system
This means that the effect of typing at the keyboard depends on which mode you are in
The two modes are
1. Edit mode
• Indicated by a green border around one cell
• Whatever you type appears as is in that cell
2. Command mode
• The green border is replaced by a grey border
• Key strokes are interpreted as commands — for example, typing b adds a new cell
below the current one
• To switch to command mode from edit mode, hit the Esc key or Ctrl-M

• To switch to edit mode from command mode, hit Enter or click in a cell
The modal behavior of the IPython notebook is a little tricky at first but very efficient when you
get used to it
A Test Program Let’s run a test program

Here’s an arbitrary program we can use: http://matplotlib.org/1.4.1/examples/pie_and_polar_charts/polar_bar
On that page you’ll see the following code
import numpy as np
N = 20
theta = np.linspace(0.0, 2 * np.pi, N, endpoint=False)
radii = 10 * np.random.rand(N)
width = np.pi / 4 * np.random.rand(N)
ax = plt.subplot(111, polar=True)
bars = ax.bar(theta, radii, width=width, bottom=0.0)
# Use custom colors and opacity

for r, bar in zip(radii, bars):
bar.set_facecolor(plt.cm.jet(r / 10.))
bar.set_alpha(0.5)
plt.show()
Don’t worry about the details for now — let’s just run it and see what happens
The easiest way to run this code is to copy and paste into a cell in the notebook, like so
Now Shift-Enter and a figure should appear looking a bit like this


Notes:
• The details of your figure will be different because the data is random
• The figure might be hidden behind your browser — have a look around your desktop
In-line Figures One nice thing about Jupyter notebooks is that figures can also be displayed
inside the page
To achieve this effect, use the matplotlib inline magic
Here we’ve done this by prepending %matplotlib inline to the cell and executing it again (click
to enlarge)
Working with the Notebook Let’s run through a few more notebook essentials
Tab Completion One nice feature of Jupyter is tab completion

For example, in the previous program we executed the line import numpy as np
• NumPy is a numerical library we’ll work with in depth
After this import command, functions in NumPy can be accessed with np.<function_name> type
syntax
• For example, try np.random.randn(3)

We can explore this attributes of np using the Tab key

For example, here we type np.ran and hit Tab (click to enlarge)
Jupyter offers up the two possible completions, random and rank

In this way, the Tab key helps remind you of what’s available, and also saves you typing
On-Line Help To get help on np.rank, say, we can execute np.rank?

Documentation appears in a split window of the browser, like so
Clicking in the top right of the lower split closes the on-line help
Other Content In addition to executing code, the Jupyter notebook allows you to embed text,
equations, figures and even videos in the page
For example, here we enter a mixture of plain text and LaTeX instead of code
Next we Esc to enter command mode and then type m to indicate that we are writing Markdown,
a mark-up language similar to (but simpler than) LaTeX
(You can also use your mouse to select Markdown from the Code drop-down box just below the list
of menu items)
Now we Shift+Enter to produce this


Sharing Notebooks A notebook can easily be saved and shared between users
Notebook files are just text files structured in JSON and typically ending with .ipynb
For example, try downloading the notebook we just created by clicking here
Save it somewhere you can navigate to easily
Now you can import it from the dashboard (the first browser page that opens when you start
Jupyter notebook) and run the cells or edit as discussed above
You can also share your notebooks using nbviewer
The notebooks you see there are static html representations
To run one, download it as an ipynb file by clicking on the download icon at the top right of its
page
Once downloaded you can open it as a notebook, as discussed just above
Additional Software
There are some other bits and pieces we need to know about before we can proceed with the
lectures
QuantEcon In these lectures we’ll make extensive use of code from the QuantEcon organization
On the Python side we’ll be using the QuantEcon.py version

The code in QuantEcon.py has been organized into a Python package

• A Python package is a software library that has been bundled for distribution
• Hosted Python packages can be found through channels like Anaconda and PyPi
– The PyPi version of QuantEcon.py is here
Installing QuantEcon.py You can install QuantEcon.py by typing the following into a terminal
(terminal on Mac, cmd on Windows, etc.)
pip install quantecon
More instructions on installing and keeping your code up to date can be found at QuantEcon
Other Files In addition to QuantEcon.py, which contains algorithms, QuantEcon.applications

contains example programs, solutions to exercises and so on
You can download these files individually by navigating to the GitHub page for the individual file
For example, see here for a file that illustrates eigenvectors
If you like you can then click the Raw button to get a plain text version of the program
However, what you probably want to do is get a copy of the entire repository
Obtaining the GitHub Repo One way to do this is to download the zip file by clicking the
“Download ZIP” button on the main page
(Remember where you unzip the directory, and make it somewhere you can find it easily)
There is another, better way to get a copy of the repo, using a program called Git
We’ll investigate how to do this in Exercise 2
Working with Python Files How does one run a locally saved Python file using the notebook?
Method 1: Copy and Paste Copy and paste isn’t the slickest way to run programs but sometimes
it gets the job done
One option is
1. Navigate to your file with your mouse / trackpad using a file browser
2. Click on your file to open it with a text editor
• e.g., Notepad, TextEdit, TextMate, depending on your OS
3. Copy and paste into a cell and Shift-Enter

Method 2: Run Using the run command is usually faster and easier than copy and paste
• For example, run test.py will run the file test.py
Warning:
• Jupyter only looks for test.py in the present working directory (PWD)
• If test.py isn’t in that directory, you will get an error
Let’s look at a successful example, where we run a file test.py with contents:
for i in range(5):
print('foobar')
Here’s the notebook (click to enlarge)
Here
• pwd asks Jupyter to show the PWD
– This is where Jupyter is going to look for files to run
– Your output will look a bit different depending on your OS
• ls asks Jupyter to list files in the PWD
– Note that test.py is there (on our computer, because we saved it there earlier)
• cat test.py asks Jupyter to print the contents of test.py
• run test.py runs the file and prints any output

But file X isn’t in my PWD! If you’re trying to run a file not in the present working director,
you’ll get an error
To fix this error you need to either
1. Shift the file into the PWD, or
2. Change the PWD to where the file lives
One way to achieve the first option is to use the Upload button
• The button is on the top level dashboard, where Jupyter first opened to
• Look where the pointer is in this picture
The second option can be achieved using the cd command

• On Windows it might look like this cd C:/Python27/Scripts/dir
• On Linux / OSX it might look like this cd /home/user/scripts/dir
As an exercise, let’s try running the file white_noise_plot.py
In the figure below, we’re working on a Linux machine, and the repo is stored locally in
sync_dir/books/quant-econ/QuantEcon.applications/getting_started
Note: You can type the first letter or two of each directory name and then use the tab key to expand
Loading Files It’s often convenient to be able to see your code before you run it
For this purpose we can replace run white_noise_plot.py with load white_noise_plot.py
Now the code from the file appears in a cell ready to execute
Savings Files To save the contents of a cell as file foo.py

• put %%file foo.py as the first line of the cell
• Shift+Enter
Here %%file is an example of an IPython cell magic


Alternatives
The preceding discussion covers most of what you need to know to write and run Python code
However, as you start to write longer programs, you might want to experiment with your work-
flow
There are many different options and we cover only a few
Text Editors A text editor is an application that is specifically designed to work with text files —
such as Python programs
Nothing beats the power and efficiency of a good text editor for working with program text
A good text editor will provide
• efficient text editing commands (e.g., copy, paste, search and replace)
• syntax highlighting, etc.
Among the most popular are Sublime Text and Atom
For a top quality open source text editor with a steeper learning curve, try Emacs
If you want an outstanding free text editor and don’t mind a seemingly vertical learning curve
plus long days of pain and suffering while all your neural pathways are rewired, try Vim
Text Editors Plus IPython Shell A text editor is for writing programs
To run them you can continue to use Jupyter as described above
Another option is to use the excellent IPython shell
To use an IPython shell, open up a terminal and type ipython
You should see something like this
The IPython shell has many of the features of the notebook: tab completion, color syntax, etc.
It also has command history through the arrow key
The up arrow key to brings previously typed commands to the prompt
This saves a lot of typing...
Here’s one set up, on a Linux box, with
• a file being edited in Vim
• An IPython shell next to it, to run the file
Exercises
Exercise 1 If Jupyter is still running, quit by using Ctrl-C at the terminal where you started it
Now launch again, but this time using jupyter notebook --no-browser


This should start the kernel without launching the browser

Note also the startup message: It should give you a URL such as http://localhost:8888 where
the notebook is running
Now
1. Start your browser — or open a new tab if it’s already running
2. Enter the URL from above (e.g. http://localhost:8888) in the address bar at the top
You should now be able to run a standard Jupyter notebook session
This is an alternative way to start the notebook that can also be handy
Exercise 2
Getting the Repo with Git Git is a version control system — a piece of software used to manage
digital projects such as code libraries
In many cases the associated collections of files — called repositories — are stored on GitHub
GitHub is a wonderland of collaborative coding projects
For example, it hosts many of the scientific libraries we’ll be using later on, such as this one
Git is the underlying software used to manage these projects
Git is an extremely powerful tool for distributed collaboration — for example, we use it to share
and synchronize all the source files for these lectures
There are two main flavors of Git
1. the plain vanilla command line Git version
2. the various point-and-click GUI versions
• See, for example, the GitHub version
As an exercise, try
1. Installing Git
2. Getting a copy of QuantEcon.applications using Git
For example, if you’ve installed the command line version, open up a terminal and enter
git clone https://github.com/QuantEcon/QuantEcon.applications
(This is just git clone in front of the URL for the repository)
Even better,
1. Sign up to GitHub
2. Look into ‘forking’ GitHub repositories (forking means making your own copy of a GitHub
repository, stored on GitHub)

1.3. AN INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE 35
3. Fork QuantEcon.applications
4. Clone your fork to some local directory, make edits, commit them, and push them back up
to your forked GitHub repo
For reading on these and other topics, try
• The official Git documentation
• Reading through the docs on GitHub
• Pro Git Book by Scott Chacon and Ben Straub
• One of the thousands of Git tutorials on the Net
1.3 An Introductory Example
Contents
• An Introductory Example
– Overview
– First Example: Plotting a White Noise Process
– Exercises
– Solutions
We’re now ready to start learning the Python language itself, and the next few lectures are devoted
to this task
Our approach is aimed at those who already have at least some knowledge of fundamental pro-
gramming concepts, such as
• variables
• for loops, while loops
• conditionals (if/else)
Don’t give up if you have no programming experience—you are not excluded
You just need to cover some of the fundamentals of programming before returning here
One good references for first time programmers the first 5 or 6 chapters of How to Think Like a
Computer Scientist
Overview
In this lecture we will write and then pick apart small Python programs
The objective is to introduce you to basic Python syntax and data structures
Deeper concepts—how things work—will be covered in later lectures

In reading the following, you should be conscious of the fact that all “first programs” are to some
extent contrived
We try to avoid this, but nonetheless
• Be aware that the programs are written to illustrate certain concepts
• Soon you will be writing the same programs in a rather different—and more efficient—way
In particular, the scientific libraries will allow us to accomplish the same things faster and more
efficiently, once we know how to use them
However, you also need to learn pure Python, the core language
This is the objective of the present lecture, and the next few lectures too
Prerequisites: The lecture on getting started with Python
First Example: Plotting a White Noise Process
To begin, suppose we want to simulate and plot the white noise process e0 , e1 , . . . , eT , where each
draw et is independent standard normal
In other words, we want to generate figures that look something like this:
A program that accomplishes what we want can be found in the file test_program_1.py from the
applications repository
Let’s repeat it here:

1 from random import normalvariate

2 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
3 ts_length = 100
4 epsilon_values = [] # An empty list
5 for i in range(ts_length):
6 e = normalvariate(0, 1)
7 epsilon_values.append(e)
8 plt.plot(epsilon_values, 'b-')
9 plt.show()
In brief,
• Lines 1–2 use the Python import keyword to pull in functionality from external libraries
• Line 3 sets the desired length of the time series
• Line 4 creates an empty list called epsilon_values that will store the et values as we generate
them
• Line 5 tells the Python interpreter that it should cycle through the block of indented lines
(lines 6–7) ts_length times before continuing to line 8
– Lines 6–7 draw a new value et and append it to the end of the list epsilon_values
• Lines 8–9 generate the plot and display it to the user
Let’s now break this down and see how the different parts work
Import Statements First we’ll look at how to import functionality from outside your program,
as in lines 1–2
Modules Consider the line from random import normalvariate

Here random is a module, which is just a file containing Python code
The statement from random import normalvariate causes the Python interpreter to
• run the code in a file called random.py that was placed in your filesystem when you installed
Python
• make the function normalvariate defined in that file available for use in your program
If you want to import more attributes you can use a comma separated list, like so:
In [4]: from random import normalvariate, uniform
In [5]: normalvariate(0, 1)
Out[5]: -0.38430990243287594
In [6]: uniform(-1, 1)
Out[6]: 0.5492316853602877
Alternatively, you can use the following syntax:

In [1]: import random
In [2]: random.normalvariate(0, 1)
Out[2]: -0.12451500570438317
In [3]: random.uniform(-1, 1)
Out[3]: 0.35121616197003336
After importing the module itself, we can access anything defined within via
module_name.attribute_name syntax
Packages Now consider the line import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

Here matplotlib is a Python package, and pyplot is a subpackage of matplotlib
Packages are used by developers to organize a number of related Python files (modules)
A package is just a directory containing
1. modules
2. a file called __init__.py that specifies what code will be run when we type import pack-
age_name
Subpackages are the same, except that they are subdirectories of a package directory
So import matplotlib.pyplot as plt runs the __init__.py file in the directory matplotlib/pyplot and makes
the attributes specified in that file available to us
The keyword as in import matplotlib.pyplot as plt just lets us access these attributes via as simpler
name
Lists Next let’s consider the statement epsilon_values = [], which creates an empty list
Lists are a native Python data structure used to group a collection of objects. For example
In [7]: x = [10, 'foo', False] # We can include heterogeneous data inside a list
In [8]: type(x)
Out[8]: list
Here the first element of x is an integer, the next is a string and the third is a Boolean value
When adding a value to a list, we can use the syntax list_name.append(some_value)
In [9]: x
Out[9]: [10, 'foo', False]
In [10]: x.append(2.5)
In [11]: x
Out[11]: [10, 'foo', False, 2.5]

Here append() is what’s called a method, which is a function “attached to” an object—in this case,
the list x
We’ll learn all about methods later on, but just to give you some idea,
• Python objects such as lists, strings, etc. all have methods that are used to manipulate the
data contained in the object
• String objects have string methods, list objects have list methods, etc.
Another useful list method is pop()
In [12]: x
Out[12]: [10, 'foo', False, 2.5]
In [13]: x.pop()
Out[13]: 2.5
In [14]: x
The full set of list methods can be found here

Following C, C++, Java, etc., lists in Python are zero based
In [15]: x
In [16]: x[0]
Out[16]: 10
In [17]: x[1]
Out[17]: 'foo'
Returning to test_program_1.py above, we actually create a second list besides epsilon_values

In particular, line 5 calls the range() function, which creates sequential lists of integers
In [18]: range(4)
Out[18]: [0, 1, 2, 3]
In [19]: range(5)
Out[19]: [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
The For Loop Now let’s consider the for loop in test_program_1.py, which we repeat here for
convenience, along with the line that follows it
for i in range(ts_length):
e = normalvariate(0, 1)
epsilon_values.append(e)
plt.plot(epsilon_values, 'b-')
The for loop causes Python to execute the two indented lines a total of ts_length times before
moving on

These two lines are called a code block, since they comprise the “block” of code that we are
looping over
Unlike most other languages, Python knows the extent of the code block only from indentation
In particular, the fact that indentation decreases after line epsilon_values.append(e) tells Python
that this line marks the lower limit of the code block
More on indentation below—for now let’s look at another example of a for loop
animals = ['dog', 'cat', 'bird']
for animal in animals:
print("The plural of " + animal + " is " + animal + "s")
If you put this in a text file or Jupyter cell and run it you will see
The plural of dog is dogs
The plural of cat is cats
The plural of bird is birds
This example helps to clarify how the for loop works: When we execute a loop of the form
for variable_name in sequence:
<code block>
The Python interpreter performs the following:

• For each element of sequence, it “binds” the name variable_name to that element and then
executes the code block
The sequence object can in fact be a very general object, as we’ll see soon enough
Code Blocks and Indentation In discussing the for loop, we explained that the code blocks
being looped over are delimited by indentation
In fact, in Python all code blocks (i.e., those occuring inside loops, if clauses, function definitions,
etc.) are delimited by indentation
Thus, unlike most other languages, whitespace in Python code affects the output of the program
Once you get used to it, this is a good thing: It
• forces clean, consistent indentation, improving readability
• removes clutter, such as the brackets or end statements used in other languages
On the other hand, it takes a bit of care to get right, so please remember:
• The line before the start of a code block always ends in a colon
– for i in range(10):
– if x > y:
– while x < 100:
– etc., etc.

• All lines in a code block must have the same amount of indentation
• The Python standard is 4 spaces, and that’s what you should use
Tabs vs Spaces One small “gotcha” here is the mixing of tabs and spaces, which often leads to
errorss
(Important: Within text files, the internal representation of tabs and spaces is not the same)
You can use your Tab key to insert 4 spaces, but you need to make sure it’s configured to do so
If you are using a Jupyter notebook you will have no problems here
Also, good text editors will allow you to configure the Tab key to insert spaces instead of tabs —
trying searching on line
While Loops The for loop is the most common technique for iteration in Python
But, for the purpose of illustration, let’s modify test_program_1.py to use a while loop instead
In Python, the while loop syntax is as shown in the file test_program_2.py below
3 ts_length = 100
4 epsilon_values = []
5 i = 0
6 while i < ts_length:
9 i = i + 1
10 plt.plot(epsilon_values, 'b-')
11 plt.show()
The output of test_program_2.py is identical to test_program_1.py above (modulo randomness)

Comments:
• The code block for the while loop is lines 7–9, again delimited only by indentation
• The statement i = i + 1 can be replaced by i += 1
User-Defined Functions Now let’s go back to the for loop, but restructure our program to make
the logic clearer
To this end, we will break our program into two parts:
1. A user-defined function that generates a list of random variables
2. The main part of the program that
(a) calls this function to get data
(b) plots the data

This is accomplished in test_program_3.py

3
4
5 def generate_data(n):
7 for i in range(n):
10 return epsilon_values
11
12 data = generate_data(100)
13 plt.plot(data, 'b-')
14 plt.show()
Let’s go over this carefully, in case you’re not familiar with functions and how they work
We have defined a function called generate_data(), where the definition spans lines 4–9
• def on line 4 is a Python keyword used to start function definitions
• def generate_data(n): indicates that the function is called generate_data, and that it has
a single argument n
• Lines 5–9 are a code block called the function body—in this case it creates an iid list of random
draws using the same logic as before
• Line 9 indicates that the list epsilon_values is the object that should be returned to the
calling code
This whole function definition is read by the Python interpreter and stored in memory
When the interpreter gets to the expression generate_data(100) in line 12, it executes the function
body (lines 5–9) with n set equal to 100.
The net result is that the name data on the left-hand side of line 12 is set equal to the list
epsilon_values returned by the function
Conditions Our function generate_data() is rather limited

Let’s make it slightly more useful by giving it the ability to return either standard normals or
uniform random variables on (0, 1) as required
This is achieved in test_program_4.py by adding the argument generator_type to
generate_data()
1 from random import normalvariate, uniform
3
4
5 def generate_data(n, generator_type):

8 if generator_type == 'U':
9 e = uniform(0, 1)
10 else:
14
15 data = generate_data(100, 'U')
17 plt.show()
Comments:
• Hopefully the syntax of the if/else clause is self-explanatory, with indentation again delim-
iting the extent of the code blocks
• We are passing the argument U as a string, which is why we write it as ’U’
• Notice that equality is tested with the == syntax, not =
– For example, the statement a = 10 assigns the name a to the value 10
– The expression a == 10 evaluates to either True or False, depending on the value of a
Now, there are two ways that we can simplify test_program_4
First, Python accepts the following conditional assignment syntax
In [20]: x = -10
In [21]: s = 'negative' if x < 0 else 'nonnegative'
In [22]: s
Out[22]: 'negative'
which leads us to test_program_5.py

1 from random import normalvariate, uniform
3
4
8 e = uniform(0, 1) if generator_type == 'U' else normalvariate(0, 1)
11
12 data = generate_data(100, 'U')

14 plt.show()
Second, and more importantly, we can get rid of the conditionals all together by just passing the
desired generator type as a function
To understand this, consider test_program_6.py

1 from random import uniform

3
4
8 e = generator_type(0, 1)
11
12 data = generate_data(100, uniform)

14 plt.show()
The only lines that have changed here are lines 7 and 11
In line 11, when we call the function generate_data(), we pass uniform as the second argument
The object uniform is in fact a function, defined in the random module
In [23]: from random import uniform
In [24]: uniform(0, 1)
Out[24]: 0.2981045489306786
When the function call generate_data(100, uniform) on line 11 is executed, Python runs the
code block on lines 5–9 with n equal to 100 and the name generator_type “bound” to the function
uniform
• While these lines are executed, the names generator_type and uniform are “synonyms”,
and can be used in identical ways
This principle works more generally—for example, consider the following piece of code
In [25]: max(7, 2, 4) # max() is a built-in Python function
Out[25]: 7
In [26]: m = max
In [27]: m(7, 2, 4)
Out[27]: 7
Here we created another name for the built-in function max(), which could then be used in iden-
tical ways
In the context of our program, the ability to bind new names to functions means that there is no
problem passing a function as an argument to another function—as we do in line 11
List Comprehensions Now is probably a good time to tell you that we can simplify the code for
generating the list of random draws considerably by using something called a list comprehension
List comprehensions are an elegant Python tool for creating lists

Consider the following example, where the list comprehension is on the right-hand side of the
second line
In [28]: animals = ['dog', 'cat', 'bird']
In [29]: plurals = [animal + 's' for animal in animals]
In [30]: plurals
Out[30]: ['dogs', 'cats', 'birds']
Here’s another example

In [31]: range(8)
Out[31]: [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
In [32]: doubles = [2 * x for x in range(8)]
In [33]: doubles
Out[33]: [0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14]
With the list comprehension syntax, we can simplify the lines

epsilon_values = []
for i in range(n):
e = generator_type(0, 1)
epsilon_values.append(e)
into
epsilon_values = [generator_type(0, 1) for i in range(n)]
Using the Scientific Libraries As discussed at the start of the lecture, our example is somewhat
contrived
In practice we would use the scientific libraries, which can generate large arrays of independent
random draws much more efficiently
For example, try
In [34]: from numpy.random import randn
In [35]: epsilon_values = randn(5)
In [36]: epsilon_values
Out[36]: array([-0.15591709, -1.42157676, -0.67383208, -0.45932047, -0.17041278])
We’ll discuss these scientific libraries a bit later on
Exercises
Exercise 1 Recall that n! is read as “n factorial” and defined as n! = n × (n − 1) × · · · × 2 × 1

There are functions to compute this in various modules, but let’s write our own version as an
exercise
In particular, write a function factorial such that factorial(n) returns n! for any positive integer
n
Exercise 2 The binomial random variable Y ∼ Bin(n, p) represents the number of successes in n
binary trials, where each trial succeeds with probability p
Without any import besides from random import uniform, write a function binomial_rv such
that binomial_rv(n, p) generates one draw of Y
Hint: If U is uniform on (0, 1) and p ∈ (0, 1), then the expression U < p evaluates to True with
probability p
Exercise 3 Compute an approximation to π using Monte Carlo. Use no imports besides

from random import uniform
from math import sqrt
Your hints are as follows:

• If U is a bivariate uniform random variable on the unit square (0, 1)2 , then the probability
that U lies in a subset B of (0, 1)2 is equal to the area of B
• If U1 , . . . , Un are iid copies of U, then, as n gets large, the fraction that fall in B converges to
the probability of landing in B
• For a circle, area = pi * radius^2
Exercise 4 Write a program that prints one realization of the following random device:
• Flip an unbiased coin 10 times
• If 3 consecutive heads occur one or more times within this sequence, pay one dollar
• If not, pay nothing
Use no import besides from random import uniform
Exercise 5 Your next task is to simulate and plot the correlated time series
x t +1 = α x t + e t +1 where x0 = 0 and t = 0, . . . , T
The sequence of shocks {et } is assumed to be iid and standard normal

In your solution, restrict your import statements to
from random import normalvariate
Set T = 200 and α = 0.9

Exercise 6 To do the next exercise, you will need to know how to produce a plot legend
The following example should be sufficient to convey the idea
from pylab import plot, show, legend
x = [normalvariate(0, 1) for i in range(100)]

plot(x, 'b-', label="white noise")
legend()
show()
Running it produces a figure like so
Now, starting with your solution to exercise 5, plot three simulated time series, one for each of the
cases α = 0, α = 0.8 and α = 0.98
In particular, you should produce (modulo randomness) a figure that looks as follows
(The figure nicely illustrates how time series with the same one-step-ahead conditional volatilities,
as these three processes have, can have very different unconditional volatilities.)
In your solution, please restrict your import statements to
Also, use a for loop to step through the α values

Important hints:

1.4. PYTHON ESSENTIALS 48
• If you call the plot() function multiple times before calling show(), all of the lines you
produce will end up on the same figure
– And if you omit the argument ’b-’ to the plot function, Matplotlib will automatically
select different colors for each line
• The expression ’foo’ + str(42) evaluates to ’foo42’
Solutions
Solution notebook
1.4 Python Essentials

Contents
• Python Essentials
– Overview
– Data Types
– Imports
– Input and Output
– Iterating
– Comparisons and Logical Operators
– More Functions
– Coding Style and PEP8
– Exercises
– Solutions
In this lecture we’ll cover features of the language that are essential to reading and writing Python
code
Overview
Topics:
• Data types
• Imports
• Basic file I/O
• The Pythonic approach to iteration
• More on user-defined functions
• Comparisons and logic
• Standard Python style
Data Types
So far we’ve briefly met several common data types, such as strings, integers, floats and lists
Let’s learn a bit more about them
Primitive Data Types A particularly simple data type is Boolean values, which can be either
True or False
In [1]: x = True
In [2]: y = 100 < 10 # Python evaluates expression on right and assigns it to y
In [3]: y
Out[3]: False

In [4]: type(y)
Out[4]: bool
In arithmetic expressions, True is converted to 1 and False is converted 0

In [5]: x + y
Out[5]: 1
In [6]: x * y
Out[6]: 0
In [7]: True + True

Out[7]: 2
In [8]: bools = [True, True, False, True] # List of Boolean values
In [9]: sum(bools)
Out[9]: 3
This is called Boolean arithmetic and is very useful in programming

The two most common data types used to represent numbers are integers and floats
In [1]: a, b = 1, 2
In [2]: c, d = 2.5, 10.0
In [3]: type(a)
Out[3]: int
In [4]: type(c)
Out[4]: float
Computers distinguish between the two because, while floats are more informative, interal arith-
metic operations on integers are more straightforward
Warning: Be careful: If you’re still using Python 2.x, division of two integers returns only the
integer part
To clarify:
In [5]: 1 / 2 # Integer division in Python 2.x
Out[5]: 0
In [6]: 1.0 / 2.0 # Floating point division

Out[6]: 0.5
In [7]: 1.0 / 2 # Floating point division

Out[7]: 0.5
If you’re using Python 3.x this is no longer a concern

Complex numbers are another primitive data type in Python

In [10]: x = complex(1, 2)
In [11]: y = complex(2, 1)
In [12]: x * y
Out[12]: 5j
There are several more primitive data types that we’ll introduce as necessary
Containers Python has several basic types for storing collections of (possibly heterogeneous)
data
We have already discussed lists
A related data type is tuples, which are “immutable” lists
In [13]: x = ('a', 'b') # Round brackets instead of the square brackets
In [14]: x = 'a', 'b' # Or no brackets at all---the meaning is identical
In [15]: x
Out[15]: ('a', 'b')
In [16]: type(x)
Out[16]: tuple
In Python, an object is called “immutable” if, once created, the object cannot be changed
Lists are mutable while tuples are not
In [17]: x = [1, 2] # Lists are mutable
In [18]: x[0] = 10 # Now x = [10, 2], so the list has "mutated"
In [19]: x = (1, 2) # Tuples are immutable
In [20]: x[0] = 10 # Trying to mutate them produces an error

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-21-6cb4d74ca096> in <module>()
----> 1 x[0]=10
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
We’ll say more about mutable vs immutable a bit later, and explain why the distinction is impor-
tant
Tuples (and lists) can be “unpacked” as follows
In [21]: integers = (10, 20, 30)
In [22]: x, y, z = integers

In [23]: x
Out[23]: 10
In [24]: y
Out[24]: 20
You’ve actually seen an example of this already

Tuple unpacking is convenient and we’ll use it often
Slice Notation To access multiple elements of a list or tuple, you can use Python’s slice notation
For example,
In [14]: a = [2, 4, 6, 8]
In [15]: a[1:]
Out[15]: [4, 6, 8]
In [16]: a[1:3]
Out[16]: [4, 6]
The general rule is that a[m:n] returns n - m elements, starting at a[m]

Negative numbers are also permissible
In [17]: a[-2:] # Last two elements of the list
Out[17]: [6, 8]
The same slice notation works on tuples and strings

In [19]: s = 'foobar'
In [20]: s[-3:] # Select the last three elements

Out[20]: 'bar'
Sets and Dictionaries Two other container types we should mention before moving on are sets
and dictionaries
Dictionaries are much like lists, except that the items are named instead of numbered
In [25]: d = {'name': 'Frodo', 'age': 33}
In [26]: type(d)
Out[26]: dict
In [27]: d['age']
Out[27]: 33
The names ’name’ and ’age’ are called the keys

The objects that the keys are mapped to (’Frodo’ and 33) are called the values

Sets are unordered collections without duplicates, and set methods provide the usual set theoretic
operations
In [28]: s1 = {'a', 'b'}
In [29]: type(s1)
Out[29]: set
In [30]: s2 = {'b', 'c'}
In [31]: s1.issubset(s2)
Out[31]: False
In [32]: s1.intersection(s2)
Out[32]: set(['b'])
The set() function creates sets from sequences

In [33]: s3 = set(('foo', 'bar', 'foo'))
In [34]: s3
Out[34]: set(['foo', 'bar']) # Unique elements only
Imports
From the start, Python has been designed around the twin principles of
• a small core language
• extra functionality in separate libraries or modules
For example, if you want to compute the square root of an arbitrary number, there’s no built in
function that will perform this for you
Instead, you need to import the functionality from a module — in this case a natural choice is math
In [1]: import math
In [2]: math.sqrt(4)
Out[2]: 2.0
We discussed the mechanics of importing earlier

Note that the math module is part of the standard library, which is part of every Python distribu-
tion
On the other hand, the scientific libraries we’ll work with later are not part of the standard library
We’ll talk more about modules as we go along
To end this discussion with a final comment about modules and imports, in your Python travels
you will often see the following syntax

In [3]: from math import *
In [4]: sqrt(4)
Out[4]: 2.0
Here from math import * pulls all of the functionality of math into the current “namespace” — a
concept we’ll define formally later on
Actually this kind of syntax should be avoided for the most part
In essence the reason is that it pulls in lots of variable names without explicitly listing them — a
potential source of conflicts
Input and Output
Let’s have a quick look at basic file input and output

We discuss only reading and writing to text files
Input and Output Let’s start with writing

In [35]: f = open('newfile.txt', 'w') # Open 'newfile.txt' for writing
In [36]: f.write('Testing\n') # Here '\n' means new line
In [37]: f.write('Testing again')
In [38]: f.close()
Here
• The built-in function open() creates a file object for writing to
• Both write() and close() are methods of file objects
Where is this file that we’ve created?
Recall that Python maintains a concept of the present working directory (pwd) that can be located
by
import os
print(os.getcwd())
(In IPython or a Jupyter notebook, %pwd or pwd should also work)

If a path is not specified, then this is where Python writes to
You can confirm that the file newfile.txt is in your present working directory using a file browser
or some other method
(In IPython, use ls to list the files in the present working directory)
We can also use Python to read the contents of newline.txt as follows

In [39]: f = open('newfile.txt', 'r')
In [40]: out = f.read()
In [41]: out
Out[41]: 'Testing\nTesting again'
In [42]: print(out)
Out[42]:
Testing
Testing again
Paths Note that if newfile.txt is not in the present working directory then this call to open()
fails
In this case you can either specify the full path to the file
In [43]: f = open('insert_full_path_to_file/newfile.txt', 'r')
or change the present working directory to the location of the file via os.chdir(’path_to_file’)
(In IPython, use cd to change directories)
Details are OS specific – a Google search on paths and Python should yield plenty of examples
Iterating
One of the most important tasks in computing is stepping through a sequence of data and per-
forming a given action
One of Python’s strengths is its simple, flexible interface to this kind of iteration via the for loop
Looping over Different Objects Many Python objects are “iterable”, in the sense that they can
looped over
To give an example, consider the file us_cities.txt, which lists US cities and their population
new york: 8244910
los angeles: 3819702
chicago: 2707120
houston: 2145146
philadelphia: 1536471
phoenix: 1469471
san antonio: 1359758
san diego: 1326179
dallas: 1223229
Suppose that we want to make the information more readable, by capitalizing names and adding
commas to mark thousands
The program us_cities.py program reads the data in and makes the conversion:

1 data_file = open('us_cities.txt', 'r')

2 for line in data_file:
3 city, population = line.split(':') # Tuple unpacking
4 city = city.title() # Capitalize city names
5 population = '{0:,}'.format(int(population)) # Add commas to numbers
6 print(city.ljust(15) + population)
7 data_file.close()
Here format() is a string method used for inserting variables into strings
The output is as follows
New York 8,244,910
Los Angeles 3,819,702
Chicago 2,707,120
Houston 2,145,146
Philadelphia 1,536,471
Phoenix 1,469,471
San Antonio 1,359,758
San Diego 1,326,179
Dallas 1,223,229
The reformatting of each line is the result of three different string methods, the details of which
can be left till later
The interesting part of this program for us is line 2, which shows that
1. The file object f is iterable, in the sense that it can be placed to the right of in within a for
loop
2. Iteration steps through each line in the file
This leads to the clean, convenient syntax shown in our program
Many other kinds of objects are iterable, and we’ll discuss some of them later on
Looping without Indices One thing you might have noticed is that Python tends to favor loop-
ing without explicit indexing
For example,
for x in x_values:
print(x * x)
is preferred to
for i in range(len(x_values)):
print(x_values[i] * x_values[i])
When you compare these two alternatives, you can see why the first one is preferred
Python provides some facilities to simplify looping without indices
One is zip(), which is used for stepping through pairs from two sequences
For example, try running the following code

countries = ('Japan', 'Korea', 'China')

cities = ('Tokyo', 'Seoul', 'Beijing')
for country, city in zip(countries, cities):
print('The capital of {0} is {1}'.format(country, city))
The zip() function is also useful for creating dictionaries — for example
In [1]: names = ['Tom', 'John']
In [2]: marks = ['E', 'F']
In [3]: dict(zip(names, marks))

Out[3]: {'John': 'F', 'Tom': 'E'}
If we actually need the index from a list, one option is to use enumerate()
To understand what enumerate() does, consider the following example
letter_list = ['a', 'b', 'c']
for index, letter in enumerate(letter_list):
print("letter_list[{0}] = '{1}'".format(index, letter))
The output of the loop is

letter_list[0] = 'a'
letter_list[1] = 'b'
letter_list[2] = 'c'
Comparisons and Logical Operators
Comparisons Many different kinds of expressions evaluate to one of the Boolean values (i.e.,
True or False)
A common type is comparisons, such as
In [44]: x, y = 1, 2
In [45]: x < y
Out[45]: True
In [46]: x > y
Out[46]: False
One of the nice features of Python is that we can chain inequalities

In [47]: 1 < 2 < 3
Out[47]: True
In [48]: 1 <= 2 <= 3

Out[48]: True
As we saw earlier, when testing for equality we use ==

In [49]: x = 1 # Assignment
In [50]: x == 2 # Comparison
Out[50]: False
For “not equal” use !=

In [51]: 1 != 2
Out[51]: True
Note that when testing conditions, we can use any valid Python expression
In [52]: x = 'yes' if 42 else 'no'
In [53]: x
Out[53]: 'yes'
In [54]: x = 'yes' if [] else 'no'
In [55]: x
Out[55]: 'no'
What’s going on here? The rule is:

• Expressions that evaluate to zero, empty sequences/containers (strings, lists, etc.) and None
are equivalent to False
• All other values are equivalent to True
Combining Expressions We can combine expressions using and, or and not

These are the standard logical connectives (conjunction, disjunction and denial)
In [56]: 1 < 2 and 'f' in 'foo'
Out[56]: True
In [57]: 1 < 2 and 'g' in 'foo'

Out[57]: False
In [58]: 1 < 2 or 'g' in 'foo'

Out[58]: True
In [59]: not True

Out[59]: False
In [60]: not not True

Out[60]: True
Remember
• P and Q is True if both are True, else False
• P or Q is False if both are False, else True

More Functions
Let’s talk a bit more about functions, which are all-important for good programming style
Python has a number of built-in functions that are available without import
We have already met some
In [61]: max(19, 20)
Out[61]: 20
In [62]: range(4)
Out[62]: [0, 1, 2, 3]
In [63]: str(22)
Out[63]: '22'
In [64]: type(22)
Out[64]: int
Two more useful built-in functions are any() and all()

In [65]: bools = False, True, True
In [66]: all(bools) # True if all are True and False otherwise

Out[66]: False
In [67]: any(bools) # False if all are False and True otherwise

Out[67]: True
The full list of Python built-ins is here

Now let’s talk some more about user-defined functions constructed using the keyword def
Why Write Functions? User defined functions are important for improving the clarity of your
code by
• separating different strands of logic
• facilitating code reuse
(Writing the same thing twice is almost always a bad idea)
The basics of user defined functions were discussed here
The Flexibility of Python Functions As we discussed in the previous lecture, Python functions
are very flexible
In particular
• Any number of functions can be defined in a given file
• Any object can be passed to a function as an argument, including other functions
• Functions can be (and often are) defined inside other functions

• A function can return any kind of object, including functions

We already gave an example of how straightforward it is to pass a function to a function
Note that a function can have arbitrarily many return statements (including zero)
Execution of the function terminates when the first return is hit, allowing code like the following
example
def f(x):
if x < 0:
return 'negative'
return 'nonnegative'
Functions without a return statement automatically return the special Python object None
Docstrings Python has a system for adding comments to functions, modules, etc. called doc-
strings
The nice thing about docstrings is that they are available at run-time
For example, let’s say that this code resides in file temp.py
# Filename: temp.py
def f(x):
"""
This function squares its argument
"""
return x**2
After it has been run in the IPython shell, the docstring is available as follows
In [1]: run temp.py
In [2]: f?
Type: function
String Form:<function f at 0x2223320>
File: /home/john/temp/temp.py
Definition: f(x)
Docstring: This function squares its argument
In [3]: f??
Type: function
String Form:<function f at 0x2223320>
File: /home/john/temp/temp.py
Definition: f(x)
Source:
def f(x):
"""
This function squares its argument
"""
return x**2
With one question mark we bring up the docstring, and with two we get the source code as well

One-Line Functions: lambda The lambda keyword is used to create simple functions on one line
For example, the definitions
def f(x):
return x**3
and
f = lambda x: x**3
are entirely equivalent

R2
To see why lambda is useful, suppose that we want to calculate 0
x3 dx (and have forgotten our
high-school calculus)
The SciPy library has a function called quad that will do this calculation for us
The syntax of the quad function is quad(f, a, b) where f is a function and a and b are numbers
To create the function f ( x ) = x3 we can use lambda as follows
In [69]: quad(lambda x: x**3, 0, 2)

Out[69]: (4.0, 4.440892098500626e-14)
Here the function created by lambda is said to be anonymous, because it was never given a name
Keyword Arguments If you did the exercises in the previous lecture, you would have come across
the statement
plt.plot(x, 'b-', label="white noise")
In this call to Matplotlib’s plot function, notice that the last argument is passed in name=argument
syntax
This is called a keyword argument, with label being the keyword
Non-keyword arguments are called positional arguments, since their meaning is determined by
order
• plot(x, ’b-’, label="white noise") is different from plot(’b-’, x, label="white
noise")
Keyword arguments are particularly useful when a function has a lot of arguments, in which case
it’s hard to remember the right order
You can adopt keyword arguments in user defined functions with no difficulty
The next example illustrates the syntax
def f(x, coefficients=(1, 1)):
a, b = coefficients
return a + b * x

After running this code we can call it as follows

In [71]: f(2, coefficients=(0, 0))
Out[71]: 0
In [72]: f(2) # Use default values (1, 1)

Out[72]: 3
Notice that the keyword argument values we supplied in the definition of f become the default
values
Coding Style and PEP8
To learn more about the Python programming philosophy type import this at the prompt
Among other things, Python strongly favors consistency in programming style
We’ve all heard the saying about consistency and little minds
In programming, as in mathematics, the opposite is true
• A mathematical paper where the symbols ∪ and ∩ were reversed would be very hard to
read, even if the author told you so on the first page
In Python, the standard style is set out in PEP8
(Occasionally we’ll deviate from PEP8 in these lectures to better match mathematical notation)
Exercises
Exercise 1 Part 1: Given two numeric lists or tuples x_vals and y_vals of equal length, compute
their inner product using zip()
Part 2: In one line, count the number of even numbers in 0,...,99
• Hint: x % 2 returns 0 if x is even, 1 otherwise
Part 3: Given pairs = ((2, 5), (4, 2), (9, 8), (12, 10)), count the number of pairs (a, b)
such that both a and b are even
Exercise 2 Consider the polynomial

n
p ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · a n x n = ∑ ai x i (1.1)
i =0
Write a function p such that p(x, coeff) that computes the value in (1.1) given a point x and a list
of coefficients coeff
Try to use enumerate() in your loop

1.5. OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 63
Exercise 3 Write a function that takes a string as an argument and returns the number of capital
letters in the string
Hint: ’foo’.upper() returns ’FOO’
Exercise 4 Write a function that takes two sequences seq_a and seq_b as arguments and returns
True if every element in seq_a is also an element of seq_b, else False
• By “sequence” we mean a list, a tuple or a string
• Do the exercise without using sets and set methods
Exercise 5 When we cover the numerical libraries, we will see they include many alternatives
for interpolation and function approximation
Nevertheless, let’s write our own function approximation routine as an exercise
In particular, without using any imports, write a function linapprox that takes as arguments
• A function f mapping some interval [ a, b] into R
• two scalars a and b providing the limits of this interval
• An integer n determining the number of grid points
• A number x satisfying a <= x <= b
and returns the piecewise linear interpolation of f at x, based on n evenly spaced grid points a =
point[0] < point[1] < ... < point[n-1] = b
Aim for clarity, not efficiency
Solutions
Solution notebook
1.5 Object Oriented Programming
Contents
• Object Oriented Programming
– Overview
– About OOP
– Defining Your Own Classes
– Special Methods
– Exercises
– Solutions

Overview
OOP is one of the major paradigms in programming, and nicely supported in Python
OOP has become an important concept in modern software engineering because
• It can help facilitate clean, efficient code (when used well)
• The OOP design pattern fits well with the human brain
OOP is about producing well organized code — an important determinant of productivity
Moreover, OOP is a part of Python, and to progress further it’s necessary to understand the basics
About OOP
OOP is supported in many languages:

• JAVA and Ruby are relatively pure OOP
• Python supports both procedural and object-oriented programming
• Fortran and MATLAB are mainly procedural, some OOP recently tacked on
• C is a procedural language, while C++ is C with OOP added on top
Let’s look at general concepts before we specialize to Python
Key Concepts The traditional (non-OOP) paradigm is called procedural, and works as follows
• The program has a state that contains the values of its variables
• Functions are called to act on these data according to the task
• Data are passed back and forth via function calls
In contrast, in the OOP paradigm, data and functions are bundled together into “objects”
An example is a Python list, which not only stores data, but also knows how to sort itself, etc.
In [1]: x = [1, 5, 4]
In [2]: x.sort()
In [3]: x
Out[3]: [1, 4, 5]
Here sort is a function that is “part of” the list object

In the OOP setting, functions are usually called methods (e.g., sort is a list method)
Standard Terminology A class definition is a blueprint for a particular class of objects (e.g., lists,
strings or complex numbers)
It describes

• What kind of data the class stores

• What methods it has for acting on this data
An object or instance is a realization of the class, created from the blueprint
• Each instance has its own unique data
• Methods set out in the class definition act on this (and other) data
In Python, the data and methods of an object are collectively referred to as attributes
Attributes are accessed via “dotted attribute notation”
• object_name.data
• object_name.method_name()
In the example
In [4]: x = [1, 5, 4]
In [5]: x.sort()
In [6]: x.__class__
Out[6]: list
• x is an object or instance, created from the definition for Python lists, but with its own par-
ticular data
• x.sort() and x.__class__ are two attributes of x
• dir(x) can be used to view all the attributes of x
Why is OOP Useful? OOP is useful for the same reason that abstraction is useful: for recogniz-
ing and organizing common structures
• E.g., a general equilibrium theory consists of a commodity space, preferences, technologies,
and a common equilibrium definition
• E.g., a game consists of a list of players, lists of actions available to each player, payoffs for
each player as functions of all players’ actions, and a timing protocol
For an example more relevant to OOP, consider the open windows on your desktop
Windows have common functionality and individual data, which makes them suitable for imple-
menting with OOP
• individual data: contents of specific windows
• common functionality: closing, maximizing, etc.
Your window manager almost certainly uses OOP to generate and manage these windows
• individual windows created as objects / instances from a class definition, with their own
data
• common functionality implemented as methods, which all of these objects share

Another, more prosaic, use of OOP is data encapsulation

Data encapsulation means storing variables inside some structure so that they are not directly
accessible
The alternative to this is filling the global namespace with variable names, frequently leading to
conflicts
• Think of the global namespace as any name you can refer to without a dot in front of it
For example, the modules os and sys both define a different attribute called path
The following code leads immediately to a conflict
from os import path
from sys import path
At this point, both variables have been brought into the global namespace, and the second will
shadow the first
A better idea is to replace the above with
import os
import sys
and then reference the path you want with either os.path or sys.path
In this example, we see that modules provide one means of data encapsulation
As will now become clear, OOP provides another
Defining Your Own Classes
Let’s build a super simple class as an exercise

In [1]: class Consumer:
...: pass
...:
In [2]: c1 = Consumer() # Create an instance
In [3]: c1.wealth = 10
In [4]: c1.wealth
Out[4]: 10
Comments on notation:
• The class keyword indicates that we are building a class
• The pass keyword is used in Python to stand in for an empty code block
Notice the flexibility of Python:
• We don’t actually need to specify what attributes a class will have

• We can attach new attributes to instances of the class on the fly

However, most classes have more structure than our Consumer class
In fact the main point of classes is to provide a blueprint containing useful functionality for a given
set of tasks
• For example, the sort method in x.sort() is specified in the blueprint for the list data type
because it is useful for working with lists
Let’s try to build something a bit closer to this standard conception of OOP
Example: Another Consumer Class Let’s build a Consumer class with more structure:
• A wealth attribute that stores the consumer’s wealth (data)
• An earn method, where earn(y) increments the consumer’s wealth by y
• A spend method, where spend(x) either decreases wealth by x or returns an error if insuffi-
cient funds exist
Admittedly a little contrived, this example of a class helps us internalize some new syntax
Here’s one implementation, from file consumer.py in the applications repository
class Consumer:
def __init__(self, w):

"Initialize consumer with w dollars of wealth"
self.wealth = w
def earn(self, y):

"The consumer earns y dollars"
self.wealth += y
def spend(self, x):

"The consumer spends x dollars if feasible"
new_wealth = self.wealth - x
if new_wealth < 0:
print("Insufficent funds")
else:
self.wealth = new_wealth
There’s some special syntax here so let’s step through carefully

This class defines instance data wealth and three methods: __init__, earn and spend
• wealth is instance data because each consumer we create (each instance of the Consumer class)
will have its own separate wealth data
The ideas behind the earn and spend methods were discussed above
Both of these act on the instance data wealth
The __init__ method is a constructor method
Whenever we create an instance of the class, this method will be called automatically

Calling __init__ sets up a “namespace” to hold the instance data — more on this soon
We’ll also discuss the role of self just below
Usage Here’s an example of usage, assuming consumer.py is in your present working directory
In [1]: run consumer.py
In [2]: c1 = Consumer(10) # Create instance with initial wealth 10
In [3]: c1.spend(5)
In [4]: c1.wealth
Out[4]: 5
In [5]: c1.earn(15)
In [6]: c1.spend(100)
Insufficent funds
We can of course create multiple instances each with its own data
In [2]: c1 = Consumer(10)
In [4]: c2.spend(4)
In [5]: c2.wealth
Out[5]: 8
In [6]: c1.wealth
Out[6]: 10
In fact each instance stores its data in a separate namespace dictionary

In [7]: c1.__dict__
Out[7]: {'wealth': 10}
In [8]: c2.__dict__
Out[8]: {'wealth': 8}
When we access or set attributes we’re actually just modifying the dictionary maintained by the
instance
Self If you look at the Consumer class definition again you’ll see the word self throughout the
code
The rules with self are that
• Any instance data should be prepended with self
– e.g., the earn method references self.wealth rather than just wealth

• Any method defined within the class should have self as its first argument
– e.g., def earn(self, y) rather than just def earn(y)
• Any method referenced within the class should be called as self.method_name
There are no examples of the last rule in the preceding code but we will see some shortly
Details In this section we look at some more formal details related to classes and self
• You might wish to skip to the next section on first pass of this lecture
• You can return to these details after you’ve familiarized yourself with more examples
Methods actually live inside a class object formed when the interpreter reads the class definition
In [1]: run consumer.py # Read class def, build class object Consumer
In [2]: print(Consumer.__dict__) # Show __dict__ attribute of class object

{'earn': <function Consumer.earn at 0x7f2590054d90>,
'spend': <function Consumer.spend at 0x7f2590054e18>,
'__doc__': None,
'__weakref__': <attribute '__weakref__' of 'Consumer' objects>,
'__init__': <function Consumer.__init__ at 0x7f2590054d08>,
'__module__': '__main__',
'__dict__': <attribute '__dict__' of 'Consumer' objects>}
Note how the three methods __init__, earn and spend are stored in the class object
Consider the following code
In [3]: c1.earn(10)
In [4]: c1.wealth
Out[4]: 20
When you call earn via c1.earn(10) the interpreter passes the instance c1 and the argument 10 to
Consumer.earn
In fact the following are equivalent
• c1.earn(10)
• Consumer.earn(c1, 10)
In the function call Consumer.earn(c1, 10) note that c1 is the first argument
Recall that in the definition of the earn method, self is the first parameter
def earn(self, y):
"The consumer earns y dollars"
self.wealth += y
The end result is that self is bound to the instance c1 inside the function call

That’s why the statement self.wealth += y inside earn ends up modifying c1.wealth
Example: The Solow Growth Model For our next example, let’s write a simple class to imple-
ment the Solow growth model
The Solow growth model is a neoclassical growth model where the amount of capital stock per
capita k t evolves according to the rule
szkαt + (1 − d)k t
k t +1 = (1.2)
1+n
Here
• s is an exogenously given savings rate
• z is a productivity parameter
• α is capital’s share of income
• n is the population growth rate
• d is the depreciation rate
The steady state of the model is the k that solves (1.2) when k t+1 = k t = k
While the QuantEcon.applications package already has some relatively sophisticated code for
dealing with this model, here we’ll create something more basic for illustrative purposes
You can find it file solow.py in the applications repository
"""
Filename: solow.py
Reference: http://quant-econ.net/py/python_oop.html
"""
from __future__ import division # Omit for Python 3.x
import numpy as np
class Solow:
r"""
Implements the Solow growth model with update rule
.. math::
k_{t+1} = \frac{s z k^{\alpha}_t}{1 + n} + k_t \frac{1 + d}{1 + n}
"""
def __init__(self, n, s, d, alpha, z, k):

"""
Solow growth model with Cobb Douglas production function. All
parameters are scalars. See http://quant-econ.net/py/python_oop.html
for interpretation.
"""
self.n, self.s, self.d, self.alpha, self.z = n, s, d, alpha, z
self.k = k

def h(self,x):
"Evaluate the h function"
temp = self.s * self.z * self.k**self.alpha + self.k * (1 - self.d)
return temp / (1 + self.n)
def update(self):
"Update the current state (i.e., the capital stock)."
self.k = self.h(self.k)
def steady_state(self):
"Compute the steady state value of capital."
return ((self.s * self.z) / (self.n + self.d))**(1 / (1 - self.alpha))
def generate_sequence(self, t):

"Generate and return a time series of length t"
path = []
for i in range(t):
path.append(self.k)
self.update()
return path
Some points of interest in the code are

• An instance maintains a record of its current capital stock in the variable self.k
• The h method implements the right hand side of (1.2)
• The update method uses h to update capital as per (1.2)
– Notice how inside update the reference to the local method h is self.h
The methods steady_state and generate_sequence are fairly self explanatory
Here’s a little program that uses the class to compute time series from two different initial condi-
tions
The common steady state is also plotted for comparison
baseline_params = 0.05, 0.25, 0.1, 0.3, 2.0, 1.0
s1 = Solow(*baseline_params) # The 'splat' operator * breaks up the tuple
s2 = Solow(*baseline_params)
s2.k = 8.0 # Reset s2.k to make high capital economy
T = 60
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
# Plot the common steady state value of capital
ax.plot([s1.steady_state()]*T, 'k-', label='steady state')
# Plot time series for each economy
for s in s1, s2:
lb = 'capital series from initial state {}'.format(s.k)
ax.plot(s.generate_sequence(T), 'o-', lw=2, alpha=0.6, label=lb)
ax.legend(loc='lower right')
plt.show()

Here’s the figure it produces
Example: A Market Next let’s write a class for a simple one good market where agents are price
takers
The market consists of the following objects:
• A linear demand curve Q = ad − bd p
• A linear supply curve Q = az + bz ( p − t)
Here
• p is price paid by the consumer, Q is quantity, and t is a per unit tax
• Other symbols are demand and supply parameters
The class provides methods to compute various values of interest, including competitive equlib-
rium price and quantity, tax revenue raised, consumer surplus and producer surplus
Here’s our implementation
"""
Filename: market.py
"""
from __future__ import division

from scipy.integrate import quad
class Market:
def __init__(self, ad, bd, az, bz, tax):

"""
Set up market parameters. All parameters are scalars. See

http://quant-econ.net/py/python_oop.html for interpretation.
"""
self.ad, self.bd, self.az, self.bz, self.tax = ad, bd, az, bz, tax
if ad < az:
raise ValueError('Insufficient demand.')
def price(self):
"Return equilibrium price"
return (self.ad - self.az + self.bz*self.tax)/(self.bd + self.bz)
def quantity(self):
"Compute equilibrium quantity"
return self.ad - self.bd * self.price()
def consumer_surp(self):
"Compute consumer surplus"
# == Compute area under inverse demand function == #
integrand = lambda x: (self.ad/self.bd) - (1/self.bd)* x
area, error = quad(integrand, 0, self.quantity())
return area - self.price() * self.quantity()
def producer_surp(self):
"Compute producer surplus"
# == Compute area above inverse supply curve, excluding tax == #
integrand = lambda x: -(self.az/self.bz) + (1/self.bz) * x
area, error = quad(integrand, 0, self.quantity())
return (self.price() - self.tax) * self.quantity() - area
def taxrev(self):
"Compute tax revenue"
return self.tax * self.quantity()
def inverse_demand(self,x):
"Compute inverse demand"
return self.ad/self.bd - (1/self.bd)* x
def inverse_supply(self,x):
"Compute inverse supply curve"
return -(self.az/self.bz) + (1/self.bz) * x + self.tax
def inverse_supply_no_tax(self,x):
"Compute inverse supply curve without tax"
return -(self.az/self.bz) + (1/self.bz) * x
Here’s a sample of usage

In [1]: run market.py
In [2]: baseline_params = 15, .5, -2, .5, 3
In [3]: m = Market(*baseline_params)

In [4]: print("equilibrium price = ", m.price())

equilibrium price = 18.5
In [5]: print("consumer surplus = ", m.consumer_surp())

consumer surplus = 33.0625
Here’s a short program that uses this class to plot an inverse demand curve and curves supply
with and without tax
import numpy as np
from market import Market
# Baseline ad, bd, az, bz, tax

baseline_params = 15, .5, -2, .5, 3
m = Market(*baseline_params)
q_max = m.quantity() * 2
q_grid = np.linspace(0.0, q_max, 100)
pd = m.inverse_demand(q_grid)
ps = m.inverse_supply(q_grid)
psno = m.inverse_supply_no_tax(q_grid)
ax.plot(q_grid, pd, lw=2, alpha=0.6, label='demand')
ax.plot(q_grid, ps, lw=2, alpha=0.6, label='supply')
ax.plot(q_grid, psno, '--k', lw=2, alpha=0.6, label='supply without tax')
ax.set_xlabel('quantity', fontsize=14)
ax.set_xlim(0, q_max)
ax.set_ylabel('price', fontsize=14)
ax.legend(loc='lower right', frameon=False, fontsize=14)
plt.show()
The figure produced looks as follows

The next program provides a function that

• takes an instance of Market as a parameter
• computes dead weight loss from the imposition of the tax
from market import Market
def deadw(m):
"Computes deadweight loss for market m."
# == Create analogous market with no tax == #
m_no_tax = Market(m.ad, m.bd, m.az, m.bz, 0)
# == Compare surplus, return difference == #
surp1 = m_no_tax.consumer_surp() + m_no_tax.producer_surp()
surp2 = m.consumer_surp() + m.producer_surp() + m.taxrev()
return surp1 - surp2
Here’s an example of usage

In [5]: run market_deadweight.py
In [6]: baseline_params = 15, .5, -2, .5, 3
In [7]: m = Market(*baseline_params)
In [8]: deadw(m) # Show deadweight loss

Out[8]: 1.125
Example: Chaos Let’s look at one more example, related to chaotic dynamics in nonlinear sys-
tems
One simple transition rule that can generate complex dynamics is the logistic map
xt+1 = rxt (1 − xt ), x0 ∈ [0, 1], r ∈ [0, 4] (1.3)
Let’s write a class for generating time series from this model
Here’s one implementation, in file chaos_class.py
"""
Filename: chaos_class.py
"""
class Chaos:
"""
Models the dynamical system with :math:`x_{t+1} = r x_t (1 - x_t)`
"""
def __init__(self, x0, r):
"""
Initialize with state x0 and parameter r
"""
self.x, self.r = x0, r
def update(self):

"Apply the map to update state."

self.x = self.r * self.x *(1 - self.x)
def generate_sequence(self, n):

"Generate and return a sequence of length n."
path = []
for i in range(n):
path.append(self.x)
self.update()
return path

In [1]: run chaos_class.py
In [2]: ch = Chaos(0.1, 4.0) # x0 = 0.1 and r = 0.4
In [3]: ch.generate_sequence(5) # First 5 iterates

Out[3]: [0.1, 0.36000000000000004, 0.9216, 0.28901376000000006, 0.8219392261226498]
This piece of code plots a longer trajectory

"""
Filename: choatic_ts.py
"""
from chaos_class import Chaos
ch = Chaos(0.1, 4.0)
ts_length = 250
ax.set_xlabel(r'$t$', fontsize=14)
ax.set_ylabel(r'$x_t$', fontsize=14)
x = ch.generate_sequence(ts_length)
ax.plot(range(ts_length), x, 'bo-', alpha=0.5, lw=2, label=r'$x_t$')
plt.show()
The resulting figure looks as follows

The next piece of code provides a bifurcation diagram
"""
Filename: bifurcation_diagram.py
"""
from chaos_class import Chaos
ch = Chaos(0.1, 4)
r = 2.5
while r < 4:

ch.r = r
t = ch.generate_sequence(1000)[950:]
ax.plot([r] * len(t), t, 'b.', ms=0.6)
r = r + 0.005
ax.set_xlabel(r'$r$', fontsize=16)
plt.show()
Here is the figure it generates
On the horizontal axis is the parameter r in (1.3)

The vertical axis is the state space [0, 1]

For each r we compute a long time series and then plot the tail (the last 50 points)
The tail of the sequence shows us where the trajectory concentrates after settling down to some
kind of steady state, if a steady state exists
Whether it settles down, and the character of the steady state to which it does settle down, depend
on the value of r
For r between about 2.5 and 3, the time series settles into a single fixed point plotted on the vertical
axis
For r between about 3 and 3.45, the time series settles down to oscillating between the two values
plotted on the vertical axis
For r a little bit higher than 3.45, the time series settles down to oscillating among the four values
plotted on the vertical axis
Notice that there is no value of r that leads to a steady state oscillating among three values
Special Methods
Python provides special methods with which some neat tricks can be performed
For example, recall that lists and tuples have a notion of length, and that this length can be queried
via the len function
In [21]: x = (10, 20)
In [22]: len(x)
Out[22]: 2
If you want to provide a return value for the len function when applied to your user-defined
object, use the __len__ special method
class Foo:
def __len__(self):
return 42
Now we get
In [23]: f = Foo()
In [24]: len(f)
Out[24]: 42
A special method we will use regularly is the __call__ method

This method can be used to make your instances callable, just like functions
class Foo:

def __call__(self, x):

return x + 42
After running we get

In [25]: f = Foo()
In [26]: f(8) # Exactly equivalent to f.__call__(8)

Out[26]: 50
Exercise 1 provides a more useful example
Exercises
Exercise 1 The empirical cumulative distribution function (ecdf) corresponding to a sample

{ Xi }in=1 is defined as
1 n
Fn ( x ) := ∑ 1{ Xi ≤ x } ( x ∈ R) (1.4)
n i =1
Here 1{ Xi ≤ x } is an indicator function (one if Xi ≤ x and zero otherwise) and hence Fn ( x ) is the
fraction of the sample that falls below x
The Glivenko–Cantelli Theorem states that, provided that the sample is iid, the ecdf Fn converges
to the true distribution function F
Implement Fn as a class called ECDF, where
• A given sample { Xi }in=1 are the instance data, stored as self.observations
• The class implements a __call__ method that returns Fn ( x ) for any x
Your code should work as follows (modulo randomness)
In [28]: from random import uniform
In [29]: samples = [uniform(0, 1) for i in range(10)]
In [30]: F = ECDF(samples)
In [31]: F(0.5) # Evaluate ecdf at x = 0.5

Out[31]: 0.29
In [32]: F.observations = [uniform(0, 1) for i in range(1000)]
In [33]: F(0.5)
Out[33]: 0.479
Aim for clarity, not efficiency
Exercise 2 In an earlier exercise, you wrote a function for evaluating polynomials

1.6. HOW IT WORKS: DATA, VARIABLES AND NAMES 80
This exercise is an extension, where the task is to build a simple class called Polynomial for repre-
senting and manipulating polynomial functions such as
N
p ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · a N x N = ∑ an x n ( x ∈ R) (1.5)
n =0
The instance data for the class Polynomial will be the coefficients (in the case of (1.5), the numbers
a0 , . . . , a N )
Provide methods that
1. Evaluate the polynomial (1.5), returning p( x ) for any x
2. Differentiate the polynomial, replacing the original coefficients with those of its derivative
p0
Avoid using any import statements
Solutions
Solution notebook
1.6 How it Works: Data, Variables and Names
Contents
• How it Works: Data, Variables and Names
– Overview
– Objects
– Iterables and Iterators
– Names and Name Resolution
Overview
The objective of the lecture is to provide deeper understanding of Python’s execution model
Understanding these details is important for writing larger programs
You should feel free to skip this material on first pass and continue on to the applications
We provide this material mainly as a reference, and for returning to occasionally to build your
Python skills
Objects
We discussed objects briefly in the previous lecture

Objects are usually thought of as instances of some class definition, typically combining both data
and methods (functions)
For example
In [1]: x = ['foo', 'bar']
creates (an instance of) a list, possessing various methods (append, pop, etc.)
In Python everything in memory is treated as an object
This includes not just lists, strings, etc., but also less obvious things, such as
• functions (once they have been read into memory)
• modules (ditto)
• files opened for reading or writing
• integers, etc.
At this point it is helpful to have a clearer idea of what an object is in Python
In Python, an object is a collection of data and instructions held in computer memory that consists
of
1. a type
2. some content
3. a unique identity
4. zero or more methods
These concepts are discussed sequentially in the remainder of this section
Type Python understands and provides for different types of objects, to accommodate different
types of data
The type of an object can be queried via type(object_name)
For example
In [2]: s = 'This is a string'
In [3]: type(s)
Out[3]: str
In [4]: x = 42 # Now let's create an integer
In [5]: type(x)
Out[5]: int
The type of an object matters for many expressions

For example, the addition operator between two strings means concatenation

In [6]: '300' + 'cc'

Out[6]: '300cc'
On the other hand, between two numbers it means ordinary addition

In [7]: 300 + 400
Out[7]: 700
Consider the following expression

In [8]: '300' + 400
Here we are mixing types, and it’s unclear to Python whether the user wants to
• convert ’300’ to an integer and then add it to 400, or
• convert 400 to string and then concatenate it with ’300’
Some languages might try to guess but Python is strongly typed
• Type is important, and implicit type conversion is rare
• Python will respond instead by raising a TypeError
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
<ipython-input-1-9b7dffd27f2d> in <module>()
----> 1 '300' + 400
TypeError: Can't convert 'int' object to str implicitly
To avoid the error, you need to clarify by changing the relevant type
For example,
In [9]: int('300') + 400 # To add as numbers, change the string to an integer
Out[9]: 700
Content The content of an object seems like an obvious concept

For example, if we set x = 42 then it might seem that the content of x is just the number 42
But actually, there’s more, as the following example shows
In [10]: x = 42
In [11]: x
Out[11]: 42
In [12]: x.imag
Out[12]: 0
In [13]: x.__class__
Out[13]: int

When Python creates this integer object, it stores with it various auxiliary information, such as the
imaginary part, and the type
As discussed previously, any name following a dot is called an attribute of the object to the left of
the dot
• For example, imag and __class__ are attributes of x
Identity In Python, each object has a unique identifier, which helps Python (and us) keep track
of the object
The identity of an object can be obtained via the id() function
In [14]: y = 2.5
In [15]: z = 2.5
In [16]: id(y)
Out[16]: 166719660
In [17]: id(z)
Out[17]: 166719740
In this example, y and z happen to have the same value (i.e., 2.5), but they are not the same object
The identity of an object is in fact just the address of the object in memory
Methods As discussed earlier, methods are functions that are bundled with objects
Formally, methods are attributes of objects that are callable (i.e., can be called as functions)
In [18]: x = ['foo', 'bar']
In [19]: callable(x.append)
Out[19]: True
In [20]: callable(x.__doc__)
Out[20]: False
Methods typically act on the data contained in the object they belong to, or combine that data with
other data
In [21]: x = ['a', 'b']
In [22]: x.append('c')
In [23]: s = 'This is a string'
In [24]: s.upper()
Out[24]: 'THIS IS A STRING'
In [25]: s.lower()
Out[25]: 'this is a string'

In [26]: s.replace('This', 'That')

Out[26]: 'That is a string'
A great deal of Python functionality is organized around method calls

For example, consider the following piece of code
In [27]: x = ['a', 'b']
In [28]: x[0] = 'aa' # Item assignment using square bracket notation
In [29]: x
Out[29]: ['aa', 'b']
It doesn’t look like there are any methods used here, but in fact the square bracket assignment
notation is just a convenient interface to a method call
What actually happens is that Python calls the __setitem__ method, as follows
In [30]: x = ['a', 'b']
In [31]: x.__setitem__(0, 'aa') # Equivalent to x[0] = 'aa'
In [32]: x
Out[32]: ['aa', 'b']
(If you wanted to you could modify the __setitem__ method, so that square bracket assignment
does something totally different)
Everything is an Object Above we said that in Python everything is an object—let’s look at this
again
Consider, for example, functions
When Python reads a function definition, it creates a function object and stores it in memory
The following code illustrates
In [33]: def f(x): return x**2
In [34]: f
Out[34]: <function __main__.f>
In [35]: type(f)
Out[35]: function
In [36]: id(f)
Out[36]: 3074342220L
In [37]: f.__name__
Out[37]: 'f'
We can see that f has type, identity, attributes and so on—just like any other object

Likewise modules loaded into memory are treated as objects

In [38]: import math
In [39]: id(math)
Out[39]: 3074329380L
This uniform treatment of data in Python (everything is an object) helps keep the language simple
and consistent
Iterables and Iterators
We’ve already said something about iterating in Python

Now let’s look more closely at how it all works, focusing in Python’s implementation of the for
loop
Iterators Iterators are a uniform interface to stepping through elements in a collection

Here we’ll talk about using iterators—later we’ll learn how to build our own
Formally, an iterator is an object with a __next__ method
For example, file objects are iterators
To see this, let’s have another look at the US cities data
In [1]: f = open('us_cities.txt')
In [2]: f.__next__()
Out[2]: 'new york: 8244910\n'
In [3]: f.__next__()
Out[3]: 'los angeles: 3819702\n'
We see that file objects do indeed have a __next__ method, and that calling this method returns
the next line in the file
The next method can also be accessed via the builtin function next(), which directly calls this
method
In [4]: next(f)
Out[4]: 'chicago: 2707120 \n'
The objects returned by enumerate() are also iterators

In [43]: e = enumerate(['foo', 'bar'])
In [44]: next(e)
Out[44]: (0, 'foo')
In [45]: next(e)
Out[45]: (1, 'bar')

as are the reader objects from the csv module

In [46]: from csv import reader
In [47]: f = open('test_table.csv', 'r')
In [48]: nikkei_data = reader(f)
In [49]: next(nikkei_data)
Out[49]: ['Date', 'Open', 'High', 'Low', 'Close', 'Volume', 'Adj Close']
In [50]: next(nikkei_data)
Out[50]: ['2009-05-21', '9280.35', '9286.35', '9189.92', '9264.15', '133200', '9264.15']
Iterators in For Loops All iterators can be placed to the right of the in keyword in for loop
statements
In fact this is how the for loop works: If we write
for x in iterator:
<code block>
then the interpreter

• calls iterator.___next___() and binds x to the result
• executes the code block
• repeats until a StopIteration error occurs
So now you know how this magical looking syntax works
f = open('somefile.txt', 'r')
for line in f:
# do something
The interpreter just keeps

1. calling f.__next__() and binding line to the result
2. executing the body of the loop
This continues until a StopIteration error occurs
Iterables You already know that we can put a Python list to the right of in in a for loop
for i in range(2):
print('foo')
So does that mean that a list is an iterator?

The answer is no:

In [16]: type(x)
Out[16]: list
In [17]: next(x)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
<ipython-input-17-5e4e57af3a97> in <module>()
----> 1 next(x)
TypeError: 'list' object is not an iterator
So why can we iterate over a list in a for loop?

In [18]: for word in ['foo', 'bar']:
....: print(word)
The reason is that a list is iterable (as opposed to an iterator)

Formally, an object is iterable if it can be converted to an iterator using the built-in function iter()
Lists are one such object
In [59]: x = ['foo', 'bar']
In [60]: type(x)
Out[60]: list
In [61]: y = iter(x)
In [62]: type(y)
Out[62]: list_iterator
In [63]: next(y)
Out[63]: 'foo'
In [64]: next(y)
Out[64]: 'bar'
In [65]: next(y)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
StopIteration Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-62-75a92ee8313a> in <module>()
----> 1 y.next()
StopIteration:
Many other objects are iterable, such as dictionaries and tuples

Of course, not all objects are iterable
In [66]: iter(42)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
<ipython-input-63-826bbd6e91fc> in <module>()

----> 1 iter(42)
TypeError: 'int' object is not iterable
To conclude our discussion of for loops

• for loops work on either iterators or iterables
• In the second case, the iterable is converted into an iterator before the loop starts
Iterators and built-ins Some built-in functions that act on sequences also work with iterables
• max(), min(), sum(), all(), any()
For example
In [67]: x = [10, -10]
In [68]: max(x)
Out[68]: 10
In [70]: type(y)
Out[70]: listiterator
In [71]: max(y)
Out[71]: 10
One thing to remember about iterators is that they are depleted by use
In [72]: x = [10, -10]
In [74]: max(y)
Out[74]: 10
In [75]: max(y)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-72-1d3b6314f310> in <module>()
----> 1 max(y)
ValueError: max() arg is an empty sequence
Names and Name Resolution
Variable Names in Python Consider the Python statement

In [76]: x = 42

We now know that when this statement is executed, Python creates an object of type int in your
computer’s memory, containing
• the value 42
• some associated attributes
But what is x itself?
In Python, x is called a name, and the statement x = 42 binds the name x to the integer object we
have just discussed
Under the hood, this process of binding names to objects is implemented as a dictionary—more
about this in a moment
There is no problem binding two or more names to the one object, regardless of what that object is
In [77]: def f(string): # Create a function called f
....: print(string) # that prints any string it's passed
In [78]: g = f
In [79]: id(g) == id(f)

Out[79]: True
In [80]: g('test')
Out[80]: test
In the first step, a function object is created, and the name f is bound to it
After binding the name g to the same object, we can use it anywhere we would use f
What happens when the number of names bound to an object goes to zero?
Here’s an example of this situation, where the name x is first bound to one object and then rebound
to another
In [81]: x = 'foo'
In [82]: id(x)
Out[82]: 164994764
In [83]: x = 'bar' # No names bound to object 164994764
What happens here is that the first object, with identity 164994764 is garbage collected
In other words, the memory slot that stores that object is deallocated, and returned to the operating
system
Namespaces Recall from the preceding discussion that the statement

In [84]: x = 42
binds the name x to the integer object on the right-hand side

We also mentioned that this process of binding x to the correct object is implemented as a dictio-
nary
This dictionary is called a namespace
Definition: A namespace is a symbol table that maps names to objects in memory
Python uses multiple namespaces, creating them on the fly as necessary
For example, every time we import a module, Python creates a namespace for that module
To see this in action, suppose we write a script math2.py like this
# Filename: math2.py
pi = 'foobar'
Now we start the Python interpreter and import it

In [85]: import math2
Next let’s import the math module from the standard library
Both of these modules have an attribute called pi

In [87]: math.pi
Out[87]: 3.1415926535897931
In [88]: math2.pi
Out[88]: 'foobar'
These two different bindings of pi exist in different namespaces, each one implemented as a dic-
tionary
We can look at the dictionary directly, using module_name.__dict__
In [90]: math.__dict__
Out[90]: {'pow': <built-in function pow>, ..., 'pi': 3.1415926535897931,...} # Edited output
In [91]: import math2
In [92]: math2.__dict__
Out[92]: {..., '__file__': 'math2.py', 'pi': 'foobar',...} # Edited output
As you know, we access elements of the namespace using the dotted attribute notation
In [93]: math.pi
Out[93]: 3.1415926535897931
In fact this is entirely equivalent to math.__dict__[’pi’]

In [94]: math.__dict__['pi'] == math.pi
Out[94]: True

Viewing Namespaces As we saw above, the math namespace can be printed by typing
math.__dict__
Another way to see its contents is to type vars(math)
In [95]: vars(math)
Out[95]: {'pow': <built-in function pow>,...
If you just want to see the names, you can type

In [96]: dir(math)
Out[96]: ['__doc__', '__name__', 'acos', 'asin', 'atan',...
Notice the special names __doc__ and __name__

These are initialized in the namespace when any module is imported
• __doc__ is the doc string of the module
• __name__ is the name of the module
In [97]: print(math.__doc__)
This module is always available. It provides access to the
mathematical functions defined by the C standard.
In [98]: math.__name__
'math'
Interactive Sessions In Python, all code executed by the interpreter runs in some module
What about commands typed at the prompt?
These are also regarded as being executed within a module — in this case, a module called
__main__
To check this, we can look at the current module name via the value of __name__ given at the
prompt
In [99]: print(__name__)
__main__
When we run a script using IPython’s run command, the contents of the file are executed as part
of __main__ too
To see this, let’s create a file mod.py that prints its own __name__ attribute
# Filename: mod.py
print(__name__)
Now let’s look at two different ways of running it in IPython

In [1]: import mod # Standard import
mod
In [2]: run mod.py # Run interactively

__main__

In the second case, the code is executed as part of __main__, so __name__ is equal to __main__
To see the contents of the namespace of __main__ we use vars() rather than vars(__main__)
If you do this in IPython, you will see a whole lot of variables that IPython needs, and has initial-
ized when you started up your session
If you prefer to see only the variables you have initialized, use whos
In [3]: x = 2
In [4]: y = 3
In [5]: import numpy as np
In [6]: whos
Variable Type Data/Info
------------------------------
np module <module 'numpy' from '/us<...>ages/numpy/__init__.pyc'>
x int 2
y int 3
The Global Namespace Python documentation often makes reference to the “global names-
pace”
The global namespace is the namespace of the module currently being executed
For example, suppose that we start the interpreter and begin making assignments
We are now working in the module __main__, and hence the namespace for __main__ is the global
namespace
Next, we import a module called amodule
In [7]: import amodule
At this point, the interpreter creates a namespace for the module amodule and starts executing
commands in the module
While this occurs, the namespace amodule.__dict__ is the global namespace
Once execution of the module finishes, the interpreter returns to the module from where the im-
port statement was made
In this case it’s __main__, so the namespace of __main__ again becomes the global namespace
Local Namespaces Important fact: When we call a function, the interpreter creates a local names-
pace for that function, and registers the variables in that namespace
The reason for this will be explained in just a moment
Variables in the local namespace are called local variables
After the function returns, the namespace is deallocated and lost

While the function is executing, we can view the contents of the local namespace with locals()
For example, consider
In [1]: def f(x):
...: a = 2
...: print(locals())
...: return a * x
...:
Now let’s call the function

In [2]: f(1)
{'a': 2, 'x': 1}
You can see the local namespace of f before it is destroyed
The __builtins__ Namespace We have been using various built-in functions, such as max(),
dir(), str(), list(), len(), range(), type(), etc.
How does access to these names work?
• These definitions are stored in a module called __builtin__
• They have there own namespace called __builtins__
In [12]: dir()
Out[12]: [..., '__builtins__', '__doc__', ...] # Edited output
In [13]: dir(__builtins__)
Out[13]: [... 'iter', 'len', 'license', 'list', 'locals', ...] # Edited output
We can access elements of the namespace as follows

In [14]: __builtins__.max
Out[14]: <built-in function max>
But __builtins__ is special, because we can always access them directly as well
In [15]: max
Out[15]: <built-in function max>
In [16]: __builtins__.max == max

Out[16]: True
The next section explains how this works ...
Name Resolution Namespaces are great because they help us organize variable names
(Type import this at the prompt and look at the last item that’s printed)
However, we do need to understand how the Python interpreter works with multiple namespaces
At any point of execution, there are in fact at least two namespaces that can be accessed directly

(“Accessed directly” means without using a dot, as in pi rather than math.pi)

These namespaces are
• The global namespace (of the module being executed)
• The builtin namespace
If the interpreter is executing a function, then the directly accessible namespaces are
• The local namespace of the function
• The global namespace (of the module being executed)
• The builtin namespace
Sometimes functions are defined within other functions, like so
def f():
a = 2
def g():
b = 4
print(a * b)
g()
Here f is the enclosing function for g, and each function gets its own namespaces
Now we can give the rule for how namespace resolution works:
The order in which the interpreter searches for names is
1. the local namespace (if it exists)
2. the hierarchy of enclosing namespaces (if they exist)
3. the global namespace
4. the builtin namespace
If the name is not in any of these namespaces, the interpreter raises a NameError
This is called the LEGB rule (local, enclosing, global, builtin)
Here’s an example that helps to illustrate
Consider a script test.py that looks as follows
def g(x):
a = 1
x = x + a
return x
a = 0
y = g(10)
print("a = ", a, "y = ", y)
What happens when we run this script?

In [17]: run test.py

a = 0 y = 11
In [18]: x
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NameError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-2-401b30e3b8b5> in <module>()
----> 1 x
NameError: name 'x' is not defined
First,
• The global namespace {} is created
• The function object is created, and g is bound to it within the global namespace
• The name a is bound to 0, again in the global namespace
Next g is called via y = g(10), leading to the following sequence of actions
• The local namespace for the function is created
• Local names x and a are bound, so that the local namespace becomes {’x’: 10, ’a’: 1}
• Statement x = x + a uses the local a and local x to compute x + a, and binds local name x
to the result
• This value is returned, and y is bound to it in the global namespace
• Local x and a are discarded (and the local namespace is deallocated)
Note that the global a was not affected by the local a
Mutable Versus Immutable Parameters This is a good time to say a little more about mutable
vs immutable objects
Consider the code segment
def f(x):
x = x + 1
return x
x = 1
print(f(x), x)
We now understand what will happen here: The code prints 2 as the value of f(x) and 1 as the
value of x
First f and x are registered in the global namespace
The call f(x) creates a local namespace and adds x to it, bound to 1
Next, this local x is rebound to the new integer object 2, and this value is returned
None of this affects the global x

1.7. MORE LANGUAGE FEATURES 96
However, it’s a different story when we use a mutable data type such as a list
def f(x):
x[0] = x[0] + 1
return x
x = [1]
print(f(x), x)
This prints [2] as the value of f(x) and same for x

Here’s what happens
• f is registered as a function in the global namespace
• x bound to [1] in the global namespace
• The call f(x)
– Creates a local namespace
– Adds x to local namespace, bound to [1]
– The list [1] is modified to [2]
– Returns the list [2]
– The local namespace is deallocated, and local x is lost
• Global x has been modified
1.7 More Language Features
Contents
• More Language Features
– Overview
– Handling Errors
– Decorators and Descriptors
– Generators
– Recursive Function Calls
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
As with the last lecture, our advice is to skip this lecture on first pass, unless you have a burning
desire to read it
It’s here

1. as a reference, so we can link back to it when required, and

2. for those who have worked through a number of applications, and now want to learn more
about the Python language
A variety of topics are treated in the lecture, including generators, exceptions and descriptors
Handling Errors
Sometimes it’s possible to anticipate errors as we’re writing code

For example, the unbiased sample variance of sample y1 , . . . , yn is defined as
n
1
n − 1 i∑
s2 : = (yi − ȳ)2 ȳ = sample mean
=1
This can be calculated in NumPy using np.var

But if you were writing a function to handle such a calculation, you might anticipate a divide-by-
zero error when the sample size is one
One possible action is to do nothing — the program will just crash, and spit out an error message
But sometimes it’s worth writing your code in a way that anticipates and deals with runtime errors
that you think might arise
Why?
• Because the debugging information provided by the interpreter is often less useful than the
information on possible errors you have in your head when writing code
• Because errors causing execution to stop are frustrating if you’re in the middle of a large
computation
• Because it’s reduces confidence in your code on the part of your users (if you are writing for
others)
Assertions A relatively easy way to handle checks is with the assert keyword
For example, pretend for a moment that the np.var function doesn’t exist and we need to write
our own
In [19]: def var(y):
....: n = len(y)
....: assert n > 1, 'Sample size must be greater than one.'
....: return np.sum((y - y.mean())**2) / float(n-1)
....:
If we run this with an array of length one, the program will terminate and print our error message
In [20]: var([1])
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
AssertionError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-20-0032ff8a150f> in <module>()

----> 1 var([1])
<ipython-input-19-cefafaec3555> in var(y)
1 def var(y):
2 n = len(y)
----> 3 assert n > 1, 'Sample size must be greater than one.'
4 return np.sum((y - y.mean())**2) / float(n-1)
AssertionError: Sample size must be greater than one.
The advantage is that we can

• fail early, as soon as we know there will be a problem
• supply specific information on why a program is failing
Handling Errors During Runtime The approach used above is a bit limited, because it always
leads to termination
Sometimes we can handle errors more gracefully, by treating special cases
Let’s look at how this is done
Exceptions Here’s an example of a common error type

In [43]: def f:
File "<ipython-input-5-f5bdb6d29788>", line 1

def f:
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
Since illegal syntax cannot be executed, a syntax error terminates execution of the program
Here’s a different kind of error, unrelated to syntax
In [44]: 1 / 0
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ZeroDivisionError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-17-05c9758a9c21> in <module>()
----> 1 1/0
ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero
Here’s another
In [45]: x1 = y1
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
<ipython-input-23-142e0509fbd6> in <module>()
----> 1 x1 = y1
NameError: name 'y1' is not defined

And another
In [46]: 'foo' + 6
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
<ipython-input-20-44bbe7e963e7> in <module>()
----> 1 'foo' + 6
TypeError: cannot concatenate 'str' and 'int' objects
And another
In [47]: X = []
In [48]: x = X[0]
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
IndexError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-22-018da6d9fc14> in <module>()
----> 1 x = X[0]
IndexError: list index out of range
On each occaision, the interpreter informs us of the error type

• NameError, TypeError, IndexError, ZeroDivisionError, etc.
In Python, these errors are called exceptions
Catching Exceptions We can catch and deal with exceptions using try – except blocks
Here’s a simple example
def f(x):
try:
return 1.0 / x
except ZeroDivisionError:
print('Error: division by zero. Returned None')
return None
When we call f we get the following output

In [50]: f(2)
Out[50]: 0.5
In [51]: f(0)
Error: division by zero. Returned None
In [52]: f(0.0)
Error: division by zero. Returned None
The error is caught and execution of the program is not terminated

Note that other error types are not caught
If we are worried the user might pass in a string, we can catch that error too

def f(x):
try:
return 1.0 / x
except ZeroDivisionError:
print('Error: Division by zero. Returned None')
except TypeError:
print('Error: Unsupported operation. Returned None')
return None

In [54]: f(2)
Out[54]: 0.5
In [55]: f(0)
Error: Division by zero. Returned None
In [56]: f('foo')
Error: Unsupported operation. Returned None
If we feel lazy we can catch these errors together

def f(x):
try:
return 1.0 / x
except (TypeError, ZeroDivisionError):
print('Error: Unsupported operation. Returned None')
return None

In [58]: f(2)
Out[58]: 0.5
In [59]: f(0)
In [60]: f('foo')
If we feel extra lazy we can catch all error types as follows

def f(x):
try:
return 1.0 / x
except:
print('Error. Returned None')
return None
In general it’s better to be specific

Decorators and Descriptors
Let’s look at some special syntax elements that are routinely used by Python developers
You might not need the following concepts immediately, but you will see them in other people’s
code
Hence you need to understand them at some stage of your Python education
Decorators Decorators are a bit of syntactic sugar that, while easily avoided, have turned out to
be popular
It’s very easy to say what decorators do
On the other hand it takes a bit of effort to explain why you might use them
An Example Suppose we are working on a program that looks something like this
import numpy as np
def f(x):
return np.log(np.log(x))
def g(x):
return np.sqrt(42 * x)
# Program continues with various calculations using f and g
Now suppose there’s a problem: occasionally negative numbers get fed to f and g in the calcula-
tions that follow
If you try it, you’ll see that when these functions are called with negative numbers they return a
NumPy object called nan
Suppose further that this is not what we want because it causes other problems that are hard to
pick up
Suppose that instead we want the program to terminate whenever this happens with a sensible
error message
This change is easy enough to implement
import numpy as np
def f(x):
assert x >= 0, "Argument must be nonnegative"
def g(x):

Notice however that there is some repetition here, in the form of two identical lines of code
Repetition makes our code longer and harder to maintain, and hence is something we try hard to
avoid
Here it’s not a big deal, but imagine now that instead of just f and g, we have 20 such functions
that we need to modify in exactly the same way
This means we need to repeat the test logic (i.e., the assert line testing nonnegativity) 20 times
The situation is still worse if the test logic is longer and more complicated
In this kind of scenario the following approach would be neater
import numpy as np
def check_nonneg(func):
def safe_function(x):
return func(x)
return safe_function
def f(x):
def g(x):
f = check_nonneg(f)
g = check_nonneg(g)
This looks complicated so let’s work through it slowly

To unravel the logic, consider what happens when we say f = check_nonneg(f)
This calls the function check_nonneg with parameter func set equal to f
Now check_nonneg creates a new function called safe_function that verifies x as nonnegative
and then calls func on it (which is the same as f)
Finally, the global name f is then set equal to safe_function
Now the behavior of f is as we desire, and the same is true of g
At the same time, the test logic is written only once
Enter Decorators The last version of our code is still not ideal
For example, if someone is reading our code and wants to know how f works, they will be looking
for the function definition, which is
def f(x):

They may well miss the line f = check_nonneg(f)

For this and other reasons, decorators were introduced to Python
With decorators, we can replace the lines
def f(x):
def g(x):
f = check_nonneg(f)
g = check_nonneg(g)
with
@check_nonneg
def f(x):
@check_nonneg
def g(x):
These two pieces of code do exactly the same thing

If they do the same thing, do we really need decorator syntax?
Well, notice that the decorators sit right on top of the function definitions
Hence anyone looking at the definition of the function will see them and be aware that the function
is modified
In the opinion of many people, this makes the decorator syntax a significant improvement to the
language
Descriptors Descriptors solve a common problem regarding management of variables

To understand the issue, consider a Car class, that simulates a car
Suppose that this class defines the variables miles and kms, which give the distance traveled in
miles and kilometers respectively
A highly simplified version of the class might look as follows
class Car(object):
def __init__(self, miles=1000):

self.miles = miles
self.kms = miles * 1.61
# Some other functionality, details omitted
One potential problem we might have here is that a user alters one of these variables but not the
other

In [2]: car = Car()
In [3]: car.miles
Out[3]: 1000
In [4]: car.kms
Out[4]: 1610.0
In [5]: car.miles = 6000
In [6]: car.kms
Out[6]: 1610.0
In the last two lines we see that miles and kms are out of sync
What we really want is some mechanism whereby each time a user sets one of these variables, the
other is automatically updated
A Solution In Python, this issue is solved using descriptors

A descriptor is just a Python object that implements certain methods
These methods are triggered when the object is accessed through dotted attribute notation
The best way to understand this is to see it in action
Consider this alternative version of the Car class
class Car(object):

self._miles = miles
self._kms = miles * 1.61
def set_miles(self, value):

self._miles = value
self._kms = value * 1.61
def set_kms(self, value):

self._kms = value
self._miles = value / 1.61
def get_miles(self):
return self._miles
def get_kms(self):
return self._kms
miles = property(get_miles, set_miles)

kms = property(get_kms, set_kms)
First let’s check that we get the desired behavior

In [8]: car = Car()
In [9]: car.miles
Out[9]: 1000
In [10]: car.miles = 6000
In [11]: car.kms
Out[11]: 9660.0
Yep, that’s what we want — car.kms is automatically updated
How it Works The names _miles and _kms are arbitrary names we are using to store the values
of the variables
The objects miles and kms are properties, a common kind of descriptor
The methods get_miles, set_miles, get_kms and set_kms define what happens when you get (i.e.
access) or set (bind) these variables
• So-called “getter” and “setter” methods
The builtin Python function property takes getter and setter methods and creates a property
For example, after car is created as an instance of Car, the object car.miles is a property
Being a property, when we set its value via car.miles = 6000 its setter method is triggered — in
this case set_miles
Decorators and Properties These days its very common to see the property function used via a
decorator
Here’s another version of our Car class that works as before but now uses decorators to set up the
properties
class Car(object):

self._miles = miles
self._kms = miles * 1.61
@property
def miles(self):
return self._miles
@property
def kms(self):
return self._kms
@miles.setter
def miles(self, value):
self._miles = value
self._kms = value * 1.61

@kms.setter
def kms(self, value):
self._kms = value
self._miles = value / 1.61
We won’t go through all the details here

For further information you can refer to the descriptor documentation
Generators
A generator is a kind of iterator (i.e., it works with a next function)

We will study two ways to build generators: generator expressions and generator functions
Generator Expressions The easiest way to build generators is using generator expressions
Just like a list comprehension, but with round brackets
Here is the list comprehension:
In [1]: singular = ('dog', 'cat', 'bird')
In [2]: type(singular)
Out[2]: tuple
In [3]: plural = [string + 's' for string in singular]
In [4]: plural
Out[4]: ['dogs', 'cats', 'birds']
In [5]: type(plural)
Out[5]: list
And here is the generator expression

In [6]: singular = ('dog', 'cat', 'bird')
In [7]: plural = (string + 's' for string in singular)
In [8]: type(plural)
Out[8]: generator
In [9]: next(plural)
Out[9]: 'dogs'
Out[10]: 'cats'
Out[11]: 'birds'

Since sum() can be called on iterators, we can do this

In [12]: sum((x * x for x in range(10)))
Out[12]: 285
The function sum() calls next() to get the items, adds successive terms
In fact, we can omit the outer brackets in this case
In [13]: sum(x * x for x in range(10))
Out[13]: 285
Generator Functions The most flexible way to create generator objects is to use generator func-
tions
Let’s look at some examples
Example 1 Here’s a very simple example of a generator function

def f():
yield 'start'
yield 'middle'
yield 'end'
It looks like a function, but uses a keyword yield that we haven’t met before
Let’s see how it works after running this code
In [15]: type(f)
Out[15]: function
In [16]: gen = f()
In [17]: gen
Out[17]: <generator object f at 0x3b66a50>
In [18]: next(gen)
Out[18]: 'start'
In [19]: next(gen)
Out[19]: 'middle'
In [20]: next(gen)
Out[20]: 'end'
In [21]: next(gen)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
<ipython-input-21-b2c61ce5e131> in <module>()
----> 1 gen.next()
StopIteration:

The generator function f() is used to create generator objects (in this case gen)
Generators are iterators, because they support a next method
The first call to next(gen)
• Executes code in the body of f() until it meets a yield statement
• Returns that value to the caller of next(gen)
The second call to next(gen) starts executing from the next line
def f():
yield 'start'
yield 'middle' # This line!
yield 'end'
and continues until the next yield statement

At that point it returns the value following yield to the caller of next(gen), and so on
When the code block ends, the generator throws a StopIteration error
Example 2 Our next example receives an argument x from the caller

def g(x):
while x < 100:
yield x
x = x * x
Let’s see how it works

In [24]: g
Out[24]: <function __main__.g>
In [25]: gen = g(2)
In [26]: type(gen)
Out[26]: generator
In [27]: next(gen)
Out[27]: 2
In [28]: next(gen)
Out[28]: 4
In [29]: next(gen)
Out[29]: 16
In [30]: next(gen)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
<ipython-input-32-b2c61ce5e131> in <module>()
----> 1 gen.next()

StopIteration:
The call gen = g(2) binds gen to a generator

Inside the generator, the name x is bound to 2
When we call next(gen)
• The body of g() executes until the line yield x, and the value of x is returned
Note that value of x is retained inside the generator
When we call next(gen) again, execution continues from where it left off
def g(x):
while x < 100:
yield x
x = x * x # execution continues from here
When x < 100 fails, the generator throws a StopIteration error

Incidentally, the loop inside the generator can be infinite
def g(x):
while 1:
yield x
x = x * x
Advantages of Iterators What’s the advantage of using an iterator here?

Suppose we want to sample a binomial(n,0.5)
One way to do it is as follows
In [32]: n = 10000000
In [33]: draws = [random.uniform(0, 1) < 0.5 for i in range(n)]
In [34]: sum(draws)
But we are creating two huge lists here, range(n) and draws
This uses lots of memory and is very slow
If we make n even bigger then this happens
In [35]: n = 1000000000
In [36]: draws = [random.uniform(0, 1) < 0.5 for i in range(n)]

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
MemoryError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-9-20d1ec1dae24> in <module>()
----> 1 draws = [random.uniform(0, 1) < 0.5 for i in range(n)]

We can avoid these problems using iterators

Here is the generator function
import random
def f(n):
i = 1
while i <= n:
yield random.uniform(0, 1) < 0.5
i += 1
Now let’s do the sum

In [39]: n = 10000000
In [40]: draws = f(n)
In [41]: draws
Out[41]: <generator object at 0xb7d8b2cc>
In [42]: sum(draws)
Out[42]: 4999141
In summary, iterables
• avoid the need to create big lists/tuples, and
• provide a uniform interface to iteration that can be used transparently in for loops
Recursive Function Calls
This is not something that you will use every day, but it is still useful — you should learn it at
some stage
Basically, a recursive function is a function that calls itself
For example, consider the problem of computing xt for some t when
xt+1 = 2xt , x0 = 1 (1.6)
Obviously the answer is 2t

We can compute this easily enough with a loop
def x_loop(t):
x = 1
for i in range(t):
x = 2 * x
return x
We can also use a recursive solution, as follows

def x(t):
if t == 0:
return 1

else:
return 2 * x(t-1)
What happens here is that each successive call uses it’s own frame in the stack
• a frame is where the local variables of a given function call are held
• stack is memory used to process function calls
– a First In Last Out (FILO) queue
This example is somewhat contrived, since the first (iterative) solution would usually be preferred
to the recursive solution
We’ll meet less contrived applications of recursion later on
Exercises
Exercise 1 The Fibonacci numbers are defined by
x t +1 = x t + x t −1 , x0 = 0, x1 = 1 (1.7)
The first few numbers in the sequence are: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55
Write a function to recursively compute the t-th Fibonacci number for any t
Exercise 2 Complete the following code, and test it using this csv file, which we assume that
you’ve put in your current working directory
def column_iterator(target_file, column_number):
"""A generator function for CSV files.
When called with a file name target_file (string) and column number
column_number (integer), the generator function returns a generator
that steps through the elements of column column_number in file
target_file.
"""
# put your code here
dates = column_iterator('test_table.csv', 1)
for date in dates:

print(date)
Exercise 3 Suppose we have a text file numbers.txt containing the following lines
prices
3
8
7
21

1.8. NUMPY 112
Using try – except, write a program to read in the contents of the file and sum the numbers,
ignoring lines without numbers
Solutions
Solution notebook
1.8 NumPy
Contents
• NumPy
– Overview
– Introduction to NumPy
– NumPy Arrays
– Operations on Arrays
– Other NumPy Functions
– Exercises
– Solutions
“Let’s be clear: the work of science has nothing whatever to do with consensus. Con-
sensus is the business of politics. Science, on the contrary, requires only one investiga-
tor who happens to be right, which means that he or she has results that are verifiable
by reference to the real world. In science consensus is irrelevant. What is relevant is
reproducible results.” – Michael Crichton
Overview
NumPy is a first-rate library for numerical programming

• Widely used in academia, finance and industry
• Mature, fast and and stable
In this lecture we introduce the NumPy array data type and fundamental array processing opera-
tions
We assume that NumPy is installed on the machine you are using—see this page for instructions
References
• The official NumPy documentation

1.8. NUMPY 113
Introduction to NumPy
The essential problem that NumPy solves is fast array processing

This is necessary main because iteration via loops in interpreted languages (Python, MATLAB,
Ruby, etc.) is relative slow
Reason: interpreted languages convert commands to machine code and execute them one by
one—a difficult process to optimize
Loops in compiled languages like C and Fortran can be orders of magnitude faster
Does that mean that we should just switch to C or Fortran for everything?
The answer is no, no and no, no matter what your peers might tell you
High productivity languages should be chosen over high speed languages for the great majority
of tasks — see this discussion
But it does mean that we need libaries like NumPy, through which operations can be sent in batches
to optimized C and Fortran code
The objective of this lecture is to provide a fast paced introduction to the basics
(If any points are unclear you can always turn to the official documentation)
Let’s begin by considering NumPy arrays, which power almost all of the scientific Python ecosys-
tem
NumPy Arrays
The most important thing that NumPy defines is an array data type formally called a
numpy.ndarray
For example, the np.zeros function returns an numpy.ndarray of zeros
In [2]: a = np.zeros(3)
In [3]: a
Out[3]: array([ 0., 0., 0.])
In [4]: type(a)
Out[4]: numpy.ndarray
NumPy arrays are somewhat like native Python lists, except that
• Data must be homogeneous (all elements of the same type)
• These types must be one of the data types (dtypes) provided by NumPy
The most important of these dtypes are:
• float64: 64 bit floating point number

1.8. NUMPY 114
• float32: 32 bit floating point number

• int64: 64 bit integer
• int32: 32 bit integer
• bool: 8 bit True or False
There are also dtypes to represent complex numbers, unsigned integers, etc
On most machines, the default dtype for arrays is float64
In [7]: a = np.zeros(3)
In [8]: type(a[0])
Out[8]: numpy.float64
If we want to use integers we can specify as follows:

In [9]: a = np.zeros(3, dtype=int)
In [10]: type(a[0])
Out[10]: numpy.int32
Shape and Dimension When we create an array such as

In [11]: z = np.zeros(10)
z is a “flat” array with no dimension — it is neither row nor column vector

The dimension is recorded in the shape attribute, which is a tuple
In [12]: z.shape
Out[12]: (10,) # Note syntax for tuple with one element
Here the shape tuple has only one element, which is the length of the array (tuples with one
element end with a comma)
To give it dimension, we can change the shape attribute
In [13]: z.shape = (10, 1)
In [14]: z
Out[14]:
array([[ 0.],
[ 0.],
[ 0.],
[ 0.],
[ 0.],
[ 0.],
[ 0.],
[ 0.],
[ 0.],
[ 0.]])

1.8. NUMPY 115
In [15]: z = np.zeros(4)
In [16]: z.shape = (2, 2)
In [17]: z
Out[17]:
array([[ 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0.]])
In the last case, to make the 2 by 2 array, we could also pass a tuple to the zeros() function, as in
z = np.zeros((2, 2))
Creating Arrays As we’ve seen, the np.zeros function creates an array of zeros
You can probably guess what np.ones creates
Related is np.empty, which creates arrays in memory that can later be populated with data
In [18]: z = np.empty(3)
In [19]: z
Out[19]: array([ 8.90030222e-307, 4.94944794e+173, 4.04144187e-262])
The numbers you see here are garbage values

(Python allocates 3 contiguous 64 bit pieces of memory, and the existing contents of those memory
slots are interpreted as float64 values)
To set up a grid of evenly spaced numbers use np.linspace
In [20]: z = np.linspace(2, 4, 5) # From 2 to 4, with 5 elements
To create an identity matrix use either np.identity or np.eye

In [21]: z = np.identity(2)
In [22]: z
Out[22]:
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 1.]])
In addition, NumPy arrays can be created from Python lists, tuples, etc. using np.array
In [23]: z = np.array([10, 20]) # ndarray from Python list
In [24]: z
Out[24]: array([10, 20])
In [25]: type(z)
In [26]: z = np.array((10, 20), dtype=float) # Here 'float' is equivalent to 'np.float64'
In [27]: z

1.8. NUMPY 116
Out[27]: array([ 10., 20.])
In [28]: z = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]]) # 2D array from a list of lists
In [29]: z
Out[29]:
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
See also np.asarray, which performs a similar function, but does not make a distinct copy of data
already in a NumPy array
In [11]: na = np.linspace(10, 20, 2)
In [12]: na is np.asarray(na) # Does not copy NumPy arrays

Out[12]: True
In [13]: na is np.array(na) # Does make a new copy --- perhaps unnecessarily

Out[13]: False
To read in the array data from a text file containing numeric data use np.loadtxt or
np.genfromtxt—see the documentation for details
Array Indexing For a flat array, indexing is the same as Python sequences:
In [30]: z = np.linspace(1, 2, 5)
In [31]: z
Out[31]: array([ 1. , 1.25, 1.5 , 1.75, 2. ])
In [32]: z[0]
Out[32]: 1.0
In [33]: z[0:2] # Slice numbering is left closed, right open

Out[33]: array([ 1. , 1.25])
In [34]: z[-1]
Out[34]: 2.0
For 2D arrays the index syntax is as follows:

In [35]: z = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
In [36]: z
Out[36]:
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
In [37]: z[0, 0]
Out[37]: 1
In [38]: z[0, 1]
Out[38]: 2

1.8. NUMPY 117
And so on
Note that indices are still zero-based, to maintain compatibility with Python sequences
Columns and rows can be extracted as follows
In [39]: z[0,:]
Out[39]: array([1, 2])
In [40]: z[:,1]
Out[40]: array([2, 4])
NumPy arrays of integers can also be used to extract elements

In [41]: z = np.linspace(2, 4, 5)
In [42]: z
Out[42]: array([ 2. , 2.5, 3. , 3.5, 4. ])
In [43]: indices = np.array((0, 2, 3))
In [44]: z[indices]
Out[44]: array([ 2. , 3. , 3.5])
Finally, an array of dtype bool can be used to extract elements

In [45]: z
Out[45]: array([ 2. , 2.5, 3. , 3.5, 4. ])
In [46]: d = np.array([0, 1, 1, 0, 0], dtype=bool)
In [47]: d
Out[47]: array([False, True, True, False, False], dtype=bool)
In [48]: z[d]
Out[48]: array([ 2.5, 3. ])
We’ll see why this is useful below

An aside: all elements of an array can be set equal to one number using slice notation
In [49]: z = np.empty(3)
In [50]: z
Out[50]: array([ -1.25236750e-041, 0.00000000e+000, 5.45693855e-313])
In [51]: z[:] = 42
In [52]: z
Out[52]: array([ 42., 42., 42.])
Array Methods Arrays have useful methods, all of which are highly optimized

1.8. NUMPY 118
In [53]: A = np.array((4, 3, 2, 1))
In [54]: A
Out[54]: array([4, 3, 2, 1])
In [55]: A.sort() # Sorts A in place
In [56]: A
Out[56]: array([1, 2, 3, 4])
In [57]: A.sum() # Sum

Out[57]: 10
In [58]: A.mean() # Mean

Out[58]: 2.5
In [59]: A.max() # Max

Out[59]: 4
In [60]: A.argmax() # Returns the index of the maximal element

Out[60]: 3
In [61]: A.cumsum() # Cumulative sum of the elements of A

Out[61]: array([ 1, 3, 6, 10])
In [62]: A.cumprod() # Cumulative product of the elements of A

Out[62]: array([ 1, 2, 6, 24])
In [63]: A.var() # Variance

Out[63]: 1.25
In [64]: A.std() # Standard deviation

Out[64]: 1.1180339887498949
In [65]: A.shape = (2, 2)
In [66]: A.T # Equivalent to A.transpose()

Out[66]:
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
Another method worth knowing is searchsorted()

If z is a nondecreasing array, then z.searchsorted(a) returns index of first z in z such that z >=
a
In [67]: z = np.linspace(2, 4, 5)
In [68]: z
Out[68]: array([ 2. , 2.5, 3. , 3.5, 4. ])
In [69]: z.searchsorted(2.2)
Out[69]: 1

1.8. NUMPY 119
Out[70]: 1
Out[71]: 2
Many of the methods discussed above have equivalent functions in the NumPy namespace
In [72]: a = np.array((4, 3, 2, 1))
In [73]: np.sum(a)
Out[73]: 10
In [74]: np.mean(a)
Out[74]: 2.5
Operations on Arrays
Algebraic Operations The algebraic operators +, -, *, / and ** all act elementwise on arrays
In [75]: a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
In [76]: b = np.array([5, 6, 7, 8])
In [77]: a + b
Out[77]: array([ 6, 8, 10, 12])
In [78]: a * b
Out[78]: array([ 5, 12, 21, 32])
We can add a scalar to each element as follows

In [79]: a + 10
Out[79]: array([11, 12, 13, 14])
Scalar multiplication is similar

In [81]: a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
In [82]: a * 10
Out[82]: array([10, 20, 30, 40])
The two dimensional arrays follow the same general rules

In [86]: A = np.ones((2, 2))
In [87]: B = np.ones((2, 2))
In [88]: A + B
Out[88]:
array([[ 2., 2.],
[ 2., 2.]])

1.8. NUMPY 120
In [89]: A + 10
Out[89]:
array([[ 11., 11.],
[ 11., 11.]])
In [90]: A * B
Out[90]:
array([[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]])
In particular, A * B is not the matrix product, it is an elementwise product
Matrix Multiplication To perform matrix multiplication, one typically uses the np.dot function
In [137]: A = np.ones((2, 2))
In [138]: B = np.ones((2, 2))
In [139]: np.dot(A, B)
Out[139]:
array([[ 2., 2.],
[ 2., 2.]])
With np.dot we can also take the inner product of two flat arrays
In [91]: A = np.array([1, 2])
In [92]: B = np.array([10, 20])
In [93]: np.dot(A, B) # Returns a scalar in this case

Out[93]: 50
In fact we can use dot when one element is a Python list or tuple
In [94]: A = np.empty((2, 2))
In [95]: A
Out[95]:
array([[ 3.48091887e-262, 1.14802984e-263],
[ 3.61513512e-313, -1.25232371e-041]])
In [96]: np.dot(A, (0, 1))

Out[96]: array([ 1.14802984e-263, -1.25232371e-041])
Here dot knows we are postmultiplying, so (0, 1) is treated as a column vector
Note: Because np.dot can be inconvenient for expressions involving the multiplication of many
matricies, NumPy provides the numpy.matrix class. For instances of this data type, the * operator
means matrix (as opposed to elementwise) multiplication. However, it’s easy to get mixed up
between NumPy arrays and NumPy matrices. For this reason, the numpy.matrix type is avoided
by many programmers, including us.

1.8. NUMPY 121
Comparisons As a rule, comparisons on arrays are done elementwise

In [97]: z = np.array([2, 3])
In [98]: y = np.array([2, 3])
In [99]: z == y
Out[99]: array([ True, True], dtype=bool)
In [100]: y[0] = 5
In [101]: z == y
Out[101]: array([False, True], dtype=bool)
In [102]: z != y
Out[102]: array([ True, False], dtype=bool)
The situation is similar for >, <, >= and <=

We can also do comparisons against scalars
In [103]: z = np.linspace(0, 10, 5)
In [104]: z
Out[104]: array([ 0. , 2.5, 5. , 7.5, 10. ])
In [105]: z > 3
Out[105]: array([False, False, True, True, True], dtype=bool)
This is particularly useful for conditional extraction

In [106]: b = z > 3
In [107]: b
Out[107]: array([False, False, True, True, True], dtype=bool)
In [108]: z[b]
Out[108]: array([ 5. , 7.5, 10. ])
Of course we can—and frequently do—perform this in one step

In [109]: z[z > 3]
Out[109]: array([ 5. , 7.5, 10. ])
Vectorized Functions NumPy provides versions of the standard functions log, exp, sin, etc. that
act elementwise on arrays
In [110]: z = np.array([1, 2, 3])
In [111]: np.sin(z)
Out[111]: array([ 0.84147098, 0.90929743, 0.14112001])
This eliminates the need for explicit element-by-element loops such as

1.8. NUMPY 122
for i in range(n):
y[i] = np.sin(z[i])
Because they act elementwise on arrays, these functions are called vectorized functions
In NumPy-speak, they are also called ufuncs, which stands for “universal functions”
As we saw above, the usual arithmetic operations (+, *, etc.) also work elementwise, and combin-
ing these with the ufuncs gives a very large set of fast elementwise functions
In [112]: z
Out[112]: array([1, 2, 3])
In [113]: (1 / np.sqrt(2 * np.pi)) * np.exp(- 0.5 * z**2)

Out[113]: array([ 0.24197072, 0.05399097, 0.00443185])
Not all user defined functions will act elementwise

For example, passing this function a NumPy array causes a ValueError
def f(x):
return 1 if x > 0 else 0
In this situation you should use the vectorized NumPy function np.where
In [115]: x = np.random.randn(4)
In [116]: x
Out[116]: array([-0.25521782, 0.38285891, -0.98037787, -0.083662 ])
In [117]: np.where(x > 0, 1, 0) # Insert 1 if x > 0 true, otherwise 0

Out[117]: array([0, 1, 0, 0])
Although it’s usually better to hand code vectorized functions from vectorized NumPy operations,
at a pinch you can use np.vectorize
In [118]: def f(x): return 1 if x > 0 else 0
In [119]: f = np.vectorize(f)
In [120]: f(x) # Passing same vector x as previous example

Out[120]: array([0, 1, 0, 0])
Other NumPy Functions
NumPy provides some additional functionality related to scientific programming

For example
In [131]: A = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

1.8. NUMPY 123
In [132]: np.linalg.det(A) # Compute the determinant

Out[132]: -2.0000000000000004
In [133]: np.linalg.inv(A) # Compute the inverse

Out[133]:
array([[-2. , 1. ],
[ 1.5, -0.5]])
In [134]: Z = np.random.randn(10000) # Generate standard normals
In [135]: y = np.random.binomial(10, 0.5, size=1000) # 1,000 draws from Bin(10, 0.5)
In [136]: y.mean()
Out[136]: 5.0369999999999999
However, all of this functionality is also available in SciPy, a collection of modules that build on
top of NumPy
We’ll cover the SciPy versions in more detail soon
Exercises
Exercise 1 Consider the polynomial expression

N
p ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · a N x N = ∑ an x n (1.8)
n =0
Earlier, you wrote a simple function p(x, coeff) to evaluate (1.8) without considering efficiency
Now write a new function that does the same job, but uses NumPy arrays and array operations
for its computations, rather than any form of Python loop
(Such functionality is already implemented as np.poly1d, but for the sake of the exercise don’t use
this class)
• Hint: Use np.cumprod()
Exercise 2 Let q be a NumPy array of length n with q.sum() == 1

Suppose that q represents a probability mass function
We wish to generate a discrete random variable x such that P{ x = i } = qi
In other words, x takes values in range(len(q)) and x = i with probability q[i]
The standard (inverse transform) algorithm is as follows:
• Divide the unit interval [0, 1] into n subintervals I0 , I1 , . . . , In−1 such that the length of Ii is qi
• Draw a uniform random variable U on [0, 1] and return the i such that U ∈ Ii
The probability of drawing i is the length of Ii , which is equal to qi
We can implement the algorithm as follows

1.9. SCIPY 124
def sample(q):
a = 0.0
U = uniform(0, 1)
for i in range(len(q)):
if a < U <= a + q[i]:
return i
a = a + q[i]
If you can’t see how this works, try thinking through the flow for a simple example, such as q =
[0.25, 0.75] It helps to sketch the intervals on paper
Your exercise is to speed it up using NumPy, avoiding explicit loops
• Hint: Use np.searchsorted and np.cumsum
If you can, implement the functionality as a class called discreteRV, where
• the data for an instance of the class is the vector of probabilities q
• the class has a draw() method, which returns one draw according to the algorithm described
above
If you can, write the method so that draw(k) returns k draws from q
Exercise 3 Recall our earlier discussion of the empirical distribution function

Your task is to
1. Make the __call__ method more efficient using NumPy
2. Add a method that plots the ECDF over [ a, b], where a and b are method parameters
Solutions
Solution notebook
1.9 SciPy

1.9. SCIPY 125
Contents
• SciPy
– SciPy versus NumPy
– Statistics
– Roots and Fixed Points
– Optimization
– Integration
– Linear Algebra
– Exercises
– Solutions
SciPy builds on top of NumPy to provide common tools for scientific programming, such as
• linear algebra
• numerical integration
• interpolation
• optimization
• distributions and random number generation
• signal processing
• etc., etc
Like NumPy, SciPy is stable, mature and widely used
Many SciPy routines are thin wrappers around industry-standard Fortran libraries such as LA-
PACK, BLAS, etc.
It’s not really necessary to “learn” SciPy as a whole—a better approach is to learn each relevant
feature as required
You can browse from the top of the documentation tree to see what’s available
In this lecture we aim only to highlight some useful parts of the package
SciPy versus NumPy
SciPy is a package that contains various tools that are built on top of NumPy, using its array data
type and related functionality
In fact, when we import SciPy we also get NumPy, as can be seen from the SciPy initialization file
# Import numpy symbols to scipy name space
from numpy import *
from numpy.random import rand, randn
from numpy.fft import fft, ifft
from numpy.lib.scimath import *
# Remove the linalg imported from numpy so that the scipy.linalg package can be
# imported.
del linalg

1.9. SCIPY 126
The majority of SciPy’s functionality resides in its subpackages

• scipy.optimize, scipy.integrate, scipy.stats, etc.
We will review the major subpackages below
Note that these subpackages need to be imported separately
import scipy.optimize
Although SciPy imports NumPy, the standard approach is to start scientific programs with
import numpy as np
and then import bits and pieces from SciPy as needed

from scipy.optimize import brentq
# etc
This approach helps clarify what functionality belongs to what package, and we will follow it in
these lectures
Statistics
The scipy.stats subpackage supplies

• numerous random variable objects (densities, cumulative distributions, random sampling,
etc.)
• some estimation procedures
• some statistical tests
Random Variables and Distributions Recall that numpy.random provides functions for generat-
ing random variables
In [2]: np.random.beta(5, 5, size=3)

Out[2]: array([ 0.6167565 , 0.67994589, 0.32346476])
This generates a draw from the distribution below when a, b = 5, 5
x ( a −1) (1 − x ) ( b −1)
f ( x; a, b) = R 1 (0 ≤ x ≤ 1) (1.9)
0
u(a−1) u(b−1) du
Sometimes we need access to the density itself, or the cdf, the quantiles, etc.
For this we can use scipy.stats, which provides all of this functionality as well as random num-
ber generation in a single consistent interface

1.9. SCIPY 127

import numpy as np
from scipy.stats import beta
from matplotlib.pyplot import hist, plot, show
q = beta(5, 5) # Beta(a, b), with a = b = 5
obs = q.rvs(2000) # 2000 observations
hist(obs, bins=40, normed=True)
grid = np.linspace(0.01, 0.99, 100)
plot(grid, q.pdf(grid), 'k-', linewidth=2)
show()
The following plot is produced
In this code we created a so-called rv_frozen object, via the call q = beta(5, 5)
The “frozen” part of the notation related to the fact that q represents a particular distribution with
a particular set of parameters
Once we’ve done so, we can then generate random numbers, evaluate the density, etc., all from
this fixed distribution
In [14]: q.cdf(0.4) # Cumulative distribution function
Out[14]: 0.2665676800000002

1.9. SCIPY 128
In [15]: q.pdf(0.4) # Density function

Out[15]: 2.0901888000000004
In [16]: q.ppf(0.8) # Quantile (inverse cdf) function

Out[16]: 0.63391348346427079
In [17]: q.mean()
Out[17]: 0.5
The general syntax for creating these objects is

identifier = scipy.stats.distribution_name(shape_parameters)
where distribution_name is one of the distribution names in scipy.stats

There are also two keyword arguments, loc and scale:
identifier = scipy.stats.distribution_name(shape_parameters, loc=c, scale=d)
These transform the original random variable X into Y = c + dX

The methods rvs, pdf, cdf, etc. are transformed accordingly
Before finishing this section, we note that there is an alternative way of calling the methods de-
scribed above
For example, the previous code can be replaced by
import numpy as np
from scipy.stats import beta
from matplotlib.pyplot import hist, plot, show
obs = beta.rvs(5, 5, size=2000) # 2000 observations
hist(obs, bins=40, normed=True)
grid = np.linspace(0.01, 0.99, 100)
plot(grid, beta.pdf(grid, 5, 5), 'k-', linewidth=2)
show()
Other Goodies in scipy.stats There are also many statistical functions in scipy.stats
For example, scipy.stats.linregress implements simple linear regression
In [19]: from scipy.stats import linregress
In [20]: x = np.random.randn(200)
In [21]: y = 2 * x + 0.1 * np.random.randn(200)
In [22]: gradient, intercept, r_value, p_value, std_err = linregress(x, y)
In [23]: gradient, intercept

Out[23]: (1.9962554379482236, 0.008172822032671799)
To see the full list of statistical functions, consult the documentation

1.9. SCIPY 129
Roots and Fixed Points
A root of a real function f on [ a, b] is an x ∈ [ a, b] such that f ( x ) = 0

For example, if we plot the function
f ( x ) = sin(4( x − 1/4)) + x + x20 − 1 (1.10)
with x ∈ [0, 1] we get
The unique root is approximately 0.408

Let’s consider some numerical techniques for finding roots
Bisection One of the most common algorithms for numerical root finding is bisection
To understand the idea, recall the well known game where
• Player A thinks of a secret number between 1 and 100
• Player B asks if it’s less than 50
– If yes, B asks if it’s less than 25
– If no, B asks if it’s less than 75
And so on
This is bisection
Here’s a fairly simplistic implementation of the algorithm in Python
It works for all sufficiently well behaved increasing continuous functions with f ( a) < 0 < f (b)

1.9. SCIPY 130
def bisect(f, a, b, tol=10e-5):

"""
Implements the bisection root finding algorithm, assuming that f is a
real-valued function on [a, b] satisfying f(a) < 0 < f(b).
"""
lower, upper = a, b
while upper - lower > tol:

middle = 0.5 * (upper + lower)
# === if root is between lower and middle === #
if f(middle) > 0:
lower, upper = lower, middle
# === if root is between middle and upper === #
else:
lower, upper = middle, upper
return 0.5 * (upper + lower)
In fact SciPy provides it’s own bisection function, which we now test using the function f defined
in (1.10)
In [24]: from scipy.optimize import bisect
In [25]: f = lambda x: np.sin(4 * (x - 0.25)) + x + x**20 - 1
In [26]: bisect(f, 0, 1)
Out[26]: 0.40829350427936706
The Newton-Raphson Method Another very common root-finding algorithm is the Newton-
Raphson method
In SciPy this algorithm is implemented by scipy.newton
Unlike bisection, the Newton-Raphson method uses local slope information
This is a double-edged sword:
• When the function is well-behaved, the Newton-Raphson method is faster than bisection
• When the function is less well-behaved, the Newton-Raphson might fail
Let’s investigate this using the same function f , first looking at potential instability
In [27]: from scipy.optimize import newton
In [28]: newton(f, 0.2) # Start the search at initial condition x = 0.2

Out[28]: 0.40829350427935679
In [29]: newton(f, 0.7) # Start the search at x = 0.7 instead

Out[29]: 0.70017000000002816
The second initial condition leads to failure of convergence

On the other hand, using IPython’s timeit magic, we see that newton can be much faster

1.9. SCIPY 131
In [32]: timeit bisect(f, 0, 1)

1000 loops, best of 3: 261 us per loop
In [33]: timeit newton(f, 0.2)

10000 loops, best of 3: 60.2 us per loop
Hybrid Methods So far we have seen that the Newton-Raphson method is fast but not robust
This bisection algorithm is robust but relatively slow
This illustrates a general principle
• If you have specific knowledge about your function, you might be able to exploit it to gen-
erate efficiency
• If not, then algorithm choice involves a trade-off between speed of convergence and robust-
ness
In practice, most default algorithms for root finding, optimization and fixed points use hybrid
methods
These methods typically combine a fast method with a robust method in the following manner:
1. Attempt to use a fast method
2. Check diagnostics
3. If diagnostics are bad, then switch to a more robust algorithm
In scipy.optimize, the function brentq is such a hybrid method, and a good default
In [35]: brentq(f, 0, 1)
Out[35]: 0.40829350427936706
In [36]: timeit brentq(f, 0, 1)

Here the correct solution is found and the speed is almost the same as newton
Multivariate Root Finding Use scipy.optimize.fsolve, a wrapper for a hybrid method in

MINPACK
See the documentation for details
Fixed Points SciPy has a function for finding (scalar) fixed points too
In [1]: from scipy.optimize import fixed_point
In [2]: fixed_point(lambda x: x**2, 10.0) # 10.0 is an initial guess

Out[2]: 1.0
If you don’t get good results, you can always switch back to the brentq root finder, since the fixed
point of a function f is the root of g( x ) := x − f ( x )

1.9. SCIPY 132
Optimization
Most numerical packages provide only functions for minimization

Maximization can be performed by recalling that the maximizer of a function f on domain D is
the minimizer of − f on D
Minimization is closely related to root finding: For smooth functions, interior optima correspond
to roots of the first derivative
The speed/robustness trade-off described above is present with numerical optimization too
Unless you have some prior information you can exploit, it’s usually best to use hybrid methods
For constrained, univariate (i.e., scalar) minimization, a good hybrid option is fminbound
In [9]: from scipy.optimize import fminbound
In [10]: fminbound(lambda x: x**2, -1, 2) # Search in [-1, 2]

Out[10]: 0.0
Multivariate Optimization Multivariate local optimizers include minimize, fmin, fmin_powell,

fmin_cg, fmin_bfgs, and fmin_ncg
Constrained multivariate local optimizers include fmin_l_bfgs_b, fmin_tnc, fmin_cobyla
See the documentation for details
Integration
Most numerical integration methods work by computing the integral of an approximating poly-
nomial
The resulting error depends on how well the polynomial fits the integrand, which in turn depends
on how “regular” the integrand is
In SciPy, the relevant module for numerical integration is scipy.integrate
A good default for univariate integration is quad
In [14]: integral, error = quad(lambda x: x**2, 0, 1)
In [15]: integral
Out[15]: 0.33333333333333337
In fact quad is an interface to a very standard numerical integration routine in the Fortran library
QUADPACK
It uses Clenshaw-Curtis quadrature, based on expansion in terms of Chebychev polynomials
There are other options for univariate integration—a useful one is fixed_quad, which is fast and
hence works well inside for loops

1.10. MATPLOTLIB 133
There are also functions for multivariate integration

See the documentation for more details
Linear Algebra
We saw that NumPy provides a module for linear algebra called linalg
SciPy also provides a module for linear algebra with the same name
The latter is not an exact superset of the former, but overall it has more functionality
We leave you to investigate the set of available routines
Exercises
Exercise 1 Recall that we previously discussed the concept of recusive function calls
Write a recursive implementation of the bisection function described above, which we repeat here
for convenience
def bisect(f, a, b, tol=10e-5):
"""
Implements the bisection root finding algorithm, assuming that f is a
real-valued function on [a, b] satisfying f(a) < 0 < f(b).
"""
lower, upper = a, b
while upper - lower > tol:

middle = 0.5 * (upper + lower)
# === if root is between lower and middle === #
if f(middle) > 0:
lower, upper = lower, middle
# === if root is between middle and upper === #
else:
lower, upper = middle, upper
return 0.5 * (upper + lower)
Test it on the function f = lambda x: np.sin(4 * (x - 0.25)) + x + x**20 - 1 discussed

above
Solutions
Solution notebook
1.10 Matplotlib

Contents
• Matplotlib
– Overview
– A Simple API
– The Object-Oriented API
– More Features
– Further Reading
Overview
We’ve already generated quite a few figures in these lectures using Matplotlib
Matplotlib is an outstanding graphics library, designed for scientific computing, with
• high quality 2D and 3D plots
• output in all the usual formats (PDF, PNG, etc.)
• LaTeX integration
• animation, etc., etc.
A Simple API
Matplotlib is very easy to get started with, thanks to its simple MATLAB-style API (Application
Progamming Interface)
Here’s the kind of easy example you might find in introductory treatments
from pylab import * # Depreciated
x = linspace(0, 10, 200)
y = sin(x)
plot(x, y, 'b-', linewidth=2)
show()
Typically this will appear as a separate window, like so

The buttons at the bottom of the window allow you to manipulate the figure and then save it if
you wish
If you’re using IPython notebook you can also have it appear inline, as described here
The pylab module is actually just a few lines of code instructing the interpreter to pull in some
key functionality from matplotlib and numpy
It is in fact depreciated, although still in common use
Also, from pylab import * pulls lots of names into the global namespace, which is a potential
source of name conflicts
An better syntax would be


import numpy as np
x = np.linspace(0, 10, 200)
y = np.sin(x)
plt.plot(x, y, 'b-', linewidth=2)
plt.show()
The Object-Oriented API
The API described above is simple and convenient, but also a bit limited and somewhat un-
Pythonic
For example, in the function calls a lot of objects get created and passed around without making
themselves known to the programmer
Python programmers tend to prefer a more explicit style of programming (type import this in
the IPython (or Python) shell and look at the second line)
This leads us to the alternative, object oriented Matplotlib API
Here’s the code corresponding to the preceding figure using the object oriented API:
import numpy as np
y = np.sin(x)

ax.plot(x, y, 'b-', linewidth=2)

plt.show()
While there’s a bit more typing, the more explicit use of objects gives us more fine-grained control
This will become more clear as we go along
Incidentally, regarding the above lines of code,
• the form of the import statement import matplotlib.pyplot as plt is standard
• Here the call fig, ax = plt.subplots() returns a pair, where
– fig is a Figure instance—like a blank canvas
– ax is an AxesSubplot instance—think of a frame for plotting in
• The plot() function is actually a method of ax
Tweaks Here we’ve changed the line to red and added a legend
import numpy as np
y = np.sin(x)
ax.plot(x, y, 'r-', linewidth=2, label='sine function', alpha=0.6)
ax.legend()
plt.show()

We’ve also used alpha to make the line slightly transparent—which makes it look smoother
Unfortunately the legend is obscuring the line
This can be fixed by replacing ax.legend() with ax.legend(loc=’upper center’)
If everthing is properly configured, then adding LaTeX is trivial

import numpy as np
y = np.sin(x)
ax.plot(x, y, 'r-', linewidth=2, label=r'$y=\sin(x)$', alpha=0.6)
ax.legend(loc='upper center')
plt.show()
The r in front of the label string tells Python that this is a raw string
The figure now looks as follows

Controlling the ticks, adding titles and so on is also straightforward

import numpy as np
y = np.sin(x)
ax.plot(x, y, 'r-', linewidth=2, label=r'$y=\sin(x)$', alpha=0.6)
ax.legend(loc='upper center')
ax.set_yticks([-1, 0, 1])
ax.set_title('Test plot')
plt.show()
Here’s the figure

More Features
Matplotlib has a huge array of functions and features, which you can discover over time as you
have need for them
We mention just a few
Multiple Plots on One Axis It’s straightforward to generate mutiple plots on the same axes
Here’s an example that randomly generates three normal densities and adds a label with their
mean
import numpy as np
from scipy.stats import norm
x = np.linspace(-4, 4, 150)
for i in range(3):
m, s = uniform(-1, 1), uniform(1, 2)
y = norm.pdf(x, loc=m, scale=s)
current_label = r'$\mu = {0:.2f}$'.format(m)
ax.plot(x, y, linewidth=2, alpha=0.6, label=current_label)
ax.legend()
plt.show()

Multiple Subplots Sometimes we want multiple subplots in one figure

Here’s an example that generates 6 histograms
num_rows, num_cols = 3, 2
fig, axes = plt.subplots(num_rows, num_cols, figsize=(8, 12))
for i in range(num_rows):
for j in range(num_cols):
m, s = uniform(-1, 1), uniform(1, 2)
x = norm.rvs(loc=m, scale=s, size=100)
axes[i, j].hist(x, alpha=0.6, bins=20)
t = r'$\mu = {0:.1f}, \quad \sigma = {1:.1f}$'.format(m, s)
axes[i, j].set_title(t)
axes[i, j].set_xticks([-4, 0, 4])
axes[i, j].set_yticks([])
plt.show()
The output looks as follows

In fact the preceding figure was generated by the code above preceded by the following three lines

from matplotlib import rc

rc('font',**{'family':'serif','serif':['Palatino']})
rc('text', usetex=True)
Depending on your LaTeX installation, this may or may not work for you — try experimenting
and see how you go
3D Plots Matplotlib does a nice job of 3D plots — here is one example
The source code is

from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d.axes3d import Axes3D
import numpy as np
from matplotlib import cm
def f(x, y):

return np.cos(x**2 + y**2) / (1 + x**2 + y**2)
xgrid = np.linspace(-3, 3, 50)

ygrid = xgrid
x, y = np.meshgrid(xgrid, ygrid)
fig = plt.figure(figsize=(8, 6))

ax = fig.add_subplot(111, projection='3d')
ax.plot_surface(x,

y,
f(x, y),
rstride=2, cstride=2,
cmap=cm.jet,
alpha=0.7,
linewidth=0.25)
ax.set_zlim(-0.5, 1.0)
plt.show()
A Customizing Function Perhaps you will find a set of customizations that you regularly use
Suppose we usually prefer our axes to go through the origin, and to have a grid
Here’s a nice example from this blog of how the object-oriented API can be used to build a custom
subplots function that implements these changes
Read carefully through the code and see if you can follow what’s going on
import numpy as np
def subplots():
"Custom subplots with axes throught the origin"
# Set the axes through the origin

for spine in ['left', 'bottom']:
ax.spines[spine].set_position('zero')
for spine in ['right', 'top']:
ax.spines[spine].set_color('none')
ax.grid()
return fig, ax
fig, ax = subplots() # Call the local version, not plt.subplots()

x = np.linspace(-2, 10, 200)
y = np.sin(x)
ax.plot(x, y, 'r-', linewidth=2, label='sine function', alpha=0.6)
plt.show()
Here’s the figure it produces (note axes through the origin and the grid)

1.11. PANDAS 144
The custom subplots function

1. calls the standard plt.subplots function internally to generate the fig, ax pair,
2. makes the desired customizations to ax, and
3. passes the fig, ax pair back to the calling code
Further Reading
• The Matplotlib gallery provides many examples

• A nice Matplotlib tutorial by Nicolas Rougier, Mike Muller and Gael Varoquaux
• mpltools allows easy switching between plot styles
• Seaborn facilitates common statistics plots in Matplotlib
1.11 Pandas

1.11. PANDAS 145
Contents
• Pandas
– Overview
– Series
– DataFrames
– On-Line Data Sources
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
Pandas is a package of fast, efficient data analysis tools for Python

Just as NumPy provides the basic array type plus core array operations, pandas defines some
fundamental structures for working with data and endows them with methods that form the first
steps of data analysis
The most important data type defined by pandas is a DataFrame, which is an object for storing
related columns of data
In this sense, you can think of a DataFrame as analogous to a (highly optimized) Excel spreadsheet,
or as a structure for storing the X matrix in a linear regression
In the same way that NumPy specializes in basic array operations and leaves the rest of scientific
tool development to other packages (e.g., SciPy, Matplotlib), pandas focuses on the fundamental
data types and their methods, leaving other packages to add more sophisticated statistical func-
tionality
The strengths of pandas lie in
• reading in data
• manipulating rows and columns
• adjusting indices
• working with dates and time series
• sorting, grouping, re-ordering and general data munging 1
• dealing with missing values, etc., etc.
This lecture will provide a basic introduction
Throughout the lecture we will assume that the following imports have taken place
In [1]: import pandas as pd
1 Wikipedia defines munging as cleaning data from one raw form into a structured, purged one.

1.11. PANDAS 146
Series
Perhaps the two most important data types defined by pandas are the DataFrame and Series types
You can think of a Series as a “column” of data, such as a collection of observations on a single
variable
In [4]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(4), name='daily returns')
In [5]: s
Out[5]:
0 0.430271
1 0.617328
2 -0.265421
3 -0.836113
Name: daily returns
Here you can imagine the indices 0, 1, 2, 3 as indexing four listed companies, and the values
being daily returns on their shares
Pandas Series are built on top of NumPy arrays, and support many similar operations
In [6]: s * 100
Out[6]:
0 43.027108
1 61.732829
2 -26.542104
3 -83.611339
Name: daily returns
In [7]: np.abs(s)
Out[7]:
0 0.430271
1 0.617328
2 0.265421
3 0.836113
Name: daily returns
But Series provide more than NumPy arrays

Not only do they have some additional (statistically oriented) methods
In [8]: s.describe()
Out[8]:
count 4.000000
mean -0.013484
std 0.667092
min -0.836113
25% -0.408094
50% 0.082425
75% 0.477035
max 0.617328
But their indices are more flexible

1.11. PANDAS 147
In [9]: s.index = ['AMZN', 'AAPL', 'MSFT', 'GOOG']
In [10]: s
Out[10]:
AMZN 0.430271
AAPL 0.617328
MSFT -0.265421
GOOG -0.836113
Name: daily returns
Viewed in this way, Series are like fast, efficient Python dictionaries (with the restriction that the
items in the dictionary all have the same type—in this case, floats)
In fact you can use much of the same syntax as Python dictionaries
In [11]: s['AMZN']
Out[11]: 0.43027108469945924
In [12]: s['AMZN'] = 0
In [13]: s
Out[13]:
AMZN 0.000000
AAPL 0.617328
MSFT -0.265421
GOOG -0.836113
Name: daily returns
In [14]: 'AAPL' in s
Out[14]: True
DataFrames
As mentioned above a DataFrame is somewhat like a spreadsheet, or a structure for storing the
data matrix in a regression
While a Series is one individual column of data, a DataFrame is all the columns
Let’s look at an example, reading in data from the CSV file pandas/test_pwt.csv in the applica-
tions repository
Here’s the contents of test_pwt.csv, which is a small excerpt from the Penn World Tables
"country","country isocode","year","POP","XRAT","tcgdp","cc","cg"
"Argentina","ARG","2000","37335.653","0.9995","295072.21869","75.716805379","5.5788042896"
"Australia","AUS","2000","19053.186","1.72483","541804.6521","67.759025993","6.7200975332"
"India","IND","2000","1006300.297","44.9416","1728144.3748","64.575551328","14.072205773"
"Israel","ISR","2000","6114.57","4.07733","129253.89423","64.436450847","10.266688415"
"Malawi","MWI","2000","11801.505","59.543808333","5026.2217836","74.707624181","11.658954494"
"South Africa","ZAF","2000","45064.098","6.93983","227242.36949","72.718710427","5.7265463933"
"United States","USA","2000","282171.957","1","9898700","72.347054303","6.0324539789"
"Uruguay","URY","2000","3219.793","12.099591667","25255.961693","78.978740282","5.108067988"

1.11. PANDAS 148
Here we’re in IPython, so we have access to shell commands such as ls, as well as the usual
Python commands
In [15]: ls data/test_pw* # List all files starting with 'test_pw' -- check CSV file is in present work
test_pwt.csv
Now let’s read the data in using pandas’ read_csv function

In [28]: df = pd.read_csv('data/test_pwt.csv')
In [29]: type(df)
Out[29]: pandas.core.frame.DataFrame
In [30]: df
Out[30]:
country country isocode year POP XRAT tcgdp cc cg
0 Argentina ARG 2000 37335.653 0.999500 295072.218690 0 75.716805 5.578804
1 Australia AUS 2000 19053.186 1.724830 541804.652100 1 67.759026 6.720098
2 India IND 2000 1006300.297 44.941600 1728144.374800 2 64.575551 14.072206
3 Israel ISR 2000 6114.570 4.077330 129253.894230 3 64.436451 10.266688
4 Malawi MWI 2000 11801.505 59.543808 5026.221784 4 74.707624 11.658954
5 South Africa ZAF 2000 45064.098 6.939830 227242.369490 5 72.718710 5.726546
6 United States USA 2000 282171.957 1.000000 9898700.000000 6 72.347054 6.032454
7 Uruguay URY 2000 3219.793 12.099592 25255.961693 7 78.978740 5.108068
We can select particular rows using standard Python array slicing notation
In [13]: df[2:5]
Out[13]:
country country isocode year POP XRAT tcgdp cc cg
2 India IND 2000 1006300.297 44.941600 1728144.374800 64.575551 14.072206
3 Israel ISR 2000 6114.570 4.077330 129253.894230 64.436451 10.266688
4 Malawi MWI 2000 11801.505 59.543808 5026.221784 74.707624 11.658954
To select columns, we can pass a list containing the names of the desired columns represented as
strings
In [14]: df[['country', 'tcgdp']]
Out[14]:
country tcgdp
0 Argentina 295072.218690
1 Australia 541804.652100
2 India 1728144.374800
3 Israel 129253.894230
4 Malawi 5026.221784
5 South Africa 227242.369490
6 United States 9898700.000000
7 Uruguay 25255.961693
To select a mix of both we can use the ix attribute

In [21]: df.ix[2:5, ['country', 'tcgdp']]
Out[21]:
country tcgdp

1.11. PANDAS 149
2 India 1728144.374800
3 Israel 129253.894230
4 Malawi 5026.221784
5 South Africa 227242.369490
Let’s imagine that we’re only interested in population and total GDP (tcgdp)
One way to strip the data frame df down to only these variables is as follows
In [31]: keep = ['country', 'POP', 'tcgdp']
In [32]: df = df[keep]
In [33]: df
Out[33]:
country POP tcgdp
0 Argentina 37335.653 295072.218690
1 Australia 19053.186 541804.652100
2 India 1006300.297 1728144.374800
3 Israel 6114.570 129253.894230
4 Malawi 11801.505 5026.221784
5 South Africa 45064.098 227242.369490
6 United States 282171.957 9898700.000000
7 Uruguay 3219.793 25255.961693
Here the index 0, 1,..., 7 is redundant, because we can use the country names as an index
To do this, first let’s pull out the country column using the pop method
In [34]: countries = df.pop('country')
In [35]: type(countries)
Out[35]: pandas.core.series.Series
In [36]: countries
Out[36]:
0 Argentina
1 Australia
2 India
3 Israel
4 Malawi
5 South Africa
6 United States
7 Uruguay
Name: country
In [37]: df
Out[37]:
POP tcgdp
0 37335.653 295072.218690
1 19053.186 541804.652100
2 1006300.297 1728144.374800
3 6114.570 129253.894230
4 11801.505 5026.221784

1.11. PANDAS 150
5 45064.098 227242.369490
6 282171.957 9898700.000000
7 3219.793 25255.961693
In [38]: df.index = countries
In [39]: df
Out[39]:
POP tcgdp
country
Argentina 37335.653 295072.218690
Australia 19053.186 541804.652100
India 1006300.297 1728144.374800
Israel 6114.570 129253.894230
Malawi 11801.505 5026.221784
South Africa 45064.098 227242.369490
United States 282171.957 9898700.000000
Uruguay 3219.793 25255.961693
Let’s give the columns slightly better names

In [40]: df.columns = 'population', 'total GDP'
In [41]: df
Out[41]:
population total GDP
country
Argentina 37335.653 295072.218690
Australia 19053.186 541804.652100
India 1006300.297 1728144.374800
Israel 6114.570 129253.894230
Malawi 11801.505 5026.221784
South Africa 45064.098 227242.369490
United States 282171.957 9898700.000000
Uruguay 3219.793 25255.961693
Population is in thousands, let’s revert to single units

In [66]: df['population'] = df['population'] * 1e3
In [67]: df
Out[67]:
population total GDP
country
Argentina 37335653 295072.218690
Australia 19053186 541804.652100
India 1006300297 1728144.374800
Israel 6114570 129253.894230
Malawi 11801505 5026.221784
South Africa 45064098 227242.369490
United States 282171957 9898700.000000
Uruguay 3219793 25255.961693
Next we’re going to add a column showing real GDP per capita, multiplying by 1,000,000 as we

1.11. PANDAS 151
go because total GDP is in millions

In [74]: df['GDP percap'] = df['total GDP'] * 1e6 / df['population']
In [75]: df
Out[75]:
population total GDP GDP percap
country
Argentina 37335653 295072.218690 7903.229085
Australia 19053186 541804.652100 28436.433261
India 1006300297 1728144.374800 1717.324719
Israel 6114570 129253.894230 21138.672749
Malawi 11801505 5026.221784 425.896679
South Africa 45064098 227242.369490 5042.647686
United States 282171957 9898700.000000 35080.381854
Uruguay 3219793 25255.961693 7843.970620
One of the nice things about pandas DataFrame and Series objects is that they have methods for
plotting and visualization that work through Matplotlib
For example, we can easily generate a bar plot of GDP per capita
In [76]: df['GDP percap'].plot(kind='bar')
Out[76]: <matplotlib.axes.AxesSubplot at 0x2f22ed0>
In [77]: import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
In [78]: plt.show()
The following figure is produced

At the moment the data frame is ordered alphabetically on the countries—let’s change it to GDP
per capita
In [83]: df = df.sort_values(by='GDP percap', ascending=False)
In [84]: df
Out[84]:
population total GDP GDP percap
country
United States 282171957 9898700.000000 35080.381854
Australia 19053186 541804.652100 28436.433261
Israel 6114570 129253.894230 21138.672749
Argentina 37335653 295072.218690 7903.229085
Uruguay 3219793 25255.961693 7843.970620
South Africa 45064098 227242.369490 5042.647686
India 1006300297 1728144.374800 1717.324719
Malawi 11801505 5026.221784 425.896679
Plotting as before now yields

1.11. PANDAS 152

1.11. PANDAS 153

1.11. PANDAS 154
On-Line Data Sources
pandas makes it straightforward to query several common Internet databases programmatically

One particularly important one is FRED — a vast collection of time series data maintained by the
St. Louis Fed
For example, suppose that we are interested in the unemployment rate
Via FRED, the entire series for the US civilian rate can be downloaded directly by entering this
URL into your browser
http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/UNRATE/downloaddata/UNRATE.csv
(Equivalently, click here: http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/UNRATE/downloaddata/UNRATE.csv)

This request returns a CSV file, which will be handled by your default application for this class of
files
Alternatively, we can access the CSV file from within a Python program
This can be done with a variety of methods
We start with a relatively low level method, and then return to pandas
Accessing Data with urllib.request One option is to use urllib.request, a standard Python li-
brary for requesting data over the Internet
To begin, try the following code on your computer
In [36]: import urllib.request
In [37]: source = urllib.request.urlopen('http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/UNRATE/downloaddat
If there’s no error message, then the call has succeeded

If you do get an error, then there are two likely causes
1. You are not connected to the Internet — hopefully this isn’t the case
2. Your machine is accessing the Internet through a proxy server, and Python isn’t aware of this
In the second case, you can either
• switch to another machine (for example, log in to Wakari)
• solve your proxy problem by reading the documentation
Assuming that all is working, you can now proceed to using the source object returned by the call
urllib.request.urlopen(’http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/UNRATE/downloaddata/UNRATE.c
In [56]: url = 'http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/UNRATE/downloaddata/UNRATE.csv'
In [57]: source = urllib.request.urlopen(url).read().decode('utf-8').split("\n")
In [58]: source[0]

1.11. PANDAS 155
Out[58]: 'DATE,VALUE\r\n'
In [59]: source[1]
Out[59]: '1948-01-01,3.4\r\n'
In [60]: source[2]
Out[60]: '1948-02-01,3.8\r\n'
We could now write some additional code to parse this text and store it as an array...
But this is unnecessary — pandas’ read_csv function can handle the task for us
In [69]: source = urllib.request.urlopen(url)
In [70]: data = pd.read_csv(source, index_col=0, parse_dates=True, header=None)
The data has been read into a pandas DataFrame called data that we can now manipulate in the
usual way
In [71]: type(data)
In [72]: data.head() # A useful method to get a quick look at a data frame

Out[72]:
1
0
DATE VALUE
1948-01-01 3.4
1948-02-01 3.8
1948-03-01 4.0
1948-04-01 3.9
In [73]: data.describe() # Your output might differ slightly

Out[73]:
1
count 786
unique 81
top 5.4
freq 31
Accessing Data with pandas Although it is worth understanding the low level procedures, for
the present case pandas can take care of all these messy details
(pandas puts a simple API (Application Progamming Interface) on top of the kind of low level
function calls we’ve just covered)
For example, we can obtain the same unemployment data for the period 2006–2012 inclusive as
follows
In [77]: import pandas.io.data as web
In [78]: import datetime as dt # Standard Python date / time library

1.11. PANDAS 156
In [79]: start, end = dt.datetime(2006, 1, 1), dt.datetime(2012, 12, 31)
In [80]: data = web.DataReader('UNRATE', 'fred', start, end)
In [81]: type(data)
In [82]: data.plot()
Out[82]: <matplotlib.axes.AxesSubplot at 0xcf79390>
In [83]: import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
In [84]: plt.show()
(If you’re working in the IPython notebook, the last two lines can probably be omitted)
Data from the World Bank Let’s look at one more example of downloading and manipulating
data — this time from the World Bank
The World Bank collects and organizes data on a huge range of indicators
For example, here we find data on government debt as a ratio to GDP:
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GC.DOD.TOTL.GD.ZS/countries
If you click on “DOWNLOAD DATA” you will be given the option to download the data as an
Excel file
The next program does this for you, parses the data from Excel file to pandas DataFrame, and
plots time series for France, Germany, the US and Australia
import sys

1.11. PANDAS 157
from pandas.io.excel import ExcelFile
if sys.version_info[0] == 2:
from urllib import urlretrieve
elif sys.version_info[0] == 3:
from urllib.request import urlretrieve
# == Get data and read into file gd.xls == #

wb_data_file_dir = "http://api.worldbank.org/datafiles/"
file_name = "GC.DOD.TOTL.GD.ZS_Indicator_MetaData_en_EXCEL.xls"
url = wb_data_file_dir + file_name
urlretrieve(url, "gd.xls")
# == Parse data into a DataFrame == #

gov_debt_xls = ExcelFile('gd.xls')
govt_debt = gov_debt_xls.parse('Sheet1', index_col=1, na_values=['NA'])
# == Take desired values and plot == #

govt_debt = govt_debt.transpose()
govt_debt = govt_debt[['AUS', 'DEU', 'FRA', 'USA']]
govt_debt = govt_debt[36:]
govt_debt.plot(lw=2)
plt.show()
(The file is pandas/wb_download.py from the applications repository)

The figure it produces looks as follows
(Missing line segments indicate missing data values)

Actually pandas includes high-level functions for downloading World Bank data

1.11. PANDAS 158
For example, see http://pandas-docs.github.io/pandas-docs-travis/remote_data.html?highlight=world%20bank

data-wb
Exercises
Exercise 1 Write a program to calculate the percentage price change since the start of the year for
the following shares
ticker_list = {'INTC': 'Intel',
'MSFT': 'Microsoft',
'IBM': 'IBM',
'BHP': 'BHP',
'RSH': 'RadioShack',
'TM': 'Toyota',
'AAPL': 'Apple',
'AMZN': 'Amazon',
'BA': 'Boeing',
'QCOM': 'Qualcomm',
'KO': 'Coca-Cola',
'GOOG': 'Google',
'SNE': 'Sony',
'PTR': 'PetroChina'}
Use pandas to download the data from Yahoo Finance

Hint: Try replacing data = web.DataReader(’UNRATE’, ’fred’, start, end) with data =
web.DataReader(’AAPL’, ’yahoo’, start, end) in the code above
Plot the result as a bar graph, such as this one (of course actual results will vary)

1.12. IPYTHON SHELL AND NOTEBOOK 159
Solutions
Solution notebook
1.12 IPython Shell and Notebook
Contents
• IPython Shell and Notebook
– Overview
– IPython Magics
– Debugging
– Python in the Cloud
“Debugging is twice as hard as writing the code in the first place. Therefore, if you
write the code as cleverly as possible, you are, by definition, not smart enough to debug
it.” – Brian Kernighan
Overview
As you know by now, IPython is not really a scientific library — it’s an enhanced Python command
interface oriented towards scientific workflow
We’ve already discussed the IPython notebook and shell, starting in this lecture
Here we briefly review some more of IPython’s features
We will work in the IPython shell, but almost all of the following applies to the notebook too
IPython Magics
Line Magics As you know by now, any Python command can be typed into an IPython shell
In [1]: 'foo' * 2
Out[1]: 'foofoo'
A program foo.py in the current working directory can be executed using run
In [2]: run foo.py
Note that run is not a Python command

Rather it is an IPython magic — one of a set of very useful commands particular to IPython
Sometimes IPython magics need to be prefixed by % (e.g., %run foo.py)
You can toggle this by running %automagic
We’ll meet several more IPython magics in this lecture

Timing Code For scientific calculations, we often need to know how long certain blocks of code
take to run
For this purpose, IPython includes the timeit magic
Usage is very straightforward — let’s look at an example
In earier exercises, we wrote two different functions to calculate the value of a polynomial
Let’s put them in a file called temp.py as follows
## Filename: temp.py
import numpy as np
def p1(x, coef):

return sum(a * x**i for i, a in enumerate(coef))
def p2(x, coef):

X = np.empty(len(coef))
X[0] = 1
X[1:] = x
y = np.cumprod(X) # y = [1, x, x**2,...]
return np.dot(coef, y)
Note that p1 uses pure Python, whereas p2 uses NumPy arrays and should run faster
Here’s how we can test this
In [1]: run temp.py
In [2]: p1(10, (1, 2)) # Let's make sure the function works OK
Out[2]: 21
In [3]: p2(10, (1, 2)) # Ditto

Out[3]: 21.0
In [4]: coef = np.random.randn(1000)
In [5]: timeit p1(0.9, coef)

1000 loops, best of 3: 1.15 ms per loop
In [6]: timeit p2(0.9, coef)

For p1, average execution time was 1.15 milliseconds, while for p2 it was about 10 microseconds
(i.e., millionths of a second) — two orders of magnitude faster
Reloading Modules Here is one very common Python gotcha and a nice solution provided by
IPython
When we work with multiple files, changes in one file are not always visible in our program
To see this, suppose that you are working with files useful_functions.py and main_program.py

As the names suggest, the main program resides in main_program.py but imports functions from
useful_functions.py
You might have noticed that if you make a change to useful_functions.py and then re-run
main_program.py, the effect of that change isn’t always apparent
Here’s an example useful_functions.py in the current directory
## Filename: useful_functions.py
def meaning_of_life():
"Computes the meaning of life"
return 42
Here is main_program.py, which imports the former

## Filename: main_program.py
from useful_functions import meaning_of_life
x = meaning_of_life()
print("The meaning of life is: {}".format(x))
When we run main_program.py we get the expected output

In [1]: run main_program.py
The meaning of life is: 42
Now suppose that we discover the meaning of life is actually 43

So we open up a text editor, and change the contents of useful_functions.py to
## Filename: useful_functions.py
def meaning_of_life():
"Computes the meaning of life"
return 43
However, if we run main_program.py again no change is visible

The reason is that useful_functions.py has been compiled to a byte code file, in preparation for
sending its instructions to the Python virtual machine
The byte code file will be called useful_functions.pyc, and live in the same directory as
useful_functions.py
Even though we’ve modified useful_functions.py, this change is not reflected in
useful_functions.pyc
The nicest way to get your dependencies to recompile is to use IPython’s autoreload extension
In [3]: %load_ext autoreload

In [4]: autoreload 2

If you want this behavior to load automatically when you start IPython, add these lines to your
ipython_config.py file
c.InteractiveShellApp.extensions = ['autoreload']
c.InteractiveShellApp.exec_lines = ['%autoreload 2']
Google IPython configuration for more details

Incidentally, if you prefer to do things manually, you can also import and then reload the modified
module
In [3]: import useful_functions
In [4]: reload(useful_functions)
For any subsequent changes, you will only need reload(useful_functions)
Debugging
Are you one of those programmers who fills their code with print statements when trying to
debug their programs?
Hey, it’s OK, we all used to do that
But today might be a good day to turn a new page, and start using a debugger
Debugging is a big topic, but it’s actually very easy to learn the basics
The standard Python debugger is pdb
Here we use one called ipdb that plays well with the IPython shell
Either pdb or ipdb will do the job fine
Let’s look at an example of when and how to use them
The debug Magic Let’s consider a simple (and rather contrived) example, where we have a script
called temp.py with the following contents
import numpy as np
def plot_log():
fig, ax = plt.subplots(2, 1)
ax.plot(x, np.log(x))
plt.show()
plot_log() # Call the function, generate plot

This code is intended to plot the log function over the interval [1, 2]
But there’s an error here: plt.subplots(2, 1) should be just plt.subplots()
(The call plt.subplots(2, 1) returns a NumPy array containing two axes objects, suitable for
having two subplots on the same figure)
Here’s what happens when we run the code
In [1]: run temp.py
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
AttributeError Traceback (most recent call last)
/usr/lib/python2.7/dist-packages/IPython/utils/py3compat.pyc in execfile(fname,*where)
176 else:
177 filename = fname
--> 178 __builtin__.execfile(filename,*where)
/home/john/temp/temp.py in <module>()
8 plt.show()
9
---> 10 plot_log()
/home/john/temp/temp.py in plot_log()
5 fig, ax = plt.subplots(2, 1)
6 x = np.linspace(1, 2, 10)
----> 7 ax.plot(x, np.log(x))
8 plt.show()
9
AttributeError: 'numpy.ndarray' object has no attribute 'plot'
The traceback shows that the error occurs at the method call ax.plot(x, np.log(x))
The error occurs because we have mistakenly made ax a NumPy array, and a NumPy array has
no plot method
But let’s pretend that we don’t understand this for the moment
We might suspect there’s something wrong with ax, but when we try to investigate this object
In [2]: ax
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
<ipython-input-2-645aedc8a285> in <module>()
----> 1 ax
NameError: name 'ax' is not defined
The problem is that ax was defined inside plot_log(), and the name is lost once that function
terminates
Let’s try doing it a different way
First we run temp.py again, but this time we respond to the exception by typing debug

This will cause us to be dropped into the Python debugger at the point of execution just before the
exception occurs
In [1]: run temp.py
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
AttributeError Traceback (most recent call last)
/usr/lib/python2.7/dist-packages/IPython/utils/py3compat.pyc in execfile(fname,*where)
176 else:
177 filename = fname
--> 178 __builtin__.execfile(filename,*where)
/home/john/temp/temp.py in <module>()
8 plt.show()
9
---> 10 plot_log()
/home/john/temp/temp.py in plot_log()
5 fig, ax = plt.subplots(2, 1)
8 plt.show()
9
AttributeError: 'numpy.ndarray' object has no attribute 'plot'
In [2]: debug
> /home/john/temp/temp.py(7)plot_log()
8 plt.show()
ipdb>
We’re now at the ipdb> prompt, at which we can investigate the value of our variables at this point
in the program, step forward through the code, etc.
For example, here we simply type the name ax to see what’s happening with this object
ipdb> ax
array([<matplotlib.axes.AxesSubplot object at 0x290f5d0>,
<matplotlib.axes.AxesSubplot object at 0x2930810>], dtype=object)
It’s now very clear that ax is an array, which clarifies the source of the problem
To find out what else you can do from inside ipdb (or pdb), use the on line help
ipdb> h
Documented commands (type help <topic>):

========================================
EOF bt cont enable jump pdef r tbreak w
a c continue exit l pdoc restart u whatis
alias cl d h list pinfo return unalias where
args clear debug help n pp run unt
b commands disable ignore next q s until

break condition down j p quit step up
Miscellaneous help topics:

==========================
exec pdb
Undocumented commands:
======================
retval rv
ipdb> h c
c(ont(inue))
Continue execution, only stop when a breakpoint is encountered.
Setting a Break Point The preceding approach is handy but sometimes insufficent
For example, consider the following modified version of temp.py
import numpy as np
def plot_log():
x = np.logspace(1, 2, 10)
plt.show()
plot_log()
Here the original problem is fixed, by we’ve accidentally written np.logspace(1, 2, 10) instead
of np.linspace(1, 2, 10)
Now there won’t be any exception, but the plot will not look right
To use the debugger to investigate, we can add a “break point”, by inserting the line import ipdb;
ipdb.set_trace() in a suitable location
import numpy as np
def plot_log():
import ipdb; ipdb.set_trace()
x = np.logspace(1, 2, 10)
plt.show()
plot_log()
Now let’s run the script, and investigate via the debugger
In [3]: run temp.py

1.13. THE NEED FOR SPEED 166
5 import ipdb; ipdb.set_trace()

----> 6 fig, ax = plt.subplots()
7 x = np.logspace(1, 2, 10)
ipdb> n
6 fig, ax = plt.subplots()
----> 7 x = np.logspace(1, 2, 10)
8 ax.plot(x, np.log(x))
ipdb> n
7 x = np.logspace(1, 2, 10)
9 plt.show()
ipdb> x
array([ 10. , 12.91549665, 16.68100537, 21.5443469 ,
27.82559402, 35.93813664, 46.41588834, 59.94842503,
77.42636827, 100. ])
Here we used n twice to step forward through the code (one line at a time), and then printed the
value of x to see what was happening with that variable
Python in the Cloud
So far we’ve discussed running Python on your local machine

There’s another option that is fun and often convenient — running Python in the cloud
One way to do this is to set up a free account at Wakari
Once you’ve done that and signed in, you will have the option to open a new IPython notebook
One thing that comes in handy here is that if you want to issue terminal commands such as
git clone https://github.com/QuantEcon/QuantEcon.py
you can do it from a notebook cell as long as you put a ! in front of the command
For example
!git clone https://github.com/QuantEcon/QuantEcon.py
If this works, you should now have the main repository sitting in your pwd, and you can cd into
it and get programming in the same manner described above
The big difference is that your programs are now running on Amazon’s massive web service
infrastructure!
1.13 The Need for Speed

Contents
• The Need for Speed
– Overview
– Where are the Bottlenecks?
– Vectorization
– Numba
– Cython
– Other Options
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
Higher level languages such as Python are optimized for humans

This means that the programmer can leave many details to the runtime environment
• specifying variable types, memory allocation/deallocation, etc.
One result is that, compared to low-level languages, Python is typically faster to write, less error
prone and easier to debug
One downside is that Python is harder to optimize — that is, turn into fast machine code — than
languages like C or Fortran
Indeed, the standard implementation of Python (called CPython) cannot match the speed of com-
piled languages such as C or Fortran
Fortunately, this turns out to be a relatively small problem, since
1. Of any given program, relatively few lines are time-critical
2. For those lines of code that are time-critical, we can achieve C-like speeds with minor modi-
fications
This lecture will walk you through some of the most popular options for implementing this last
step
(A number of other useful options are mentioned below)
Note: In what follows we often ask you to execute code in an IPython notebook cell. Such code
will not run outside the notebook without modifications. This is because we take advantage of
some IPython line and cell magics
Where are the Bottlenecks?
Let’s start by trying to understand why high level languages like Python are slower than compiled
code

Dynamic Typing Consider this Python operation

In [1]: a, b = 10, 10
In [2]: a + b
Out[2]: 20
Even for this simple operation, the Python interpreter has a fair bit of work to do
For example, in the statement a + b, the interpreter has to know which operation to invoke
If a and b are strings, then a + b requires string concatenation
In [3]: a, b = 'foo', 'bar'
In [4]: a + b
Out[4]: 'foobar'
If a and b are lists, then a + b requires list concatenation

In [5]: a, b = ['foo'], ['bar']
In [6]: a + b
Out[6]: ['foo', 'bar']
(We say that the operator + is overloaded — its action depends on the type of the objects on which
it acts)
As a result, Python must check the type of the objects and then call the correct operation
This involves substantial overheads
Static Types Compiled languages avoid these overheads with explicit, static types
For example, consider the following C code, which sums the integers from 1 to 10
# include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int i;
int sum = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
sum = sum + i;
}
printf("sum = %d\n", sum);
return 0;
}
The variables i and sum are explicitly declared to be integers

Hence the meaning of addition here is completely unambiguous
Data Access Another drag on speed for high level languages is data access
To illustrate, let’s consider the problem of summing some data — say, a collection of integers

Summing with Compiled Code In C or Fortran, these integers would typically be stored in an
array, which is a simple data structure for storing homogeneous data
Such an array is stored in a single contiguous block of memory
• In modern computers, memory addresses are allocated to each byte (one byte = 8 bits)
• For example, a 64 bit integer is stored in 8 bytes of memory
• An array of n such integers occupies 8n consecutive memory slots
Moreover, the compiler is made aware of the data type by the programmer
• In this case 64 bit integers
Hence each successive data point can be accessed by shifting forward in memory space by a
known and fixed amount
• In this case 8 bytes
Summing in Pure Python Python tries to replicate these ideas to some degree
For example, in the standard Python implementation (CPython), list elements are placed in mem-
ory locations that are in a sense contiguous
However, these list elements are more like pointers to data rather than actual data
Hence there is still overhead involved in accessing the data values themselves
This is a considerable drag on speed
In fact it’s generally true that memory traffic is a major culprit when it comes to slow execution
Let’s look at some ways around these problems
Vectorization
Vectorization is about sending batches of related operations to native machine code

• The machine code itself is typically compiled from carefully optimized C or Fortran
This can greatly accelerate many — but not all — numerical computations
Operations on Arrays Try executing the following in an IPython notebook cell

First,
import random
import numpy as np
Now try

%%timeit
n = 100000
sum = 0
for i in range(n):
x = random.uniform(0, 1)
sum += x**2
Followed by
%%timeit
n = 100000
x = np.random.uniform(0, 1, n)
np.sum(x**2)
You should find that the second code block — which achieves the same thing as the first — runs
one to two orders of magnitude faster
The reason is that in the second implementation we have broken the loop down into three basic
operations
1. draw n uniforms
2. square them
3. sum them
These are sent as batch operators to optimized machine code
Apart from minor overheads associated with sending data back and forth, the result is C- or
Fortran-like speed
When we run batch operations on arrays like this, we say that the code is vectorized
Although there are exceptions, vectorized code is typically fast and efficient
It is also surprisingly flexible, in the sense that many operations can be vectorized
The next section illustrates this point
Universal Functions Many functions provided by NumPy are so-called universal functions —
also called ufuncs
This means that they
• map scalars into scalars, as expected
• map arrays into arrays, acting elementwise
For example, np.cos is a ufunc:
In [2]: np.cos(1.0)
Out[2]: 0.54030230586813977

In [3]: np.cos(np.linspace(0, 1, 3))

Out[3]: array([ 1., 0.87758256, 0.54030231])
By exploiting ufuncs, many operations can be vectorized

For example, consider the problem of maximizing a function f of two variables ( x, y) over the
square [− a, a] × [− a, a]
For f and a let’s choose
cos( x2 + y2 )
f ( x, y) = and a=3
1 + x 2 + y2
Here’s a plot of f
To maximize it we’re going to use a naive grid search:

1. Evaluate f for all ( x, y) in a grid on the square
2. Return the maximum of observed values
Here’s a non-vectorized version that uses Python loops
import numpy as np
def f(x, y):
grid = np.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)

m = -np.inf
for x in grid:

for y in grid:
z = f(x, y)
if z > m:
m = z
print(m)
And here’s a vectorized version

import numpy as np
def f(x, y):
grid = np.linspace(-3, 3, 1000)

x, y = np.meshgrid(grid, grid)
print(np.max(f(x, y)))
In the vectorized version all the looping takes place in compiled code
If you add %%timeit to the top of these code snippets and run them in a notebook cell, you’ll see
that the second version is much faster — about two orders of magnitude
Pros and Cons of Vectorization At its best, vectorization yields fast, simple code
However, it’s not without disadvantages
One issue is that it can be highly memory intensive
For example, the vectorized maximization routine above is far more memory intensive than the
non-vectorized version that preceded it
Another issue is that not all algorithms can be vectorized
In these kinds of settings, we need to go back to loops
Fortunately, there are very nice ways to speed up Python loops
Numba
One of the most exciting developments in recent years in terms of scientific Python is Numba
Numba aims to automatically compile functions to native machine code instructions on the fly
The process isn’t flawless, since Numba needs to infer type information on all variables to generate
pure machine instructions
Such inference isn’t possible in every setting
But for simple routines Numba infers types very well
Moreover, the “hot loops” at the heart of our code that we need to speed up are often such simple
routines

Prerequisites If you followed our set up instructions and installed Anaconda, then you’ll be
ready to use Numba
If not, try import numba
• If you get no complaints then you should be good to go
• If you do experience problems here or below then consider installing Anaconda
If you do have Anaconda installed, now might be a good time to run conda update numba from a
system terminal
An Example Let’s consider some problems that are difficult to vectorize

One is generating the trajectory of a difference equation given an initial condition
Let’s take the difference equation to be the quadratic map
xt+1 = 4xt (1 − xt )
Here’s the plot of a typical trajectory, starting from x0 = 0.1, with t on the x-axis
Before starting let’s do some imports

from numba import jit
import numpy as np
Now here’s a function to generate a trajectory of a given length from a given initial condition
def qm(x0, n):
x = np.empty(n+1)
x[0] = x0
for t in range(n):

x[t+1] = 4 * x[t] * (1 - x[t])

return x
To speed this up using Numba is trivial

qm_numba = jit(qm) # qm_numba is now a 'compiled' version of qm
Alternatively, we can just put @jit before the function

@jit
def qm_numba(x0, n):
x = np.empty(n+1)
x[0] = x0
for t in range(n):
x[t+1] = 4 * x[t] * (1 - x[t])
return x
Here the function body is identical to qm — the name has been changed only to aid speed compar-
isons
Timing the function calls qm(0.1, 100000) and qm_numba(0.1, 100000) gives us a speed-up fac-
tor in the order of 400 times
Your mileage may vary depending on your hardware and version of Numba, but anything in this
neighborhood is remarkable given how trivial the implementation is
How and When it Works Numba attempts to generate fast machine code using the infrastruc-
ture provided by the LLVM Project
It does this by inferring type information on the fly
As you can imagine, this is easier for simple Python objects (simple scalar data types, such as
floats, integers, etc.)
Numba also plays well with NumPy arrays, which it treats as typed memory regions
In an ideal setting, Numba can infer all necessary type information
This allows it to generate native machine code, without having to call the Python runtime envi-
ronment
In such a setting, Numba will be on par with machine code from low level languages
When Numba cannot infer all type information, some Python objects are given generic object
status, and some code is generated using the Python runtime
In this second setting, Numba typically provides only minor speed gains — or none at all
Hence it’s prudent when using Numba to focus on speeding up small, time-critical snippets of
code
This will give you much better performance than blanketing your Python programs with @jit
statements

Cython
Like Numba, Cython provides an approach to generating fast compiled code that can be used
from Python
As was the case with Numba, a key problem is the fact that Python is dynamically typed
As you’ll recall, Numba solves this problem (where possible) by inferring type
Cython’s approach is different — programmers add type definitions directly to their “Python”
code
As such, the Cython language can be thought of as Python with type definitions
In addition to a language specification, Cython is also a language translator, transforming Cython
code into optimized C and C++ code
Cython also takes care of building language extentions — the wrapper code that interfaces be-
tween the resulting compiled code and Python
As we’ll see, Cython is particularly easy to use from within the IPython notebook
A First Example Let’s start with a rather artificial example

Suppose that we want to compute the sum ∑in=0 αi for given α, n
Suppose further that we’ve forgotten the basic formula
n
1 − α n +1
∑ αi = 1−α
i =0
for a geometric progression and hence have resolved to rely on a loop
Python vs C Here’s a pure Python function that does the job

def geo_prog(alpha, n):
current = 1.0
sum = current
for i in range(n):
current = current * alpha
sum = sum + current
return sum
This works fine but for large n it is slow

Here’s a C function that will do the same thing
double geo_prog(double alpha, int n) {
double current = 1.0;
double sum = current;
int i;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
current = current * alpha;
sum = sum + current;

}
return sum;
}
If you’re not familiar with C, the main thing you should take notice of is the type definitions
• int means integer
• double means double precision floating point number
• the double in double geo_prog(... indicates that the function will return a double
Not surprisingly, the C code is faster than the Python code
A Cython Implementation Cython implementations look like a convex combination of Python

and C
We’re going to run our Cython code in the IPython notebook, so we’ll start by loading the Cython
extension in a notebook cell
%load_ext Cython
In the next cell we execute the following

%%cython
def geo_prog_cython(double alpha, int n):
cdef double current = 1.0
cdef double sum = current
cdef int i
for i in range(n):
current = current * alpha
sum = sum + current
return sum
Here cdef is a Cython keyword indicating a variable declaration, and is followed by a type
The %%cython line at the top is not actually Cython code — it’s an IPython cell magic indicating
the start of Cython code
After executing the cell, you can now call the function geo_prog_cython from within Python
What you are in fact calling is compiled C code that runs at about the same speed as our hand-
coded C routine above
Example 2: Cython with NumPy Arrays Let’s go back to the first problem that we worked with:
generating the iterates of the quadratic map
xt+1 = 4xt (1 − xt )
The problem of computing iterates and returning a time series requires us to work with arrays
The natural array type to work with is NumPy arrays
Here’s a Cython implemention that initializes, populates and returns a NumPy array

%%cython
import numpy as np
def qm_cython_first_pass(double x0, int n):

cdef int t
x = np.zeros(n+1, float)
x[0] = x0
for t in range(n):
x[t+1] = 4.0 * x[t] * (1 - x[t])
return np.asarray(x)
If you run this code and time it, you will see that it’s performance is disappointing — nothing like
the speed gain we got from Numba
• See qm_numba above
The reason is that working with NumPy arrays still incurs substantial Python overheads
We can do better by using Cython’s typed memoryviews, which provide more direct access to
arrays in memory
When using them, the first step is to create a NumPy array
Next, we declare a memoryview and bind it to the NumPy array
Here’s an example:
%%cython
import numpy as np
from numpy cimport float_t
def qm_cython(double x0, int n):

cdef int t
x_np_array = np.zeros(n+1, dtype=float)
cdef float_t [:] x = x_np_array
x[0] = x0
for t in range(n):
x[t+1] = 4.0 * x[t] * (1 - x[t])
return np.asarray(x)
Here
• cimport pulls in some compile-time information from NumPy
• cdef float_t [:] x = x_np_array creates a memoryview on the NumPy array
x_np_array
• the return statement uses np.asarray(x) to convert the memoryview back to a NumPy array
On our hardware, the Cython implementation qm_cython runs at about the same speed as
qm_numba
Summary Cython requires more expertise than Numba, and is a little more fiddly in terms of
getting good performance

In fact it’s surprising how difficult it is to beat the speed improvements provided by Numba
Nonetheless,
• Cython is a very mature, stable and widely used tool
• Cython can be more useful than Numba when working with larger, more sophisticated ap-
plications
Other Options
There are in fact many other approaches to speeding up your Python code
We mention only a few of the most popular methods
Interfacing with Fortran If you are comfortable writing Fortran you will find it very easy to
create extention modules from Fortran code using F2Py
F2Py is a Fortran-to-Python interface generator that is particularly simple to use
Robert Johansson provides a very nice introduction to F2Py, among other things
Recently, an IPython cell magic for Fortran has been developed — you might want to give it a try
Parallel and Cloud Computing This is a big topic that we won’t address in detail yet
However, you might find the following links a useful starting point
• IPython for parallel computing
• NumbaPro
• The Starcluster interface to Amazon’s EC2
• Anaconda Accelerate
Exercises
Exercise 1 Later we’ll learn all about finite state Markov chains
For now let’s just concentrate on simulating a very simple example of such a chain
Suppose that the volatility of returns on an asset can be in one of two regimes — high or low
The transition probabilities across states are as follows

0.9 0.8
0.1
low high
0.2
For example, let the period length be one month, and suppose the current state is high
We see from the graph that the state next month will be
• high with probability 0.8
• low with probability 0.2
Your task is to simulate a sequence of monthly volatility states according to this rule
Set the length of the sequence to n = 100000 and start in the high state
Implement a pure Python version, a Numba version and a Cython version, and compare speeds
To test your code, evaluate the fraction of time that the chain spends in the low state
If your code is correct, it should be about 2/3
Solutions
Solution notebook
Appendix — Other Options There are other important projects aimed at speeding up Python
These include but are not limited to
• Pythran : A Python to C++ compiler
• Parakeet : A runtime compiler aimed at scientific computing in Python
• PyPy : Runtime environment using just-in-time compiler
• Nuitka : Another Python compiler
• Pyston : Under development, sponsored by Dropbox


CHAPTER
TWO
INTRODUCTORY APPLICATIONS
This section of the course contains intermediate and foundational applications.
2.1 Linear Algebra
Contents
• Linear Algebra
– Overview
– Vectors
– Matrices
– Solving Systems of Equations
– Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
– Further Topics
Overview
One of the single most useful branches of mathematics you can learn is linear algebra
For example, many applied problems in economics, finance, operations research and other fields
of science require the solution of a linear system of equations, such as
y1 = ax1 + bx2
y2 = cx1 + dx2
or, more generally,

y1 = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1k xk
.. (2.1)
.
yn = an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + ank xk
The objective here is to solve for the “unknowns” x1 , . . . , xk given a11 , . . . , ank and y1 , . . . , yn
When considering such problems, it is essential that we first consider at least some of the following
questions
• Does a solution actually exist?
181
2.1. LINEAR ALGEBRA 182
• Are there in fact many solutions, and if so how should we interpret them?
• If no solution exists, is there a best “approximate” solution?
• If a solution exists, how should we compute it?
These are the kinds of topics addressed by linear algebra
In this lecture we will cover the basics of linear and matrix algebra, treating both theory and
computation
We admit some overlap with this lecture, where operations on NumPy arrays were first explained
Note that this lecture is more theoretical than most, and contains background material that will be
used in applications as we go along
Vectors
A vector of length n is just a sequence (or array, or tuple) of n numbers, which we write as x =
( x1 , . . . , xn ) or x = [ x1 , . . . , xn ]
We will write these sequences either horizontally or vertically as we please
(Later, when we wish to perform certain matrix operations, it will become necessary to distinguish
between the two)
The set of all n-vectors is denoted by Rn
For example, R2 is the plane, and a vector in R2 is just a point in the plane
Traditionally, vectors are represented visually as arrows from the origin to the point
The following figure represents three vectors in this manner

If you’re interested, the Python code for producing this figure is here
Vector Operations The two most common operators for vectors are addition and scalar multi-
plication, which we now describe
As a matter of definition, when we add two vectors, we add them element by element
     
x1 y1 x1 + y1
 x2   y2   x2 + y2 
x + y =  .  +  .  := 
     
..
 ..   .. 

 . 
xn yn xn + yn
Scalar multiplication is an operation that takes a number γ and a vector x and produces
 
γx1
 γx2 
γx :=  . 
 
 .. 
γxn
Scalar multiplication is illustrated in the next figure
In Python, a vector can be represented as a list or tuple, such as x = (2, 4, 6), but is more
commonly represented as a NumPy array
One advantage of NumPy arrays is that scalar multiplication and addition have very natural syn-
tax

In [2]: x = np.ones(3) # Vector of three ones
In [3]: y = np.array((2, 4, 6)) # Converts tuple (2, 4, 6) into array
In [4]: x + y
Out[4]: array([ 3., 5., 7.])
In [5]: 4 * x
Out[5]: array([ 4., 4., 4.])
Inner Product and Norm The inner product of vectors x, y ∈ Rn is defined as

n
x0 y := ∑ xi yi
i =1
Two vectors are called orthogonal if their inner product is zero

The norm of a vector x represents its “length” (i.e., its distance from the zero vector) and is defined
as !1/2
√ n
k x k := x 0 x := ∑ xi2
i =1
The expression k x − yk is thought of as the distance between x and y

Continuing on from the previous example, the inner product and norm can be computed as fol-
lows
In [6]: np.sum(x * y) # Inner product of x and y
Out[6]: 12.0
In [7]: np.sqrt(np.sum(x**2)) # Norm of x, take one

Out[7]: 1.7320508075688772
In [8]: np.linalg.norm(x) # Norm of x, take two

Out[8]: 1.7320508075688772
Span Given a set of vectors A := { a1 , . . . , ak } in Rn , it’s natural to think about the new vectors
we can create by performing linear operations
New vectors created in this manner are called linear combinations of A
In particular, y ∈ Rn is a linear combination of A := { a1 , . . . , ak } if
y = β 1 a1 + · · · + β k ak for some scalars β 1 , . . . , β k
In this context, the values β 1 , . . . , β k are called the coefficients of the linear combination
The set of linear combinations of A is called the span of A
The next figure shows the span of A = { a1 , a2 } in R3
The span is a 2 dimensional plane passing through these two points and the origin
The code for producing this figure can be found here

Examples If A contains only one vector a1 ∈ R2 , then its span is just the scalar multiples of a1 ,
which is the unique line passing through both a1 and the origin
If A = {e1 , e2 , e3 } consists of the canonical basis vectors of R3 , that is
     
1 0 0
e1 : =  0  , e2 : =  1  , e3 : =  0 
0 0 1
then the span of A is all of R3 , because, for any x = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ R3 , we can write
x = x 1 e1 + x 2 e2 + x 3 e3
Now consider A0 = {e1 , e2 , e1 + e2 }

If y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) is any linear combination of these vectors, then y3 = 0 (check it)
Hence A0 fails to span all of R3
Linear Independence As we’ll see, it’s often desirable to find families of vectors with relatively
large span, so that many vectors can be described by linear operators on a few vectors
The condition we need for a set of vectors to have a large span is what’s called linear independence
In particular, a collection of vectors A := { a1 , . . . , ak } in Rn is said to be
• linearly dependent if some strict subset of A has the same span as A
• linearly independent if it is not linearly dependent
Put differently, a set of vectors is linearly independent if no vector is redundant to the span, and
linearly dependent otherwise

To illustrate the idea, recall the figure that showed the span of vectors { a1 , a2 } in R3 as a plane
through the origin
If we take a third vector a3 and form the set { a1 , a2 , a3 }, this set will be
• linearly dependent if a3 lies in the plane
• linearly independent otherwise
As another illustration of the concept, since Rn can be spanned by n vectors (see the discussion of
canonical basis vectors above), any collection of m > n vectors in Rn must be linearly dependent
The following statements are equivalent to linear independence of A := { a1 , . . . , ak } ⊂ Rn
1. No vector in A can be formed as a linear combination of the other elements
2. If β 1 a1 + · · · β k ak = 0 for scalars β 1 , . . . , β k , then β 1 = · · · = β k = 0
(The zero in the first expression is the origin of Rn )
Unique Representations Another nice thing about sets of linearly independent vectors is that
each element in the span has a unique representation as a linear combination of these vectors
In other words, if A := { a1 , . . . , ak } ⊂ Rn is linearly independent and
y = β 1 a1 + · · · β k a k
then no other coefficient sequence γ1 , . . . , γk will produce the same vector y

Indeed, if we also have y = γ1 a1 + · · · γk ak , then
( β 1 − γ1 ) a1 + · · · + ( β k − γk ) ak = 0
Linear independence now implies γi = β i for all i
Matrices
Matrices are a neat way of organizing data for use in linear operations
An n × k matrix is a rectangular array A of numbers with n rows and k columns:
 
a11 a12 · · · a1k
 a21 a22 · · · a2k 
A= .
 
. .. .. 
 . . . 
an1 an2 · · · ank
Often, the numbers in the matrix represent coefficients in a system of linear equations, as discussed
at the start of this lecture
For obvious reasons, the matrix A is also called a vector if either n = 1 or k = 1
In the former case, A is called a row vector, while in the latter it is called a column vector
If n = k, then A is called square

The matrix formed by replacing aij by a ji for every i and j is called the transpose of A, and denoted
A0 or A>
If A = A0 , then A is called symmetric
For a square matrix A, the i elements of the form aii for i = 1, . . . , n are called the principal diagonal
A is called diagonal if the only nonzero entries are on the principal diagonal
If, in addition to being diagonal, each element along the principal diagonal is equal to 1, then A is
called the identity matrix, and denoted by I
Matrix Operations Just as was the case for vectors, a number of algebraic operations are defined
for matrices
Scalar multiplication and addition are immediate generalizations of the vector case:
   
a11 · · · a1k γa11 · · · γa1k
γA = γ  ... .. ..  :=  .. .. .. 

. .   . . . 
an1 · · · ank γan1 · · · γank
and
     
a11 · · · a1k b11 · · · b1k a11 + b11 · · · a1k + b1k
A + B =  ... .. ..  +  .. .. ..  :=  .. .. ..
 
. .   . . .   . . . 
an1 · · · ank bn1 · · · bnk an1 + bn1 · · · ank + bnk
In the latter case, the matrices must have the same shape in order for the definition to make sense
We also have a convention for multiplying two matrices
The rule for matrix multiplication generalizes the idea of inner products discussed above, and is
designed to make multiplication play well with basic linear operations
If A and B are two matrices, then their product AB is formed by taking as its i, j-th element the
inner product of the i-th row of A and the j-th column of B
There are many tutorials to help you visualize this operation, such as this one, or the discussion
on the Wikipedia page
If A is n × k and B is j × m, then to multiply A and B we require k = j, and the resulting matrix
AB is n × m
As perhaps the most important special case, consider multiplying n × k matrix A and k × 1 column
vector x
According to the preceding rule, this gives us an n × 1 column vector
    
a11 · · · a1k x1 a11 x1 + · · · + a1k xk
Ax =  ... .. ..   ..  :=  .. (2.2)
 
. .  .   . 
an1 · · · ank xk an1 x1 + · · · + ank xk

Note: AB and BA are not generally the same thing
Another important special case is the identity matrix

You should check that if A is n × k and I is the k × k identity matrix, then AI = A
If I is the n × n identity matrix, then I A = A
Matrices in NumPy NumPy arrays are also used as matrices, and have fast, efficient functions
and methods for all the standard matrix operations 1
You can create them manually from tuples of tuples (or lists of lists) as follows
In [2]: A = ((1, 2),

...: (3, 4))
In [3]: type(A)
Out[3]: tuple
In [4]: A = np.array(A)
In [5]: type(A)
In [6]: A.shape
Out[6]: (2, 2)
The shape attribute is a tuple giving the number of rows and columns — see here for more discus-
sion
To get the transpose of A, use A.transpose() or, more simply, A.T
There are many convenient functions for creating common matrices (matrices of zeros, ones, etc.)
— see here
Since operations are performed elementwise by default, scalar multiplication and addition have
very natural syntax
In [8]: A = np.identity(3)
In [9]: B = np.ones((3, 3))
In [10]: 2 * A
Out[10]:
array([[ 2., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 2., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 2.]])
In [11]: A + B
1 Although there is a specialized matrix data type defined in NumPy, it’s more standard to work with ordinary
NumPy arrays. See this discussion.

Out[11]:
array([[ 2., 1., 1.],
[ 1., 2., 1.],
[ 1., 1., 2.]])
To multiply matrices we use np.dot

In particular, np.dot(A, B) is matrix multiplication, whereas A * B is element by element multi-
plication
See here for more discussion
Matrices as Maps Each n × k matrix A can be identified with a function f ( x ) = Ax that maps
x ∈ Rk into y = Ax ∈ Rn
These kinds of functions have a special property: they are linear
A function f : Rk → Rn is called linear if, for all x, y ∈ Rk and all scalars α, β, we have
f (αx + βy) = α f ( x ) + β f (y)
You can check that this holds for the function f ( x ) = Ax + b when b is the zero vector, and fails
when b is nonzero
In fact, it’s known that f is linear if and only if there exists a matrix A such that f ( x ) = Ax for all
x.
Solving Systems of Equations
Recall again the system of equations (2.1)

If we compare (2.1) and (2.2), we see that (2.1) can now be written more conveniently as
y = Ax (2.3)
The problem we face is to determine a vector x ∈ Rk that solves (2.3), taking y and A as given
This is a special case of a more general problem: Find an x such that y = f ( x )
Given an arbitrary function f and a y, is there always an x such that y = f ( x )?
If so, is it always unique?
The answer to both these questions is negative, as the next figure shows
In the first plot there are multiple solutions, as the function is not one-to-one, while in the second
there are no solutions, since y lies outside the range of f
Can we impose conditions on A in (2.3) that rule out these problems?
In this context, the most important thing to recognize about the expression Ax is that it corre-
sponds to a linear combination of the columns of A


In particular, if a1 , . . . , ak are the columns of A, then
Ax = x1 a1 + · · · + xk ak
Hence the range of f ( x ) = Ax is exactly the span of the columns of A

We want the range to be large, so that it contains arbitrary y
As you might recall, the condition that we want for the span to be large is linear independence
A happy fact is that linear independence of the columns of A also gives us uniqueness
Indeed, it follows from our earlier discussion that if { a1 , . . . , ak } are linearly independent and y =
Ax = x1 a1 + · · · + xk ak , then no z 6= x satisfies y = Az
The n × n Case Let’s discuss some more details, starting with the case where A is n × n
This is the familiar case where the number of unknowns equals the number of equations
For arbitrary y ∈ Rn , we hope to find a unique x ∈ Rn such that y = Ax
In view of the observations immediately above, if the columns of A are linearly independent, then
their span, and hence the range of f ( x ) = Ax, is all of Rn
Hence there always exists an x such that y = Ax
Moreover, the solution is unique
In particular, the following are equivalent
1. The columns of A are linearly independent
2. For any y ∈ Rn , the equation y = Ax has a unique solution
The property of having linearly independent columns is sometimes expressed as having full col-
umn rank
Inverse Matrices Can we give some sort of expression for the solution?
If y and A are scalar with A 6= 0, then the solution is x = A−1 y
A similar expression is available in the matrix case
In particular, if square matrix A has full column rank, then it possesses a multiplicative inverse
matrix A−1 , with the property that AA−1 = A−1 A = I
As a consequence, if we pre-multiply both sides of y = Ax by A−1 , we get x = A−1 y
This is the solution that we’re looking for
Determinants Another quick comment about square matrices is that to every such matrix we
assign a unique number called the determinant of the matrix — you can find the expression for it
here
If the determinant of A is not zero, then we say that A is nonsingular

Perhaps the most important fact about determinants is that A is nonsingular if and only if A is of
full column rank
This gives us a useful one-number summary of whether or not a square matrix can be inverted
More Rows than Columns This is the n × k case with n > k

This case is very important in many settings, not least in the setting of linear regression (where n
is the number of observations, and k is the number of explanatory variables)
Given arbitrary y ∈ Rn , we seek an x ∈ Rk such that y = Ax
In this setting, existence of a solution is highly unlikely
Without much loss of generality, let’s go over the intuition focusing on the case where the columns
of A are linearly independent
It follows that the span of the columns of A is a k-dimensional subspace of Rn
This span is very “unlikely” to contain arbitrary y ∈ Rn
To see why, recall the figure above, where k = 2 and n = 3
Imagine an arbitrarily chosen y ∈ R3 , located somewhere in that three dimensional space
What’s the likelihood that y lies in the span of { a1 , a2 } (i.e., the two dimensional plane through
these points)?
In a sense it must be very small, since this plane has zero “thickness”
As a result, in the n > k case we usually give up on existence
However, we can still seek a best approximation, for example an x that makes the distance ky −
Ax k as small as possible
To solve this problem, one can use either calculus or the theory of orthogonal projections
The solution is known to be x̂ = ( A0 A)−1 A0 y — see for example chapter 3 of these notes
More Columns than Rows This is the n × k case with n < k, so there are fewer equations than
unknowns
In this case there are either no solutions or infinitely many — in other words, uniqueness never
holds
For example, consider the case where k = 3 and n = 2
Thus, the columns of A consists of 3 vectors in R2
This set can never be linearly independent, since 2 vectors are enough to span R2
(For example, use the canonical basis vectors)
It follows that one column is a linear combination of the other two
For example, let’s say that a1 = αa2 + βa3

Then if y = Ax = x1 a1 + x2 a2 + x3 a3 , we can also write
y = x1 (αa2 + βa3 ) + x2 a2 + x3 a3 = ( x1 α + x2 ) a2 + ( x1 β + x3 ) a3
In other words, uniqueness fails
Linear Equations with SciPy Here’s an illustration of how to solve linear equations with SciPy’s
linalg submodule
All of these routines are Python front ends to time-tested and highly optimized FORTRAN code
In [10]: from scipy.linalg import inv, solve, det
In [11]: A = ((1, 2), (3, 4))
In [13]: y = np.ones((2, 1)) # Column vector
In [14]: det(A) # Check that A is nonsingular, and hence invertible

Out[14]: -2.0
In [15]: A_inv = inv(A) # Compute the inverse
In [16]: A_inv
Out[16]:
array([[-2. , 1. ],
[ 1.5, -0.5]])
In [17]: x = np.dot(A_inv, y) # Solution
In [18]: np.dot(A, x) # Should equal y

Out[18]:
array([[ 1.],
[ 1.]])
In [19]: solve(A, y) # Produces same solution

Out[19]:
array([[-1.],
[ 1.]])
Observe how we can solve for x = A−1 y by either via np.dot(inv(A), y), or using solve(A, y)
The latter method uses a different algorithm (LU decomposition) that is numerically more stable,
and hence should almost always be preferred
To obtain the least squares solution x̂ = ( A0 A)−1 A0 y, use scipy.linalg.lstsq(A, y)
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Let A be an n × n square matrix

If λ is scalar and v is a non-zero vector in Rn such that
Av = λv
then we say that λ is an eigenvalue of A, and v is an eigenvector

Thus, an eigenvector of A is a vector such that when the map f ( x ) = Ax is applied, v is merely
scaled
The next figure shows two eigenvectors (blue arrows) and their images under A (red arrows)
As expected, the image Av of each v is just a scaled version of the original
The eigenvalue equation is equivalent to ( A − λI )v = 0, and this has a nonzero solution v only
when the columns of A − λI are linearly dependent
This in turn is equivalent to stating that the determinant is zero
Hence to find all eigenvalues, we can look for λ such that the determinant of A − λI is zero
This problem can be expressed as one of solving for the roots of a polynomial in λ of degree n
This in turn implies the existence of n solutions in the complex plane, although some might be
repeated
Some nice facts about the eigenvalues of a square matrix A are as follows
1. The determinant of A equals the product of the eigenvalues
2. The trace of A (the sum of the elements on the principal diagonal) equals the sum of the
eigenvalues
3. If A is symmetric, then all of its eigenvalues are real

4. If A is invertible and λ1 , . . . , λn are its eigenvalues, then the eigenvalues of A−1 are
1/λ1 , . . . , 1/λn
A corollary of the first statement is that a matrix is invertible if and only if all its eigenvalues are
nonzero
Using SciPy, we can solve for the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix as follows
In [2]: from scipy.linalg import eig
In [3]: A = ((1, 2),

...: (2, 1))
In [5]: evals, evecs = eig(A)
In [6]: evals
Out[6]: array([ 3.+0.j, -1.+0.j])
In [7]: evecs
Out[7]:
array([[ 0.70710678, -0.70710678],
[ 0.70710678, 0.70710678]])
Note that the columns of evecs are the eigenvectors

Since any scalar multiple of an eigenvector is an eigenvector with the same eigenvalue (check it),
the eig routine normalizes the length of each eigenvector to one
Generalized Eigenvalues It is sometimes useful to consider the generalized eigenvalue problem,

which, for given matrices A and B, seeks generalized eigenvalues λ and eigenvectors v such that
Av = λBv
This can be solved in SciPy via scipy.linalg.eig(A, B)

Of course, if B is square and invertible, then we can treat the generalized eigenvalue problem as
an ordinary eigenvalue problem B−1 Av = λv, but this is not always the case
Further Topics
We round out our discussion by briefly mentioning several other important topics
Series Expansions Recall the usual summation formula for a geometric progression, which
states that if | a| < 1, then ∑∞ k
k =0 a = ( 1 − a )
−1
A generalization of this idea exists in the matrix setting

Matrix Norms Let A be a square matrix, and let
k Ak := max k Ax k
k x k=1
The norms on the right-hand side are ordinary vector norms, while the norm on the left-hand side
is a matrix norm — in this case, the so-called spectral norm
For example, for a square matrix S, the condition kSk < 1 means that S is contractive, in the sense
that it pulls all vectors towards the origin 2
Neumann’s Theorem Let A be a square matrix and let Ak := AAk−1 with A1 := A

In other words, Ak is the k-th power of A
Neumann’s theorem states the following: If k Ak k < 1 for some k ∈ N, then I − A is invertible,
and
∞
( I − A ) −1 = ∑ Ak (2.4)
k =0
Spectral Radius A result known as Gelfand’s formula tells us that, for any square matrix A,
ρ( A) = lim k Ak k1/k
k→∞
Here ρ( A) is the spectral radius, defined as maxi |λi |, where {λi }i is the set of eigenvalues of A
As a consequence of Gelfand’s formula, if all eigenvalues are strictly less than one in modulus,
there exists a k with k Ak k < 1
In which case (2.4) is valid
Positive Definite Matrices Let A be a symmetric n × n matrix

We say that A is
1. positive definite if x 0 Ax > 0 for every x ∈ Rn \ {0}
2. positive semi-definite or nonnegative definite if x 0 Ax ≥ 0 for every x ∈ Rn
Analogous definitions exist for negative definite and negative semi-definite matrices
It is notable that if A is positive definite, then all of its eigenvalues are strictly positive, and hence
A is invertible (with positive definite inverse)
Differentiating Linear and Quadratic forms The following formulas are useful in many eco-
nomic contexts. Let
• z, x and a all be n × 1 vectors
• A be an n × n matrix
2
Suppose that kSk < 1. Take any nonzero vector x, and let r := k x k. We have kSx k = r kS( x/r )k ≤ r kSk < r = k x k.
Hence every point is pulled towards the origin.

• B be an m × n matrix and y be an m × 1 vector

Then
∂a0 x
1. ∂x =a
2. ∂Ax
∂x = A0
∂x 0 Ax
3. ∂x = ( A + A0 ) x
∂y0 Bz
4. ∂y = Bz
∂y0 Bz
5. ∂B = yz0
An Example Let x be a given n × 1 vector and consider the problem
v( x ) = max −y0 Py − u0 Qu

y,u
subject to the linear constraint

y = Ax + Bu
Here
• P is an n × n matrix and Q is an m × m matrix
• A is an n × n matrix and B is an n × m matrix
• both P and Q are symmetric and positive semidefinite
Question: what must the dimensions of y and u be to make this a well-posed problem?
One way to solve the problem is to form the Lagrangian
L = −y0 Py − u0 Qu + λ0 [ Ax + Bu − y]
where λ is an n × 1 vector of Lagrange multipliers

Try applying the above formulas for differentiating quadratic and linear forms to obtain the first-
order conditions for maximizing L with respect to y, u and minimizing it with respect to λ
Show that these conditions imply that
1. λ = −2Py
2. The optimizing choice of u satisfies u = −( Q + B0 PB)−1 B0 PAx
3. The function v satisfies v( x ) = − x 0 P̃x where P̃ = A0 PA − A0 PB( Q + B0 PB)−1 B0 PA
As we will see, in economic contexts Lagrange multipliers often are shadow prices
Note: If we don’t care about the Lagrange multipliers, we can subsitute the constraint into the
objective function, and then just maximize −( Ax + Bu)0 P( Ax + Bu) − u0 Qu with respect to u. You
can verify that this leads to the same maximizer.

2.2. FINITE MARKOV CHAINS 198
Further Reading The documentation of the scipy.linalg submodule can be found here
Chapters 2 and 3 of the following text contains a discussion of linear algebra along the same lines
as above, with solved exercises
If you don’t mind a slightly abstract approach, a nice intermediate-level read on linear algebra is
[Janich94]
2.2 Finite Markov Chains
Contents
• Finite Markov Chains
– Overview
– Definitions
– Simulation
– Marginal Distributions
– Irreducibility and Aperiodicity
– Stationary Distributions
– Ergodicity
– Computing Expectations
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
Markov chains are one of the most useful classes of stochastic processes
Attributes:
• simple, flexible and supported by many elegant theoretical results
• valuable for building intuition about random dynamic models
• very useful in their own right
You will find them in many of the workhorse models of economics and finance
In this lecture we review some of the theory of Markov chains
We will also introduce some of the great routines for working with Markov chains available in
QuantEcon
Prerequisite knowledge is basic probability and linear algebra
Definitions
The following concepts are fundamental

Stochastic Matrices A stochastic matrix (or Markov matrix) is an n × n square matrix P = P[s, s0 ]
such that
1. each element P[s, s0 ] is nonnegative, and
2. each row P[s, ·] sums to one
(The square brackets notation for indices is unconventional but ties in well with the code below
and helps us differentiate between indices and time subscripts)
Let S := {0, . . . , n − 1}
Each row P[s, ·] can be regarded as a distribution (probability mass function) on S
It is not difficult to check 3 that if P is a stochastic matrix, then so is the k-th power Pk for all k ∈ N
Markov Chains There is a close connection between stochastic matrices and Markov chains
A Markov chain { Xt } on S is a stochastic process on S that has the Markov property
This means that, for any date t and any state s0 ∈ S,
P { X t +1 = s 0 | X t } = P { X t +1 = s 0 | X t , X t −1 , . . . } (2.5)
In other words, knowing the current state is enough to understand probabilities for future states
In particular, the dynamics of a Markov chain are fully determined by the set of values
P[s, s0 ] := P{ Xt+1 = s0 | Xt = s} (s, s0 ∈ S)
By construction,
• P[s, s0 ] is the probability of going from s to s0 in one unit of time (one step)
• P[s, ·] is the conditional distribution of Xt+1 given Xt = s
It’s clear that P is a stochastic matrix
Conversely, if we take a stochastic matrix P, we can generate a Markov chain { Xt } as follows:
• draw X0 from some specified distribution
• for t = 0, 1, . . .,
– draw Xt+1 from P[ Xt , ·]
By construction, the resulting process satisfies (2.5)
Example 1 Consider a worker who, at any given time t, is either unemployed (state 0) or em-
ployed (state 1)
Suppose that, over a one month period,
1. An employed worker loses her job and becomes unemployed with probability β ∈ (0, 1)
3 Hint: First show that if P and Q are stochastic matrices then so is their product — to check the row sums, try
postmultiplying by a column vector of ones. Finally, argue that Pn is a stochastic matrix using induction.

2. An unemployed worker finds a job with probability α ∈ (0, 1)

In terms of a stochastic matrix, this tells us that P[0, 1] = α and P[1, 0] = β, or

1−α α
P=
β 1−β
Once we have the values α and β, we can address a range of questions, such as
• What is the average duration of unemployment?
• Over the long-run, what fraction of time does a worker find herself unemployed?
• Conditional on employment, what is the probability of becoming unemployed at least once
over the next 12 months?
• Etc.
We’ll cover such applications below
Example 2 Using US unemployment data, Hamilton [Ham05] estimated the stochastic matrix
 
0.971 0.029 0
P :=  0.145 0.778 0.077 
0 0.508 0.492
where
• the frequency is monthly
• the first state represents “normal growth”
• the second state represents “mild recession”
• the third state represents “severe recession”
For example, the matrix tells us that when the state is normal growth, the state will again be
normal growth next month with probability 0.97
In general, large values on the main diagonal indicate persistence in the process { Xt }
This Markov process can also be represented as a directed graph, with edges labeled by transition
probabilities
Here “ng” is normal growth, “mr” is mild recession, etc.

Simulation
One of the most natural ways to answer questions about Markov chains is to simulate them
(As usual, to approximate the probability of event E, we can simulate many times and count the
fraction of times that E occurs)
Nice functionality for simulating Markov chains exists in QuantEcon
This is probably what you should use in applications, since it’s is efficient and bundled with lots
of other useful routines for handling Markov chains
However, it’s also a good exercise to roll our own routines — let’s do that first and then come back
to the methods in QuantEcon
Rolling our own To simulate a Markov chain, we need its stochastic matrix P and either an
initial state or a probability distribution ψ for initial state to be drawn from
The Markov chain is then constructed as discussed above. To repeat:
1. At time t = 0, the X0 is set to some fixed state or chosen from ψ
2. At each subsequent time t, the new state Xt+1 is drawn from P[ Xt , ·]
In order to implement this simulation procedure, we need a method for generating draws from a
discrete distributions
For this task we’ll use DiscreteRV from QuantEcon
In [64]: from quantecon import DiscreteRV
In [65]: psi = (0.1, 0.9) # Probabilities over sample space {0, 1}
In [66]: d = DiscreteRV(psi)
In [67]: d.draw(5) # Generate 5 independent draws from psi

Out[67]: array([0, 1, 1, 1, 1])
We’ll write our code as a function that takes the following three arguments
• A stochastic matrix P
• An initial state init
• A positive integer sample_size representing the length of the time series the function should
return
import numpy as np
import quantecon as qe
def mc_sample_path(P, init=0, sample_size=1000):

# === make sure P is a NumPy array === #
P = np.asarray(P)
# === allocate memory === #
X = np.empty(sample_size, dtype=int)

X[0] = init
# === convert each row of P into a distribution === #
# In particular, P_dist[i] = the distribution corresponding to P[i,:]
n = len(P)
P_dist = [qe.DiscreteRV(P[i,:]) for i in range(n)]
# === generate the sample path === #

for t in range(sample_size - 1):
X[t+1] = P_dist[X[t]].draw()
return X
Let’s see how it works using the small matrix

0.4 0.6
P := (2.6)
0.2 0.8
As we’ll see later, for a long series drawn from P, the fraction of the sample that takes value 0 will
be about 0.25
If you run the following code you should get roughly that answer
In [5]: P = [[0.4, 0.6], [0.2, 0.8]]
In [6]: X = mc_sample_path(P, sample_size=100000)
In [7]: np.mean(X == 0)
Out[7]: 0.25128
Using QuantEcon’s Routines As discussed above, QuantEcon has very nice routines for han-
dling Markov chains, inluding simulation
Here’s an illustration using the same P as the preceding example
In [7]: import quantecon as qe
In [8]: P = [[0.4, 0.6], [0.2, 0.8]]
In [9]: mc = qe.MarkovChain(P)
In [10]: X = mc.simulate(ts_length=1000000)
In [11]: np.mean(X == 0)
Out[11]: 0.250359
In fact the QuantEcon routine is JIT compiled and much faster

(Because it’s JIT compiled the first run takes a bit longer — the function has to be compiled and
stored in memory)

In [17]: %timeit mc_sample_path(P, sample_size=1000000) # our version

1 loops, best of 3: 6.86 s per loop
In [18]: %timeit mc.simulate(ts_length=1000000) # qe version

Marginal Distributions
Suppose that
1. { Xt } is a Markov chain with stochastic matrix P
2. the distribution of Xt is known to be ψt
What then is the distribution of Xt+1 , or, more generally, of Xt+m ?
(Motivation for these questions is given below)
Solution Let ψt be the distribution of Xt for t = 0, 1, 2, . . .

Our first aim is to find ψt+1 given ψt and P
To begin, pick any s0 ∈ S
Using the law of total probability, we can decompose the probability that Xt+1 = s0 as follows:
P { X t +1 = s 0 } = ∑ P { X t +1 = s 0 | X t = s } · P { X t = s }
s∈S
In words, to get the probability of being at s0 tomorrow, we account for all ways this can happen
and sum their probabilities
Rewriting this statement in terms of marginal and conditional probabilities gives
ψt+1 [s0 ] = ∑ P[s, s0 ]ψt [s]
s∈S
There are n such equations, one for each s0 ∈S

If we think of ψt+1 and ψt as row vectors (as is traditional), these n equations are summarized by
the matrix expression
ψt+1 = ψt P (2.7)
In other words, to move the distribution forward one unit of time, we postmultiply by P
By repeating this m times we move forward m steps into the future
Hence, iterating on (2.7), the expression ψt+m = ψt Pm is also valid — here Pm is the m-th power of
P As a special case, we see that if ψ0 is the initial distribution from which X0 is drawn, then ψ0 Pm
is the distribution of Xm
This is very important, so let’s repeat it
X0 ∼ ψ0 =⇒ Xm ∼ ψ0 Pm (2.8)
and, more generally,
Xt ∼ ψt =⇒ Xt+m ∼ ψt Pm (2.9)

Multiple Step Transition Probabilities We know that the probability of transitioning from s to
s0 in one step is P[s, s0 ]
It turns out that that the probability of transitioning from s to s0 in m steps is Pm [s, s0 ], the [s, s0 ]-th
element of the m-th power of P
To see why, consider again (2.9), but now with ψt putting all probability on state s
If we regard ψt as a vector, it is a vector with 1 in the s-th position and zero elsewhere
Inserting this into (2.9), we see that, conditional on Xt = s, the distribution of Xt+m is the s-th row
of Pm
In particular
P{ Xt+m = s0 } = Pm [s, s0 ] = [s, s0 ]-th element of Pm
Example: Probability of Recession Recall the stochastic matrix P for recession and growth con-
sidered above
Suppose that the current state is unknown — perhaps statistics are available only at the end of the
current month
We estimate the probability that the economy is in state s to be ψ[s]
The probability of being in recession (state 1 or state 2) in 6 months time is given by the inner
product  
0
ψP6 ·  1 
1
Example 2: Cross-Sectional Distributions Recall our model of employment / unemployment

dynamics for a given worker discussed above
Consider a large (i.e., tending to infinite) population of workers, each of whose lifetime experi-
ences are described by the specified dynamics, independently of one another
Let ψ be the current cross-sectional distribution over {0, 1}
• For example, ψ[0] is the unemployment rate
The cross-sectional distribution records the fractions of workers employed and unemployed at a
given moment
The same distribution also describes the fractions of a particular worker’s career spent being em-
ployed and unemployed, respectively
Irreducibility and Aperiodicity
Just about every theoretical treatment of Markov chains has some discussion of the concepts of
irreducibility and aperiodicity
Let’s see what they’re about

Irreducibility Let P be a fixed stochastic matrix

Two states s and s0 are said to communicate with each other if there exist positive integers j and k
such that
P j [s, s0 ] > 0 and Pk [s0 , s] > 0
In view of our discussion above, this means precisely that
• state s can be reached eventually from state s0 , and
• state s0 can be reached eventually from state s
The stochastic matrix P is called irreducible if all states communicate; that is, if s and s0 communi-
cate for all s, s0 in S × S
For example, consider the following transition probabilities for wealth of a ficticious set of house-
holds
0.4
0.9 0.8
0.1 middle class 0.2
poor 0.4 0.1 rich
0.1
We can translate this into a stochastic matrix, putting zeros where there’s no edge between nodes
 
0.9 0.1 0
P :=  0.4 0.4 0.2 
0.1 0.1 0.8
It’s clear from the graph that this stochastic matrix is irreducible: we can reach any state from any
other state eventually
We can also test this using QuantEcon’s MarkovChain class
In [2]: P = [[0.9, 0.1, 0.0],

...: [0.4, 0.4, 0.2],
...: [0.1, 0.1, 0.8]]
In [4]: mc.is_irreducible
Out[4]: True

Here’s a more pessimistic scenario, where the poor are poor forever
1.0
0.8 poor
0.1
middle class 0.8

0.1
0.2 rich
This stochastic matrix is not irreducible, since, for example, rich is not accessible from poor
Let’s confirm this
In [2]: P = [[1.0, 0.0, 0.0],
...: [0.1, 0.8, 0.1],
...: [0.0, 0.2, 0.8]]
In [4]: mc.is_irreducible
Out[4]: False
We can also determine the “communication classes”

In [5]: mc.communication_classes
Out[5]: [array([0]), array([1, 2])]
It might be clear to you already that irreducibility is going to be important in terms of long run
outcomes
For example, poverty is a life sentence in the second graph but not the first
We’ll come back to this a bit later
Aperiodicity Loosely speaking, a Markov chain is called periodic if it cycles in a predictible way
and aperiodic otherwise
Here’s a trivial example with three states

1.0 b 1.0
a 1.0 c
The chain cycles with period 3:

In [2]: P = [[0, 1, 0],
...: [0, 0, 1],
...: [1, 0, 0]]
In [4]: mc.period
Out[4]: 3
More formally, the period of a state s is the greatest common divisor of the set of integers
D (s) := { j ≥ 1 : P j [s, s] > 0}
In the last example, D (s) = {3, 6, 9, . . .} for every state s, so the period is 3
A stochastic matrix is called aperiodic if the period of every state is 1, and periodic otherwise
For example, the stochastic matrix associated with the transition probabilities below is periodic
because, for example, state a has period 2
1.0 0.5 0.5

a b c d
0.5 0.5 1.0
We can confirm that the stochastic matrix is periodic as follows

In [2]: P = [[0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0],

...: [0.5, 0.0, 0.5, 0.0],
...: [0.0, 0.5, 0.0, 0.5],
...: [0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0]]

In [4]: mc.period
Out[4]: 2
In [5]: mc.is_aperiodic
Out[5]: False
Stationary Distributions
As seen in (2.7), we can shift probabilities forward one unit of time via postmultiplication by P
Some distributions are invariant under this updating process — for example,
In [2]: P = np.array([[.4, .6], [.2, .8]]) # after import numpy as np
In [3]: psi = (0.25, 0.75)
In [4]: np.dot(psi, P)
Out[4]: array([ 0.25, 0.75])
Such distributions are called stationary, or invariant Formally, a distribution ψ∗ on S is called

stationary for P if ψ∗ = ψ∗ P
From this equality we immediately get ψ∗ = ψ∗ Pt for all t
This tells us an important fact: If the distribution of X0 is a stationary distribution, then Xt will
have this same distribution for all t
Hence stationary distributions have a natural interpretation as stochastic steady states — we’ll
discuss this more in just a moment
Mathematically, a stationary distribution is just a fixed point of P when P is thought of as the map
ψ 7→ ψP from (row) vectors to (row) vectors
Theorem Every stochastic matrix P has at least one stationary distribution
(We are assuming here that the state space S is finite; if not more assumptions are required)
For a proof of this result you can apply Brouwer’s fixed point theorem, or see EDTC, theorem 4.3.5
There may in fact be many stationary distributions corresponding to a given stochastic matrix P
• For example, if P is the identity matrix, then all distributions are stationary
Since stationary distributions are long run equilibria, to get uniqueness we require that initial
conditions are not infinitely persistent
Infinite persistence of initial conditions occurs if certain regions of the state space cannot be ac-
cessed from other regions, which is the opposite of irreducibility
This gives some intuition for the following fundamental theorem Theorem. If P is both aperiodic
and irreducible, then
1. P has exactly one stationary distribution ψ∗

2. For any initial distribution ψ0 , we have kψ0 Pt − ψ∗ k → 0 as t → ∞

For a proof, see, for example, theorem 5.2 of [Haggstrom02]
(Note that part 1 of the theorem requires only irreducibility, whereas part 2 requires both irre-
ducibility and aperiodicity)
One easy sufficient condition for aperiodicity and irreducibility is that every element of P is strictly
positive
• Try to convince yourself of this
Example Recall our model of employment / unemployment dynamics for a given worker dis-
cussed above
Assuming α ∈ (0, 1) and β ∈ (0, 1), the uniform ergodicity condition is satisfied
Let ψ∗ = ( p, 1 − p) be the stationary distribution, so that p corresponds to unemployment (state
0)
Using ψ∗ = ψ∗ P and a bit of algebra yields
β
p=
α+β
This is, in some sense, a steady state probability of unemployment — more on interpretation below
Not surprisingly it tends to zero as β → 0, and to one as α → 0
Calculating Stationary Distributions As discussed above, a given Markov matrix P can have
many stationary distributions
That is, there can be many row vectors ψ such that ψ = ψP
In fact if P has two distinct stationary distributions ψ1 , ψ2 then it has infinitely many, since in this
case, as you can verify,
ψ3 := λψ1 + (1 − λ)ψ2
is a stationary distribuiton for P for any λ ∈ [0, 1]
If we restrict attention to the case where only one stationary distribution exists, one option for
finding it is to try to solve the linear system ψ( In − P) = 0 for ψ, where In is the n × n identity
But the zero vector solves this equation
Hence we need to impose the restriction that the solution must be a probability distribution
A suitable algorithm is implemented in QuantEcon — the next code block illustrates
In [3]: P = [[0.4, 0.6], [0.2, 0.8]]

In [5]: mc.stationary_distributions # Show all stationary distributions

Out[5]: array([[ 0.25, 0.75]])
The stationary distribution is unique
Convergence to Stationarity Part 2 of the Markov chain convergence theorem stated above tells
us that the distribution of Xt converges to the stationary distribution regardless of where we start
off
This adds considerable weight to our interpretation of ψ∗ as a stochastic steady state
The convergence in the theorem is illustrated in the next figure
Here
• P is the stochastic matrix for recession and growth considered above
• The highest red dot is an arbitrarily chosen initial probability distribution ψ, represented as
a vector in R3
• The other red dots are the distributions ψPt for t = 1, 2, . . .
• The black dot is ψ∗
The code for the figure can be found in the QuantEcon applications library — you might like to
try experimenting with different initial conditions

Ergodicity
Under irreducibility, yet another important result obtains: For all s ∈ S,
1 n
n t∑
1 { Xt = s } → ψ ∗ [ s ] as n → ∞ (2.10)
=1
Here
• 1{ Xt = s} = 1 if Xt = s and zero otherwise
• convergence is with probability one
• the result does not depend on the distribution (or value) of X0
The result tells us that the fraction of time the chain spends at state s converges to ψ∗ [s] as time
goes to infinity This gives us another way to interpret the stationary distribution — provided that
the convergence result in (2.10) is valid
The convergence in (2.10) is a special case of a law of large numbers result for Markov chains —
see EDTC, section 4.3.4 for some additional information
Example Recall our cross-sectional interpretation of the employment / unemployment model

discussed above
Assume that α ∈ (0, 1) and β ∈ (0, 1), so that irreducibility and aperiodicity both hold
We saw that the stationary distribution is ( p, 1 − p), where
β
p=
α+β
In the cross-sectional interpretation, this is the fraction of people unemployed

In view of our latest (ergodicity) result, it is also the fraction of time that a worker can expect to
spend unemployed
Thus, in the long-run, cross-sectional averages for a population and time-series averages for a
given person coincide
This is one interpretation of the notion of ergodicity
Computing Expectations
We are interested in computing expectations of the form
E[h( Xt )] (2.11)
and conditional expectations such as
E[ h ( Xt + k ) | Xt = s ] (2.12)
where

• { Xt } is a Markov chain generated by n × n stochastic matrix P

• h : S → R is a given function
The unconditional expectation (2.11) is easy: We just need to sum over the distribution of Xt
That is, we take
E[h( Xt )] = ∑ (ψPt )[s]h[s]
s∈S
where ψ is the distribution of X0
In this setting it’s traditional to regard h as a column vector, in which case the expression can be
rewritten more simply as
E[h( Xt )] = ψPt h
As for the conditional expectation (2.12), we need to sum over the conditional distribution of Xt+k
given Xt = s
We already know that this is Pk [s, ·], so
E[h( Xt+k ) | Xt = s] = ( Pk h)[s] (2.13)
The vector Pk h stores the conditional expectation E[h( Xt+k ) | Xt = s] over all s
Expectations of Geometric Sums Sometimes we also want to compute expectations of a geo-

metric sum, such as ∑t βt h( Xt )
In view of the preceding discussion, this is
∞
" #
E ∑ β j h ( Xt + j ) | Xt = s = [( I − βP)−1 h][s]
j =0
where
( I − βP)−1 = I + βP + β2 P2 + · · ·
Premultiplication by ( I − βP)−1 amounts to “applying the resolvent operator“
Exercises
Exercise 1 According to the discussion immediately above, if a worker’s employment dynamics

obey the stochastic matrix
1−α α
P=
β 1−β
with α ∈ (0, 1) and β ∈ (0, 1), then, in the long-run, the fraction of time spent unemployed will be
β
p :=
α+β
In other words, if { Xt } represents the Markov chain for employment, then X̄n → p as n → ∞,
where
1 n
X̄n := ∑ 1{ Xt = 0}
n t =1

Your exercise is to illustrate this convergence

First,
• generate one simulated time series { Xt } of length 10,000, starting at X0 = 0
• plot X̄n − p against n, where p is as defined above
Second, repeat the first step, but this time taking X0 = 1
In both cases, set α = β = 0.1
The result should look something like the following — modulo randomness, of course
(You don’t need to add the fancy touches to the graph—see the solution if you’re interested)
Exercise 2 A topic of interest for economics and many other disciplines is ranking
Let’s now consider one of the most practical and important ranking problems — the rank assigned
to web pages by search engines
(Although the problem is motivated from outside of economics, there is in fact a deep connection
between search ranking systems and prices in certain competitive equilibria — see [DLP13])
To understand the issue, consider the set of results returned by a query to a web search engine
For the user, it is desirable to
1. receive a large set of accurate matches
2. have the matches returned in order, where the order corresponds to some measure of “im-
portance”
Ranking according to a measure of importance is the problem we now consider

The methodology developed to solve this problem by Google founders Larry Page and Sergey
Brin is known as PageRank
To illustrate the idea, consider the following diagram
Imagine that this is a miniature version of the WWW, with

• each node representing a web page
• each arrow representing the existence of a link from one page to another
Now let’s think about which pages are likely to be important, in the sense of being valuable to a
search engine user
One possible criterion for importance of a page is the number of inbound links — an indication of
popularity
By this measure, m and j are the most important pages, with 5 inbound links each
However, what if the pages linking to m, say, are not themselves important?
Thinking this way, it seems appropriate to weight the inbound nodes by relative importance
The PageRank algorithm does precisely this
A slightly simplified presentation that captures the basic idea is as follows
Letting j be (the integer index of) a typical page and r j be its ranking, we set
ri
rj = ∑ ì
i∈ L j
where
• ì is the total number of outbound links from i
• L j is the set of all pages i such that i has a link to j
This is a measure of the number of inbound links, weighted by their own ranking (and normalized
by 1/ì )
There is, however, another interpretation, and it brings us back to Markov chains

Let P be the matrix given by P[i, j] = 1{i → j}/ì where 1{i → j} = 1 if i has a link to j and zero
otherwise
The matrix P is a stochastic matrix provided that each page has at least one link
With this definition of P we have
ri r
rj = ∑ = ∑ 1{i → j} i = ∑ P[i, j]ri
ì all i ì all i
i∈ L j
Writing r for the row vector of rankings, this becomes r = rP

Hence r is the stationary distribution of the stochastic matrix P
Let’s think of P[i, j] as the probability of “moving” from page i to page j
The value P[i, j] has the interpretation
• P[i, j] = 1/k if i has k outbound links, and j is one of them
• P[i, j] = 0 if i has no direct link to j
Thus, motion from page to page is that of a web surfer who moves from one page to another by
randomly clicking on one of the links on that page
Here “random” means that each link is selected with equal probability
Since r is the stationary distribution of P, assuming that the uniform ergodicity condition is valid,
we can interpret r j as the fraction of time that a (very persistent) random surfer spends at page j
Your exercise is to apply this ranking algorithm to the graph pictured above, and return the list of
pages ordered by rank
The data for this graph is in the web_graph_data.txt file from the main repository — you can also
view it here
There is a total of 14 nodes (i.e., web pages), the first named a and the last named n
A typical line from the file has the form
d -> h;
This should be interpreted as meaning that there exists a link from d to h

To parse this file and extract the relevant information, you can use regular expressions
The following code snippet provides a hint as to how you can go about this
In [1]: import re
In [2]: re.findall('\w', 'x +++ y ****** z') # \w matches alphanumerics

Out[2]: ['x', 'y', 'z']
In [3]: re.findall('\w', 'a ^^ b &&& $$ c')

Out[3]: ['a', 'b', 'c']
When you solve for the ranking, you will find that the highest ranked node is in fact g, while the
lowest is a

Exercise 3 In numerical work it is sometimes convenient to replace a continuous model with a

discrete one
In particular, Markov chains are routinely generated as discrete approximations to AR(1) processes
of the form
yt+1 = ρyt + ut+1
Here ut is assumed to be iid and N (0, σu2 )
The variance of the stationary probability distribution of {yt } is
σu2
σy2 :=
1 − ρ2
Tauchen’s method [Tau86] is the most common method for approximating this continuous state
process with a finite state Markov chain
As a first step we choose
• n, the number of states for the discrete approximation
• m, an integer that parameterizes the width of the state space
Next we create a state space { x0 , . . . , xn−1 } ⊂ R and a stochastic n × n matrix P such that
• x0 = −m σy
• xn−1 = m σy
• xi+1 = xi + s where s = ( xn−1 − x0 )/(n − 1)
• P[i, j] represents the probability of transitioning from xi to x j
Let F be the cumulative distribution function of the normal distribution N (0, σu2 )
The values P[i, j] are computed to approximate the AR(1) process — omitting the derivation, the
rules are as follows:
1. If j = 0, then set
P[i, j] = P[i, 0] = F ( x0 − ρxi + s/2)
2. If j = n − 1, then set
P[i, j] = P[i, n − 1] = 1 − F ( xn−1 − ρxi − s/2)
3. Otherwise, set
P[i, j] = F ( x j − ρxi + s/2) − F ( x j − ρxi − s/2)
The exercise is to write a function approx_markov(rho, sigma_u, m=3, n=7) that returns
{ x0 , . . . , xn−1 } ⊂ R and n × n matrix P as described above
Solutions
Solution notebook

2.3. SHORTEST PATHS 217
2.3 Shortest Paths
Contents
• Shortest Paths
– Overview
– Outline of the Problem
– Finding Least-Cost Paths
– Solving for J
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
The shortest path problem is a classic problem in mathematics and computer science with appli-
cations in
• Economics (sequential decision making, analysis of social networks, etc.)
• Operations research and transportation
• Robotics and artificial intelligence
• Telecommunication network design and routing
• Etc., etc.
For us, the shortest path problem also provides a simple introduction to the logic of dynamic
programming, which is one of our key topics
Variations of the methods we discuss are used millions of times every day, in applications such as
Google Maps
Outline of the Problem
The shortest path problem is one of finding how to traverse a graph from one specified node to
another at minimum cost
Consider the following graph
We wish to travel from node (vertex) A to node G at minimum cost
• Arrows (edges) indicate the movements we can take
• Numbers next to edges indicate the cost of traveling that edge
Possible interpretations of the graph include
• Minimum cost for supplier to reach a destination
• Routing of packets on the internet (minimize time)

• Etc., etc.
For this simple graph, a quick scan of the edges shows that the optimal paths are
• A, C, F, G at cost 8
• A, D, F, G at cost 8
Finding Least-Cost Paths
For large graphs we need a systematic solution

Let J (v) denote the minimum cost-to-go from node v, understood as the total cost from v if we
take the best route
Suppose that we know J (v) for each node v, as shown below for the graph from the preceding
example
Note that J ( G ) = 0
Intuitively, the best path can now be found as follows
• Start at A
• From node v, move to any node that solves
min{c(v, w) + J (w)} (2.14)
w∈ Fv
where
• Fv is the set of nodes that can be reached from v in one step

• c(v, w) is the cost of traveling from v to w

Hence, if we know the function J, then finding the best path is almost trivial
But how to find J?
Some thought will convince you that, for every node v, the function J satisfies
J (v) = min{c(v, w) + J (w)} (2.15)
w∈ Fv
This is known as the Bellman equation

• That is, J is the solution to the Bellman equation
• There are algorithms for computing the minimum cost-to-go function J
Solving for J
The standard algorithm for finding J is to start with

J0 (v) = M if v 6= destination, else J0 (v) = 0 (2.16)
where M is some large number
Now we use the following algorithm
1. Set n = 0
2. Set Jn+1 (v) = minw∈ Fv {c(v, w) + Jn (w)} for all v
3. If Jn+1 and Jn are not equal then increment n, go to 2
In general, this sequence converges to J—the proof is omitted

2.4. SCHELLING’S SEGREGATION MODEL 220
Exercises
Exercise 1 Use the algorithm given above to find the optimal path (and its cost) for this graph
Here the line node0, node1 0.04, node8 11.11, node14 72.21 means that from node0 we can
go to
• node1 at cost 0.04
and so on
According to our calculations, the optimal path and its cost are like this
Your code should replicate this result
Solutions
Solution notebook
2.4 Schelling’s Segregation Model
Contents
• Schelling’s Segregation Model
– Outline
– The Model
– Results
– Exercises
– Solutions
Outline
In 1969, Thomas C. Schelling developed a simple but striking model of racial segregation [Sch69]
His model studies the dynamics of racially mixed neighborhoods
Like much of Schelling’s work, the model shows how local interactions can lead to surprising
aggregate structure
In particular, it shows that relatively mild preference for neighbors of similar race can lead in
aggregate to the collapse of mixed neighborhoods, and high levels of segregation
In recognition of this and other research, Schelling was awarded the 2005 Nobel Prize in Economic
Sciences (joint with Robert Aumann)

In this lecture we (in fact you) will build and run a version of Schelling’s model
The Model
We will cover a variation of Schelling’s model that is easy to program and captures the main idea
Set Up Suppose we have two types of people: orange people and green people
For the purpose of this lecture, we will assume there are 250 of each type
These agents all live on a single unit square
The location of an agent is just a point ( x, y), where 0 < x, y < 1
Preferences We will say that an agent is happy if half or more of her 10 nearest neighbors are of
the same type
Here ‘nearest’ is in terms of Euclidean distance
An agent who is not happy is called unhappy
An important point here is that agents are not averse to living in mixed areas
They are perfectly happy if half their neighbors are of the other color
Behavior Initially, agents are mixed together (integrated)

In particular, the initial location of each agent is an independent draw from a bivariate uniform
distribution on S = (0, 1)2
Now, cycling through the set of all agents, each agent is now given the chance to stay or move
We assume that each agent will stay put if they are happy and move if unhappy
The algorithm for moving is as follows
1. Draw a random location in S
2. If happy at new location, move there
3. Else, go to step 1
In this way, we cycle continuously through the agents, moving as required
We continue to cycle until no one wishes to move
Results
Let’s have a look at the results we got when we coded and ran this model
As discussed above, agents are initially mixed randomly together
But after several cycles they become segregated into distinct regions



In this instance, the program terminated after 4 cycles through the set of agents, indicating that all
agents had reached a state of happiness
What is striking about the pictures is how rapidly racial integration breaks down
This is despite the fact that people in the model don’t actually mind living mixed with the other
type
Even with these preferences, the outcome is a high degree of segregation
Exercises
Rather than show you the program that generated these figures, we’ll now ask you to write your
own version
You can see our program at the end, when you look at the solution
Exercise 1 Implement and run this simulation for yourself

Consider the following structure for your program
Agents are modeled as objects
(Have a look at this lecture if you’ve forgotten how to build your own objects)
Here’s an indication of how they might look
* Data:
* type (green or orange)

* location
* Methods:
* Determine whether happy or not given locations of other agents
* If not happy, move
* find a new location where happy
And here’s some pseudocode for the main loop

while agents are still moving:
for agent in agents:
give agent the opportunity to move
Use 250 agents of each type
Solutions
Solution notebook

2.5. LLN AND CLT 225
2.5 LLN and CLT
Contents
• LLN and CLT
– Overview
– Relationships
– LLN
– CLT
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
This lecture illustrates two of the most important theorems of probability and statistics: The law
of large numbers (LLN) and the central limit theorem (CLT)
These beautiful theorems lie behind many of the most fundamental results in econometrics and
quantitative economic modeling
The lecture is based around simulations that show the LLN and CLT in action
We also demonstrate how the LLN and CLT break down when the assumptions they are based on
do not hold
In addition, we examine several useful extensions of the classical theorems, such as
• The delta method, for smooth functions of random variables
• The multivariate case
Some of these extensions are presented as exercises
Relationships
The CLT refines the LLN

The LLN gives conditions under which sample moments converge to population moments as
sample size increases
The CLT provides information about the rate at which sample moments converge to population
moments as sample size increases
LLN
We begin with the law of large numbers, which tells us when sample averages will converge to
their population means

The Classical LLN The classical law of large numbers concerns independent and identically
distributed (IID) random variables
Here is the strongest version of the classical LLN, known as Kolmogorov’s strong law
Let X1 , . . . , Xn be independent and identically distributed scalar random variables, with common
distribution F
When it exists, let µ denote the common mean of this sample:
Z
µ := EX = xF (dx )
In addition, let
1 n
n i∑
X̄n := Xi
=1
Kolmogorov’s strong law states that, if E| X | is finite, then
P { X̄n → µ as n → ∞} = 1 (2.17)
What does this last expression mean?

Let’s think about it from a simulation perspective, imagining for a moment that our computer can
generate perfect random samples (which of course it can’t)
Let’s also imagine that we can generate infinite sequences, so that the statement X̄n → µ can be
evaluated
In this setting, (2.17) should be interpreted as meaning that the probability of the computer pro-
ducing a sequence where X̄n → µ fails to occur is zero
Proof The proof of Kolmogorov’s strong law is nontrivial – see, for example, theorem 8.3.5 of
[Dud02]
On the other hand, we can prove a weaker version of the LLN very easily and still get most of the
intuition
The version we prove is as follows: If X1 , . . . , Xn is IID with EXi2 < ∞, then, for any e > 0, we
have
P {| X̄n − µ| ≥ e} → 0 as n → ∞ (2.18)
(This version is weaker because we claim only convergence in probability rather than almost sure
convergence, and assume a finite second moment)
To see that this is so, fix e > 0, and let σ2 be the variance of each Xi
Recall the Chebyshev inequality, which tells us that
E[( X̄n − µ)2 ]

P {| X̄n − µ| ≥ e} ≤ (2.19)
e2

Now observe that

" #2 
 1 n 
 n i∑
E[( X̄n − µ)2 ] = E ( Xi − µ )
=1

n n
1
=
n2 ∑ ∑ E(Xi − µ)(Xj − µ)
i =1 j =1
n
1
=
n2 ∑ E ( Xi − µ ) 2
i =1
σ2
=
n
Here the crucial step is at the third equality, which follows from independence
Independence means that if i 6= j, then the covariance term E( Xi − µ)( X j − µ) drops out
As a result, n2 − n terms vanish, leading us to a final expression that goes to zero in n
Combining our last result with (2.19), we come to the estimate
σ2
P {| X̄n − µ| ≥ e} ≤ (2.20)
ne2
The claim in (2.18) is now clear
Of course, if the sequence X1 , . . . , Xn is correlated, then the cross-product terms E( Xi − µ)( X j − µ)
are not necessarily zero
While this doesn’t mean that the same line of argument is impossible, it does mean that if we want
a similar result then the covariances should be “almost zero” for “most” of these terms
In a long sequence, this would be true if, for example, E( Xi − µ)( X j − µ) approached zero when
the difference between i and j became large
In other words, the LLN can still work if the sequence X1 , . . . , Xn has a kind of “asymptotic in-
dependence”, in the sense that correlation falls to zero as variables become further apart in the
sequence
This idea is very important in time series analysis, and we’ll come across it again soon enough
Illustration Let’s now illustrate the classical IID law of large numbers using simulation
In particular, we aim to generate some sequences of IID random variables and plot the evolution
of X̄n as n increases
Below is a figure that does just this (as usual, you can click on it to expand it)
It shows IID observations from three different distributions and plots X̄n against n in each case
The dots represent the underlying observations Xi for i = 1, . . . , 100
In each of the three cases, convergence of X̄n to µ occurs as predicted


The figure was produced by illustrates_lln.py, which is shown below (and can be found in the
lln_clt directory of the applications repository)
The three distributions are chosen at random from a selection stored in the dictionary
distributions
"""
Filename: illustrates_lln.py
Visual illustration of the law of large numbers.

"""
import random
import numpy as np
from scipy.stats import t, beta, lognorm, expon, gamma, poisson
n = 100
# == Arbitrary collection of distributions == #

distributions = {"student's t with 10 degrees of freedom": t(10),
"beta(2, 2)": beta(2, 2),
"lognormal LN(0, 1/2)": lognorm(0.5),
"gamma(5, 1/2)": gamma(5, scale=2),
"poisson(4)": poisson(4),
"exponential with lambda = 1": expon(1)}
# == Create a figure and some axes == #

num_plots = 3
fig, axes = plt.subplots(num_plots, 1, figsize=(10, 10))
# == Set some plotting parameters to improve layout == #

bbox = (0., 1.02, 1., .102)
legend_args = {'ncol': 2,
'bbox_to_anchor': bbox,
'loc': 3,
'mode': 'expand'}
plt.subplots_adjust(hspace=0.5)
for ax in axes:
# == Choose a randomly selected distribution == #
name = random.choice(list(distributions.keys()))
distribution = distributions.pop(name)
# == Generate n draws from the distribution == #

data = distribution.rvs(n)
# == Compute sample mean at each n == #

sample_mean = np.empty(n)
for i in range(n):
sample_mean[i] = np.mean(data[:i+1])
# == Plot == #

ax.plot(list(range(n)), data, 'o', color='grey', alpha=0.5)

axlabel = r'$\bar X_n$' + ' for ' + r'$X_i \sim$' + ' ' + name
ax.plot(list(range(n)), sample_mean, 'g-', lw=3, alpha=0.6, label=axlabel)
m = distribution.mean()
ax.plot(list(range(n)), [m] * n, 'k--', lw=1.5, label=r'$\mu$')
ax.vlines(list(range(n)), m, data, lw=0.2)
ax.legend(**legend_args)
plt.show()
Infinite Mean What happens if the condition E| X | < ∞ in the statement of the LLN is not
satisfied?
This might be the case if the underlying distribution is heavy tailed — the best known example is
the Cauchy distribution, which has density
1
f (x) = ( x ∈ R)
π (1 + x 2 )
The next figure shows 100 independent draws from this distribution
Notice how extreme observations are far more prevalent here than the previous figure
Let’s now have a look at the behavior of the sample mean
Here we’ve increased n to 1000, but the sequence still shows no sign of converging
Will convergence become visible if we take n even larger?
The answer is no
To see this, recall that the characteristic function of the Cauchy distribution is
Z
φ(t) = EeitX = eitx f ( x )dx = e−|t| (2.21)

Using independence, the characteristic function of the sample mean becomes

( )
t n
Ee it X̄n
= E exp i ∑ X j
n j =1
n
t
= E ∏ exp i X j
j =1
n
n
t
= ∏ E exp i X j = [φ(t/n)]n
j =1
n
In view of (2.21), this is just e−|t|

Thus, in the case of the Cauchy distribution, the sample mean itself has the very same Cauchy
distribution, regardless of n
In particular, the sequence X̄n does not converge to a point
CLT
Next we turn to the central limit theorem, which tells us about the distribution of the deviation
between sample averages and population means
Statement of the Theorem The central limit theorem is one of the most remarkable results in all
of mathematics
In the classical IID setting, it tells us the following: If the sequence X1 , . . . , Xn is IID, with common
mean µ and common variance σ2 ∈ (0, ∞), then
√ d
n( X̄n − µ) → N (0, σ2 ) as n → ∞ (2.22)
d
Here → N (0, σ2 ) indicates convergence in distribution to a centered (i.e, zero mean) normal with
standard deviation σ

Intuition The striking implication of the CLT is that for any distribution with finite second mo-
ment, the simple operation of adding independent copies always leads to a Gaussian curve
A relatively simple proof of the central limit theorem can be obtained by working with character-
istic functions (see, e.g., theorem 9.5.6 of [Dud02])
The proof is elegant but almost anticlimactic, and it provides surprisingly little intuition
In fact all of the proofs of the CLT that we know are similar in this respect
Why does adding independent copies produce a bell-shaped distribution?
Part of the answer can be obtained by investigating addition of independent Bernoulli random
variables
In particular, let Xi be binary, with P{ Xi = 0} = P{ Xi = 1} = 0.5, and let X1 , . . . , Xn be indepen-
dent
Think of Xi = 1 as a “success”, so that Yn = ∑in=1 Xi is the number of successes in n trials
The next figure plots the probability mass function of Yn for n = 1, 2, 4, 8
When n = 1, the distribution is flat — one success or no successes have the same probability
When n = 2 we can either have 0, 1 or 2 successes
Notice the peak in probability mass at the mid-point k = 1
The reason is that there are more ways to get 1 success (“fail then succeed” or “succeed then fail”)
than to get zero or two successes
Moreover, the two trials are independent, so the outcomes “fail then succeed” and “succeed then
fail” are just as likely as the outcomes “fail then fail” and “succeed then succeed”

(If there was positive correlation, say, then “succeed then fail” would be less likely than “succeed
then succeed”)
Here, already we have the essence of the CLT: addition under independence leads probability
mass to pile up in the middle and thin out at the tails
For n = 4 and n = 8 we again get a peak at the “middle” value (halfway between the minimum
and the maximum possible value)
The intuition is the same — there are simply more ways to get these middle outcomes
If we continue, the bell-shaped curve becomes ever more pronounced
We are witnessing the binomial approximation of the normal distribution
Simulation 1 Since the CLT seems almost magical, running simulations that verify its implica-
tions is one good way to build intuition
To this end, we now perform the following simulation
1. Choose an arbitrary distribution F for the underlying observations Xi
√
2. Generate independent draws of Yn := n( X̄n − µ)
3. Use these draws to compute some measure of their distribution — such as a histogram
4. Compare the latter to N (0, σ2 )
Here’s some code that does exactly this for the exponential distribution F ( x ) = 1 − e−λx
(Please experiment with other choices of F, but remember that, to conform with the conditions of
the CLT, the distribution must have finite second moment)
"""
Filename: illustrates_clt.py
Visual illustration of the central limit theorem. Histograms draws of
Y_n := \sqrt{n} (\bar X_n - \mu)
for a given distribution of X_i, and a given choice of n.

"""
import numpy as np
from scipy.stats import expon, norm
from matplotlib import rc
# == Specifying font, needs LaTeX integration == #

rc('font', **{'family': 'serif', 'serif': ['Palatino']})
rc('text', usetex=True)
# == Set parameters == #
n = 250 # Choice of n
k = 100000 # Number of draws of Y_n
distribution = expon(2) # Exponential distribution, lambda = 1/2

mu, s = distribution.mean(), distribution.std()
# == Draw underlying RVs. Each row contains a draw of X_1,..,X_n == #

data = distribution.rvs((k, n))
# == Compute mean of each row, producing k draws of \bar X_n == #
sample_means = data.mean(axis=1)
# == Generate observations of Y_n == #
Y = np.sqrt(n) * (sample_means - mu)
# == Plot == #
xmin, xmax = -3 * s, 3 * s
ax.set_xlim(xmin, xmax)
ax.hist(Y, bins=60, alpha=0.5, normed=True)
xgrid = np.linspace(xmin, xmax, 200)
ax.plot(xgrid, norm.pdf(xgrid, scale=s), 'k-', lw=2, label=r'$N(0, \sigma^2)$')
ax.legend()
plt.show()
The file is illustrates_clt.py, from the ‘applications repository

https://github.com/QuantEcon/QuantEcon.applications
Notice the absence of for loops — every operation is vectorized, meaning that the major calcula-
tions are all shifted to highly optimized C code
The program produces figures such as the one below
The fit to the normal density is already tight, and can be further improved by increasing n
You can also experiment with other specifications of F
Note: You might need to delete or modify the lines beginning with rc to get this code to run on
your computer

Simulation 2 Our next√ simulation is somewhat like the first, except that we aim to track the
distribution of Yn := n( X̄n − µ) as n increases
In the simulation we’ll be working with random variables having µ = 0
Thus, when n = 1, we have Y1 = X1 , so the first distribution is just the distribution of the under-
lying random variable
√
For n = 2, the distribution of Y2 is that of ( X1 + X2 )/ 2, and so on
What we expect is that, regardless of the distribution of the underlying random variable, the
distribution of Yn will smooth out into a bell shaped curve
The next figure shows this process for Xi ∼ f , where f was specified as the convex combination
of three different beta densities
(Taking a convex combination is an easy way to produce an irregular shape for f )
In the figure, the closest density is that of Y1 , while the furthest is that of Y5
As expected, the distribution smooths out into a bell curve as n increases

The figure is generated by file lln_clt/clt3d.py, which is available from the ‘applications repos-
itory https://github.com/QuantEcon/QuantEcon.applications
We leave you to investigate its contents if you wish to know more
If you run the file from the ordinary IPython shell, the figure should pop up in a window that you
can rotate with your mouse, giving different views on the density sequence

The Multivariate Case The law of large numbers and central limit theorem work just as nicely
in multidimensional settings
To state the results, let’s recall some elementary facts about random vectors
A random vector X is just a sequence of k random variables ( X1 , . . . , Xk )
Each realization of X is an element of Rk
A collection of random vectors X1 , . . . , Xn is called independent if, given any n vectors x1 , . . . , xn
in Rk , we have
P{ X1 ≤ x1 , . . . , X n ≤ x n } = P{ X1 ≤ x1 } × · · · × P{ X n ≤ x n }
(The vector inequality X ≤ x means that X j ≤ x j for j = 1, . . . , k)
Let µ j := E[ X j ] for all j = 1, . . . , k
The expectation E[X] of X is defined to be the vector of expectations:
E [ X1 ]
   
µ1
 E [ X2 ]   µ 2 
E[ X ] : =   =  ..  =: µ
   
..
 .   . 
E[ Xk ] µk
The variance-covariance matrix of random vector X is defined as
Var[X] := E[(X − µ)(X − µ)0 ]
Expanding this out, we get
E[( X1 − µ1 )( X1 − µ1 )] · · · E[( X1 − µ1 )( Xk − µk )]
 
 E[( X2 − µ2 )( X1 − µ1 )] · · · E[( X2 − µ2 )( Xk − µk )] 
Var[X] = 
 
.. .. .. 
 . . . 
E[( Xk − µk )( X1 − µ1 )] · · · E[( Xk − µk )( Xk − µk )]
The j, k-th term is the scalar covariance between X j and Xk
With this notation we can proceed to the multivariate LLN and CLT
Let X1 , . . . , Xn be a sequence of independent and identically distributed random vectors, each one
taking values in Rk
Let µ be the vector E[Xi ], and let Σ be the variance-covariance matrix of Xi
Interpreting vector addition and scalar multiplication in the usual way (i.e., pointwise), let
1 n
n i∑
X̄n := Xi
=1
In this setting, the LLN tells us that

P {X̄n → µ as n → ∞} = 1 (2.23)
Here X̄n → µ means that kX̄n → µk → 0, where k · k is the standard Euclidean norm
The CLT tells us that, provided Σ is finite,
√ d
n(X̄n − µ) → N (0, Σ) as n→∞ (2.24)

Exercises
Exercise 1 One very useful consequence of the central limit theorem is as follows
Assume the conditions of the CLT as stated above
If g : R → R is differentiable at µ and g0 (µ) 6= 0, then
√ d
n{ g( X̄n ) − g(µ)} → N (0, g0 (µ)2 σ2 ) as n→∞ (2.25)
This theorem is used frequently in statistics to obtain the asymptotic distribution of estimators —
many of which can be expressed as functions of sample means
(These kinds of results are often said to use the “delta method”)
The proof is based on a Taylor expansion of g around the point µ
Taking the result as given, let the distribution F of each Xi be uniform on [0, π/2] and let g( x ) =
sin( x )
√
Derive the asymptotic distribution of n{ g( X̄n ) − g(µ)} and illustrate convergence in the same
spirit as the program illustrate_clt.py discussed above
What happens when you replace [0, π/2] with [0, π ]?
What is the source of the problem?
Exercise 2 Here’s a result that’s often used in developing statistical tests, and is connected to the
multivariate central limit theorem
If you study econometric theory, you will see this result used again and again
Assume the setting of the multivariate CLT discussed above, so that
1. X1 , . . . , Xn is a sequence of IID random vectors, each taking values in Rk
2. µ := E[Xi ], and Σ is the variance-covariance matrix of Xi
3. The convergence
√ d
n(X̄n − µ) → N (0, Σ) (2.26)
is valid
In a statistical setting, one often wants the right hand side to be standard normal, so that confi-
dence intervals are easily computed
This normalization can be achieved on the basis of three observations
First, if X is a random vector in Rk and A is constant and k × k, then
Var[AX] = A Var[X]A0
d
Second, by the continuous mapping theorem, if Zn → Z in Rk and A is constant and k × k, then
d
AZn → AZ

2.6. LINEAR STATE SPACE MODELS 238
Third, if S is a k × k symmetric positive definite matrix, then there exists a symmetric positive
definite matrix Q, called the inverse square root of S, such that
QSQ0 = I
Here I is the k × k identity matrix

Putting these things together, your first exercise is to show that if Q is the inverse square root of
Σ, then
√ d
Zn := nQ(X̄n − µ) → Z ∼ N (0, I)
Applying the continuous mapping theorem one more time tells us that
d
k Z n k2 → k Z k2
Given the distribution of Z, we conclude that

d
nkQ(X̄n − µ)k2 → χ2 (k ) (2.27)
where χ2 (k ) is the chi-squared distribution with k degrees of freedom

(Recall that k is the dimension of Xi , the underlying random vectors)
Your second exercise is to illustrate the convergence in (2.27) with a simulation
In doing so, let
Wi
Xi : =
Ui + Wi
where
• each Wi is an IID draw from the uniform distribution on [−1, 1]
• each Ui is an IID draw from the uniform distribution on [−2, 2]
• Ui and Wi are independent of each other
Hints:
1. scipy.linalg.sqrtm(A) computes the square root of A. You still need to invert it
2. You should be able to work out Σ from the proceding information
Solutions
Solution notebook
2.6 Linear State Space Models

Contents
• Linear State Space Models
– Overview
– The Linear State Space Model
– Distributions and Moments
– Stationarity and Ergodicity
– Noisy Observations
– Prediction
– Code
– Exercises
– Solutions
“We may regard the present state of the universe as the effect of its past and the cause
of its future” – Marquis de Laplace
Overview
This lecture introduces the linear state space dynamic system

Easy to use and carries a powerful theory of prediction
A workhorse with many applications
• representing dynamics of higher-order linear systems
• predicting the position of a system j steps into the future
• predicting a geometric sum of future values of a variable like
– non financial income
– dividends on a stock
– the money supply
– a government deficit or surplus
– etc., etc., . . .
• key ingredient of useful models
– Friedman’s permanent income model of consumption smoothing
– Barro’s model of smoothing total tax collections
– Rational expectations version of Cagan’s model of hyperinflation
– Sargent and Wallace’s “unpleasant monetarist arithmetic”
– etc., etc., . . .

The Linear State Space Model
Objects in play
• An n × 1 vector xt denoting the state at time t = 0, 1, 2, . . .
• An iid sequence of m × 1 random vectors wt ∼ N (0, I )
• A k × 1 vector yt of observations at time t = 0, 1, 2, . . .
• An n × n matrix A called the transition matrix
• An n × m matrix C called the volatility matrix
• A k × n matrix G sometimes called the output matrix
Here is the linear state-space system
xt+1 = Axt + Cwt+1 (2.28)

yt = Gxt
x0 ∼ N ( µ0 , Σ0 )
Primitives The primitives of the model are

1. the matrices A, C, G
2. shock distribution, which we have specialized to N (0, I )
3. the distribution of the initial condition x0 , which we have set to N (µ0 , Σ0 )
Given A, C, G and draws of x0 and w1 , w2 , . . ., the model (2.28) pins down the values of the se-
quences { xt } and {yt }
Even without these draws, the primitives 1–3 pin down the probability distributions of { xt } and
{yt }
Later we’ll see how to compute these distributions and their moments
Martingale difference shocks We’ve made the common assumption that the shocks are inde-
pendent standardized normal vectors
But some of what we say will go through under the assumption that {wt+1 } is a martingale dif-
ference sequence
A martingale difference sequence is a sequence that is zero mean when conditioned on past infor-
mation
In the present case, since { xt } is our state sequence, this means that it satisfies
E [ w t +1 | x t , x t −1 , . . . ] = 0
This is a weaker condition than that {wt } is iid with wt+1 ∼ N (0, I )

Examples By appropriate choice of the primitives, a variety of dynamics can be represented in

terms of the linear state space model
The following examples help to highlight this point
They also illustrate the wise dictum finding the state is an art
Second-order difference equation Let {yt } be a deterministic sequence that satifies

yt+1 = φ0 + φ1 yt + φ2 yt−1 s.t. y0 , y−1 given (2.29)
To map (2.29) into our state space system (2.28), we set
     
1 1 0 0 0
xt = yt
  A = φ0 φ1 φ2
  C = 0
 G= 0 1 0
y t −1 0 1 0 0
You can confirm that under these definitions, (2.28) and (2.29) agree
The next figure shows dynamics of this process when φ0 = 1.1, φ1 = 0.8, φ2 = −0.8, y0 = y−1 = 1
Later you’ll be asked to recreate this figure
Univariate Autoregressive Processes We can use (2.28) to represent the model

yt+1 = φ1 yt + φ2 yt−1 + φ3 yt−2 + φ4 yt−3 + σwt+1 (2.30)
where {wt } is iid and standard normal
0
To put this in the linear state space format we take xt = yt yt−1 yt−2 yt−3 and
   
φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4 σ
1 0 0 0 0
A= 0 1 0 0
 C= 0
 G= 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0


The matrix A has the form of the companion matrix to the vector φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4 .
The next figure shows dynamics of this process when
φ1 = 0.5, φ2 = −0.2, φ3 = 0, φ4 = 0.5, σ = 0.2, y0 = y−1 = y−2 = y−3 = 1
Vector Autoregressions Now suppose that

• yt is a k × 1 vector
• φj is a k × k matrix and
• wt is k × 1
Then (2.30) is termed a vector autoregression
To map this into (2.28), we set
     
yt φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4 σ
 y t −1   I 0 0 0 0
xt =  
 y t −2  A=  C=  G= I 0 0 0
0 I 0 0 0
y t −3 0 0 I 0 0
where I is the k × k identity matrix and σ is a k × k matrix
Seasonals We can use (2.28) to represent

1. the deterministic seasonal yt = yt−4
2. the indeterministic seasonal yt = φ4 yt−4 + wt

In fact both are special cases of (2.30)

With the deterministic seasonal, the transition matrix becomes
 
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
A= 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0
It is easy to check that A4 = I, which implies that xt is strictly periodic with period 4:4
x t +4 = x t
Such an xt process can be used to model deterministic seasonals in quarterly time series.
The indeterministic seasonal produces recurrent, but aperiodic, seasonal fluctuations.
Time Trends The model yt = at + b is known as a linear time trend

We can represent this model in the linear state space form by taking

1 1 0
A= C= G= a b (2.31)
0 1 0
0
and starting at initial condition x0 = 0 1
In fact it’s possible to use the state-space system to represent polynomial trends of any order
For instance, let      
0 1 1 0 0
x0 = 0 A = 0 1 1 C = 0
1 0 0 1 0
It follows that  
1 t t(t − 1)/2
A t = 0 1 t 
0 0 1
Then xt0 = t(t − 1)/2 t 1 , so that xt contains linear and quadratic time trends

As a variation on the linear time trend model, consider :math:‘y_t = a t + b

To modify (2.31) accordingly, we set

1 1 0
A= C= G= a b (2.32)
0 1 0
4 The eigenvalues of A are (1, −1, i, −i ).

Moving Average Representations A nonrecursive expression for xt as a function of

x0 , w1 , w2 , . . . , wt can be found by using (2.28) repeatedly to obtain
xt = Axt−1 + Cwt (2.33)

2
= A xt−2 + ACwt−1 + Cwt
..
.
t −1
= ∑ A j Cwt− j + At x0
j =0
Representation (2.33) is a moving average representation

It expresses { xt } as a linear function of
1. current and past values of the process {wt } and
2. the initial condition x0
As an example of a moving average representation, let the model be

1 1 1
A= C=
0 1 0

1 t 0
At and A j C = 1 0

You will be able to show that =
0 1
Substituting into the moving average representation (2.33), we obtain
t −1
∑ wt− j +

x1t = 1 t x0
j =0
where x1t is the first entry of xt

The first term on the right is a cumulated sum of martingale differences, and is therefore a martin-
gale
The second term is a translated linear function of time
For this reason, x1t is called a martingale with drift
Distributions and Moments
Unconditional Moments Using (2.28), it’s easy to obtain expressions for the (unconditional)
means of xt and yt
We’ll explain what unconditional and conditional mean soon
Letting µt := E [ xt ] and using linearity of expectations, we find that
µt+1 = Aµt with µ0 given (2.34)
Here µ0 is a primitive given in (2.28)

The variance-covariance matrix of xt is Σt := E [( xt − µt )( xt − µt )0 ]

Using xt+1 − µt+1 = A( xt − µt ) + Cwt+1 , we can determine this matrix recursively via
Σt+1 = AΣt A0 + CC 0 with Σ0 given (2.35)
As with µ0 , the matrix Σ0 is a primitive given in (2.28)

As a matter of terminology, we will sometimes call
• µt the unconditional mean of xt
• Σt the unconditional variance-convariance matrix of xt
This is to distinguish µt and Σt from related objects that use conditioning information, to be de-
fined below
However, you should be aware that these “unconditional” moments do depend on the initial
distribution N (µ0 , Σ0 )
Moments of the Observations Using linearity of expectations again we have
E [yt ] = E [Gxt ] = Gµt (2.36)
The variance-covariance matrix of yt is easily shown to be
Var[yt ] = Var[ Gxt ] = GΣt G 0 (2.37)
Distributions In general, knowing the mean and variance-covariance matrix of a random vector
is not quite as good as knowing the full distribution
However, there are some situations where these moments alone tell us all we need to know
One such situation is when the vector in question is Gaussian (i.e., normally distributed)
This is the case here, given
1. our Gaussian assumptions on the primitives
2. the fact that normality is preserved under linear operations
In fact, it’s well-known that
u ∼ N (ū, S) and v = a + Bu =⇒ v ∼ N ( a + Bū, BSB0 ) (2.38)
In particular, given our Gaussian assumptions on the primitives and the linearity of (2.28) we can
see immediately that both xt and yt are Gaussian for all t ≥ 0 5
Since xt is Gaussian, to find the distribution, all we need to do is find its mean and variance-
covariance matrix
But in fact we’ve already done this, in (2.34) and (2.35)
5 The correct way to argue this is by induction. Suppose that xt is Gaussian. Then (2.28) and (2.38) imply that xt+1
is Gaussian. Since x0 is assumed to be Gaussian, it follows that every xt is Gaussian. Evidently this implies that each yt
is Gaussian.

Letting µt and Σt be as defined by these equations, we have
xt ∼ N (µt , Σt ) (2.39)
By similar reasoning combined with (2.36) and (2.37),
yt ∼ N ( Gµt , GΣt G 0 ) (2.40)
Ensemble Interpretations How should we interpret the distributions defined by (2.39)–(2.40)?

Intuitively, the probabilities in a distribution correspond to relative frequencies in a large popula-
tion drawn from that distribution
Let’s apply this idea to our setting, focusing on the distribution of y T for fixed T
We can generate independent draws of y T by repeatedly simulating the evolution of the system
up to time T, using an independent set of shocks each time
The next figure shows 20 simulations, producing 20 time series for {yt }, and hence 20 draws of y T
The system in question is the univariate autoregressive model (2.30)
The values of y T are represented by black dots in the left-hand figure
In the right-hand figure, these values are converted into a rotated histogram that shows relative
frequencies from our sample of 20 y T ‘s
(The parameters and source code for the figures can be found in file lin-
ear_models/paths_and_hist.py from the applications repository)
Here is another figure, this time with 100 observations
Let’s now try with 500,000 observations, showing only the histogram (without rotation)
The black line is the density of y T calculated analytically, using (2.40)
The histogram and analytical distribution are close, as expected
By looking at the figures and experimenting with parameters, you will gain a feel for how the
distribution depends on the model primitives listed above


Ensemble means In the preceding figure we recovered the distribution of y T by

1. generating I sample paths (i.e., time series) where I is a large number
2. recording each observation yiT
3. histogramming this sample
Just as the histogram corresponds to the distribution, the ensemble or cross-sectional average
1 I i
I i∑
ȳ T := yT
=1
approximates the expectation E [y T ] = Gµt (as implied by the law of large numbers)
Here’s a simulation comparing the ensemble averages and population means at time points t =
0, . . . , 50
The parameters are the same as for the preceding figures, and the sample size is relatively small
(I = 20)
The ensemble mean for xt is
1 I i
I i∑
x̄ T := xT → µT ( I → ∞)
=1
The limit µ T can be thought of as a “population average”

(By population average we mean the average for an infinite (I = ∞) number of sample x T ‘s)
Another application of the law of large numbers assures us that
1 I i
I i∑
( xT − x̄T )( xiT − x̄T )0 → ΣT ( I → ∞)
=1

Joint Distributions In the preceding discussion we looked at the distributions of xt and yt in

isolation
This gives us useful information, but doesn’t allow us to answer questions like
• what’s the probability that xt ≥ 0 for all t?
• what’s the probability that the process {yt } exceeds some value a before falling below b?
• etc., etc.
Such questions concern the joint distributions of these sequences
To compute the joint distribution of x0 , x1 , . . . , x T , recall that joint and conditional densities are
linked by the rule
p( x, y) = p(y | x ) p( x ) (joint = conditional × marginal)
From this rule we get p( x0 , x1 ) = p( x1 | x0 ) p( x0 )

The Markov property p( xt | xt−1 , . . . , x0 ) = p( xt | xt−1 ) and repeated applications of the preceding
rule lead us to
T −1
p ( x 0 , x 1 , . . . , x T ) = p ( x 0 ) ∏ p ( x t +1 | x t )
t =0
The marginal p( x0 ) is just the primitive N (µ0 , Σ0 )

In view of (2.28), the conditional densities are
p( xt+1 | xt ) = N ( Axt , CC 0 )
Autocovariance functions An important object related to the joint distribution is the autocovari-
ance function
Σt+ j,t := E [( xt+ j − µt+ j )( xt − µt )0 ] (2.41)
Elementary calculations show that
Σt+ j,t = A j Σt (2.42)
Notice that Σt+ j,t in general depends on both j, the gap between the two dates, and t, the earlier
date
Stationarity and Ergodicity
Stationarity and ergodicity are two properties that, when they hold, greatly aid analysis of linear
state space models
Let’s start with the intuition

Visualizing Stability Let’s look at some more time series from the same model that we analyzed
above
This picture shows cross-sectional distributions for y at times T, T 0 , T 00
Note how the time series “settle down” in the sense that the distributions at T 0 and T 00 are rela-
tively similar to each other — but unlike the distribution at T
Apparently, the distributions of yt converge to a fixed long-run distribution as t → ∞
When such a distribution exists it is called a stationary distribution
Stationary Distributions In our setting, a distribution ψ∞ is said to be stationary for xt if
xt ∼ ψ∞ and xt+1 = Axt + Cwt+1 =⇒ xt+1 ∼ ψ∞
Since
1. in the present case all distributions are Gaussian
2. a Gaussian distribution is pinned down by its mean and variance-covariance matrix
we can restate the definition as follows: ψ∞ is stationary for xt if
ψ∞ = N (µ∞ , Σ∞ )
where µ∞ and Σ∞ are fixed points of (2.34) and (2.35) respectively
Covariance Stationary Processes Let’s see what happens to the preceding figure if we start x0 at
the stationary distribution
Now the differences in the observed distributions at T, T 0 and T 00 come entirely from random
fluctuations due to the finite sample size
By

• our choosing x0 ∼ N (µ∞ , Σ∞ )

• the definitions of µ∞ and Σ∞ as fixed points of (2.34) and (2.35) respectively
we’ve ensured that
µt = µ∞ and Σt = Σ∞ for all t
Moreover, in view of (2.42), the autocovariance function takes the form Σt+ j,t = A j Σ∞ , which
depends on j but not on t
This motivates the following definition
A process { xt } is said to be covariance stationary if
• both µt and Σt are constant in t
• Σt+ j,t depends on the time gap j but not on time t
In our setting, { xt } will be covariance stationary if µ0 , Σ0 , A, C assume values that imply that none
of µt , Σt , Σt+ j,t depends on t
Conditions for Stationarity
The globally stable case The difference equation µt+1 = Aµt is known to have unique fixed point
µ∞ = 0 if all eigenvalues of A have moduli strictly less than unity
That is, if (np.absolute(np.linalg.eigvals(A)) < 1).all() == True
The difference equation (2.35) also has a unique fixed point in this case, and, moreover
µt → µ∞ = 0 and Σt → Σ∞ as t→∞
regardless of the initial conditions µ0 and Σ0

This is the globally stable case — see these notes for more a theoretical treatment
However, global stability is more than we need for stationary solutions, and often more than we
want
To illustrate, consider our second order difference equation example
0
Here the state is xt = 1 yt yt−1
Because of the constant first component in the state vector, we will never have µt → 0
How can we find stationary solutions that respect a constant state component?
Processes with a constant state component To investigate such a process, suppose that A and C
take the form
A1 a C1
A= C=
0 1 0
where
• A1 is an (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix
• a is an (n − 1) × 1 column vector
0 0
Let xt = x1t 1 where x1t is (n − 1) × 1
It follows that
x1,t+1 = A1 x1t + a + C1 wt+1
Let µ1t = E [ x1t ] and take expectations on both sides of this expression to get
µ1,t+1 = A1 µ1,t + a (2.43)
Assume now that the moduli of the eigenvalues of A1 are all strictly less than one
Then (2.43) has a unique stationary solution, namely,
µ1∞ = ( I − A1 )−1 a
0 0
The stationary value of µt itself is then µ∞ := µ1∞ 1
The stationary values of Σt and Σt+ j,t satisfy
Σ∞ = AΣ∞ A0 + CC 0 (2.44)
Σt+ j,t = A Σ∞
j
Notice that here Σt+ j,t depends on the time gap j but not on calendar time t
In conclusion, if
• x0 ∼ N (µ∞ , Σ∞ ) and
• the moduli of the eigenvalues of A1 are all strictly less than unity

then the { xt } process is covariance stationary, with constant state component
Note: If the eigenvalues of A1 are less than unity in modulus, then (a) starting from any initial
value, the mean and variance-covariance matrix both converge to their stationary values; and (b)
iterations on (2.35) converge to the fixed point of the discrete Lyapunov equation in the first line of
(2.44)
Ergodicity Let’s suppose that we’re working with a covariance stationary process
In this case we know that the ensemble mean will converge to µ∞ as the sample size I approaches
infinity
Averages over time Ensemble averages across simulations are interesting theoretically, but in
real life we usually observe only a single realization { xt , yt }tT=0
So now let’s take a single realization and form the time series averages
T T
1 1
x̄ :=
T ∑ xt and ȳ :=
T ∑ yt
t =1 t =1
Do these time series averages converge to something interpretable in terms of our basic state-space
representation?
The answer depends on something called ergodicity
Ergodicity is the property that time series and ensemble averages coincide
More formally, ergodicity implies that time series sample averages converge to their expectation
under the stationary distribution
In particular,
• 1
T ∑tT=0 xt → µ∞
• 1
T ∑tT=0 ( xt − x̄ T )( xt − x̄ T )0 → Σ∞
• 1
T ∑tT=0 ( xt+ j − x̄ T )( xt − x̄ T )0 → A j Σ∞
In our linear Gaussian setting, any covariance stationary process is also ergodic
Noisy Observations
In some settings the observation equation yt = Gxt is modified to include an error term
Often this error term represents the idea that the true state can only be observed imperfectly
To include an error term in the observation we introduce
• An iid sequence of ` × 1 random vectors vt ∼ N (0, I )
• A k × ` matrix H

and extend the linear state-space system to
xt+1 = Axt + Cwt+1 (2.45)

yt = Gxt + Hvt
x0 ∼ N ( µ0 , Σ0 )
The sequence {vt } is assumed to be independent of {wt }

The process { xt } is not modified by noise in the observation equation and its moments, distribu-
tions and stability properties remain the same
The unconditional moments of yt from (2.36) and (2.37) now become
E [yt ] = E [Gxt + Hvt ] = Gµt (2.46)
The variance-covariance matrix of yt is easily shown to be
Var[yt ] = Var[ Gxt + Hvt ] = GΣt G 0 + HH 0 (2.47)
The distribution of yt is therefore
yt ∼ N ( Gµt , GΣt G 0 + HH 0 )
Prediction
The theory of prediction for linear state space systems is elegant and simple
Forecasting Formulas – Conditional Means The natural way to predict variables is to use con-
ditional distributions
For example, the optimal forecast of xt+1 given information known at time t is
E t [xt+1 ] := E [xt+1 | xt , xt−1, . . . , x0 ] = Axt

The right-hand side follows from xt+1 = Axt + Cwt+1 and the fact that wt+1 is zero mean and
independent of xt , xt−1 , . . . , x0
That E t [ xt+1 ] = E [ xt+1 | xt ] is an implication of { xt } having the Markov property
The one-step-ahead forecast error is
xt+1 − E t [ xt+1 ] = Cwt+1
The covariance matrix of the forecast error is
E [(xt+1 − E t [xt+1 ])(xt+1 − E t [xt+1 ])0 ] = CC0

More generally, we’d like to compute the j-step ahead forecasts E t [ xt+ j ] and E t [yt+ j ]
With a bit of algebra we obtain
xt+ j = A j xt + A j−1 Cwt+1 + A j−2 Cwt+2 + · · · + A0 Cwt+ j

In view of the iid property, current and past state values provide no information about future
values of the shock
Hence E t [wt+k ] = E [wt+k ] = 0
It now follows from linearity of expectations that the j-step ahead forecast of x is
E t [ xt+ j ] = A j xt
The j-step ahead forecast of y is therefore
E t [yt+j ] = E t [Gxt+j + Hvt+j ] = GA j xt
Covariance of Prediction Errors It is useful to obtain the covariance matrix of the vector of j-
step-ahead prediction errors
j −1
xt+ j − E t [ xt+ j ] = ∑ As Cwt−s+ j (2.48)
s =0
Evidently,
j −1
Vj := E t [( xt+ j − E t [ xt+ j ])( xt+ j − E t [ xt+ j ])0 ] = ∑ Ak CC0 Ak
0
(2.49)
k =0
Vj defined in (2.49) can be calculated recursively via V1 = CC 0 and
Vj = CC 0 + AVj−1 A0 , j≥2 (2.50)
Vj is the conditional covariance matrix of the errors in forecasting xt+ j , conditioned on time t infor-
mation xt
Under particular conditions, Vj converges to
V∞ = CC 0 + AV∞ A0 (2.51)
Equation (2.51) is an example of a discrete Lyapunov equation in the covariance matrix V∞

A sufficient condition for Vj to converge is that the eigenvalues of A be strictly less than one in
modulus.
Weaker sufficient conditions for convergence associate eigenvalues equaling or exceeding one in
modulus with elements of C that equal 0
Forecasts of Geometric Sums In several contexts, we want to compute forecasts of geometric

sums of future random variables governed by the linear state-space system (2.28)
We want the following objects
• Forecast of a geometric sum of future x‘s, or E t ∑∞

h i
j
j =0 β x t + j
• Forecast of a geometric sum of future y‘s, or E t ∑ j=0 β yt+ j

h i
∞ j

These objects are important components of some famous and interesting dynamic models
For example,
• if {yt } is a stream of dividends, then E ∑∞

h i
jy | x
j =0 β t+ j t is a model of a stock price
• if {yt } is the money supply, then E ∑∞

h i
β jy | x is a model of the price level
j =0 t+ j t
Formulas Fortunately, it is easy to use a little matrix algebra to compute these objects
1
Suppose that every eigenvalue of A has modulus strictly less than β
It then follows that I + βA + β2 A2 + · · · = [ I − βA]−1

This leads to our formulas:
• Forecast of a geometric sum of future x‘s
∞
" #
E t ∑ β j xt+ j = [ I + βA + β2 A2 + · · · ] xt = [ I − βA]−1 xt
j =0
• Forecast of a geometric sum of future y‘s

∞
" #
E t ∑ β j yt+ j = G [ I + βA + β2 A2 + · · · ] xt = G [ I − βA]−1 xt
j =0
Code
Our preceding simulations and calculations are based on code in the file lss.py from the QuantE-
con.py package
The code implements a class for handling linear state space models (simulations, calculating mo-
ments, etc.)
We repeat it here for convenience
"""
Filename: lss.py
Reference: http://quant-econ.net/py/linear_models.html
Computes quantities associated with the Gaussian linear state space model.
"""
from textwrap import dedent

import numpy as np
from numpy.random import multivariate_normal
from scipy.linalg import solve
#-Check if Numba is Available-#

from .util import numba_installed, jit
def simulate_linear_model(A, x0, v, ts_length):

"""
This is a separate function for simulating a vector linear system of
the form
x_{t+1} = A x_t + v_t given x_0 = x0
Here x_t and v_t are both n x 1 and A is n x n.
The purpose of separating this functionality out is to target it for

optimization by Numba. For the same reason, matrix multiplication is
broken down into for loops.
Parameters
----------
A : array_like or scalar(float)
Should be n x n
x0 : array_like
Should be n x 1. Initial condition
v : np.ndarray
Should be n x ts_length-1. Its t-th column is used as the time t
shock v_t
ts_length : int
The length of the time series
Returns
--------
x : np.ndarray
Time series with ts_length columns, the t-th column being x_t
"""
A = np.asarray(A)
n = A.shape[0]
x = np.empty((n, ts_length))
x[:, 0] = x0
for t in range(ts_length-1):
# x[:, t+1] = A.dot(x[:, t]) + v[:, t]
for i in range(n):
x[i, t+1] = v[i, t] #Shock
for j in range(n):
x[i, t+1] += A[i, j] * x[j, t] #Dot Product
return x
if numba_installed:
simulate_linear_model = jit(simulate_linear_model)
class LinearStateSpace(object):
"""
A class that describes a Gaussian linear state space model of the
form:
x_{t+1} = A x_t + C w_{t+1}
y_t = G x_t + H v_t

where {w_t} and {v_t} are independent and standard normal with dimensions
k and l respectively. The initial conditions are mu_0 and Sigma_0 for x_0
~ N(mu_0, Sigma_0). When Sigma_0=0, the draw of x_0 is exactly mu_0.
Parameters
----------
A : array_like or scalar(float)
Part of the state transition equation. It should be `n x n`
C : array_like or scalar(float)
Part of the state transition equation. It should be `n x m`
G : array_like or scalar(float)
Part of the observation equation. It should be `k x n`
H : array_like or scalar(float), optional(default=None)
Part of the observation equation. It should be `k x l`
mu_0 : array_like or scalar(float), optional(default=None)
This is the mean of initial draw and is `n x 1`
Sigma_0 : array_like or scalar(float), optional(default=None)
This is the variance of the initial draw and is `n x n` and
also should be positive definite and symmetric
Attributes
----------
A, C, G, H, mu_0, Sigma_0 : see Parameters
n, k, m, l : scalar(int)
The dimensions of x_t, y_t, w_t and v_t respectively
"""
def __init__(self, A, C, G, H=None, mu_0=None, Sigma_0=None):

self.A, self.G, self.C = list(map(self.convert, (A, G, C)))
#-Check Input Shapes-#
ni,nj = self.A.shape
if ni != nj:
raise ValueError("Matrix A (shape: %s ) needs to be square" % (self.A.shape))
if ni != self.C.shape[0]:
raise ValueError("Matrix C (shape: %s ) does not have compatible dimensions with A. It shoul
self.m = self.C.shape[1]
self.k, self.n = self.G.shape
if self.n != ni:
raise ValueError("Matrix G (shape: %s ) does not have compatible dimensions with A (%s )"%(se
if H is None:
self.H = None
self.l = None
else:
self.H = self.convert(H)
self.l = self.H.shape[1]
if mu_0 is None:
self.mu_0 = np.zeros((self.n, 1))
else:
self.mu_0 = self.convert(mu_0)
self.mu_0.shape = self.n, 1
if Sigma_0 is None:
self.Sigma_0 = np.zeros((self.n, self.n))

else:
self.Sigma_0 = self.convert(Sigma_0)
def __repr__(self):
return self.__str__()
def __str__(self):
m = """\
Linear Gaussian state space model:
- dimension of state space : {n}
- number of innovations : {m}
- dimension of observation equation : {k}
"""
return dedent(m.format(n=self.n, k=self.k, m=self.m))
def convert(self, x):

"""
Convert array_like objects (lists of lists, floats, etc.) into
well formed 2D NumPy arrays
"""
return np.atleast_2d(np.asarray(x, dtype='float32'))
def simulate(self, ts_length=100):

"""
Simulate a time series of length ts_length, first drawing
x_0 ~ N(mu_0, Sigma_0)
Parameters
----------
ts_length : scalar(int), optional(default=100)

The length of the simulation
Returns
-------
x : array_like(float)
An n x ts_length array, where the t-th column is x_t
y : array_like(float)
A k x ts_length array, where the t-th column is y_t
"""
x0 = multivariate_normal(self.mu_0.flatten(), self.Sigma_0)
w = np.random.randn(self.m, ts_length-1)
v = self.C.dot(w) # Multiply each w_t by C to get v_t = C w_t
# == simulate time series == #
x = simulate_linear_model(self.A, x0, v, ts_length)
if self.H is not None:

v = np.random.randn(self.l, ts_length)
y = self.G.dot(x) + self.H.dot(v)
else:

y = self.G.dot(x)
return x, y
def replicate(self, T=10, num_reps=100):

"""
Simulate num_reps observations of x_T and y_T given
x_0 ~ N(mu_0, Sigma_0).
Parameters
----------
T : scalar(int), optional(default=10)
The period that we want to replicate values for
num_reps : scalar(int), optional(default=100)
The number of replications that we want
Returns
-------
An n x num_reps array, where the j-th column is the j_th
observation of x_T
A k x num_reps array, where the j-th column is the j_th
observation of y_T
"""
x = np.empty((self.n, num_reps))
for j in range(num_reps):
x_T, _ = self.simulate(ts_length=T+1)
x[:, j] = x_T[:, -1]
if self.H is not None:
v = np.random.randn(self.l, num_reps)
y = self.G.dot(x) + self.H.dot(v)
else:
y = self.G.dot(x)
return x, y
def moment_sequence(self):
"""
Create a generator to calculate the population mean and
variance-convariance matrix for both x_t and y_t, starting at
the initial condition (self.mu_0, self.Sigma_0). Each iteration
produces a 4-tuple of items (mu_x, mu_y, Sigma_x, Sigma_y) for
the next period.
Yields
------
mu_x : array_like(float)
An n x 1 array representing the population mean of x_t
mu_y : array_like(float)
A k x 1 array representing the population mean of y_t

Sigma_x : array_like(float)
An n x n array representing the variance-covariance matrix
of x_t
Sigma_y : array_like(float)
A k x k array representing the variance-covariance matrix
of y_t
"""
# == Simplify names == #
A, C, G, H = self.A, self.C, self.G, self.H
# == Initial moments == #
mu_x, Sigma_x = self.mu_0, self.Sigma_0
while 1:
mu_y = G.dot(mu_x)
if H is None:
Sigma_y = G.dot(Sigma_x).dot(G.T)
else:
Sigma_y = G.dot(Sigma_x).dot(G.T) + H.dot(H.T)
yield mu_x, mu_y, Sigma_x, Sigma_y
# == Update moments of x == #
mu_x = A.dot(mu_x)
Sigma_x = A.dot(Sigma_x).dot(A.T) + C.dot(C.T)
def stationary_distributions(self, max_iter=200, tol=1e-5):

"""
Compute the moments of the stationary distributions of x_t and
y_t if possible. Computation is by iteration, starting from the
initial conditions self.mu_0 and self.Sigma_0
Parameters
----------
max_iter : scalar(int), optional(default=200)
The maximum number of iterations allowed
tol : scalar(float), optional(default=1e-5)
The tolerance level that one wishes to achieve
Returns
-------
mu_x_star : array_like(float)
An n x 1 array representing the stationary mean of x_t
mu_y_star : array_like(float)
An k x 1 array representing the stationary mean of y_t
Sigma_x_star : array_like(float)
An n x n array representing the stationary var-cov matrix
of x_t
Sigma_y_star : array_like(float)
An k x k array representing the stationary var-cov matrix
of y_t
"""

# == Initialize iteration == #
m = self.moment_sequence()
mu_x, mu_y, Sigma_x, Sigma_y = next(m)
i = 0
error = tol + 1
# == Loop until convergence or failure == #

while error > tol:
if i > max_iter:
fail_message = 'Convergence failed after {} iterations'
raise ValueError(fail_message.format(max_iter))
else:
i += 1
mu_x1, mu_y1, Sigma_x1, Sigma_y1 = next(m)
error_mu = np.max(np.abs(mu_x1 - mu_x))
error_Sigma = np.max(np.abs(Sigma_x1 - Sigma_x))
error = max(error_mu, error_Sigma)
mu_x, Sigma_x = mu_x1, Sigma_x1
# == Prepare return values == #

mu_x_star, Sigma_x_star = mu_x, Sigma_x
mu_y_star, Sigma_y_star = mu_y1, Sigma_y1
return mu_x_star, mu_y_star, Sigma_x_star, Sigma_y_star
def geometric_sums(self, beta, x_t):

"""
Forecast the geometric sums
S_x := E [sum_{j=0}^{\infty} beta^j x_{t+j} | x_t ]
S_y := E [sum_{j=0}^{\infty} beta^j y_{t+j} | x_t ]
Parameters
----------
beta : scalar(float)
Discount factor, in [0, 1)
beta : array_like(float)
The term x_t for conditioning
Returns
-------
S_x : array_like(float)
Geometric sum as defined above
S_y : array_like(float)
Geometric sum as defined above
"""
I = np.identity(self.n)

S_x = solve(I - beta * self.A, x_t)

S_y = self.G.dot(S_x)
return S_x, S_y
def impulse_response(self, j=5):

"""
Pulls off the imuplse response coefficients to a shock
in w_{t} for x and y
Important to note: We are uninterested in the shocks to

v for this method
* x coefficients are C, AC, A^2 C...

* y coefficients are GC, GAC, GA^2C...
Parameters
----------
j : Scalar(int)
Number of coefficients that we want
Returns
-------
xcoef : list(array_like(float, 2))
The coefficients for x
ycoef : list(array_like(float, 2))
The coefficients for y
"""
# Pull out matrices
A, C, G, H = self.A, self.C, self.G, self.H
Apower = np.copy(A)
# Create room for coefficients

xcoef = [C]
ycoef = [np.dot(G, C)]
for i in range(j):
xcoef.append(np.dot(Apower, C))
ycoef.append(np.dot(G, np.dot(Apower, C)))
Apower = np.dot(Apower, A)
return xcoef, ycoef
Hopefully the code is relatively self explanatory and adequately documented

One Python construct you might not be familiar with is the use of a generator function in the
method moment_sequence()
Go back and read the relevant documentation if you’ve forgotten how generator functions work
Examples of usage are given in the solutions to the exercises

2.7. A LAKE MODEL OF EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT 264
Exercises
Exercise 1 Replicate this figure using the LinearStateSpace class from lss.py
Exercise 2 Replicate this figure modulo randomness using the same class
The state space model and parameters are the same as for the preceding exercise
The state space model and parameters are the same as for the preceding exercise, except that the
initial condition is the stationary distribution
Hint: You can use the stationary_distributions method to get the initial conditions
The number of sample paths is 80, and the time horizon in the figure is 100
Producing the vertical bars and dots is optional, but if you wish to try, the bars are at dates 10, 50
and 75
Solutions
Solution notebook
2.7 A Lake Model of Employment and Unemployment
Contents
• A Lake Model of Employment and Unemployment
– Overview
– Model
– Dynamics of a worker
– Endogenous job finding rate
– Implementation
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
This lecture describes what has come to be called a lake model

The lake model is a basic tool for modeling unemployment

It is a tool for analyzing

• flows between unemployment and employment
• and how they influence steady state employment and unemployment rates
It is a good model for interpreting monthly labor department reports on gross and net jobs created
and jobs destroyed
The “lakes” in the model are the pools of employed and unemployed
The “flows” between the lakes are caused by
• firing and hiring
• entry and exit from the labor force
For the first part of this lecture, the parameters governing transitions into and out of unemploy-
ment and employment are exogenous
Later, we’ll determine some of these transition rates endogenously using the McCall search model
[McC70]
The only knowledge required for this lecture is
• basic linear algebra
• some elementary concepts from the field of Markov chains
We’ll use some nifty concepts like ergodicity, which provides a fundamental link between cross
sectional and long run time series distributions
These concepts will help us build an equilibrium model of ex ante homogeneous workers whose
different luck generates variations in their ex post experiences
Model
The economy is inhabited by a very large number of ex-ante identical workers.

The workers
• live forever
• spend their lives moving between unemployment and employment
Their rates of transition between being unemployed and employed are governed by the following
parameters:
• λ: The job finding rate for currently unemployed workers
• α: The dismissal rate for currently employed workers
• b: Entry rate into the labor force
• d: Exit rate from the labor force
The growth rate of the labor force evidently equals g = b − d

Aggregates We want the dynamics of the following aggregates

• Et : The total number of employed workers at date t
• Ut : The total number of unemployed workers at date t
• Nt : The number of workers in the labor force at date t
We also want to know the values of the following objects
• et : The employment rate (Et /Nt ) at date t
• ut : The unemployment rate (Ut /Nt ) at date t
For the remainder of this lecture, we denote stocks with capital letters and flows with lowercase
letters
Laws of Motion for Stock Variables We begin by constructing laws of motion for the aggregate
variables: Et , Ut , and Nt
Of the mass of workers Et who are employed at date t,
• (1 − d) Et will remain in the labor force
• of these, (1 − α)(1 − d) Et will remain employed
Of the mass of workers Ut workers who are currently unemployed,
• (1 − d)Ut will remain in the labor force
• of these, λ(1 − d)Ut will become employed
Therefore, the number of workers who will be employed at date t + 1 will be
Et+1 = (1 − d)(1 − α) Et + (1 − d)λUt
A similar analysis implies
Ut+1 = (1 − d)αEt + (1 − d)(1 − λ)Ut + b( Et + Ut )
b( Et + Ut ) is the mass of new workers entering the labor force unemployed

The total stock of workers Nt = Et + Ut evolves as
Nt+1 = (1 + b − d) Nt = (1 + g) Nt

Et
Letting Xt = , the law of motion for X is
Ut
Xt+1 = AXt
where
(1 − d)(1 − α) (1 − d ) λ
A :=
(1 − d)α + b (1 − d)(1 − λ) + b

Laws of Motion for Rates of Employment and Unemployment The following describes the
laws of motion for the employment and unemployment rates.

Et+1 /Nt+1 1 (1 − d)(1 − α) (1 − d ) λ Et /Nt
=
Ut+1 /Nt+1 1 + g (1 − d)α + b (1 − d)(1 − λ) + b Ut /Nt
Letting
et Et /Nt
xt := =
ut Ut /Nt
we can also write this as
1
xt+1 = Âxt where Â := A
1+g
Evidently, et + ut = 1 implies that et+1 + ut+1 = 1
Steady States The aggregates Et and Ut won’t converge to steady states because their sum Et +
Ut grows at gross rate 1 + g
But the vector of employment and unemployment rates xt can be in a steady state x̄ provided that
we can find a solution to the matrix equation
x̄ = Â x̄
where the components satisfy ē + ū = 1 (that is, et + ut = 1 is preserved in steady state)
This equation tells us that a steady state level x̄ is an eigenvector of Â associated with a unit
eigenvalue
We also have xt → x̄ as t → ∞ provided that the remaining eigenvalues of Â are in modulus less
that 1
The figure below illustrates the convergence of the unemployment and employment rate to steady
state levels (dashed red line)
While the rates converge, the stocks grow at a constant rate 1 + g and thus do not converge to any
steady state levels.

Dynamics of a worker
A worker’s employment dynamics are governed by a finite state Markov process

Initially, let’s proceed under the assumption that b = d = 0.
The worker can be in one of two states:
• s = 0 means that the worker is unemployed
• s = 1 means that the worker is employed
The transition matrix
Pij = Prob(st+1 = j|st = i )
gives the probability that the worker moves from state i at time t to state j at time t + 1
Here the transition matrix is
(1 − α ) α
P=
λ (1 − λ )
Let πt denote the (unconditional) probability distribution over the employment and unemploy-
ment states for the worker at time t.
πt follows the law of motion
πt0+1 = πt0 P

Ergodicity We shall study a typical lifetime of employment-unemployment spells

Let st be the worker’s state at time t
Let st be the history of states st = (st , st−1 , . . . , s0 )
We want to compute the average amounts of time an infinitely lived worker would spend em-
ployed and unemployed
These averages are given by the limits
T
1
T + 1 t∑
π̄e = lim 1 { s t = 0}
T →∞
=0
and
T
1
T + 1 t∑
π̄u = lim 1 { s t = 1}
T →∞
=0
Here
• 1{st = 0} is the indicator function that takes on value 0 if st = 1 and 0 otherwise
• 1{st = 1} is the indicator function that takes on value 1 if st = 1 and 0 otherwise
Because our Markov chain has a unique and ergodic invariant distribution, these time series aver-
ages equal probabilities under the invariant distribution π̄
The invariant distribution satisfies
π̄ 0 = π̄ 0 P

π̄e
π̄ = is an eigenvector of P0 associated with a unit eigenvalue
π̄u
Inspection tells us that P0 is exactly Â under the assumption b = d = 0.
Thus, the percentages of time that an infinitely lived worker spends employed and unemployed
equal the fractions of workers employed and unemployed in the steady state distribution
Convergence rate How long does it take for sample averages to converge to long run averages?
Let
T
1
π e,T = ∑
T + 1 t =0
1 { s t = 0}
and
T
1
π u,T = ∑
T + 1 t =0
1 { s t = 1}
These are the average amounts of time a worker has spent unemployed and employed, respec-
tively, after T periods
The figure below plots the path of these two objects over 5000 periods
It takes virtually the entire sample for these two objects to converge to probabilities from the
ergodic probabilities (dashed red line).

The code that generates these plots can be found in file lakemodel_example.py from the applica-
tions GitHub repository
The implementation is discussed in more detail below
Endogenous job finding rate
We now make the hiring rate endogenous

The transition rate from unemployment to employment will be determined by a McCall search
model [McC70]
McCall Search Model The McCall search model helped transform economists’ way of thinking
about labor markets
It did this by casting
• the loss of a job as a capital loss, and
• a spell of unemployment as an investment in searching for an acceptable job
To formulate the model, we follow McCall in using dynamic programming, a powerful technique
that we study in detail in many lectures on this site (see, e.g., the lecture on optimal growth)
You don’t have to know the material in that lecture now – our presentation here is self-contained
The model is about the life an infinitely lived worker and
• the opportunities he has to work at different wages
• exogenous events that destroy his current job
• his decision making process while unemployed
Here are the details

• the worker lives forever

• the worker wants to maximize the expected value of the discounted value of his income
∑∞ t
t=0 β u ( yt ), where
• yt is his wage w when employed

• yt is unemployment compensation c when he is unemployed
• u(·) is a utility function satisfying u0 > 0 and u00 < 0
A worker can be in one of two states: employed or unemployed
• When employed, the worker consumes his wage, w, and faces a constant probability, α, of
becoming unemployed at the end of the period
• When unemployed, at the end of a period, with probability γ a worker receives an offer to
start work next period.
~ with probabilities in vector ~p.
• Wage offers are drawn from a vector of possible wages w
– Conditional on receiving a wage offer, the worker receives a wage offer ws with proba-
bility ps
• Given a wage offer ws , a previously unemployed worker chooses to accept or reject the offer
If the worker accepts the offer, he consumes the wage ws today and enters next period employed
with wage ws
If he rejects the offer, he consumes the unemployment benefit c and enters next period unem-
ployed.
As promised above, we shall solve this instance of a McCall search model [McC70] using dynamic
programming
Dynamic programming is an ingenious method for solving a problem that starts by
• assuming that you know the answer, then
• writing down some natural conditions that the answer must satisfy, then
• solving those conditions to find the answer
Thus, applications of dynamic programming always begin with a statement like “Let v be the
answer”
In our case v is the expected value of the worker’s income ∑∞ t
t=0 β u ( yt ) under an optimal policy
So here goes
Let Vs be the value of a previously employed worker who enters a period with wage ws
Let U be the value of a worker who is unemployed this period
~ and U must satisfy the following two equations
A little thought will convince you that V
Vs = u(ws ) + β [(1 − α)Vs + αU ] (2.52)
and
U = u(c) + β(1 − γ)U + βγ ∑ max {U, Vs } (2.53)
s

Let’s interpret these two equations in light of the fact that today’s tomorrow is tomorrow’s today
• The left hand sides of equations (2.52) and (2.53) are the values of a worker in a particular
situation today
• The right hand sides of the equations are the discounted (by β) expected values of the possi-
ble situations that worker can be in tomorrow
• But tomorrow the worker can be in only one of the situations whose values today are on the
left sides of our two equations
• Equation (2.53) incorporates the assumption that a currently unemployed worker knows
that if he is lucky enough to receive a wage offer ws next period, he will choose to remain
unemployed unless U < Vs
Equations (2.52) and (2.53) are called Bellman equations after the mathematician Richard Bellman
They can be solved by iterating to convergence on the following sets of equations
h i
( j +1) ( j)
Vs = u(ws ) + β (1 − α)Vs + αU ( j) (2.54)
and n o
U ( j+1) = u(c) + β(1 − γ)U ( j) + βγ ∑ max U ( j) , Vs
( j)
(2.55)
s
(0)
starting from initial conditions Vs = 0, U (0) = 0
This procedure is called iterating on Bellman equations
These iterations are guaranteed to converge (see, e.g., the discussion in this lecture)
Reservation Wage The optimal policy of an unemployed worker is characterized by a reserva-

tion wage w
• if the wage offer w[s] in hand is greater than or equal to w, then the worker accepts
• if the wage offer w[s] in hand is less than w, then the worker rejects
The optimal policy of the worker can be described by a vector C with the properties
• C [s] = 1 if the worker wants to accept the wage offer
• C [s] = 0 if the worker wants to reject the wage offer
Linking the McCall search model to the lake model We now suppose that all workers inside a
Lake Model behave according to the McCall search model [McC70]
Their optimal decision rules determine some of the key probabilities that define a Lake Model
• The exogenous probability of leaving employment remains α.
• The probability of leaving unemployment is γ = λp · C

Fiscal Policy We can use the McCall search version of the Lake Model to find an optimal level of
unemployment insurance
We assume that the government sets unemployment compensation ĉ
The government imposes a lump sum tax T sufficient to finance total unemployment payments
To attain a balanced budget at a steady state, taxes, the unemployment rate u, and the unemploy-
ment compensation rate must satisfy
T = uĉ
The lump sum tax applies to everyone, including unemployed workers
Thus, the post-tax income of an employed worker with wage w∗ [s] is w[s] = w∗ [s] − T
The post-tax income of an unemployed worker is ĉ − T.
Taking as given the wage probability distribution ( p, w∗ ), we can solve for the worker’s optimal
reservation wage for a given government policy (ĉ, T ).
This will imply a steady state unemployment rate u(ĉ, T ).
For a given level of unemployment benefit ĉ, we can solve for a tax that balances the budget in the
steady state
T = u(ĉ, T )ĉ
To evaluate alternative government tax-unemployment compensation pairs, we require a welfare
criterion
We use a steady state welfare criterion
eE[V |Employed] + uE[V |Unemployed]
For a wage offer distribution parameterized as log(w∗ ) ∼ N (log(20), 1), we plot steady state
welfare, budget balancing tax rate, as well as steady state unemployment for different levels of
unemployment benefit
The unemployment benefit that maximizes steady state welfare is ĉ = 32.7
the steady state unemployment rate is 36%
Implementation
The code in the file lake.py from the QuantEcon.applications repo finds the transition matrices
for the lake model and simulates the dynamics of unemployment and employment
You can view the program on GitHub but we repeat it here for convenience
This code computes the steady state and simulates the path of the economy
We take a period to be a month
We set b and d to match monthly birth and death rates, respectively, in the U.S. population
We take the α and λ, the hazard rate of leaving employment and unemployment respectively, from
[DFH06]

• α = 0.013
• λ = 0.283
• b = 0.0124
• d = 0.00822
In the exercises below, these values will be taken as our baseline parameters
# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
"""
Created on Fri Feb 27 18:08:44 2015
Author: David Evans
Example Usage of LakeModel in quantecon.models

"""
import numpy as np
from quantecon.models import LakeModel, LakeModelAgent, LakeModel_Equilibrium
import pandas as pd
pd.set_option('display.mpl_style', 'default') # Make the graphs a bit prettier
#Initialize Parameters
alpha = 0.013
lamb = 0.283#0.2486
b = 0.0124
d = 0.00822

g = b-d
N0 = 150.
e0 = 0.92
u0 = 1-e0
T = 50
LM = LakeModel(lamb,alpha,b,d)
#Find steady state

xbar = LM.find_steady_state()
#simulate stocks for T periods

E0 = e0*N0
U0 = u0*N0
X_path = np.vstack( LM.simulate_stock_path([E0,U0],T) )
plt.figure(figsize=[10,9])
plt.subplot(3,1,1)
plt.plot(X_path[:,0])
plt.title(r'Employment')
plt.subplot(3,1,2)
plt.plot(X_path[:,1])
plt.title(r'Unemployment')
plt.subplot(3,1,3)
plt.plot(X_path.sum(1))
plt.title(r'Labor Force')
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('example_stock_path.png')
#simulate rates for T periods
x_path = np.vstack( LM.simulate_rate_path([e0,u0],T) )

plt.subplot(2,1,1)
plt.plot(x_path[:,0])
plt.hlines(xbar[0],0,T,'r','--')
plt.title(r'Employment Rate')
plt.subplot(2,1,2)
plt.plot(x_path[:,1])
plt.hlines(xbar[1],0,T,'r','--')
plt.title(r'Unemployment Rate')
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('example_rate_path.png')
#Simulate a single agent

T = 5000
A = LakeModelAgent(lamb,alpha)
pi_bar = A.compute_ergodic().flatten()
sHist = np.hstack(A.simulate(1,T))
pi_u = np.cumsum(sHist)/(np.arange(T) + 1.) # time spent in unemployment after T periods

pi_e = 1- pi_u #time spent employed
plt.subplot(2,1,1)
plt.plot(range(50,T),pi_e[50:])
plt.hlines(pi_bar[0],0,T,'r','--')
plt.title('Percent of Time Employed')
plt.subplot(2,1,2)
plt.plot(range(50,T),pi_u[50:])
plt.hlines(pi_bar[1],0,T,'r','--')
plt.xlabel('Time')
plt.title('Percent of Time Unemployed')
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('example_averages.png')
#==============================================================================
# Now add McCall Search Model
#==============================================================================
#using quaterly data

alpha_q = (1-(1-alpha)**3) # alpha is monthly and alpha_q is quarterly
gamma = 1.
logw_dist = norm(np.log(20.),1)
w = np.linspace(0.,175,201)# wage grid
#compute probability of each wage level

cdf = logw_dist.cdf(np.log(w))
pdf = cdf[1:]-cdf[:-1]
pdf /= pdf.sum()
w = (w[1:] + w[:-1])/2
#Find the quilibirum

LME = LakeModel_Equilibrium(alpha_q,gamma,0.99,2.00,pdf,w)
#possible levels of unemployment insurance

cvec = np.linspace(1.,75,25)
T,W,U,EV,pi = map(np.vstack,zip(* [LME.find_steady_state_tax(c) for c in cvec]))
W= W[:]
T = T[:]
U = U[:]
EV = EV[:]
i_max = np.argmax(W)
plt.subplot(221)
plt.plot(cvec,W)
plt.xlabel(r'$c$')
plt.title(r'Welfare' )
axes = plt.gca()
plt.vlines(cvec[i_max],axes.get_ylim()[0],max(W),'k','-.')

plt.subplot(222)
plt.plot(cvec,T)
axes = plt.gca()
plt.vlines(cvec[i_max],axes.get_ylim()[0],T[i_max],'k','-.')
plt.xlabel(r'$c$')
plt.title(r'Taxes' )
plt.subplot(223)
plt.plot(cvec,pi[:,0])
axes = plt.gca()
plt.vlines(cvec[i_max],axes.get_ylim()[0],pi[i_max,0],'k','-.')
plt.xlabel(r'$c$')
plt.title(r'Employment Rate' )
plt.subplot(224)
plt.plot(cvec,pi[:,1])
axes = plt.gca()
plt.vlines(cvec[i_max],axes.get_ylim()[0],pi[i_max,1],'k','-.')
plt.xlabel(r'$c$')
plt.title(r'Unemployment Rate' )
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('welfare_plot.png')
The code that generates the figures for this lecture can be found in file lakemodel_example.py
from the examples section of the GitHub repository
Exercises
Exercise 1 Consider an economy with initial stock of workers N0 = 100 at the steady state level
of employment in the baseline parameterization. Suppose that in response to new legislation the
hiring rate reduces to α = 0.2. Plot the tradition dynamics of the Unemployment and Employment
stocks for 50 periods. Plot the transition dynamics for the rates. How long does the economy take
to converge to a steady state? What is the new steady state level of employment?
Exercise 2 Consider an economy with initial stock of workers N0 = 100 at the steady state level
of employment in the baseline parameterization. Suppose that for 20 periods the birth rate was
temporarily high (b = 0.0025) and then returned to it’s original level. Plot the tradition dynamics
of the Unemployment and Employment stocks for 50 periods. Plot the transition dynamics for the
rates. How long does the economy take to return to its original steady state?
Solutions
Solution notebook

2.8. A FIRST LOOK AT THE KALMAN FILTER 278
2.8 A First Look at the Kalman Filter
Contents
• A First Look at the Kalman Filter
– Overview
– The Basic Idea
– Convergence
– Implementation
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
This lecture provides a simple and intuitive introduction to the Kalman filter, for those who either
• have heard of the Kalman filter but don’t know how it works, or
• know the Kalman filter equations, but don’t know where they come from
For additional (more advanced) reading on the Kalman filter, see
• [LS12], section 2.7.
• [AM05]
The last reference gives a particularly clear and comprehensive treatment of the Kalman filter
Required knowledge: Familiarity with matrix manipulations, multivariate normal distributions,
covariance matrices, etc.
The Basic Idea
The Kalman filter has many applications in economics, but for now let’s pretend that we are rocket
scientists
A missile has been launched from country Y and our mission is to track it
Let x ∈ R2 denote the current location of the missile—a pair indicating latitude-longitute coordi-
nates on a map
At the present moment in time, the precise location x is unknown, but we do have some beliefs
about x
One way to summarize our knowledge is a point prediction x̂
• But what if the President wants to know the probability that the missile is currently over the
Sea of Japan?
• Better to summarize our initial beliefs with a bivariate probability density p

R
– E
p( x )dx indicates the probability that we attach to the missile being in region E
The density p is called our prior for the random variable x
To keep things tractable, we will always assume that our prior is Gaussian. In particular, we take
p = N ( x̂, Σ) (2.56)
where x̂ is the mean of the distribution and Σ is a 2 × 2 covariance matrix. In our simulations, we
will suppose that
0.2 0.4 0.3
x̂ = , Σ= (2.57)
−0.2 0.3 0.45
This density p( x ) is shown below as a contour map, with the center of the red ellipse being equal
to x̂
Fig. 2.1: Prior density (Click this or any other figure to enlarge.)
The Filtering Step We are now presented with some good news and some bad news
The good news is that the missile has been located by our sensors, which report that the current
location is y = (2.3, −1.9)
The next figure shows the original prior p( x ) and the new reported location y
The bad news is that our sensors are imprecise.
In particular, we should interpret the output of our sensor not as y = x, but rather as
y = Gx + v, where v ∼ N (0, R) (2.58)
Here G and R are 2 × 2 matrices with R positive definite. Both are assumed known, and the noise
term v is assumed to be independent of x

How then should we combine our prior p( x ) = N ( x̂, Σ) and this new information y to improve
our understanding of the location of the missile?
As you may have guessed, the answer is to use Bayes’ theorem, which tells us we should update
our prior p( x ) to p( x | y) via
p(y | x ) p( x )
p( x | y) =
p(y)
R
where p(y) = p(y | x ) p( x )dx
In solving for p( x | y), we observe that
• p( x ) = N ( x̂, Σ)
• In view of (2.58), the conditional density p(y | x ) is N ( Gx, R)
• p(y) does not depend on x, and enters into the calculations only as a normalizing constant
Because we are in a linear and Gaussian framework, the updated density can be computed by
calculating population linear regressions.
In particular, the solution is known 6 to be
p( x | y) = N ( x̂ F , Σ F )
where
x̂ F := x̂ + ΣG 0 ( GΣG 0 + R)−1 (y − G x̂ ) and Σ F := Σ − ΣG 0 ( GΣG 0 + R)−1 GΣ (2.59)
Here ΣG 0 ( GΣG 0 + R)−1 is the matrix of population regression coefficients of the hidden object
x − x̂ on the surprise y − G x̂
6See, for example, page 93 of [Bis06]. To get from his expressions to the ones used above, you will also need to apply
the Woodbury matrix identity.

This new density p( x | y) = N ( x̂ F , Σ F ) is shown in the next figure via contour lines and the color
map
The original density is left in as contour lines for comparison
Our new density twists the prior p( x ) in a direction determined by the new information y − G x̂
In generating the figure, we set G to the identity matrix and R = 0.5Σ for Σ defined in (2.57)
(The code for generating this and the proceding figures can be found in the file gaus-
sian_contours.py from the QuantEcon.applications package
The Forecast Step What have we achieved so far?

We have obtained probabilities for the current location of the state (missile) given prior and current
information
This is called “filtering” rather than forecasting, because we are filtering out noise rather than
looking into the future
• p( x | y) = N ( x̂ F , Σ F ) is called the filtering distribution
But now let’s suppose that we are given another task: To predict the location of the missile after
one unit of time (whatever that may be) has elapsed
To do this we need a model of how the state evolves
Let’s suppose that we have one, and that it’s linear and Gaussian: In particular,
xt+1 = Axt + wt+1 , where wt ∼ N (0, Q) (2.60)
Our aim is to combine this law of motion and our current distribution p( x | y) = N ( x̂ F , Σ F ) to
come up with a new predictive distribution for the location one unit of time hence

In view of (2.60), all we have to do is introduce a random vector x F ∼ N ( x̂ F , Σ F ) and work out the
distribution of Ax F + w where w is independent of x F and has distribution N (0, Q)
Since linear combinations of Gaussians are Gaussian, Ax F + w is Gaussian
Elementary calculations and the expressions in (2.59) tell us that
E[ Ax F + w] = AEx F + Ew = A x̂ F = A x̂ + AΣG 0 ( GΣG 0 + R)−1 (y − G x̂ )
and
Var[ Ax F + w] = A Var[ x F ] A0 + Q = AΣ F A0 + Q = AΣA0 − AΣG 0 ( GΣG 0 + R)−1 GΣA0 + Q
The matrix AΣG 0 ( GΣG 0 + R)−1 is often written as KΣ and called the Kalman gain
• the subscript Σ has been added to remind us that KΣ depends on Σ, but not y or x̂
Using this notation, we can summarize our results as follows: Our updated prediction is the
density N ( x̂new , Σnew ) where
x̂new := A x̂ + KΣ (y − G x̂ ) (2.61)
0 0
Σnew := AΣA − KΣ GΣA + Q
• The density pnew ( x ) = N ( x̂new , Σnew ) is called the predictive distribution

The predictive distribution is the new density shown in the following figure, where the update
has used parameters
1.2 0.0
A= , Q = 0.3 ∗ Σ
0.0 −0.2

The Recursive Procedure Let’s look back at what we’ve done.

We started the current period with a prior p( x ) for the location x of the missile
We then used the current measurement y to update to p( x | y)
Finally, we used the law of motion (2.60) for { xt } to update to pnew ( x )
If we now step into the next period, we are ready to go round again, taking pnew ( x ) as the current
prior
Swapping notation pt ( x ) for p( x ) and pt+1 ( x ) for pnew ( x ), the full recursive procedure is:
1. Start the current period with prior pt ( x ) = N ( x̂t , Σt )
2. Observe current measurement yt
3. Compute the filtering distribution pt ( x | y) = N ( x̂tF , ΣtF ) from pt ( x ) and yt , applying Bayes
rule and the conditional distribution (2.58)
4. Compute the predictive distribution pt+1 ( x ) = N ( x̂t+1 , Σt+1 ) from the filtering distribution
and (2.60)
5. Increment t by one and go to step 1
Repeating (2.61), the dynamics for x̂t and Σt are as follows
x̂t+1 = A x̂t + KΣt (yt − G x̂t ) (2.62)

0 0
Σt+1 = AΣt A − KΣt GΣt A + Q
These are the standard dynamic equations for the Kalman filter. See, for example, [LS12], page 58.
Convergence
The matrix Σt is a measure of the uncertainty of our prediction x̂t of xt

Apart from special cases, this uncertainty will never be fully resolved, regardless of how much
time elapses
One reason is that our prediction x̂t is made based on information available at t − 1, not t
Even if we know the precise value of xt−1 (which we don’t), the transition equation (2.60) implies
that xt = Axt−1 + wt
Since the shock wt is not observable at t − 1, any time t − 1 prediction of xt will incur some error
(unless wt is degenerate)
However, it is certainly possible that Σt converges to a constant matrix as t → ∞
To study this topic, let’s expand the second equation in (2.62):
Σt+1 = AΣt A0 − AΣt G 0 ( GΣt G 0 + R)−1 GΣt A0 + Q (2.63)
This is a nonlinear difference equation in Σt

A fixed point of (2.63) is a constant matrix Σ such that
Σ = AΣA0 − AΣG 0 ( GΣG 0 + R)−1 GΣA0 + Q (2.64)
Equation (2.63) is known as a discrete time Riccati difference equation

Equation (2.64) is known as a discrete time algebraic Riccati equation
Conditions under which a fixed point exists and the sequence {Σt } converges to it are discussed
in [AHMS96] and [AM05], chapter 4
One sufficient (but not necessary) condition is that all the eigenvalues λi of A satisfy |λi | < 1 (cf.
e.g., [AM05], p. 77)
(This strong condition assures that the unconditional distribution of xt converges as t → +∞)
In this case, for any initial choice of Σ0 that is both nonnegative and symmetric, the sequence {Σt }
in (2.63) converges to a nonnegative symmetric matrix Σ that solves (2.64)
Implementation
The class Kalman from the QuantEcon.py package implements the Kalman filter
• Instance data consists of:
– the moments ( x̂t , Σt ) of the current prior
– An instance of the LinearStateSpace class from QuantEcon.py
The latter represents a linear state space model of the form
xt+1 = Axt + Cwt+1

yt = Gxt + Hvt
where the shocks wt and vt are iid standard normals

To connect this with the notation of this lecture we set
Q := CC 0 and R := HH 0
• The main methods are:

– prior_to_filtered, which updates ( x̂t , Σt ) to ( x̂tF , ΣtF )
– filtered_to_forecast, which updates the filtering distribution to the predictive dis-
tribution – which becomes the new prior ( x̂t+1 , Σt+1 )
– update, which combines the last two methods
– a stationary_values, which computes the solution to (2.64) and the corresponding
(stationary) Kalman gain

"""
Filename: kalman.py
Reference: http://quant-econ.net/py/kalman.html
Implements the Kalman filter for a linear Gaussian state space model.
"""
import numpy as np
from numpy import dot
from scipy.linalg import inv
from quantecon.lss import LinearStateSpace
from quantecon.matrix_eqn import solve_discrete_riccati
class Kalman(object):
r"""
Implements the Kalman filter for the Gaussian state space model
x_{t+1} = A x_t + C w_{t+1}

y_t = G x_t + H v_t.
Here x_t is the hidden state and y_t is the measurement. The shocks
w_t and v_t are iid standard normals. Below we use the notation
Q := CC'
R := HH'
Parameters
-----------
ss : instance of LinearStateSpace
An instance of the quantecon.lss.LinearStateSpace class
x_hat : scalar(float) or array_like(float), optional(default=None)
An n x 1 array representing the mean x_hat and covariance
matrix Sigma of the prior/predictive density. Set to zero if
not supplied.
Sigma : scalar(float) or array_like(float), optional(default=None)
An n x n array representing the covariance matrix Sigma of
the prior/predictive density. Must be positive definite.
Set to the identity if not supplied.
Attributes
----------
Sigma, x_hat : as above
Sigma_infinity : array_like or scalar(float)
The infinite limit of Sigma_t
K_infinity : array_like or scalar(float)
The stationary Kalman gain.
References
----------

http://quant-econ.net/py/kalman.html
"""
def __init__(self, ss, x_hat=None, Sigma=None):

self.ss = ss
self.set_state(x_hat, Sigma)
self.K_infinity = None
self.Sigma_infinity = None
def set_state(self, x_hat, Sigma):

if Sigma is None:
Sigma = np.identity(self.ss.n)
else:
self.Sigma = np.atleast_2d(Sigma)
if x_hat is None:
x_hat = np.zeros((self.ss.n, 1))
else:
self.x_hat = np.atleast_2d(x_hat)
self.x_hat.shape = self.ss.n, 1
def __repr__(self):
def __str__(self):
m = """\
Kalman filter:
- dimension of state space : {n}
- dimension of observation equation : {k}
"""
return dedent(m.format(n=self.ss.n, k=self.ss.k))
def whitener_lss(self):
r"""
This function takes the linear state space system
that is an input to the Kalman class and it converts
that system to the time-invariant whitener represenation
given by
\tilde{x}_{t+1}^* = \tilde{A} \tilde{x} + \tilde{C} v

a = \tilde{G} \tilde{x}
where
\tilde{x}_t = [x+{t}, \hat{x}_{t}, v_{t}]
and
\tilde{A} = [A 0 0
KG A-KG KH
0 0 0]
\tilde{C} = [C 0

0 0
0 I]
\tilde{G} = [G -G H]
with A, C, G, H coming from the linear state space system

that defines the Kalman instance
Returns
-------
whitened_lss : LinearStateSpace
This is the linear state space system that represents
the whitened system
"""
# Check for steady state Sigma and K
if self.K_infinity is None:
Sig, K = self.stationary_values()
self.Sigma_infinity = Sig
self.K_infinity = K
else:
K = self.K_infinity
# Get the matrix sizes

n, k, m, l = self.ss.n, self.ss.k, self.ss.m, self.ss.l
A, C, G, H = self.ss.A, self.ss.C, self.ss.G, self.ss.H
Atil = np.vstack([np.hstack([A, np.zeros((n, n)), np.zeros((n, l))]),

np.hstack([dot(K, G), A-dot(K, G), dot(K, H)]),
np.zeros((l, 2*n + l))])
Ctil = np.vstack([np.hstack([C, np.zeros((n, l))]),

np.zeros((n, m+l)),
np.hstack([np.zeros((l, m)), np.eye(l)])])
Gtil = np.hstack([G, -G, H])
whitened_lss = LinearStateSpace(Atil, Ctil, Gtil)

self.whitened_lss = whitened_lss
return whitened_lss
def prior_to_filtered(self, y):

r"""
Updates the moments (x_hat, Sigma) of the time t prior to the
time t filtering distribution, using current measurement y_t.
The updates are according to
x_{hat}^F = x_{hat} + Sigma G' (G Sigma G' + R)^{-1}

(y - G x_{hat})
Sigma^F = Sigma - Sigma G' (G Sigma G' + R)^{-1} G

Sigma
Parameters
----------
y : scalar or array_like(float)
The current measurement
"""
# === simplify notation === #
G, H = self.ss.G, self.ss.H
R = np.dot(H, H.T)
# === and then update === #

y = np.atleast_2d(y)
y.shape = self.ss.k, 1
E = dot(self.Sigma, G.T)
F = dot(dot(G, self.Sigma), G.T) + R
M = dot(E, inv(F))
self.x_hat = self.x_hat + dot(M, (y - dot(G, self.x_hat)))
self.Sigma = self.Sigma - dot(M, dot(G, self.Sigma))
def filtered_to_forecast(self):
"""
Updates the moments of the time t filtering distribution to the
moments of the predictive distribution, which becomes the time
t+1 prior
"""
A, C = self.ss.A, self.ss.C
Q = np.dot(C, C.T)
# === and then update === #

self.x_hat = dot(A, self.x_hat)
self.Sigma = dot(A, dot(self.Sigma, A.T)) + Q
def update(self, y):

"""
Updates x_hat and Sigma given k x 1 ndarray y. The full
update, from one period to the next
Parameters
----------
y : np.ndarray
A k x 1 ndarray y representing the current measurement
"""
self.prior_to_filtered(y)
self.filtered_to_forecast()
def stationary_values(self):
"""
Computes the limit of Sigma_t as t goes to infinity by

solving the associated Riccati equation. Computation is via the

doubling algorithm (see the documentation in
`matrix_eqn.solve_discrete_riccati`).
Returns
-------
Sigma_infinity : array_like or scalar(float)
The infinite limit of Sigma_t
K_infinity : array_like or scalar(float)
The stationary Kalman gain.
"""
A, C, G, H = self.ss.A, self.ss.C, self.ss.G, self.ss.H
Q, R = np.dot(C, C.T), np.dot(H, H.T)
# === solve Riccati equation, obtain Kalman gain === #

Sigma_infinity = solve_discrete_riccati(A.T, G.T, Q, R)
temp1 = dot(dot(A, Sigma_infinity), G.T)
temp2 = inv(dot(G, dot(Sigma_infinity, G.T)) + R)
K_infinity = dot(temp1, temp2)
# == record as attributes and return == #

self.Sigma_infinity, self.K_infinity = Sigma_infinity, K_infinity
return Sigma_infinity, K_infinity
def stationary_coefficients(self, j, coeff_type='ma'):

"""
Wold representation moving average or VAR coefficients for the
steady state Kalman filter.
Parameters
----------
j : int
The lag length
coeff_type : string, either 'ma' or 'var' (default='ma')
The type of coefficent sequence to compute. Either 'ma' for
moving average or 'var' for VAR.
"""
# == simplify notation == #
A, G = self.ss.A, self.ss.G
K_infinity = self.K_infinity
# == make sure that K_infinity has actually been computed == #
if K_infinity is None:
S, K_infinity = self.stationary_values()
# == compute and return coefficients == #
coeffs = []
i = 1
if coeff_type == 'ma':
coeffs.append(np.identity(self.ss.k))
P_mat = A
P = np.identity(self.ss.n) # Create a copy
elif coeff_type == 'var':

coeffs.append(dot(G, K_infinity))
P_mat = A - dot(K_infinity, G)
P = np.copy(P_mat) # Create a copy
else:
raise ValueError("Unknown coefficient type")
while i <= j:
coeffs.append(dot(dot(G, P), K_infinity))
P = dot(P, P_mat)
i += 1
return coeffs
def stationary_innovation_covar(self):
H, G = self.ss.H, self.ss.G
R = np.dot(H, H.T)
Sigma_infinity = self.Sigma_infinity
# == make sure that Sigma_infinity has been computed == #

if Sigma_infinity is None:
Sigma_infinity, K = self.stationary_values()
return dot(G, dot(Sigma_infinity, G.T)) + R
Exercises
Exercise 1 Consider the following simple application of the Kalman filter, loosely based on
[LS12], section 2.9.2
Suppose that
• all variables are scalars
• the hidden state { xt } is in fact constant, equal to some θ ∈ R unknown to the modeler
State dynamics are therefore given by (2.60) with A = 1, Q = 0 and x0 = θ
The measurement equation is yt = θ + vt where vt is N (0, 1) and iid
The task of this exercise to simulate the model and, using the code from kalman.py, plot the first
five predictive densities pt ( x ) = N ( x̂t , Σt )
As shown in [LS12], sections 2.9.1–2.9.2, these distributions asymptotically put all mass on the
unknown value θ
In the simulation, take θ = 10, x̂0 = 8 and Σ0 = 1
Your figure should – modulo randomness – look something like this
Exercise 2 The preceding figure gives some support to the idea that probability mass converges
to θ
To get a better idea, choose a small e > 0 and calculate
Z θ +e
zt := 1 − pt ( x )dx
θ −e

for t = 0, 1, 2, . . . , T
Plot zt against T, setting e = 0.1 and T = 600
Your figure should show error erratically declining something like this
Exercise 3 As discussed above, if the shock sequence {wt } is not degenerate, then it is not in
general possible to predict xt without error at time t − 1 (and this would be the case even if we
could observe xt−1 )
Let’s now compare the prediction x̂t made by the Kalman filter against a competitor who is al-
lowed to observe xt−1
This competitor will use the conditional expectation E[ xt | xt−1 ], which in this case is Axt−1
The conditional expectation is known to be the optimal prediction method in terms of minimizing
mean squared error
(More precisely, the minimizer of E k xt − g( xt−1 )k2 with respect to g is g∗ ( xt−1 ) := E[ xt | xt−1 ])
Thus we are comparing the Kalman filter against a competitor who has more information (in the
sense of being able to observe the latent state) and behaves optimally in terms of minimizing
squared error
Our horse race will be assessed in terms of squared error
In particular, your task is to generate a graph plotting observations of both k xt − Axt−1 k2 and
k xt − x̂t k2 against t for t = 1, . . . , 50
For the parameters, set G = I, R = 0.5I and Q = 0.3I, where I is the 2 × 2 identity

Set
0.5 0.4
A=
0.6 0.3
To initialize the prior density, set
0.9 0.3
Σ0 =
0.3 0.9
and x̂0 = (8, 8)
Finally, set x0 = (0, 0)
You should end up with a figure similar to the following (modulo randomness)

2.9. UNCERTAINTY TRAPS 293
Observe how, after an initial learning period, the Kalman filter performs quite well, even relative
to the competitor who predicts optimally with knowledge of the latent state
Exercise 4 Try varying the coefficient 0.3 in Q = 0.3I up and down

Observe how the diagonal values in the stationary solution Σ (see (2.64)) increase and decrease in
line with this coefficient
The interpretation is that more randomness in the law of motion for xt causes more (permanent)
uncertainty in prediction
Solutions
Solution notebook
2.9 Uncertainty Traps
Overview
In this lecture we study a simplified version of an uncertainty traps model of Fajgelbaum, Schaal
and Taschereau-Dumouchel [FSTD15]
The model features self-reinforcing uncertainty that has big impacts on economic activity
In the model,
• Fundamentals vary stochastically and are not fully observable
• At any moment there are both active and inactive entrepreneurs; only active entrepreneurs
produce
• Agents – active and inactive entrepreuneurs – have beliefs about the fundamentals expressed
as probability distributions
• Greater uncertainty means greater dispersions of these distributions
• Entrepreneurs are risk averse and hence less inclined to be active when uncertainty is high
• The output of active entrepreneurs is observable, supplying a noisy signal that helps every-
one inside the model infer fundamentals
• Entrepreneurs update their beliefs about fundamentals using Bayes’ Law, implemented via
Kalman filtering
Uncertainty traps emerge because:
• High uncertainty discourages entrepreneurs from becoming active
• A low level of participation – i.e., a smaller number of active entrepreneurs – diminishes the
flow of information about fundamentals

• Less information translates to higher uncertainty, further discouraging entrepreneurs from

choosing to be active, and so on
Uncertainty traps stem from a positive externality: high aggregate economic activity levels gener-
ates valuable information
The Model
The original model described in [FSTD15] has many interesting moving parts
Here we examine a simplified version that nonetheless captures many of the key ideas
Fundamentals The evolution of the fundamental process {θt } is given by
θt+1 = ρθt + σθ wt+1
where
• σθ > 0 and 0 < ρ < 1
• {wt } is IID and standard normal
The random variable θt is not observable at any time
Output There is a total M̄ of risk averse entrepreneurs

Output of the m-th entrepreneur, conditional on being active in the market at time t, is equal to

xm = θ + em where em ∼ N 0, γx−1 (2.65)
Here the time subscript has been dropped to simplify notation

The inverse of the shock variance, γx , is called the shock’s precision
The higher is the precision, the more informative xm is about the fundamental
Output shocks are independent across time and firms
Information and Beliefs All entrepreneurs start with identical beliefs about θ0
Signals are publicly observable and hence all agents have identical beliefs always
Dropping time subscripts, beliefs for current θ are represented by the normal distribution
N (µ, γ−1 )
Here γ is the precision of beliefs; its inverse is the degree of uncertainty
These parameters are updated by Kalman filtering
Let
• M ⊂ {1, . . . , M̄ } denote the set of currently active firms
• M := |M| denote the number of currently active firms

1
• X be the average output M ∑m∈M xm of the active firms
With this notation and primes for next period values, we can write the updating of the mean and
precision via
γµ + Mγx X
µ0 = ρ (2.66)
γ + Mγx
−1
ρ2

0
γ = + σθ2 (2.67)
γ + Mγx
These are standard Kalman filtering results applied to the current setting
Exercise 1 provides more details on how (2.66) and (2.67) are derived, and then asks you to fill in
remaining steps
The next figure plots the law of motion for the precision in (2.67) as a 45 degree diagram, with one
curve for each M ∈ {0, . . . , 6}
The other parameter values are ρ = 0.99, γx = 0.5, σθ = 0.5
Points where the curves hit the 45 degree lines are long run steady states for precision for different
values of M
Thus, if one of these values for M remains fixed, a corresponding steady state is the equilibrium
level of precision
• high values of M correspond to greater information about the fundamental, and hence more
precision in steady state
• low values of M correspond to less information and more uncertainty in steady state
In practice, as we’ll see, the number of active firms fluctuates stochastically

Participation Omitting time subscripts once more, entrepreneurs enter the market in the current
period if
E[u( xm − Fm )] > c (2.68)
Here
• the mathematical expectation of xm is based on (2.65) and beliefs N (µ, γ−1 ) for θ
• Fm is a stochastic but previsible fixed cost, independent across time and firms
• c is a constant reflecting opportunity costs
The statement that Fm is previsible means that it is realized at the start of the period and treated as
a constant in (2.68)
The utility function has the constant absolute risk aversion form
1
u( x ) = (1 − exp(− ax )) (2.69)
a
where a is a positive parameter
Combining (2.68) and (2.69), entrepreneur m participates in the market (or is said to be active)
when
1
{1 − E[exp (− a(θ + em − Fm ))]} > c
a
Using standard formulas for expectations of lognormal random variables, this is equivalent to the
condition   
a 2 1 + 1
1 γ γx
ψ(µ, γ, Fm ) := 1 − exp − aµ + aFm +  − c > 0 (2.70)
a 2
Implementation
We want to simulate this economy

As a first step, let’s put together a class that bundles
• the parameters, the current value of θ and the current values of the two belief parameters µ
and γ
• methods to update θ, µ and γ, as well as to determine the number of active firms and their
outputs
The updating methods follow the laws of motion for θ, µ and γ given above
The method to evaluate the number of active firms generates F1 , . . . , FM̄ and tests condition (2.70)
for each firm
The __init__ method encodes as default values the parameters we’ll use in the simulations below
Here’s the code, which can also be obtained from GitHub


import numpy as np
class UncertaintyTrapEcon(object):
def __init__(self,
a=1.5, # Risk aversion
gx=0.5, # Production shock precision
rho=0.99, # Correlation coefficient for theta
sig_theta=0.5, # Std dev of theta shock
num_firms=100, # Number of firms
sig_F=1.5, # Std dev of fixed costs
c=-420, # External opportunity cost
mu_init=0, # Initial value for mu
gamma_init=4, # Initial value for gamma
theta_init=0): # Initial value for theta
# == Record values == #
self.a, self.gx, self.rho, self.sig_theta = a, gx, rho, sig_theta
self.num_firms, self.sig_F, self.c, = num_firms, sig_F, c
self.sd_x = np.sqrt(1/ gx)
# == Initialize states == #
self.gamma, self.mu, self.theta = gamma_init, mu_init, theta_init
def psi(self, F):

temp1 = -self.a * (self.mu - F)
temp2 = self.a**2 * (1/self.gamma + 1/self.gx) / 2
return (1 / self.a) * (1 - np.exp(temp1 + temp2)) - self.c
def update_beliefs(self, X, M):

"""
Update beliefs (mu, gamma) based on aggregates X and M.
"""
# Simplify names
gx, rho, sig_theta = self.gx, self.rho, self.sig_theta
# Update mu
temp1 = rho * (self.gamma * self.mu + M * gx * X)
temp2 = self.gamma + M * gx
self.mu = temp1 / temp2
# Update gamma
self.gamma = 1 / (rho**2 / (self.gamma + M * gx) + sig_theta**2)
def update_theta(self, w):

"""
Update the fundamental state theta given shock w.
"""
self.theta = self.rho * self.theta + self.sig_theta * w
def gen_aggregates(self):
"""
Generate aggregates based on current beliefs (mu, gamma). This
is a simulation step that depends on the draws for F.

"""
F_vals = self.sig_F * np.random.randn(self.num_firms)
M = np.sum(self.psi(F_vals) > 0) # Counts number of active firms
if M > 0:
x_vals = self.theta + self.sd_x * np.random.randn(M)
X = x_vals.mean()
else:
X = 0
return X, M
In the results below we use this code to simulate time series for the major variables
Results
Let’s look first at the dynamics of µ, which the agents use to track θ
We see that µ tracks θ well when there are sufficient firms in the market
However, there are times when µ tracks θ poorly due to insufficient information
These are episodes where the uncertainty traps take hold
During these episodes
• precision is low and uncertainty is high
• few firms are in the market
To get a clearer idea of the dynamics, let’s look at all the main time series at once, for a given set
of shocks
Notice how the traps only take hold after a sequence of bad draws for the fundamental
Thus, the model gives us a propagation mechanism that maps bad random draws into long down-
turns in economic activity


2.10. A SIMPLE OPTIMAL GROWTH MODEL 300
Exercises
Exercise 1 Fill in the details behind (2.66) and (2.67) based on the following standard result (see,
e.g., p. 24 of [YS05])
Fact Let x = ( x1 , . . . , x M ) be a vector of IID draws from common distribution N (θ, 1/γx ) and let x̄
be the sample mean. If γx is known and the prior for θ is N (µ, 1/γ), then the posterior distribution
of θ given x is
π (θ | x) = N (µ0 , 1/γ0 )
where
µγ + M x̄γx
µ0 = and γ0 = γ + Mγx
γ + Mγx
Exercise 2 Modulo randomness, replicate the simulation figures shown above

• Use the parameter values listed as defaults in the __init__ method of the UncertaintyTrapEcon
class
Solutions
Solution notebook
2.10 A Simple Optimal Growth Model
Contents
• A Simple Optimal Growth Model
– Overview
– The Model
– Dynamic Programming
– Computation
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
In this lecture we’re going to study a simple optimal growth model with one agent
The model is a version of the standard one sector infinite horizon growth model studied in
• [SLP89], chapter 2
• [LS12], section 3.1
• EDTC, chapter 1

• [Sun96], chapter 12
The technique we use to solve the model is dynamic programming
• Pervasive in economics, finance and many other fields
• General, powerful and yields both intuition and practical computational methods
The growth model studied below is intentionally simplistic — for now we favor ease of exposition
over realism
If you find the dynamic programming arguments hard going, try re-reading the lecture on shortest
paths
The Model
Consider an agent who owns at time t capital stock k t ∈ R+ := [0, ∞) and produces output
y t : = f ( k t ) ∈ R+
This output can either be consumed or saved as capital for next period
For simplicity we assume that depreciation is total, so that next period capital is just output minus
consumption:
k t +1 = y t − c t (2.71)
Taking k0 as given, we suppose that the agent wishes to maximize
∞
∑ βt u(ct ) (2.72)
t =0
where u is a given utility function and β ∈ (0, 1) is a discount factor

More precisely, the agent wishes to select a path c0 , c1 , c2 , . . . for consumption that is
1. nonnegative
2. feasible, in the sense that the capital path {k t } determined by {ct }, k0 and (2.71) is always
nonnegative
3. optimal, in the sense that it maximizes (2.72) relative to all other feasible consumption se-
quences
In the present context
• k is called the state variable — it summarizes the “state of the world” at the start of each
period
• c is called the control variable — a value chosen by the agent each period after observing the
state
A well-known result from dynamic programming theory (cf., e.g., [SLP89], section 4.1) states that,
for kind of this problem, any optimal consumption sequence {ct } is Markov
That is, there exists a function σ such that
ct = σ (k t ) for all t
In other words, the current control is a fixed (i.e., time homogeneous) function of the current state

The Policy Function Approach As it turns out, we are better off seeking the function σ directly,
rather than the optimal consumption sequence
The main reason is that the functional approach — seeking the optimal policy — translates directly
over to the stochastic case, whereas the sequential approach does not
For this model, we will say that function σ mapping R+ into R+ is a feasible consumption policy if it
satisfies
σ(k ) ≤ f (k ) for all k ∈ R+ (2.73)
The set of all such policies will be denoted by Σ
Using this notation, the agent’s decision problem can be rewritten as
∞
( )
max
σ∈Σ
∑ βt u(σ(kt )) (2.74)
t =0
where the sequence {k t } in (2.74) is given by
k t +1 = f ( k t ) − σ ( k t ), k0 given (2.75)
In the next section we discuss how to solve this problem for the maximizing σ
Dynamic Programming
We will solve for the optimal policy using dynamic programming

The first step is to define the policy value function vσ associated with a given policy σ, which is
∞
vσ (k0 ) := ∑ βt u(σ(kt )) (2.76)
t =0
when {k t } is given by (2.75)

Evidently vσ (k0 ) is the total present value of discounted utility associated with following policy σ
forever, given initial capital k0
The value function for this optimization problem is then defined as
v∗ (k0 ) := sup vσ (k0 ) (2.77)

σ∈Σ
The value function gives the maximal value that can be obtained from state k0 , after considering
all feasible policies
A policy σ ∈ Σ is called optimal if it attains the supremum in (2.77) for all k0 ∈ R+
The Bellman equation for this problem takes the form
v∗ (k ) = max {u(c) + βv∗ ( f (k ) − c)} for all k ∈ R+ (2.78)

0≤ c ≤ f ( k )
It states that maximal value from a given state can be obtained by trading off
• current reward from a given action (in this case utility from current consumption) vs

• the discounted future value of the state resulting from that action
(If the intuition behind the Bellman equation is not clear to you, try working through this lecture)
As a matter of notation, given a continuous function w on R+ , we say that policy σ ∈ Σ is w-greedy
if σ(k ) is a solution to
max {u(c) + βw( f (k) − c)} (2.79)
0≤ c ≤ f ( k )
for every k ∈ R+
Theoretical Results As with most optimization problems, conditions for existence of a solution
typically require some form of continuity and compactness
In addition, some restrictions are needed to ensure that the sum of discounted utility is always
finite
For example, if we are prepared to assume that f and u are continuous and u is bounded, then
1. The value function v∗ is finite, bounded, continuous and satisfies the Bellman equation
2. At least one optimal policy exists
3. A policy is optimal if and only if it is v∗ -greedy
(For a proof see, for example, proposition 10.1.13 of EDTC)
In view of these results, to find an optimal policy, one option — perhaps the most common — is
to
1. compute v∗
2. solve for a v∗ -greedy policy
The advantage is that, once we get to the second step, we are solving a one-dimensional optimiza-
tion problem — the problem on the right-hand side of (2.78)
This is much easier than an infinite-dimensional optimization problem, which is what we started
out with
(An infinite sequence {ct } is a point in an infinite-dimensional space)
In fact step 2 is almost trivial once v∗ is obtained
For this reason, most of our focus is on the first step — how to obtain the value function
Value Function Iteration The value function v∗ can be obtained by an iterative technique:
• Start with a guess — some initial function w
• successively improve it
The improvement step involves applying an operator (i.e., a map from functions to functions)
called the Bellman operator
The Bellman operator for this problem is denoted T and sends w into Tw via
Tw(k ) := max {u(c) + βw( f (k ) − c)} (2.80)
0≤ c ≤ f ( k )

Now let w be any continuous bounded function

Iteratively applying T from initial condition w produces a sequence of functions w, Tw, T ( Tw) =
T 2 w, . . . that converges uniformly to v∗
For a proof see, for example, lemma 10.1.20 of EDTC
This convergence will be prominent in our numerical experiments
Unbounded Utility The theoretical results stated above assume that the utility function is
bounded
In practice economists often work with unbounded utility functions
For utility functions that are bounded below (but possibly unbounded above), a clean and com-
prehensive theory now exists
(Section 12.2 of EDTC provides one exposition)
For utility functions that are unbounded both below and above the situation is more complicated
For recent work on deterministic problems, see, for example, [Kam12] or [MdRV10]
In this lecture we will use both bounded and unbounded utility functions without dwelling on
the theory
Computation
Let’s now look at computing the value function and the optimal policy
Fitted Value Iteration The first step is to compute the value function by iterating with the Bell-
man operator
In theory, the algorithm is as follows
1. Begin with a function w — an initial condition
2. Solving (2.80), obtain the function Tw
3. Unless some stopping condition is satisfied, set w = Tw and go to step 2
However, there is a problem we must confront before we implement this procedure: The iterates
can neither be calculated exactly nor stored on a computer
To see the issue, consider (2.80)
Even if w is a known function, unless Tw can be shown to have some special structure, the only
way to store this function is to record the value Tw(k ) for every k ∈ R+
Clearly this is impossible
What we will do instead is use fitted value function iteration
The procedure is to record the value of the function Tw at only finitely many “grid” points
{k1 , . . . , k I } ⊂ R+ , and reconstruct it from this information when required

More precisely, the algorithm will be

1. Begin with an array of values {w1 , . . . , w I }, typically representing the values of some initial
function w on the grid points {k1 , . . . , k I }
2. build a function ŵ on the state space R+ by interpolating the points {w1 , . . . , w I }
3. By repeatedly solving (2.80), obtain and record the value T ŵ(k i ) on each grid point k i
4. Unless some stopping condition is satisfied, set {w1 , . . . , w I } = { T ŵ(k1 ), . . . , T ŵ(k I )} and
go to step 2
How should we go about step 2?
This is a problem of function approximation, and there are many ways to approach it
What’s important here is that the function approximation scheme must not only produce a good
approximation to Tw, but also combine well with the broader iteration algorithm described above
One good choice from both respects is continuous piecewise linear interpolation (see this paper
for further discussion)
The next figure illustrates piecewise linear interpolation of an arbitrary function on grid points
0, 0.2, 0.4, . . . , 1
Another advantage of piecewise linear interpolation is that it preserves useful shape properties
such as monotonicity and concavity / convexity

A First Pass Implementation Let’s now look at an implementation of fitted value function iter-
ation using Python
In the example below,
• f (k ) = kα with α = 0.65
• u(c) = ln c and β = 0.95
As is well-known (see [LS12], section 3.1.2), for this particular problem an exact analytical solution
is available, with
v∗ (k ) = c1 + c2 ln k (2.81)
for
ln(1 − αβ) ln(αβ)αβ α
c1 : = + and c2 : =
1−β (1 − αβ)(1 − β) 1 − αβ
At this stage, our only aim is to see if we can replicate this solution numerically, using fitted value
function iteration
Here’s a first-pass solution, the details of which are explained below
The code can be found in file optgrowth/optgrowth_v0.py from the QuantEcon.applications
repository
"""
Filename: optgrowth_v0.py
Authors: John Stachurski and Tom Sargent
A first pass at solving the optimal growth problem via value function
iteration. A more general version is provided in optgrowth.py.
"""
from __future__ import division # Not needed for Python 3.x
import numpy as np
from numpy import log
from scipy.optimize import fminbound
from scipy import interp
# Primitives and grid

alpha = 0.65
beta = 0.95
grid_max = 2
grid_size = 150
grid = np.linspace(1e-6, grid_max, grid_size)
# Exact solution
ab = alpha * beta
c1 = (log(1 - ab) + log(ab) * ab / (1 - ab)) / (1 - beta)
c2 = alpha / (1 - ab)
def v_star(k):
return c1 + c2 * log(k)

def bellman_operator(w):
"""
The approximate Bellman operator, which computes and returns the updated
value function Tw on the grid points.
* w is a flat NumPy array with len(w) = len(grid)
The vector w represents the value of the input function on the grid
points.
"""
# === Apply linear interpolation to w === #
Aw = lambda x: interp(x, grid, w)
# === set Tw[i] equal to max_c { log(c) + beta w(f(k_i) - c)} === #
Tw = np.empty(grid_size)
for i, k in enumerate(grid):
objective = lambda c: - log(c) - beta * Aw(k**alpha - c)
c_star = fminbound(objective, 1e-6, k**alpha)
Tw[i] = - objective(c_star)
return Tw
# === If file is run directly, not imported, produce figure === #

if __name__ == '__main__':
w = 5 * log(grid) - 25 # An initial condition -- fairly arbitrary

n = 35
ax.set_ylim(-40, -20)
ax.set_xlim(np.min(grid), np.max(grid))
lb = 'initial condition'
ax.plot(grid, w, color=plt.cm.jet(0), lw=2, alpha=0.6, label=lb)
for i in range(n):
w = bellman_operator(w)
ax.plot(grid, w, color=plt.cm.jet(i / n), lw=2, alpha=0.6)
lb = 'true value function'
ax.plot(grid, v_star(grid), 'k-', lw=2, alpha=0.8, label=lb)
ax.legend(loc='upper left')
plt.show()
Running the code produces the following figure

The curves in this picture represent
1. the first 36 functions generated by the fitted value function iteration algorithm described
above, with hotter colors given to higher iterates
2. the true value function as specified in (2.81), drawn in black
The sequence of iterates converges towards v∗
If we increase n and run again we see further improvement — the next figure shows n = 75


Incidentally, it is true that knowledge of the functional form of v∗ for this model has influenced
our choice of the initial condition
w = 5 * log(grid) - 25
In more realistic problems such information is not available, and convergence will probably take
longer
Comments on the Code The function bellman_operator implements steps 2–3 of the fitted
value function algorithm discussed above
Linear interpolation is performed by SciPy’s interp function
Like the rest of SciPy’s numerical solvers, fminbound minimizes its objective, so we use the identity
maxx f ( x ) = − minx − f ( x ) to solve (2.80)
The line if __name__ == ’__main__’: is common and operates as follows
• If the file is run as the result of an import statement in another file, the clause evaluates to
False, and the code block is not executed
• If the file is run directly as a script, the clause evaluates to True, and the code block is exe-
cuted
To see how this trick works, suppose we have a file in our current working directory called
test_file.py that contains the single line
print(__name__)
Now consider the following, executed in IPython

In [1]: run test_file.py
__main__
In [2]: import test_file

test_file
Hopefully you can now see how it works

The benefit is that we can now import the functionality in optgrowth_v0.py without necessarily
generating the figure
The Policy Function To compute an approximate optimal policy, we run the fitted value function
algorithm until approximate convergence
Taking the function so produced as an approximation to v∗ , we then compute the (approximate)
v∗ -greedy policy
For this particular problem, the optimal consumption policy has the known analytical solution
σ(k ) = (1 − αβ)kα
The next figure compares the numerical solution to this exact solution

In the three figures, the approximation to v∗ is obtained by running the loop in the fitted value
function algorithm 2, 4 and 6 times respectively
Even with as few as 6 iterates, the numerical result is quite close to the true policy
Exercise 1 asks you to reproduce this figure
Exercises
Exercise 1 Replicate the optimal policy figure shown above

Use the same parameters and initial condition found in optgrowth_v0.py
Exercise 2 Once an optimal consumption policy σ is given, the dynamics for the capital stock
follows (2.75)

2.11. OPTIMAL GROWTH PART II: ADDING SOME BLING 311
The next figure shows the first 25 elements of this sequence for three different discount factors
(and hence three different policies)
In each sequence, the initial condition is k0 = 0.1

The discount factors are discount_factors = (0.9, 0.94, 0.98)
Otherwise, the parameters and primitives are the same as found in optgrowth_v0.py
Replicate the figure
Solutions
Solution notebook
2.11 Optimal Growth Part II: Adding Some Bling
Contents
• Optimal Growth Part II: Adding Some Bling
– Overview
– Adding a Shock
– Implementation
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
In the last lecture we

• studied a simple version of the one sector optimal growth model

• put together some fairly basic code to solve for the optimal policy
In this lecture we’re going to make some improvements
In terms of the model, we’re going to add a random component to production
In terms of the code, we’re going to
• generalize the bellman_operator function to handle other models
• refactor (reorganize) the code to make it easier to interact with
• make use of some QuantEcon utilities to run the iteration
• make use of caching of results to speed up computations
Caching uses the joblib library, which you need to install to run the code in this lecture
This can be done at a shell prompt by typing
pip install joblib
Adding a Shock
The first step is to modify the problem to include a production shock

The shock sequence will be denoted {ξ t } and assumed to be IID for simplicity
Many treatments include ξ t as one of the state variables but this can be avoided in the IID case if
we choose the timing appropriately
Timing The timing we adopt is

1. At the start of period t, current output yt is observed
2. Consumption ct is chosen, and the remainder yt − ct is used as productive capital
3. The shock ξ t+1 is realized
4. Production takes place, yielding output yt+1 = f (yt − ct )ξ t+1
Now t increments and the process repeats
Comments:
• The “current” shock ξ t+1 has subscript t + 1 because it is not in the time t information set
• The production function f is assumed to be continuous
• The shock is multiplicative by assumption — this is not the only possibility
• Depreciation is not made explicit but can be incorporated into the production function

The Optimization Problem Taking y0 as given, the agent wishes to maximize

∞
" #
E ∑ βt u(ct ) (2.82)
t =0
subject to
y t +1 = f ( y t − c t ) ξ t +1 and 0 ≤ ct ≤ yt for all t
For interpretation see the first optimal growth lecture
The difference is in the timing, as discussed above, and the addition of the expectation term E
Note also that yt is the state variable rather than k t
We seek again a Markov policy, which is a function σ : R+ → R+ that maps states to actions:
ct = σ (yt ) for all t
Analogous to the first optimal growth lecture, we will call σ a feasible consumption policy if it satisfies
0 ≤ σ(y) ≤ y for all y ∈ R+ (2.83)

The set of all such policies will be denoted by Σ
Each feasible policy σ determines a Markov process {yt } via
yt+1 = f (yt − σ(yt ))ξ t+1 , y0 given (2.84)
We insert this process into

∞
" #
E ∑ βt u(σ(yt )) (2.85)
t =0
to obtain the total expected present value of following policy σ forever, given initial income y0
The aim is to select a policy that makes this number as large as possible
The next section covers these ideas more formally
Optimality and the Bellman Operator The policy value function vσ associated with a given policy
σ is
∞
" #
v σ ( y0 ) : = E ∑ βt u(σ(yt )) (2.86)
t =0
when {yt } is given by (2.84)

The value function is then defined as
v∗ (y0 ) := sup vσ (y0 ) (2.87)

σ∈Σ
The Bellman equation for this problem takes the form
v∗ (y) = max {u(c) + βEv∗ ( f (y − c)ξ )} for all y ∈ R+ (2.88)

0≤ c ≤ y
Analogous to the Bellman equation in the first optimal growth lecture, it states that maximal value
from a given state can be obtained by trading off

• current reward from a given action vs

• expected discounted future value of the state resulting from that action
The corresponding Bellman operator w 7→ Tw is
Tw(y) := max {u(c) + βEw( f (y − c)ξ )} (2.89)

0≤ c ≤ y
As in the first optimal growth lecture, if

• u and f are continuous, and
• u is bounded and β < 1,
then we can compute v∗ by iterating with T from any initial continuous bounded function on the
state space
For background and theory see, for example,
• [MZ75]
• lemma 10.1.20 of EDTC
Even if u is unbounded, we can often find theoretical justification for this kind of iterative proce-
dure (see, e.g., lemma 12.2.25 of EDTC)
Greedy and Optimal Policies A policy σ ∈ Σ is called optimal if it attains the supremum in (2.87)
for all y0 ∈ R+
Given a continuous function w on R+ , we say that σ ∈ Σ is w-greedy if σ(y) is a solution to
max {u(c) + βEv∗ ( f (y − c)ξ )} (2.90)

0≤ c ≤ y
for every y ∈ R+
A feasible policy is optimal if and only if it is v∗ -greedy policy (see, e.g., theorem 10.1.11 of EDTC)
Hence, once we have a good approximation to v∗ , we can compute the (approximately) optimal
policy by taking the greedy policy
Implementation
To solve the model we’ll write code that

• generalizes our earlier effort
• is more reusable and modular
• is easier to interact with in repeated simulations

The Bellman Operator As in the first optimal growth lecture,

• iteration involves function approximation
• function approximation will be carried out by piecewise linear interpolation
We take the bellman_operator function from that lecture and rewrite it as follows
"""
Filename: optgrowth.py
Authors: John Stachurski, Thomas Sargent
Solving the optimal growth problem via value function iteration. The model is
described in
http://quant-econ.net/py/optgrowth_2.html
"""
import numpy as np
from scipy.optimize import fminbound
def bellman_operator(w, grid, beta, u, f, shocks, Tw=None, compute_policy=0):

"""
The approximate Bellman operator, which computes and returns the
updated value function Tw on the grid points. An array to store
the new set of values Tw is optionally supplied (to avoid having to
allocate new arrays at each iteration). If supplied, any existing data in
Tw will be overwritten.
Parameters
----------
w : array_like(float, ndim=1)
The value of the input function on different grid points
grid : array_like(float, ndim=1)
The set of grid points
u : function
The utility function
f : function
The production function
shocks : numpy array
An array of draws from the shock, for Monte Carlo integration (to
compute expectations).
beta : scalar
The discount factor
Tw : array_like(float, ndim=1) optional (default=None)
Array to write output values to
compute_policy : Boolean, optional (default=False)
Whether or not to compute policy function
"""
# === Apply linear interpolation to w === #
w_func = lambda x: interp(x, grid, w)

# == Initialize Tw if necessary == #
if Tw is None:
Tw = np.empty(len(w))
if compute_policy:
sigma = np.empty(len(w))
# == set Tw[i] = max_c { u(c) + beta E w(f(y - c) z)} == #

for i, y in enumerate(grid):
def objective(c):
return - u(c) - beta * np.mean(w_func(f(y - c) * shocks))
c_star = fminbound(objective, 1e-10, y)
if compute_policy:
sigma[i] = c_star
Tw[i] = - objective(c_star)
if compute_policy:
return Tw, sigma
else:
return Tw
This code is from the file optgrowth_2/optgrowth.py from the QuantEcon.applications repository
The arguments to bellman_operator are described in the docstring to the function
Comments:
• We can now pass in any production and utility function
• The expectation in (2.89) is computed via Monte Carlo, using the approximation
1 n
n i∑
Ew( f (y − c)ξ ) ≈ w( f (y − c)ξ i )
=1
where {ξ i }in=1 are IID draws from the distribution of the shock
Monte Carlo is not always the most efficient way to compute integrals numerically but it does
have some theoretical advantages in the present setting
(For example, it preserves the contraction mapping property of the Bellman operator — see, e.g.,
[PalS13])
Solving Specific Models Now we want to write some code that uses the Bellman operator to
solve specific models
The first model we’ll try out is one with log utility and Cobb–Douglas production, similar to the
first optimal growth lecture
This model is simple and has a closed form solution but is useful as a test case
We assume that shocks are lognormal, with ln ξ t ∼ N (µ, σ2 )
We present the code first, which is file optgrowth_2/log_linear_growth_model.py from the Quan-
tEcon.applications repository
Explanations are given after the code

"""
Filename: log_linear_growth_model.py
Authors: John Stachurski, Thomas Sargent
The log linear growth model, wrapped as classes. For use with the
optgrowth.py module.
"""
import numpy as np
from optgrowth import bellman_operator
from quantecon import compute_fixed_point
from joblib import Memory
memory = Memory(cachedir='./joblib_cache')
@memory.cache
def compute_value_function_cached(grid, beta, alpha, shocks):
"""
Compute the value function by iterating on the Bellman operator.
The work is done by QuantEcon's compute_fixed_point function.
"""
Tw = np.empty(len(grid))
initial_w = 5 * np.log(grid) - 25
v_star = compute_fixed_point(bellman_operator,
initial_w,
1e-4, # error_tol
100, # max_iter
True, # verbose
5, # print_skip
grid,
beta,
np.log,
lambda k: k**alpha,
shocks,
Tw=Tw,
compute_policy=False)
return v_star
class LogLinearGrowthModel:
"""
Stores parameters and computes solutions for the basic log utility / Cobb
Douglas production growth model. Shocks are lognormal.
"""
def __init__(self,
alpha=0.65, # Productivity parameter
beta=0.95, # Discount factor
mu=1, # First parameter in lognorm(mu, sigma)
sigma=0.1, # Second parameter in lognorm(mu, sigma)
grid_max=8,
grid_size=150):

self.alpha, self.beta, self.mu, self.sigma = alpha, beta, mu, sigma

self.grid = np.linspace(1e-6, grid_max, grid_size)
self.shocks = np.exp(mu + sigma * np.random.randn(250))
def compute_value_function(self, show_plot=False):

"""
Calls compute_value_function_cached and optionally adds a plot.
"""
v_star = compute_value_function_cached(self.grid,
self.beta,
self.alpha,
self.shocks)
if show_plot:
ax.plot(self.grid, v_star, lw=2, alpha=0.6, label='value function')
plt.show()
return v_star
def compute_greedy(self, w=None, show_plot=False):

"""
Compute the w-greedy policy on the grid points given w
(the value of the input function on grid points). If w is not
supplied, use the approximate optimal value function.
"""
if w is None:
w = self.compute_value_function()
Tw, sigma = bellman_operator(w,

self.grid,
self.beta,
np.log,
lambda k: k**self.alpha,
self.shocks,
compute_policy=True)
if show_plot:
ax.plot(self.grid, sigma, lw=2, alpha=0.6, label='approximate policy function')
cstar = (1 - self.alpha * self.beta) * self.grid
ax.plot(self.grid, cstar, lw=2, alpha=0.6, label='true policy function')
plt.show()
return sigma
Let’s discuss some of the interesting features of the code
Computing the Value Function The function compute_value_function_cached performs iteration

to convergence for this particular model

In turn, it uses the function compute_fixed_point from quantecon to control iteration

This function
• provides a generic interface to the kinds of iteration problems routinely encountered in eco-
nomic modeling
• avoids allocating additional memory at each step, unlike our code from the first optimal
growth lecture
Caching Notice the three lines

from joblib import Memory
memory = Memory(cachedir='./joblib_cache')
@memory.cache
We are using the joblib library to cache the result of calling compute_value_function_cached at a
given set of parameters
With the argument cachedir=’./joblib_cache’, any call to this function results in both the input values
and output values being stored a subdirectory joblib_cache of the present working directory
• In UNIX shells, . refers to the present working directory
Now if we call the function twice with the same set of parameters, the result will be returned
almost instantaneously
Models as Classes The parameters and the methods that we actually interact with are wrapped
in a class called LogLinearGrowthModel
This keeps our variables organized in one self-containted object
It also makes it easier to evaluate endogenous entities like value functions across a range of pa-
rameters
For example, to compute the value function at α ∈ {0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65} we could use the following
val_functions = []
alphas = [0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65]
for alpha in alphas:
gm = LogLinearGrowthModel(alpha=alpha)
vstar = gm.compute_value_function()
val_functions.append(vstar)
This client code is simple and neat, and hence less error prone than client code involving complex
function calls
A Test For this growth model it is known (see, e.g., chapter 1 of EDTC) that the optimal policy
for consumption is σ(y) = (1 − αβ)y
Let’s see if we match this when we run

In [1]: run log_linear_growth_model.py
In [2]: lg = LogLinearGrowthModel()
In [3]: lg.compute_greedy(show_plot=True)
The approximation is good apart from close to the right hand boundary
Why is the approximation poor at the upper end of the grid?
This is caused by a combination ofthe function approximation step and the shock component
In particular, with the interp routine that we are using, evaluation at points larger than any grid
point returns the value at the right-most grid point
Points larger than any grid point are encountered in the Bellman operator at the step where we
take expectations
One solution is to take the grid larger than where we wish to compute the policy
Another is to tweak the interp routine, although we won’t pursue that idea here
Exercises
Coming soon.

2.12. LQ DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS 321
Solutions
Coming soon.
2.12 LQ Dynamic Programming Problems
Contents
• LQ Dynamic Programming Problems
– Overview
– Introduction
– Optimality – Finite Horizon
– Extensions and Comments
– Implementation
– Further Applications
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
Linear quadratic (LQ) control refers to a class of dynamic optimization problems that have found
applications in almost every scientific field
This lecture provides an introduction to LQ control and its economic applications
As we will see, LQ systems have a simple structure that makes them an excellent workhorse for a
wide variety of economic problems
Moreover, while the linear-quadratic structure is restrictive, it is in fact far more flexible than it
may appear initially
These themes appear repeatedly below
Mathematically, LQ control problems are closely related to the Kalman filter, although we won’t
pursue the deeper connections in this lecture
In reading what follows, it will be useful to have some familiarity with
• matrix manipulations
• vectors of random variables
• dynamic programming and the Bellman equation (see for example this lecture and this lec-
ture)
For additional reading on LQ control, see, for example,
• [LS12], chapter 5
• [HS08], chapter 4

• [HLL96], section 3.5

In order to focus on computation, we leave longer proofs to these sources (while trying to provide
as much intuition as possible)
Introduction
The “linear” part of LQ is a linear law of motion for the state, while the “quadratic” part refers to
preferences
Let’s begin with the former, move on to the latter, and then put them together into an optimization
problem
The Law of Motion Let xt be a vector describing the state of some economic system
Suppose that xt follows a linear law of motion given by
xt+1 = Axt + But + Cwt+1 , t = 0, 1, 2, . . . (2.91)
Here
• ut is a “control” vector, incorporating choices available to a decision maker confronting the
current state xt
• {wt } is an uncorrelated zero mean shock process satisfying Ewt wt0 = I, where the right-hand
side is the identity matrix
Regarding the dimensions
• xt is n × 1, A is n × n
• ut is k × 1, B is n × k
• wt is j × 1, C is n × j
Example 1 Consider a household budget constraint given by
a t +1 + c t = ( 1 + r ) a t + y t
Here at is assets, r is a fixed interest rate, ct is current consumption, and yt is current non-financial
income
If we suppose that {yt } is uncorrelated and N (0, σ2 ), then, taking {wt } to be standard normal, we
can write the system as
at+1 = (1 + r ) at − ct + σwt+1
This is clearly a special case of (2.91), with assets being the state and consumption being the control

Example 2 One unrealistic feature of the previous model is that non-financial income has a zero
mean and is often negative
This can easily be overcome by adding a sufficiently large mean
Hence in this example we take yt = σwt+1 + µ for some positive real number µ
Another alteration that’s useful to introduce (we’ll see why soon) is to change the control variable
from consumption to the deviation of consumption from some “ideal” quantity c̄
(Most parameterizations will be such that c̄ is large relative to the amount of consumption that is
attainable in each period, and hence the household wants to increase consumption)
For this reason, we now take our control to be ut := ct − c̄
In terms of these variables, the budget constraint at+1 = (1 + r ) at − ct + yt becomes
at+1 = (1 + r ) at − ut − c̄ + σwt+1 + µ (2.92)
How can we write this new system in the form of equation (2.91)?
If, as in the previous example, we take at as the state, then we run into a problem: the law of
motion contains some constant terms on the right-hand side
This means that we are dealing with an affine function, not a linear one (recall this discussion)
Fortunately, we can easily circumvent this problem by adding an extra state variable
In particular, if we write

a t +1 1 + r −c̄ + µ at −1 σ
= + ut + w t +1 (2.93)
1 0 1 1 0 0
then the first row is equivalent to (2.92)

Moreover, the model is now linear, and can be written in the form of (2.91) by setting

at 1 + r −c̄ + µ −1 σ
xt := , A := , B := , C := (2.94)
1 0 1 0 0
In effect, we’ve bought ourselves linearity by adding another state
Preferences In the LQ model, the aim is to minimize a flow of losses, where time-t loss is given
by the quadratic expression
xt0 Rxt + u0t Qut (2.95)
Here
• R is assumed to be n × n, symmetric and nonnegative definite
• Q is assumed to be k × k, symmetric and positive definite
Note: In fact, for many economic problems, the definiteness conditions on R and Q can be relaxed.
It is sufficient that certain submatrices of R and Q be nonnegative definite. See [HS08] for details

Example 1 A very simple example that satisfies these assumptions is to take R and Q to be
identity matrices, so that current loss is
xt0 Ixt + u0t Iut = k xt k2 + kut k2
Thus, for both the state and the control, loss is measured as squared distance from the origin
(In fact the general case (2.95) can also be understood in this way, but with R and Q identifying
other – non-Euclidean – notions of “distance” from the zero vector)
Intuitively, we can often think of the state xt as representing deviation from a target, such as
• deviation of inflation from some target level
• deviation of a firm’s capital stock from some desired quantity
The aim is to put the state close to the target, while using controls parsimoniously
Example 2 In the household problem studied above, setting R = 0 and Q = 1 yields preferences
xt0 Rxt + u0t Qut = u2t = (ct − c̄)2
Under this specification, the household’s current loss is the squared deviation of consumption
from the ideal level c̄
Optimality – Finite Horizon
Let’s now be precise about the optimization problem we wish to consider, and look at how to solve
it
The Objective We will begin with the finite horizon case, with terminal time T ∈ N
In this case, the aim is to choose a sequence of controls {u0 , . . . , u T −1 } to minimize the objective
( )
T −1
E ∑ βt (xt0 Rxt + u0t Qut ) + βT xT0 R f xT (2.96)
t =0
subject to the law of motion (2.91) and initial state x0

The new objects introduced here are β and the matrix R f
The scalar β is the discount factor, while x 0 R f x gives terminal loss associated with state x
Comments:
• We assume R f to be n × n, symmetric and nonnegative definite
• We allow β = 1, and hence include the undiscounted case
• x0 may itself be random, in which case we require it to be independent of the shock sequence
w1 , . . . , w T

Information There’s one constraint we’ve neglected to mention so far, which is that the decision
maker who solves this LQ problem knows only the present and the past, not the future
To clarify this point, consider the sequence of controls {u0 , . . . , u T −1 }
When choosing these controls, the decision maker is permitted to take into account the effects of
the shocks {w1 , . . . , wT } on the system
However, it is typically assumed — and will be assumed here — that the time-t control ut can be
made with knowledge of past and present shocks only
The fancy measure-theoretic way of saying this is that ut must be measurable with respect to the
σ-algebra generated by x0 , w1 , w2 , . . . , wt
This is in fact equivalent to stating that ut can be written in the form ut = gt ( x0 , w1 , w2 , . . . , wt ) for
some Borel measurable function gt
(Just about every function that’s useful for applications is Borel measurable, so, for the purposes
of intuition, you can read that last phrase as “for some function gt ”)
Now note that xt will ultimately depend on the realizations of x0 , w1 , w2 , . . . , wt
In fact it turns out that xt summarizes all the information about these historical shocks that the
decision maker needs to set controls optimally
More precisely, it can be shown that any optimal control ut can always be written as a function of
the current state alone
Hence in what follows we restrict attention to control policies (i.e., functions) of the form ut =
gt ( x t )
Actually, the preceding discussion applies to all standard dynamic programming problems
What’s special about the LQ case is that – as we shall soon see — the optimal ut turns out to be a
linear function of xt
Solution To solve the finite horizon LQ problem we can use a dynamic programming strategy
based on backwards induction that is conceptually similar to the approach adopted in this lecture
For reasons that will soon become clear, we first introduce the notation JT ( x ) := x 0 R f x
Now consider the problem of the decision maker in the second to last period
In particular, let the time be T − 1, and suppose that the state is x T −1
The decision maker must trade off current and (discounted) final losses, and hence solves
min{ x T0 −1 Rx T −1 + u0 Qu + β EJT ( Ax T −1 + Bu + CwT )}

u
At this stage, it is convenient to define the function
JT −1 ( x ) := min{ x 0 Rx + u0 Qu + β EJT ( Ax + Bu + CwT )} (2.97)

u
The function JT −1 will be called the T − 1 value function, and JT −1 ( x ) can be thought of as repre-
senting total “loss-to-go” from state x at time T − 1 when the decision maker behaves optimally

Now let’s step back to T − 2

For a decision maker at T − 2, the value JT −1 ( x ) plays a role analogous to that played by the
terminal loss JT ( x ) = x 0 R f x for the decision maker at T − 1
That is, JT −1 ( x ) summarizes the future loss associated with moving to state x
The decision maker chooses her control u to trade off current loss against future loss, where
• the next period state is x T −1 = Ax T −2 + Bu + CwT −1 , and hence depends on the choice of
current control
• the “cost” of landing in state x T −1 is JT −1 ( x T −1 )
Her problem is therefore
min{ x T0 −2 Rx T −2 + u0 Qu + β EJT −1 ( Ax T −2 + Bu + CwT −1 )}

u
Letting
JT −2 ( x ) := min{ x 0 Rx + u0 Qu + β EJT −1 ( Ax + Bu + CwT −1 )}
u
the pattern for backwards induction is now clear

In particular, we define a sequence of value functions { J0 , . . . , JT } via
Jt−1 ( x ) = min{ x 0 Rx + u0 Qu + β EJt ( Ax + Bu + Cwt )} and JT ( x ) = x 0 R f x

u
The first equality is the Bellman equation from dynamic programming theory specialized to the
finite horizon LQ problem
Now that we have { J0 , . . . , JT }, we can obtain the optimal controls
As a first step, let’s find out what the value functions look like
It turns out that every Jt has the form Jt ( x ) = x 0 Pt x + dt where Pt is a n × n matrix and dt is a
constant
We can show this by induction, starting from PT := R f and d T = 0
Using this notation, (2.97) becomes
JT −1 ( x ) := min{ x 0 Rx + u0 Qu + β E( Ax + Bu + CwT )0 PT ( Ax + Bu + CwT )} (2.98)

u
To obtain the minimizer, we can take the derivative of the r.h.s. with respect to u and set it equal
to zero
Applying the relevant rules of matrix calculus, this gives
u = −( Q + βB0 PT B)−1 βB0 PT Ax (2.99)
Plugging this back into (2.98) and rearranging yields
JT −1 ( x ) := x 0 PT −1 x + d T −1
where
PT −1 := R − β2 A0 PT B( Q + βB0 PT B)−1 B0 PT A + βA0 PT A (2.100)

and
d T −1 := β trace(C 0 PT C ) (2.101)
(The algebra is a good exercise — we’ll leave it up to you)
If we continue working backwards in this manner, it soon becomes clear that Jt ( x ) := x 0 Pt x + dt
as claimed, where { Pt } and {dt } satisfy the recursions
Pt−1 := R − β2 A0 Pt B( Q + βB0 Pt B)−1 B0 Pt A + βA0 Pt A with PT = R f (2.102)
and
dt−1 := β(dt + trace(C 0 Pt C )) with dT = 0 (2.103)
Recalling (2.99), the minimizers from these backward steps are
ut = − Ft xt where Ft := ( Q + βB0 Pt+1 B)−1 βB0 Pt+1 A (2.104)
These are the linear optimal control policies we discussed above

In particular, the sequence of controls given by (2.104) and (2.91) solves our finite horizon LQ
problem
Rephrasing this more precisely, the sequence u0 , . . . , u T −1 given by
ut = − Ft xt with xt+1 = ( A − BFt ) xt + Cwt+1 (2.105)
for t = 0, . . . , T − 1 attains the minimum of (2.96) subject to our constraints
An Application Early Keynesian models assumed that households have a constant marginal
propensity to consume from current income
Data contradicted the constancy of the marginal propensity to consume
In response, Milton Friedman, Franco Modigliani and many others built models based on a con-
sumer’s preference for a stable consumption stream
(See, for example, [Fri56] or [MB54])
One property of those models is that households purchase and sell financial assets to make con-
sumption streams smoother than income streams
The household savings problem outlined above captures these ideas
The optimization problem for the household is to choose a consumption sequence in order to
minimize ( )
T −1
E ∑ βt (ct − c̄)2 + βT qa2T (2.106)
t =0
subject to the sequence of budget constraints at+1 = (1 + r ) at − ct + yt , t ≥ 0

Here q is a large positive constant, the role of which is to induce the consumer to target zero debt
at the end of her life
(Without such a constraint, the optimal choice is to choose ct = c̄ in each period, letting assets
adjust accordingly)

As before we set yt = σwt+1 + µ and ut := ct − c̄, after which the constraint can be written as in
(2.92)
We saw how this constraint could be manipulated into the LQ formulation xt+1 = Axt + But +
Cwt+1 by setting xt = ( at 1)0 and using the definitions in (2.94)
To match with this state and control, the objective function (2.106) can be written in the form of
(2.96) by choosing
0 0 q 0
Q := 1, R := , and R f :=
0 0 0 0
Now that the problem is expressed in LQ form, we can proceed to the solution by applying (2.102)
and (2.104)
After generating shocks w1 , . . . , wT , the dynamics for assets and consumption can be simulated
via (2.105)
We provide code for all these operations below
The following figure was computed using this code, with r = 0.05, β = 1/(1 + r ), c̄ = 2, µ =
1, σ = 0.25, T = 45 and q = 106
The shocks {wt } were taken to be iid and standard normal
The top panel shows the time path of consumption ct and income yt in the simulation
As anticipated by the discussion on consumption smoothing, the time path of consumption is
much smoother than that for income
(But note that consumption becomes more irregular towards the end of life, when the zero final
asset requirement impinges more on consumption choices)
The second panel in the figure shows that the time path of assets at is closely correlated with
cumulative unanticipated income, where the latter is defined as
t
zt := ∑ σwt
j =0
A key message is that unanticipated windfall gains are saved rather than consumed, while unan-
ticipated negative shocks are met by reducing assets
(Again, this relationship breaks down towards the end of life due to the zero final asset require-
ment)
These results are relatively robust to changes in parameters
For example, let’s increase β from 1/(1 + r ) ≈ 0.952 to 0.96 while keeping other parameters fixed
This consumer is slightly more patient than the last one, and hence puts relatively more weight
on later consumption values
A simulation is shown below
We now have a slowly rising consumption stream and a hump-shaped build up of assets in the
middle periods to fund rising consumption
However, the essential features are the same: consumption is smooth relative to income, and assets
are strongly positively correlated with cumulative unanticipated income



Extensions and Comments
Let’s now consider a number of standard extensions to the LQ problem treated above
Nonstationary Parameters In some settings it can be desirable to allow A, B, C, R and Q to de-

pend on t
For the sake of simplicity, we’ve chosen not to treat this extension in our implementation given
below
However, the loss of generality is not as large as you might first imagine
In fact, we can tackle many nonstationary models from within our implementation by suitable
choice of state variables
One illustration is given below
For further examples and a more systematic treatment, see [HS13], section 2.4
Adding a Cross-Product Term In some LQ problems, preferences include a cross-product term

u0t Nxt , so that the objective function becomes
( )
T −1
E ∑ βt (xt0 Rxt + u0t Qut + 2u0t Nxt ) + βT xT0 R f xT (2.107)
t =0
Our results extend to this case in a straightforward way

The sequence { Pt } from (2.102) becomes
Pt−1 := R − ( βB0 Pt A + N )0 ( Q + βB0 Pt B)−1 ( βB0 Pt A + N ) + βA0 Pt A with PT = R f (2.108)
The policies in (2.104) are modified to
ut = − Ft xt where Ft := ( Q + βB0 Pt+1 B)−1 ( βB0 Pt+1 A + N ) (2.109)
The sequence {dt } is unchanged from (2.103)

We leave interested readers to confirm these results (the calculations are long but not overly diffi-
cult)
Infinite Horizon Finally, we consider the infinite horizon case, with cross-product term, un-
changed dynamics and objective function given by
∞
( )
E ∑ βt (xt0 Rxt + u0t Qut + 2u0t Nxt ) (2.110)
t =0
In the infinite horizon case, optimal policies can depend on time only if time itself is a component
of the state vector xt
In other words, there exists a fixed matrix F such that ut = − Fxt for all t

This stationarity is intuitive — after all, the decision maker faces the same infinite horizon at every
stage, with only the current state changing
Not surprisingly, P and d are also constant
The stationary matrix P is given by the fixed point of (2.102)
Equivalently, it is the solution P to the discrete time algebraic Riccati equation
P := R − ( βB0 PA + N )0 ( Q + βB0 PB)−1 ( βB0 PA + N ) + βA0 PA (2.111)
Equation (2.111) is also called the LQ Bellman equation, and the map that sends a given P into the
right-hand side of (2.111) is called the LQ Bellman operator
The stationary optimal policy for this model is
u = − Fx where F := ( Q + βB0 PB)−1 ( βB0 PA + N ) (2.112)
The sequence {dt } from (2.103) is replaced by the constant value
β
d := trace(C 0 PC ) (2.113)
1−β
The state evolves according to the time-homogeneous process xt+1 = ( A − BF ) xt + Cwt+1

An example infinite horizon problem is treated below
Certainty Equivalence Linear quadratic control problems of the class discussed above have the
property of certainty equivalence
By this we mean that the optimal policy F is not affected by the parameters in C, which specify
the shock process
This can be confirmed by inspecting (2.112) or (2.109)
It follows that we can ignore uncertainty when solving for optimal behavior, and plug it back in
when examining optimal state dynamics
Implementation
We have put together some code for solving finite and infinite horizon linear quadratic control
problems
The code can be found in the file lqcontrol.py from the QuantEcon.py package
"""
Filename: lqcontrol.py
Authors: Thomas J. Sargent, John Stachurski
Provides a class called LQ for solving linear quadratic control

problems.

"""
import numpy as np
from numpy import dot
from .matrix_eqn import solve_discrete_riccati
class LQ(object):
r"""
This class is for analyzing linear quadratic optimal control
problems of either the infinite horizon form
. min E sum_{t=0}^{\infty} beta^t r(x_t, u_t)
with
r(x_t, u_t) := x_t' R x_t + u_t' Q u_t + 2 u_t' N x_t
or the finite horizon form
min E sum_{t=0}^{T-1} beta^t r(x_t, u_t) + beta^T x_T' R_f x_T
Both are minimized subject to the law of motion
x_{t+1} = A x_t + B u_t + C w_{t+1}
Here x is n x 1, u is k x 1, w is j x 1 and the matrices are

conformable for these dimensions. The sequence {w_t} is assumed to
be white noise, with zero mean and E w_t w_t = I, the j x j
identity.
If C is not supplied as a parameter, the model is assumed to be

deterministic (and C is set to a zero matrix of appropriate
dimension).
For this model, the time t value (i.e., cost-to-go) function V_t
takes the form
x' P_T x + d_T
and the optimal policy is of the form u_T = -F_T x_T. In

the infinite horizon case, V, P, d and F are all stationary.
Parameters
----------
Q : array_like(float)
Q is the payoff(or cost) matrix that corresponds with the
control variable u and is k x k. Should be symmetric and
nonnegative definite
R : array_like(float)
R is the payoff(or cost) matrix that corresponds with the
state variable x and is n x n. Should be symetric and

non-negative definite
N : array_like(float)
N is the cross product term in the payoff, as above. It should
be k x n.
A : array_like(float)
A is part of the state transition as described above. It should
be n x n
B : array_like(float)
B is part of the state transition as described above. It should
be n x k
C : array_like(float), optional(default=None)
C is part of the state transition as described above and
corresponds to the random variable today. If the model is
deterministic then C should take default value of None
beta : scalar(float), optional(default=1)
beta is the discount parameter
T : scalar(int), optional(default=None)
T is the number of periods in a finite horizon problem.
Rf : array_like(float), optional(default=None)
Rf is the final (in a finite horizon model) payoff(or cost)
matrix that corresponds with the control variable u and is n x
n. Should be symetric and non-negative definite
Attributes
----------
Q, R, N, A, B, C, beta, T, Rf : see Parameters
P : array_like(float)
P is part of the value function representation of V(x) = x'Px + d
d : array_like(float)
d is part of the value function representation of V(x) = x'Px + d
F : array_like(float)
F is the policy rule that determines the choice of control in
each period.
k, n, j : scalar(int)
The dimensions of the matrices as presented above
"""
def __init__(self, Q, R, A, B, C=None, N=None, beta=1, T=None, Rf=None):

# == Make sure all matrices can be treated as 2D arrays == #
converter = lambda X: np.atleast_2d(np.asarray(X, dtype='float32'))
self.A, self.B, self.Q, self.R, self.N = list(map(converter,
(A, B, Q, R, N)))
# == Record dimensions == #
self.k, self.n = self.Q.shape[0], self.R.shape[0]
self.beta = beta
if C is None:
# == If C not given, then model is deterministic. Set C=0. == #
self.j = 1
self.C = np.zeros((self.n, self.j))

else:
self.C = converter(C)
self.j = self.C.shape[1]
if N is None:
# == No cross product term in payoff. Set N=0. == #
self.N = np.zeros((self.k, self.n))
if T:
# == Model is finite horizon == #
self.T = T
self.Rf = np.asarray(Rf, dtype='float32')
self.P = self.Rf
self.d = 0
else:
self.P = None
self.d = None
self.T = None
self.F = None
def __repr__(self):
def __str__(self):
m = """\
Linear Quadratic control system
- beta (discount parameter) : {b}
- T (time horizon) : {t}
- n (number of state variables) : {n}
- k (number of control variables) : {k}
- j (number of shocks) : {j}
"""
t = "infinite" if self.T is None else self.T
return dedent(m.format(b=self.beta, n=self.n, k=self.k, j=self.j,
t=t))
def update_values(self):
"""
This method is for updating in the finite horizon case. It
shifts the current value function
V_t(x) = x' P_t x + d_t
and the optimal policy F_t one step *back* in time,

replacing the pair P_t and d_t with
P_{t-1} and d_{t-1}, and F_t with
F_{t-1}
"""
# === Simplify notation === #
Q, R, A, B, N, C = self.Q, self.R, self.A, self.B, self.N, self.C
P, d = self.P, self.d

# == Some useful matrices == #

S1 = Q + self.beta * dot(B.T, dot(P, B))
S2 = self.beta * dot(B.T, dot(P, A)) + N
S3 = self.beta * dot(A.T, dot(P, A))
# == Compute F as (Q + B'PB)^{-1} (beta B'PA + N) == #
self.F = solve(S1, S2)
# === Shift P back in time one step == #
new_P = R - dot(S2.T, self.F) + S3
# == Recalling that trace(AB) = trace(BA) == #
new_d = self.beta * (d + np.trace(dot(P, dot(C, C.T))))
# == Set new state == #
self.P, self.d = new_P, new_d
def stationary_values(self):
"""
Computes the matrix P and scalar d that represent the value
function
V(x) = x' P x + d
in the infinite horizon case. Also computes the control matrix

F from u = - Fx
Returns
-------
P is part of the value function representation of
V(x) = xPx + d
F : array_like(float)
F is the policy rule that determines the choice of control
in each period.
d : array_like(float)
d is part of the value function representation of
V(x) = xPx + d
"""
Q, R, A, B, N, C = self.Q, self.R, self.A, self.B, self.N, self.C
# === solve Riccati equation, obtain P === #

A0, B0 = np.sqrt(self.beta) * A, np.sqrt(self.beta) * B
P = solve_discrete_riccati(A0, B0, R, Q, N)
# == Compute F == #
S1 = Q + self.beta * dot(B.T, dot(P, B))
S2 = self.beta * dot(B.T, dot(P, A)) + N
F = solve(S1, S2)
# == Compute d == #
d = self.beta * np.trace(dot(P, dot(C, C.T))) / (1 - self.beta)
# == Bind states and return values == #

self.P, self.F, self.d = P, F, d

return P, F, d
def compute_sequence(self, x0, ts_length=None):

"""
Compute and return the optimal state and control sequences
x_0, ..., x_T and u_0,..., u_T under the
assumption that {w_t} is iid and N(0, 1).
Parameters
===========
x0 : array_like(float)
The initial state, a vector of length n
ts_length : scalar(int)
Length of the simulation -- defaults to T in finite case
Returns
========
x_path : array_like(float)
An n x T matrix, where the t-th column represents x_t
u_path : array_like(float)
A k x T matrix, where the t-th column represents u_t
w_path : array_like(float)
A j x T matrix, where the t-th column represent w_t
"""
# === Simplify notation === #

A, B, C = self.A, self.B, self.C
# == Preliminaries, finite horizon case == #

if self.T:
T = self.T if not ts_length else min(ts_length, self.T)
self.P, self.d = self.Rf, 0
# == Preliminaries, infinite horizon case == #

else:
T = ts_length if ts_length else 100
self.stationary_values()
# == Set up initial condition and arrays to store paths == #

x0 = np.asarray(x0)
x0 = x0.reshape(self.n, 1) # Make sure x0 is a column vector
x_path = np.empty((self.n, T+1))
u_path = np.empty((self.k, T))
w_path = dot(C, np.random.randn(self.j, T+1))
# == Compute and record the sequence of policies == #

policies = []
for t in range(T):
if self.T: # Finite horizon case

self.update_values()
policies.append(self.F)
# == Use policy sequence to generate states and controls == #

F = policies.pop()
x_path[:, 0] = x0.flatten()
u_path[:, 0] = - dot(F, x0).flatten()
for t in range(1, T):
F = policies.pop()
Ax, Bu = dot(A, x_path[:, t-1]), dot(B, u_path[:, t-1])
x_path[:, t] = Ax + Bu + w_path[:, t]
u_path[:, t] = - dot(F, x_path[:, t])
Ax, Bu = dot(A, x_path[:, T-1]), dot(B, u_path[:, T-1])
x_path[:, T] = Ax + Bu + w_path[:, T]
return x_path, u_path, w_path
In the module, the various updating, simulation and fixed point methods are wrapped in a class
called LQ, which includes
• Instance data:
– The required parameters Q, R, A, B and optional parameters C, beta, T, R_f, N specifying
a given LQ model
* set T and R f to None in the infinite horizon case

* set C = None (or zero) in the deterministic case
– the value function and policy data
* dt , Pt , Ft in the finite horizon case

* d, P, F in the infinite horizon case
• Methods:
– update_values — shifts dt , Pt , Ft to their t − 1 values via (2.102), (2.103) and (2.104)
– stationary_values — computes P, d, F in the infinite horizon case
– compute_sequence —- simulates the dynamics of xt , ut , wt given x0 and assuming stan-
dard normal shocks
An example of usage is given in lq_permanent_1.py from the applications repository, the contents
of which are shown below
This program can be used to replicate the figures shown in our section on the permanent income
model
(Some of the plotting techniques are rather fancy and you can ignore those details if you wish)
from quantecon import LQ
# == Model parameters == #
r = 0.05

beta = 1 / (1 + r)
T = 45
c_bar = 2
sigma = 0.25
mu = 1
q = 1e6
# == Formulate as an LQ problem == #
Q = 1
R = np.zeros((2, 2))
Rf = np.zeros((2, 2))
Rf[0, 0] = q
A = [[1 + r, -c_bar + mu],
[0, 1]]
B = [[-1],
[0]]
C = [[sigma],
[0]]
# == Compute solutions and simulate == #

lq = LQ(Q, R, A, B, C, beta=beta, T=T, Rf=Rf)
x0 = (0, 1)
xp, up, wp = lq.compute_sequence(x0)
# == Convert back to assets, consumption and income == #

assets = xp[0, :] # a_t
c = up.flatten() + c_bar # c_t
income = wp[0, 1:] + mu # y_t
# == Plot results == #
n_rows = 2
fig, axes = plt.subplots(n_rows, 1, figsize=(12, 10))
for i in range(n_rows):
axes[i].grid()
axes[i].set_xlabel(r'Time')
bbox = (0., 1.02, 1., .102)
legend_args = {'bbox_to_anchor': bbox, 'loc': 3, 'mode': 'expand'}
p_args = {'lw': 2, 'alpha': 0.7}
axes[0].plot(list(range(1, T+1)), income, 'g-', label="non-financial income",

**p_args)
axes[0].plot(list(range(T)), c, 'k-', label="consumption", **p_args)
axes[0].legend(ncol=2, **legend_args)
axes[1].plot(list(range(1, T+1)), np.cumsum(income - mu), 'r-',

label="cumulative unanticipated income", **p_args)
axes[1].plot(list(range(T+1)), assets, 'b-', label="assets", **p_args)
axes[1].plot(list(range(T)), np.zeros(T), 'k-')
axes[1].legend(ncol=2, **legend_args)
plt.show()

Further Applications
Application 1: Nonstationary Income Previously we studied a permanent income model that

generated consumption smoothing
One unrealistic feature of that model is the assumption that the mean of the random income pro-
cess does not depend on the consumer’s age
A more realistic income profile is one that rises in early working life, peaks towards the middle
and maybe declines toward end of working life, and falls more during retirement
In this section, we will model this rise and fall as a symmetric inverted “U” using a polynomial in
age
As before, the consumer seeks to minimize
( )
T −1
E ∑ β (ct − c̄)
t 2
+β T
qa2T (2.114)
t =0
subject to at+1 = (1 + r ) at − ct + yt , t ≥ 0
For income we now take yt = p(t) + σwt+1 where p(t) := m0 + m1 t + m2 t2
(In the next section we employ some tricks to implement a more sophisticated model)
The coefficients m0 , m1 , m2 are chosen such that p(0) = 0, p( T/2) = µ, and p( T ) = 0
You can confirm that the specification m0 = 0, m1 = Tµ/( T/2)2 , m2 = −µ/( T/2)2 satisfies these
constraints
To put this into an LQ setting, consider the budget constraint, which becomes
at+1 = (1 + r ) at − ut − c̄ + m1 t + m2 t2 + σwt+1 (2.115)
The fact that at+1 is a linear function of ( at , 1, t, t2 ) suggests taking these four variables as the state
vector xt
Once a good choice of state and control (recall ut = ct − c̄) has been made, the remaining specifi-
cations fall into place relatively easily
Thus, for the dynamics we set
       
at 1 + r −c̄ m1 m2 −1 σ
 1   0 1 0 0   0   0 
xt :=  t  , A :=  0
  , B := 
 0 ,
 C :=   (2.116)
1 1 0   0 
t2 0 1 2 1 0 0
If you expand the expression xt+1 = Axt + But + Cwt+1 using this specification, you will find that
assets follow (2.115) as desired, and that the other state variables also update appropriately
To implement preference specification (2.114) we take
   
0 0 0 0 q 0 0 0
 0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0 
Q := 1, R :=   0 0 0 0  and
 R f := 
 0
 (2.117)
0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

The next figure shows a simulation of consumption and assets computed using the
compute_sequence method of lqcontrol.py with initial assets set to zero
Once again, smooth consumption is a dominant feature of the sample paths

The asset path exhibits dynamics consistent with standard life cycle theory
Exercise 1 gives the full set of parameters used here and asks you to replicate the figure
Application 2: A Permanent Income Model with Retirement In the previous application, we

generated income dynamics with an inverted U shape using polynomials, and placed them in an
LQ framework
It is arguably the case that this income process still contains unrealistic features
A more common earning profile is where
1. income grows over working life, fluctuating around an increasing trend, with growth flat-
tening off in later years

2. retirement follows, with lower but relatively stable (non-financial) income

Letting K be the retirement date, we can express these income dynamics by
(
p(t) + σwt+1 if t ≤ K
yt = (2.118)
s otherwise
Here
• p(t) := m1 t + m2 t2 with the coefficients m1 , m2 chosen such that p(K ) = µ and p(0) =
p(2K ) = 0
• s is retirement income
We suppose that preferences are unchanged and given by (2.106)
The budget constraint is also unchanged and given by at+1 = (1 + r ) at − ct + yt
Our aim is to solve this problem and simulate paths using the LQ techniques described in this
lecture
In fact this is a nontrivial problem, as the kink in the dynamics (2.118) at K makes it very difficult
to express the law of motion as a fixed-coefficient linear system
However, we can still use our LQ methods here by suitably linking two component LQ problems
These two LQ problems describe the consumer’s behavior during her working life (lq_working)
and retirement (lq_retired)
(This is possible because in the two separate periods of life, the respective income processes [poly-
nomial trend and constant] each fit the LQ framework)
The basic idea is that although the whole problem is not a single time-invariant LQ problem, it is
still a dynamic programming problem, and hence we can use appropriate Bellman equations at
every stage
Based on this logic, we can
1. solve lq_retired by the usual backwards induction procedure, iterating back to the start of
retirement
2. take the start-of-retirement value function generated by this process, and use it as the termi-
nal condition R f to feed into the lq_working specification
3. solve lq_working by backwards induction from this choice of R f , iterating back to the start
of working life
This process gives the entire life-time sequence of value functions and optimal policies
The next figure shows one simulation based on this procedure
The full set of parameters used in the simulation is discussed in Exercise 2, where you are asked to
replicate the figure
Once again, the dominant feature observable in the simulation is consumption smoothing
The asset path fits well with standard life cycle theory, with dissaving early in life followed by
later saving


Assets peak at retirement and subsequently decline
Application 3: Monopoly with Adjustment Costs Consider a monopolist facing stochastic in-
verse demand function
p t = a0 − a1 q t + d t
Here qt is output, and the demand shock dt follows
dt+1 = ρdt + σwt+1
where {wt } is iid and standard normal

The monopolist maximizes the expected discounted sum of present and future profits
∞
( )
E ∑ βt πt where πt := pt qt − cqt − γ(qt+1 − qt )2 (2.119)
t =0
Here
• γ(qt+1 − qt )2 represents adjustment costs
• c is average cost of production
This can be formulated as an LQ problem and then solved and simulated, but first let’s study the
problem and try to get some intuition
One way to start thinking about the problem is to consider what would happen if γ = 0
Without adjustment costs there is no intertemporal trade-off, so the monopolist will choose output
to maximize current profit in each period
It’s not difficult to show that profit-maximizing output is
a0 − c + d t
q̄t :=
2a1
In light of this discussion, what we might expect for general γ is that
• if γ is close to zero, then qt will track the time path of q̄t relatively closely
• if γ is larger, then qt will be smoother than q̄t , as the monopolist seeks to avoid adjustment
costs
This intuition turns out to be correct
The following figures show simulations produced by solving the corresponding LQ problem
The only difference in parameters across the figures is the size of γ
To produce these figures we converted the monopolist problem into an LQ problem

The key to this conversion is to choose the right state — which can be a bit of an art


Here we take xt = (q̄t qt 1)0 , while the control is chosen as ut = qt+1 − qt

We also manipulated the profit function slightly
In (2.119), current profits are πt := pt qt − cqt − γ(qt+1 − qt )2
Let’s now replace πt in (2.119) with π̂t := πt − a1 q̄2t
This makes no difference to the solution, since a1 q̄2t does not depend on the controls
(In fact we are just adding a constant term to (2.119), and optimizers are not affected by constant
terms)
The reason for making this substitution is that, as you will be able to verify, π̂t reduces to the
simple quadratic
π̂t = − a1 (qt − q̄t )2 − γu2t
After negation to convert to a minimization problem, the objective becomes
∞
min E ∑ βt a1 (qt − q̄t )2 + γu2t

(2.120)
t =0
It’s now relatively straightforward to find R and Q such that (2.120) can be written as (2.110)
Furthermore, the matrices A, B and C from (2.91) can be found by writing down the dynamics of
each element of the state
Exercise 3 asks you to complete this process, and reproduce the preceding figures
Exercises
Exercise 1 Replicate the figure with polynomial income shown above

The parameters are r = 0.05, β = 1/(1 + r ), c̄ = 1.5, µ = 2, σ = 0.15, T = 50 and q = 104
Exercise 2 Replicate the figure on work and retirement shown above

The parameters are r = 0.05, β = 1/(1 + r ), c̄ = 4, µ = 4, σ = 0.35, K = 40, T = 60, s = 1 and
q = 104
To understand the overall procedure, carefully read the section containing that figure
Some hints are as follows:
First, in order to make our approach work, we must ensure that both LQ problems have the same
state variables and control
As with previous applications, the control can be set to ut = ct − c̄
For lq_working, xt , A, B, C can be chosen as in (2.116)
• Recall that m1 , m2 are chosen so that p(K ) = µ and p(2K ) = 0

2.13. DISCRETE DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING 347
For lq_retired, use the same definition of xt and ut , but modify A, B, C to correspond to constant
income yt = s
For lq_retired, set preferences as in (2.117)
For lq_working, preferences are the same, except that R f should be replaced by the final value
function that emerges from iterating lq_retired back to the start of retirement
With some careful footwork, the simulation can be generated by patching together the simulations
from these two separate models
Exercise 3 Reproduce the figures from the monopolist application given above
For parameters, use a0 = 5, a1 = 0.5, σ = 0.15, ρ = 0.9, β = 0.95 and c = 2, while γ varies between
1 and 50 (see figures)
Solutions
Solution notebook
2.13 Discrete Dynamic Programming
Overview
In this lecture we discuss a family of dynamic programming problems with the following features:
1. a discrete state space
2. discrete choices (actions)
3. an infinite horizon
4. discounted rewards
5. Markov state transitions
We call such problems discrete dynamic programs, or simply discrete DPs
Discrete DPs are the workhorses in much of modern quantitative economics, including
• monetary economics
• search and labor economics
• household savings and consumption theory
• investment theory
• asset pricing
• industrial organization, etc.
When a given model is not inherently discrete, it is common to replace it with a discretized version
in order to use discrete DP techniques

This Lecture In this lecture we describe

• the theory of dynamic programming in a discrete setting
• a set of routines for solving discrete DPs from the QuantEcon code library
• examples and applications
The code discussed here was authored primarily by Daisuke Oyama
Among other things, it offers
• a flexible, well designed interface
• multiple solution methods, including value function and policy function iteration
• high speed operations via carefully optimized JIT-compiled functions
• the ability to scale to large problems by minimizing vectorized operators and allowing op-
erations on sparse matrices
JIT compilation relies on Numba, which should work seamlessly if you are using Anaconda as
suggested
This lecture also draws extensively on documentation and examples written by Daisuke Oyama
How to Read this Lecture This lecture provides a detailed treatment of discrete dynamic pro-
gramming
If you
• already know discrete dynamic programming, or
• want to move quickly to problem solving
then we suggest you review the notation and then skip immediately to the first example
Alternatively, if you find the treatment of dynamic programming too theoretical, you might want
to review some of the introductory lectures on dynamic programming, such as
• The shortest path lecture
• The lake model lecture
• The optimal growth lecture
References For background reading and additional applications, see, for example,
• [LS12]
• [HLL96], section 3.5
• [Put05]
• [SLP89]
• [Rus96]
• [MF02]

• EDTC, chapter 5
Discrete DPs
Loosely speaking, a discrete DP is a maximization problem with an objective function of the form
∞
E ∑ βt r (st , at ) (2.121)
t =0
where
• st is the state variable
• at is the action
• β is a discount factor
• r (st , at ) is interpreted as a current reward when the state is st and the action chosen is at
Each pair (st , at ) pins down transition probabilities Q(st , at , st+1 ) for the next period state st+1
Thus, actions influence not only current rewards but also the future time path of the state
The essence of dynamic programming problems is to trade off current rewards vs favorable posi-
tioning of the future state (modulo randomness)
Examples:
• consuming today vs saving and accumulating assets
• accepting a job offer today vs seeking a better one in the future
• exercising an option now vs waiting
Policies The most fruitful way to think about solutions to discrete DP problems is to compare
policies
In general, a policy is a randomized map from past actions and states to current action
In the setting formalized below, it suffices to consider so-called stationary Markov policies, which
consider only the current state
• A stationary Markov policy is a map σ from states to actions, with at = σ(st ) indicating that
at is the action to be taken in state st
• For any arbitrary policy, there exists a stationary Markov policy that dominates it at least
weakly
• See section 5.5 of [Put05] for discussion and proofs
In what follows, stationary Markov policies are referred to simply as policies
The aim is to find an optimal policy, in the sense of one that maximizes (2.121)
Let’s now step through these ideas more carefully

Formal definition Formally, a discrete dynamic program consists of the following components:
1. A finite set of states S = {0, . . . , n − 1}
2. A finite set of feasible actions A(s) for each state s ∈ S, and a corresponding set
SA := {(s, a) | s ∈ S, a ∈ A(s)}
of feasible state-action pairs
3. A reward function r : SA → R
4. A transition probability function Q : SA → ∆(S), where ∆(S) is the set of probability distribu-
tions over S
5. A discount factor β ∈ [0, 1)
A(s) = {0, . . . , m − 1} and call this set the action space
S
We also use the notation A := s∈S
A policy function, or simply policy, is a function σ : S → A

A policy is called feasible if it satisfies σ(s) ∈ A(s) for all s ∈ S
Denote the set of all feasible policies by Σ
If a decision maker uses a policy σ ∈ Σ, then
• the current reward at time t is r (st , σ(st ))
• the probability that st+1 = s0 is Q(st , σ(st ), s0 )
For each σ ∈ Σ, define
• rσ by rσ (s) := r (s, σ (s)))
• Qσ by Qσ (s, s0 ) := Q(s, σ(s), s0 )
Notice that Qσ is a stochastic matrix on S
It gives transition probabilities of the controlled chain when we follow policy σ
If we think of rσ as a column vector, then so is Qtσ rσ , and the s-th row of the latter has the interpre-
tation
( Qtσ rσ )(s) = E[r (st , σ(st )) | s0 = s] when {st } ∼ Qσ (2.122)
Comments
• {st } ∼ Qσ means that the state is generated by stochastic matrix Qσ
• See this discussion on computing expectations of Markov chains for an explanation of the
expression in (2.122)
Notice that we’re not really distinguishing between functions from S to R and vectors in Rn
This is natural because they are the same thing (up to an isometric isomorphism!)

Value and Optimality Let vσ (s) denote the discounted sum of expected reward flows from pol-
icy σ when the initial state is s
To calculate this quantity we pass the expectation through the sum in (2.121) and use (2.122) to get
∞
vσ (s) = ∑ βt (Qtσ rσ )(s) (s ∈ S)
t =0
This function is called the policy value function for the policy σ
The optimal value function, or simply value function, is the function v∗ : S → R defined by
v∗ (s) = max vσ (s) (s ∈ S)

σ∈Σ
(We can use max rather than sup here because the domain is a finite set)
A policy σ ∈ Σ is called optimal if vσ (s) = v∗ (s) for all s ∈ S
Given any w : S → R, a policy σ ∈ Σ is called w-greedy if
( )
σ(s) ∈ arg max r (s, a) + β ∑
0
w(s0 ) Q(s, a, s0 ) (s ∈ S)
a∈ A(s) s ∈S
As discussed in detail below, optimal policies are precisely those that are v∗ -greedy
Two Operators It is useful to define the following operators:

• The Bellman operator T : RS → RS is defined by
( )
( Tv)(s) = max
a∈ A(s)
r (s, a) + β ∑
0
v(s0 ) Q(s, a, s0 ) (s ∈ S)
s ∈S
• For any policy function σ ∈ Σ, the operator Tσ : RS → RS is defined by
( Tσ v)(s) = r (s, σ(s)) + β ∑

0
v(s0 ) Q(s, σ(s), s0 ) (s ∈ S)
s ∈S
This can be written more succinctly in operator notation as
Tσ v = rσ + βQσ v
The two operators are both monotone

• v ≤ w implies Tv ≤ Tw pointwise on S, and similarly for Tσ
They are also contraction mappings with modulus β
• k Tv − Twk ≤ βkv − wk and similarly for Tσ , where k·k is the max norm
For any policy σ, its value vσ is the unique fixed point of Tσ
For proofs of these results and those in the next section, see, for example, EDTC, chapter 10

The Bellman Equation and the Principle of Optimality The main principle of the theory of
dynamic programming is that
• the optimal value function v∗ is a unique solution to the Bellman equation,
( )
v(s) = max
a∈ A(s)
r (s, a) + β ∑
0
v(s0 ) Q(s, a, s0 ) ( s ∈ S ),
s ∈S
or in other words, v∗ is the unique fixed point of T, and

• σ∗ is an optimal policy function if and only if it is v∗ -greedy
By the definition of greedy policies given above, this means that
( )
∗
σ (s) ∈ arg max r (s, a) + β ∑v ∗ 0 0
(s ) Q(s, σ(s), s ) (s ∈ S)
a∈ A(s) s0 ∈S
Solving Discrete DPs
Now that the theory has been set out, let’s turn to solution methods
Code for solving dicrete DPs is available in the DiscreteDP class from QuantEcon.py
It implements the three most important solution methods for discrete dynamic programs, namely
• value function iteration
• policy function iteration
• modified policy function iteration
Let’s briefly review these algorithms and their implementation
Value Function Iteration Perhaps the most familiar method for solving all manner of dynamic
programs is value function iteration
This algorithm uses the fact that the Bellman operator T is a contraction mapping with fixed point
v∗
Hence, iterative application of T to any initial function v0 : S → R converges to v∗
The details of the algorithm can be found in the appendix
Policy Function Iteration This routine, also known as Howard’s policy improvement algorithm,
exploits more closely the particular structure of a discrete DP problem
Each iteration consists of
1. A policy evaluation step that computes the value vσ of a policy σ by solving the linear equa-
tion v = Tσ v
2. A policy improvement step that computes a vσ -greedy policy

In the current setting policy iteration computes an exact optimal policy in finitely many iterations
• See theorem 10.2.6 of EDTC for a proof
Modified Policy Function Iteration Modified policy iteration replaces the policy evaluation step
in policy iteration with “partial policy evaluation”
The latter computes an approximation to the value of a policy σ by iterating Tσ for a specified
number of times
This approach can be useful when the state space is very large and the linear system in the policy
evaluation step of policy iteration is correspondingly difficult to solve
Example: A Growth Model
Let’s consider a simple consumption-saving model

A single household either consumes or stores its own output of a single consumption good
The household starts each period with current stock s
Next, the household chooses a quantity a to store and consumes c = s − a
• Storage is limited by a global upper bound M
• Flow utility is u(c) = cα
Output is drawn from a discrete uniform distribution on {0, . . . , B}
The next period stock is therefore
s0 = a + U where U ∼ U [0, . . . , B]
The discount factor is β ∈ [0, 1)
Discrete DP Representation We want to represent this model in the format of a discrete dynamic
program
To this end, we take
• the state variable to be the stock s
• the state space to be S = {0, . . . , M + B}
– hence n = M + B + 1
• the action to be the storage quantity a
• the set of feasible actions at s to be A(s) = {0, . . . , min{s, M }}
– hence A = {0, . . . , M} and m = M + 1

• the reward function to be r (s, a) = u(s − a)

• the transition probabilities to be
(
1
if a ≤ s0 ≤ a + B
Q(s, a, s0 ) := B +1 (2.123)
0 otherwise
Defining a DiscreteDP Instance This information will be used to create an instance of Discret-
eDP by passing the following information
1. An n × m reward array R
2. An n × m × n transition probability array Q
3. A discount factor β
For R we set R[s, a] = u(s − a) if a ≤ s and −∞ otherwise
For Q we follow the rule in (2.123)
Note:
• The feasibility constraint is embedded into R by setting R[s, a] = −∞ for a ∈
/ A(s)
• Probability distributions for (s, a) with a ∈
/ A(s) can be arbitrary
A simple class that sets up these objects for us in the current application can be found in the
QuantEcon.applications repository
For convenience let’s repeat it here:
"""
A simple optimal growth model, for testing the DiscreteDP class.
Filename: finite_dp_og_example.py
"""
import numpy as np
class SimpleOG(object):
def __init__(self, B=10, M=5, alpha=0.5, beta=0.9):

"""
Set up R, Q and beta, the three elements that define an instance of
the DiscreteDP class.
"""
self.B, self.M, self.alpha, self.beta = B, M, alpha, beta

self.n = B + M + 1
self.m = M + 1
self.R = np.empty((self.n, self.m))

self.Q = np.zeros((self.n, self.m, self.n))
self.populate_Q()
self.populate_R()

def u(self, c):

return c**self.alpha
def populate_R(self):
"""
Populate the R matrix, with R[s, a] = -np.inf for infeasible
state-action pairs.
"""
for s in range(self.n):
for a in range(self.m):
self.R[s, a] = self.u(s - a) if a <= s else -np.inf
def populate_Q(self):
"""
Populate the Q matrix by setting
Q[s, a, s'] = 1 / (1 + B) if a <= s' <= a + B
and zero otherwise.

"""
for a in range(self.m):
self.Q[:, a, a:(a + self.B + 1)] = 1.0 / (self.B + 1)
Let’s run this code and create an instance of SimpleOG

In [1]: run finite_dp_og_example.py
In [2]: g = SimpleOG() # Use default parameters
Instances of DiscreteDP are created using the signature DiscreteDP(R, Q, beta)

Let’s create an instance using the objects stored in g
In [4]: ddp = qe.markov.DiscreteDP(g.R, g.Q, g.beta)
Now that we have an instance ddp of DiscreteDP we can solve it as follows

In [5]: results = ddp.solve(method='policy_iteration')
Let’s see what we’ve got here

In [6]: dir(results)
Out[6]: ['max_iter', 'mc', 'method', 'num_iter', 'sigma', 'v']
(In IPython version 4.0 and above you can also type results. and hit the tab key)
The most important attributes are v, the value function, and sigma, the optimal policy
In [7]: results.v
Out[7]:
array([ 19.01740222, 20.01740222, 20.43161578, 20.74945302,

21.04078099, 21.30873018, 21.54479816, 21.76928181,

21.98270358, 22.18824323, 22.3845048 , 22.57807736,
22.76109127, 22.94376708, 23.11533996, 23.27761762])
In [8]: results.sigma
Out[8]: array([0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5])
Since we’ve used policy iteration, these results will be exact unless we hit the iteration bound
max_iter
Let’s make sure this didn’t happen
In [9]: results.max_iter
Out[9]: 250
In [10]: results.num_iter
Out[10]: 3
Another interesting object is results.mc, which is the controlled chain defined by Qσ∗ , where σ∗
is the optimal policy
In other words, it gives the dynamics of the state when the agent follows the optimal policy
Since this object is an instance of the MarkovChain class from QuantEcon (see this lecture for more
discussion), we can immediately simulate it, compute its stationary distribution and so on
In [11]: results.mc.stationary_distributions
Out[11]:
array([[ 0.01732187, 0.04121063, 0.05773956, 0.07426848, 0.08095823,
0.09090909, 0.09090909, 0.09090909, 0.09090909, 0.09090909,
0.09090909, 0.07358722, 0.04969846, 0.03316953, 0.01664061,
0.00995086]])
Here’s the same information in a bar graph
What happens if the agent is more patient?

In [18]: ddp = qe.markov.DiscreteDP(g.R, g.Q, 0.99) # Increase beta to 0.99
In [19]: results = ddp.solve(method='policy_iteration')
In [20]: results.mc.stationary_distributions
Out[20]:
array([[ 0.00546913, 0.02321342, 0.03147788, 0.04800681, 0.05627127,
0.09090909, 0.09090909, 0.09090909, 0.09090909, 0.09090909,
0.09090909, 0.08543996, 0.06769567, 0.05943121, 0.04290228,
0.03463782]])
If we look at the bar graph we can see the rightward shift in probability mass
State-Action Pair Formulation The DiscreteDP class in fact provides a second interface to set-
ting up an instance
One of the advantages of this alternative set up is that it permits use of a sparse matrix for Q
(An example of using sparse matrices is given in the exercise solution notebook below)
The call signature of the second formulation is DiscreteDP(R, Q, beta, s_indices,
a_indices) where
• s_indices and a_indices are arrays of equal length L enumerating all feasible state-action
pairs
• R is an array of length L giving corresponding rewards
• Q is an L x n transition probability array
Here’s how we could set up these objects for the preceding example
import numpy as np

B, M, alpha, beta = 10, 5, 0.5, 0.9

n = B + M + 1
m = M + 1
def u(c):
return c**alpha
s_indices = []
a_indices = []
Q = []
R = []
b = 1.0 / (B + 1)
for s in range(n):
for a in range(min(M, s) + 1): # All feasible a at this s
s_indices.append(s)
a_indices.append(a)
q = np.zeros(n)
q[a:(a + B + 1)] = b # b on these values, otherwise 0
Q.append(q)
R.append(u(s - a))
ddp = qe.markov.DiscreteDP(R, Q, beta, s_indices, a_indices)
For larger problems you might need to write this code more efficiently by vectorizing or using
Numba
Exercises
In the deterministic optimal growth dynamic programming lecture, we solved a benchmark model
that has an analytical solution to check we could replicate it numerically
The exercise is to replicate this solution again using the DiscreteDP class described above
Solutions
Solution notebook
Appendix: Algorithms
This appendix covers the details of the solution algorithms implemented in the DiscreteDP class
We will make use of the following notions of approximate optimality:
• For ε > 0, v is called an ε-approximation of v∗ if kv − v∗ k < ε
• A policy σ ∈ Σ is called ε-optimal if vσ is an ε-approximation of v∗
Value Iteration The DiscreteDP.value_iteration method implements value function iteration

as follows

1. Choose any v0 ∈ Rn , and specify ε > 0; set i = 0

2. Compute vi+1 = Tvi
3. If kvi+1 − vi k < [(1 − β)/(2β)]ε, then go to step 4; otherwise, set i = i + 1 and go to step 2
4. Compute a vi+1 -greedy policy σ, and return vi+1 and σ
Given ε > 0, the value iteration algorithm
• terminates in a finite number of iterations
• returns an ε/2-approximation of the optimal value funciton and an ε-optimal policy function
(unless iter_max is reached)
(While not explicit, in the actual implementation each algorithm is terminated if the number of
iterations reaches iter_max)
Policy Iteration The implementation in the method DiscreteDP.policy_iteration runs as fol-

lows
1. Choose any v0 ∈ Rn and compute a v0 -greedy policy σ0 ; set i = 0
2. Compute the value vσi by solving the equation v = Tσi v
3. Compute a vσi -greedy policy σi+1 ; let σi+1 = σi if possible
4. If σi+1 = σi , then return vσi and σi+1 ; otherwise, set i = i + 1 and go to step 2
The policy iteration algorithm terminates in a finite number of iterations
It returns an optimal value function and an optimal policy function (unless iter_max is reached)
Modified Policy Iteration The implementation in the DiscreteDP.modified_policy_iteration

method runs as follows:
1. Choose any v0 ∈ Rn , and specify ε > 0 and k ≥ 0; set i = 0
2. Compute a vi -greedy policy σi+1 ; let σi+1 = σi if possible (for i ≥ 1)
3. Compute u = Tvi (= Tσi+1 vi ). If span(u − vi ) < [(1 − β)/β]ε, then go to step 5; otherwise go
to step 4
• Span is defined by span(z) = max(z) − min(z)
4. Compute vi+1 = ( Tσi+1 )k u (= ( Tσi+1 )k+1 vi ); set i = i + 1 and go to step 2
5. Return v = u + [ β/(1 − β)][(min(u − vi ) + max(u − vi ))/2]1 and σi+1
Given ε > 0, provided that v0 is such that Tv0 ≥ v0 , the modified policy iteration algorithm
terminates in a finite number of iterations
It returns an ε/2-approximation of the optimal value funciton and an ε-optimal policy function
(unless iter_max is reached).
See also the documentation for DiscreteDP

2.14. RATIONAL EXPECTATIONS EQUILIBRIUM 360
2.14 Rational Expectations Equilibrium
Contents
• Rational Expectations Equilibrium
– Overview
– Defining Rational Expectations Equilibrium
– Computation of an Equilibrium
– Exercises
– Solutions
“If you’re so smart, why aren’t you rich?”
Overview
This lecture introduces the concept of rational expectations equilibrium

To illustrate it, we describe a linear quadratic version of a famous and important model due to
Lucas and Prescott [LP71]
This 1971 paper is one of a small number of research articles that kicked off the rational expectations
revolution
We follow Lucas and Prescott by employing a setting that is readily “Bellmanized” (i.e., capable
of being formulated in terms of dynamic programming problems)
Because we use linear quadratic setups for demand and costs, we can adapt the LQ programming
techniques described in this lecture
We will learn about how a representative agent’s problem differs from a planner’s, and how a
planning problem can be used to compute rational expectations quantities
We will also learn about how a rational expectations equilibrium can be characterized as a fixed
point of a mapping from a perceived law of motion to an actual law of motion
Equality between a perceived and an actual law of motion for endogenous market-wide objects
captures in a nutshell what the rational expectations equilibrium concept is all about
Finally, we will learn about the important “Big K, little k” trick, a modeling device widely used in
macroeconomics
Except that for us
• Instead of “Big K” it will be “Big Y“
• Instead of “little k” it will be “little y“
The Big Y, little y trick This widely used method applies in contexts in which a “representative
firm” or agent is a “price taker” operating within a competitive equilibrium
We want to impose that

• The representative firm or individual takes aggregate Y as given when it chooses individual
y, but . . .
• At the end of the day, Y = y, so that the representative firm is indeed representative
The Big Y, little y trick accomplishes these two goals by
• Taking Y as beyond control when posing the choice problem of who chooses y; but . . .
• Imposing Y = y after having solved the individual’s optimization problem
Please watch for how this strategy is applied as the lecture unfolds
We begin by applying the Big Y, little y trick in a very simple static context
A simple static example of the Big Y, little y trick Consider a static model in which a collection
of n firms produce a homogeneous good that is sold in a competitive market
Each of these n firms sells output y
The price p of the good lies on an inverse demand curve
p = a0 − a1 Y (2.124)
where
• ai > 0 for i = 0, 1
• Y = ny is the market-wide level of output
Each firm has total cost function
c(y) = c1 y + 0.5c2 y2 , ci > 0 for i = 1, 2
The profits of a representative firm are py − c(y)
Using (2.124), we can express the problem of the representative firm as
h i
max ( a0 − a1 Y )y − c1 y − 0.5c2 y2 (2.125)
y
In posing problem (2.125), we want the firm to be a price taker

We do that by regarding p and therefore Y as exogenous to the firm
The essence of the Big Y, little y trick is not to set Y = ny before taking the first-order condition
with respect to y in problem (2.125)
This assures that the firm is a price taker
The first order condition for problem (2.125) is
a0 − a1 Y − c1 − c2 y = 0 (2.126)
At this point, but not before, we substitute Y = ny into (2.126) to obtain the following linear equa-
tion
a 0 − c 1 − ( a 1 + n − 1 c 2 )Y = 0 (2.127)
to be solved for the competitive equilibrium market wide output Y
After solving for Y, we can compute the competitive equilibrium price p from the inverse demand
curve (2.124)

Further Reading References for this lecture include

• [LP71]
• [Sar87], chapter XIV
Defining Rational Expectations Equilibrium
Our first illustration of a rational expectations equilibrium involves a market with n firms, each of
which seeks to maximize the discounted present value of profits in the face of adjustment costs
The adjustment costs induce the firms to make gradual adjustments, which in turn requires con-
sideration of future prices
Individual firms understand that, via the inverse demand curve, the price is determined by the
amounts supplied by other firms
Hence each firm wants to forecast future total industry supplies
In our context, a forecast is generated by a belief about the law of motion for the aggregate state
Rational expectations equilibrium prevails when this belief coincides with the actual law of motion
generated by production choices induced by this belief
We formulate a rational expectations equilibrium in terms of a fixed point of an operator that maps
beliefs into optimal beliefs
Competitive Equilibrium with Adjustment Costs To illustrate, consider a collection of n firms

producing a homogeneous good that is sold in a competitive market.
Each of these n firms sells output yt
The price pt of the good lies on the inverse demand curve
pt = a0 − a1 Yt (2.128)
where
• ai > 0 for i = 0, 1
• Yt = nyt is the market-wide level of output
The Firm’s Problem Each firm is a price taker

While it faces no uncertainty, it does face adjustment costs
In particular, it chooses a production plan to maximize
∞
∑ βt rt (2.129)
t =0

where
γ ( y t +1 − y t )2
rt := pt yt − , y0 given (2.130)
2
Regarding the parameters,
• β ∈ (0, 1) is a discount factor
• γ > 0 measures the cost of adjusting the rate of output
Regarding timing, the firm observes pt and yt when it chooses yt+1 at at time t
To state the firm’s optimization problem completely requires that we specify dynamics for all state
variables
This includes ones that the firm cares about but does not control like pt
We turn to this problem now
Prices and Aggregate Output In view of (2.128), the firm’s incentive to forecast the market price
translates into an incentive to forecast aggregate output Yt
Aggregate output depends on the choices of other firms
We assume that n is such a large number that the output of any single firm has a negligible effect
on aggregate output
That justifies firms in regarding their forecasts of aggregate output as being unaffected by their
own output decisions
The Firm’s Beliefs We suppose the firm believes that market-wide output Yt follows the law of
motion
Yt+1 = H (Yt ) (2.131)
where Y0 is a known initial condition
The belief function H is an equilibrium object, and hence remains to be determined
Optimal Behavior Given Beliefs For now let’s fix a particular belief H in (2.131) and investigate
the firm’s response to it
Let v be the optimal value function for the firm’s problem given H
The value function satisfies the Bellman equation
γ ( y 0 − y )2

0
v(y, Y ) = max a0 y − a1 yY − + βv(y , H (Y )) (2.132)
y0 2
Let’s denote the firm’s optimal policy function by h, so that
yt+1 = h(yt , Yt ) (2.133)
where
γ ( y 0 − y )2

h(y, Y ) := arg max a0 y − a1 yY − + βv(y0 , H (Y )) (2.134)
y0 2
Evidently v and h both depend on H

First-Order Characterization of h In what follows it will be helpful to have a second characteri-

zation of h, based on first order conditions
The first-order necessary condition for choosing y0 is
− γ(y0 − y) + βvy (y0 , H (Y )) = 0 (2.135)
An important useful envelope result of Benveniste-Scheinkman [BS79] implies that to differentiate

v with respect to y we can naively differentiate the right side of (2.132), giving
vy (y, Y ) = a0 − a1 Y + γ(y0 − y)
Substituting this equation into (2.135) gives the Euler equation
− γ(yt+1 − yt ) + β[ a0 − a1 Yt+1 + γ(yt+2 − yt+1 )] = 0 (2.136)
The firm optimally sets an output path that satisfies (2.136), taking (2.131) as given, and subject to
• the initial conditions for (y0 , Y0 )
• the terminal condition limt→∞ βt yt vy (yt , Yt ) = 0
This last condition is called the transversality condition, and acts as a first-order necessary condition
“at infinity”
The firm’s decision rule solves the difference equation (2.136) subject to the given initial condition
y0 and the transversality condition
Note that solving the Bellman equation (2.132) for v and then h in (2.134) yields a decision rule
that automatically imposes both the Euler equation (2.136) and the transversality condition
The Actual Law of Motion for {Yt } As we’ve seen, a given belief translates into a particular
decision rule h
Recalling that Yt = nyt , the actual law of motion for market-wide output is then
Yt+1 = nh(Yt /n, Yt ) (2.137)
Thus, when firms believe that the law of motion for market-wide output is (2.131), their optimizing
behavior makes the actual law of motion be (2.137)
Definition of Rational Expectations Equilibrium A rational expectations equilibrium or recursive

competitive equilibrium of the model with adjustment costs is a decision rule h and an aggregate
law of motion H such that
1. Given belief H, the map h is the firm’s optimal policy function
2. The law of motion H satisfies H (Y ) = nh(Y/n, Y ) for all Y
Thus, a rational expectations equilibrium equates the perceived and actual laws of motion (2.131)
and (2.137)

Fixed point characterization As we’ve seen, the firm’s optimum problem induces a mapping Φ
from a perceived law of motion H for market-wide output to an actual law of motion Φ( H )
The mapping Φ is the composition of two operations, taking a perceived law of motion into a
decision rule via (2.132)–(2.134), and a decision rule into an actual law via (2.137)
The H component of a rational expectations equilibrium is a fixed point of Φ
Computation of an Equilibrium
Now let’s consider the problem of computing the rational expectations equilibrium
Misbehavior of Φ Readers accustomed to dynamic programming arguments might try to ad-

dress this problem by choosing some guess H0 for the aggregate law of motion and then iterating
with Φ
Unfortunately, the mapping Φ is not a contraction
In particular, there is no guarantee that direct iterations on Φ converge 7
Fortunately, there is another method that works here
The method exploits a general connection between equilibrium and Pareto optimality expressed
in the fundamental theorems of welfare economics (see, e.g, [MCWG95])
Lucas and Prescott [LP71] used this method to construct a rational expectations equilibrium
The details follow
A Planning Problem Approach Our plan of attack is to match the Euler equations of the market
problem with those for a single-agent choice problem
As we’ll see, this planning problem can be solved by LQ control (linear regulator)
The optimal quantities from the planning problem are rational expectations equilibrium quantities
The rational expectations equilibrium price can be obtained as a shadow price in the planning
problem
For convenience, in this section we set n = 1
We first compute a sum of consumer and producer surplus at time t
γ(Yt+1 − Yt )2
Z Yt
s(Yt , Yt+1 ) := ( a0 − a1 x ) dx − (2.138)
0 2
The first term is the area under the demand curve, while the second measures the social costs of
changing output
7 A literature that studies whether models populated with agents who learn can converge to rational expectations
equilibria features iterations on a modification of the mapping Φ that can be approximated as γΦ + (1 − γ) I. Here I
is the identity operator and γ ∈ (0, 1) is a relaxation parameter. See [MS89] and [EH01] for statements and applications
of this approach to establish conditions under which collections of adaptive agents who use least squares learning
converge to a rational expectations equilibrium.

The planning problem is to choose a production plan {Yt } to maximize

∞
∑ βt s(Yt , Yt+1 )
t =0
subject to an initial condition for Y0
Solution of the Planning Problem Evaluating the integral in (2.138) yields the quadratic form
a0 Yt − a1 Yt2 /2
As a result, the Bellman equation for the planning problem is
a 1 2 γ (Y 0 − Y ) 2

V (Y ) = max a 0 Y − Y − + βV (Y 0 ) (2.139)
Y0 2 2
The associated first order condition is
− γ(Y 0 − Y ) + βV 0 (Y 0 ) = 0 (2.140)
Applying the same Benveniste-Scheinkman formula gives
V 0 (Y ) = a 0 − a 1 Y + γ (Y 0 − Y )
Substituting this into equation (2.140) and rearranging leads to the Euler equation
βa0 + γYt − [ βa1 + γ(1 + β)]Yt+1 + γβYt+2 = 0 (2.141)
The Key Insight Return to equation (2.136) and set yt = Yt for all t
(Recall that for this section we’ve set n = 1 to simplify the calculations)
A small amount of algebra will convince you that when yt = Yt , equations (2.141) and (2.136) are
identical
Thus, the Euler equation for the planning problem matches the second-order difference equation
that we derived by
1. finding the Euler equation of the representative firm and
2. substituting into it the expression Yt = nyt that “makes the representative firm be represen-
tative”
If it is appropriate to apply the same terminal conditions for these two difference equations, which
it is, then we have verified that a solution of the planning problem is also a rational expectations
equilibrium quantity sequence
It follows that for this example we can compute equilibrium quantities by forming the optimal
linear regulator problem corresponding to the Bellman equation (2.139)
The optimal policy function for the planning problem is the aggregate law of motion H that the
representative firm faces within a rational expectations equilibrium.

Structure of the Law of Motion As you are asked to show in the exercises, the fact that the
planner’s problem is an LQ problem implies an optimal policy — and hence aggregate law of
motion — taking the form
Yt+1 = κ0 + κ1 Yt (2.142)
for some parameter pair κ0 , κ1
Now that we know the aggregate law of motion is linear, we can see from the firm’s Bellman
equation (2.132) that the firm’s problem can also be framed as an LQ problem
As you’re asked to show in the exercises, the LQ formulation of the firm’s problem implies a law
of motion that looks as follows
yt+1 = h0 + h1 yt + h2 Yt (2.143)
Hence a rational expectations equilibrium will be defined by the parameters (κ0 , κ1 , h0 , h1 , h2 ) in
(2.142)–(2.143)
Exercises
Exercise 1 Consider the firm problem described above

Let the firm’s belief function H be as given in (2.142)
Formulate the firm’s problem as a discounted optimal linear regulator problem, being careful to
describe all of the objects needed
Use the class LQ from the QuantEcon.py package to solve the firm’s problem for the following
parameter values:
a0 = 100, a1 = 0.05, β = 0.95, γ = 10, κ0 = 95.5, κ1 = 0.95
Express the solution of the firm’s problem in the form (2.143) and give the values for each h j
If there were n identical competitive firms all behaving according to (2.143), what would (2.143)
imply for the actual law of motion (2.131) for market supply
Exercise 2 Consider the following κ0 , κ1 pairs as candidates for the aggregate law of motion
component of a rational expectations equilibrium (see (2.142))
Extending the program that you wrote for exercise 1, determine which if any satisfy the definition
of a rational expectations equilibrium
• (94.0886298678, 0.923409232937)
• (93.2119845412, 0.984323478873)
• (95.0818452486, 0.952459076301)
Describe an iterative algorithm that uses the program that you wrote for exercise 1 to compute a
rational expectations equilibrium
(You are not being asked actually to use the algorithm you are suggesting)

2.15. MARKOV PERFECT EQUILIBRIUM 368
Exercise 3 Recall the planner’s problem described above

1. Formulate the planner’s problem as an LQ problem
2. Solve it using the same parameter values in exercise 1
• a0 = 100, a1 = 0.05, β = 0.95, γ = 10
3. Represent the solution in the form Yt+1 = κ0 + κ1 Yt
4. Compare your answer with the results from exercise 2
Exercise 4 A monopolist faces the industry demand curve (2.128) and chooses {Yt } to maximize
∑∞ t
t=0 β rt where
γ(Yt+1 − Yt )2
rt = pt Yt −
2
Formulate this problem as an LQ problem
Compute the optimal policy using the same parameters as the previous exercise
In particular, solve for the parameters in
Yt+1 = m0 + m1 Yt
Compare your results with the previous exercise. Comment.
Solutions
Solution notebook
2.15 Markov Perfect Equilibrium
Overview
This lecture describes the concept of Markov perfect equilibrium

Markov perfect equilibrium is a key notion for analyzing economic problems involving dynamic
strategic interaction, and a cornerstone of applied game theory
In this lecture we teach Markov perfect equilibrium by example
We will focus on settings with
• two players
• quadratic payoff functions
• linear transition rules for the state
Other references include chapter 7 of [LS12]

Background
Markov perfect equilibrium is a refinement of the concept of Nash equilibrium

It is used to study settings where multiple decision makers interact non-cooperatively over time,
each seeking to pursue its own objectives
The agents in the model face a common state vector, the time path of which is influenced by – and
influences – their decisions
In particular, the transition law for the state that confronts any given agent is affected by the
decision rules of other agents
Individual payoff maximization requires that each agent solve a dynamic programming problem
in response to this transition law
Markov perfect equilibrium is attained when no agent wishes to revise its policy, taking as given
the policies of all other agents
Well known examples include
• Choice of price, output, location or capacity for firms in an industry (e.g., [EP95], [Rya12],
[DS10])
• Rate of extraction from a shared natural resource, such as a fishery (e.g., [LM80], [VL11])
Let’s examine a model of the first type
Example: A duopoly model Two firms are the only producers of a good the demand for which
is governed by a linear inverse demand function
p = a0 − a1 ( q1 + q2 ) (2.144)
Here p = pt is the price of the good, qi = qit is the output of firm i = 1, 2 at time t and a0 > 0, a1 > 0
In (2.144) and what follows,
• the time subscript is suppressed when possible to simplify notation
• x̂ denotes a next period value of variable x
Each firm recognizes that its output affects total output and therefore the market price
The one-period payoff function of firm i is price times quantity minus adjustment costs:
πi = pqi − γ(q̂i − qi )2 , γ > 0, (2.145)
Substituting the inverse demand curve (2.144) into (2.145) lets us express the one-period payoff as
πi (qi , q−i , q̂i ) = a0 qi − a1 q2i − a1 qi q−i − γ(q̂i − qi )2 , (2.146)

where q−i denotes the output of the firm other than i
The objective of the firm is to maximize ∑∞ t
t=0 β πit
Firm i chooses a decision rule that sets next period quantity q̂i as a function f i of the current state
( qi , q −i )

An essential aspect of a Markov perfect equilibrium is that each firm takes the decision rule of the
other firm as known and given
Given f −i , the Bellman equation of firm i is
vi (qi , q−i ) = max {πi (qi , q−i , q̂i ) + βvi (q̂i , f −i (q−i , qi ))} (2.147)
q̂i
Definition A Markov perfect equilibrium of the duopoly model is a pair of value functions (v1 , v2 )
and a pair of policy functions ( f 1 , f 2 ) such that, for each i ∈ {1, 2} and each possible state,
• The value function vi satisfies the Bellman equation (2.147)
• The maximizer on the right side of (2.147) is equal to f i (qi , q−i )
The adjective “Markov” denotes that the equilibrium decision rules depend only on the current
values of the state variables, not other parts of their histories
“Perfect” means complete, in the sense that the equilibrium is constructed by backward induction
and hence builds in optimizing behavior for each firm for all possible future states
This includes many states that will not be reached when we iterate forward on the pair of equilib-
rium strategies f i
Computation One strategy for computing a Markov perfect equilibrium is iterating to conver-
gence on pairs of Bellman equations and decision rules
j j
In particular, let vi , f i be the value function and policy function for firm i at the j-th iteration
Imagine constructing the iterates
n o
j +1 j
vi (qi , q−i ) = max πi (qi , q−i , q̂i ) + βvi (q̂i , f −i (q−i , qi )) (2.148)
q̂i
These iterations can be challenging to implement computationally

However, they simplify for the case in which the one-period payoff functions are quadratic and
the transition laws are linear — which takes us to our next topic
Linear Markov perfect equilibria
As we saw in the duopoly example, the study of Markov perfect equilibria in games with two
players leads us to an interrelated pair of Bellman equations
In linear quadratic dynamic games, these “stacked Bellman equations” become “stacked Riccati
equations” with a tractable mathematical structure
We’ll lay out that structure in a general setup and then apply it to some simple problems
A Coupled Linear Regulator Problem We consider a general linear quadratic regulator game
with two players
For convenience, we’ll start with a finite horizon formulation, where t0 is the initial date and t1 is
the common terminal date

Player i takes {u−it } as given and minimizes

t1 −1
∑ βt−t0 xt0 Ri xt + uit0 Qi uit + u0−it Si u−it + 2xt0 Wi uit + 2u0−it Mi uit

(2.149)
t = t0
while the state evolves according to
xt+1 = Axt + B1 u1t + B2 u2t (2.150)
Here
• xt is an n × 1 state vector and uit is a k i × 1 vector of controls for player i
• Ri is n × n
• Si is k −i × k −i
• Qi is k i × k i
• Wi is n × k i
• Mi is k −i × k i
• A is n × n
• Bi is n × k i
Computing Equilibrium We formulate a linear Markov perfect equilibrium as follows

Player i employs linear decision rules uit = − Fit xt , where Fit is a k i × n matrix
A Markov perfect equilibrium is a pair of sequences { F1t , F2t } over t = t0 , . . . , t1 − 1 such that
• { F1t } solves player 1’s problem, taking { F2t } as given, and
• { F2t } solves player 2’s problem, taking { F1t } as given
If we take u2t = − F2t xt and substitute it into (2.149) and (2.150), then player 1’s problem becomes
minimization of
t1 −1
∑ βt−t0 xt0 Π1t xt + u1t0 Q1 u1t + 2u1t0 Γ1t xt

(2.151)
t = t0
subject to
xt+1 = Λ1t xt + B1 u1t , (2.152)
where
• Λit := A − B−i F−it
• Πit := Ri + F−0 it Si F−it
• Γit := Wi0 − Mi0 F−it
This is an LQ dynamic programming problem that can be solved by working backwards
The policy rule that solves this problem is
F1t = ( Q1 + βB10 P1t+1 B1 )−1 ( βB10 P1t+1 Λ1t + Γ1t ) (2.153)

where P1t is the solution of the matrix Riccati difference equation
P1t = Π1t − ( βB10 P1t+1 Λ1t + Γ1t )0 ( Q1 + βB10 P1t+1 B1 )−1 ( βB10 P1t+1 Λ1t + Γ1t ) + βΛ1t
0
P1t+1 Λ1t (2.154)
Similarly, the policy that solves player 2’s problem is
F2t = ( Q2 + βB20 P2t+1 B2 )−1 ( βB20 P2t+1 Λ2t + Γ2t ) (2.155)
where P2t solves
P2t = Π2t − ( βB20 P2t+1 Λ2t + Γ2t )0 ( Q2 + βB20 P2t+1 B2 )−1 ( βB20 P2t+1 Λ2t + Γ2t ) + βΛ2t
0
P2t+1 Λ2t (2.156)
Here in all cases t = t0 , . . . , t1 − 1 and the initial conditions are Pit1 = 0

The solution procedure is to use equations (2.153), (2.154), (2.155), and (2.156), and “work back-
wards” from time t1 − 1
Since we’re working backwards, P1t+1 and P2t+1 are taken as given at each stage
Moreover, since
• some terms on the right hand side of (2.153) contain F2t
• some terms on the right hand side of (2.155) contain F1t
we need to solve these k1 + k2 equations simultaneously
A key insight is that the equations (2.153) and (2.155) are linear in F1t and F2t
After these equations are solved, we can take the Fit and solve for Pit in (2.154) and (2.156)
Infinite horizon We often want to compute the solutions of such games for infinite horizons, in
the hope that the decision rules Fit settle down to be time invariant as t1 → +∞
In practice, we usually fix t1 and compute the equilibrium of an infinite horizon game by driving
t0 → − ∞
This is the approach we adopt in the next section
Implementation Below we display a function called nnash that computes a Markov perfect equi-
librium of the infinite horizon linear quadratic dynamic game in the manner described above
from __future__ import division, print_function
import numpy as np
from numpy import dot, eye
def nnash(A, B1, B2, R1, R2, Q1, Q2, S1, S2, W1, W2, M1, M2,
beta=1.0, tol=1e-8, max_iter=1000):
r"""
Compute the limit of a Nash linear quadratic dynamic game. In this
problem, player i minimizes

.. math::
\sum_{t=0}^{\infty}
\left\{
x_t' r_i x_t + 2 x_t' w_i
u_{it} +u_{it}' q_i u_{it} + u_{jt}' s_i u_{jt} + 2 u_{jt}'
m_i u_{it}
\right\}
subject to the law of motion
.. math::
x_{t+1} = A x_t + b_1 u_{1t} + b_2 u_{2t}
and a perceived control law :math:ù_j(t) = - f_j x_t` for the other
player.
The solution computed in this routine is the :math:`f_i` and

:math:`p_i` of the associated double optimal linear regulator
problem.
Parameters
----------
A : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
Corresponds to the above equation, should be of size (n, n)
B1 : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
As above, size (n, k_1)
B2 : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
R1 : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
As above, size (n, n)
R2 : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
As above, size (n, n)
Q1 : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
As above, size (k_1, k_1)
Q2 : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
S1 : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
S2 : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
W1 : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
W2 : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
M1 : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
M2 : scalar(float) or array_like(float)
beta : scalar(float), optional(default=1.0)
Discount rate
This is the tolerance level for convergence

This is the maximum number of iteratiosn allowed
Returns
-------
F1 : array_like, dtype=float, shape=(k_1, n)
Feedback law for agent 1
F2 : array_like, dtype=float, shape=(k_2, n)
Feedback law for agent 2
P1 : array_like, dtype=float, shape=(n, n)
The steady-state solution to the associated discrete matrix
Riccati equation for agent 1
P2 : array_like, dtype=float, shape=(n, n)
The steady-state solution to the associated discrete matrix
Riccati equation for agent 2
"""
# == Unload parameters and make sure everything is an array == #
params = A, B1, B2, R1, R2, Q1, Q2, S1, S2, W1, W2, M1, M2
params = map(np.asarray, params)
A, B1, B2, R1, R2, Q1, Q2, S1, S2, W1, W2, M1, M2 = params
# == Multiply A, B1, B2 by sqrt(beta) to enforce discounting == #

A, B1, B2 = [np.sqrt(beta) * x for x in (A, B1, B2)]
n = A.shape[0]
if B1.ndim == 1:
k_1 = 1
B1 = np.reshape(B1, (n, 1))
else:
k_1 = B1.shape[1]
if B2.ndim == 1:
k_2 = 1
B2 = np.reshape(B2, (n, 1))
else:
k_2 = B2.shape[1]
v1 = eye(k_1)
v2 = eye(k_2)
P1 = np.zeros((n, n))
P2 = np.zeros((n, n))
F1 = np.random.randn(k_1, n)
F2 = np.random.randn(k_2, n)
for it in range(max_iter):
# update
F10 = F1
F20 = F2
G2 = solve(dot(B2.T, P2.dot(B2))+Q2, v2)

G1 = solve(dot(B1.T, P1.dot(B1))+Q1, v1)
H2 = dot(G2, B2.T.dot(P2))

H1 = dot(G1, B1.T.dot(P1))
# break up the computation of F1, F2

F1_left = v1 - dot(H1.dot(B2)+G1.dot(M1.T),
H2.dot(B1)+G2.dot(M2.T))
F1_right = H1.dot(A)+G1.dot(W1.T) - dot(H1.dot(B2)+G1.dot(M1.T),
H2.dot(A)+G2.dot(W2.T))
F1 = solve(F1_left, F1_right)
F2 = H2.dot(A)+G2.dot(W2.T) - dot(H2.dot(B1)+G2.dot(M2.T), F1)
Lambda1 = A - B2.dot(F2)
Lambda2 = A - B1.dot(F1)
Pi1 = R1 + dot(F2.T, S1.dot(F2))
Pi2 = R2 + dot(F1.T, S2.dot(F1))
P1 = dot(Lambda1.T, P1.dot(Lambda1)) + Pi1 - \

dot(dot(Lambda1.T, P1.dot(B1)) + W1 - F2.T.dot(M1), F1)
P2 = dot(Lambda2.T, P2.dot(Lambda2)) + Pi2 - \
dot(dot(Lambda2.T, P2.dot(B2)) + W2 - F1.T.dot(M2), F2)
dd = np.max(np.abs(F10 - F1)) + np.max(np.abs(F20 - F2))
if dd < tol: # success!

break
else:
msg = 'No convergence: Iteration limit of {0} reached in nnash'
raise ValueError(msg.format(max_iter))
return F1, F2, P1, P2
Applications
Let’s use these procedures to treat some applications, starting with the duopoly model
The duopoly case To map the duopoly model into a coupled linear-quadratic dynamic program-
ming problem, define the state and controls as
 
1
xt := q1t  and uit := qi,t+1 − qit , i = 1, 2
q2t
If we write
xt0 Ri xt + uit0 Qi uit
where Q1 = Q2 = γ,
− a20 − a20
   
0 0 0 0
a1  a1
R1 := − a20 a1 2 and R2 : =  0 0 2

a1 a1
0 2 0 − a20 2 a1

then we recover the one-period payoffs in expression (2.146)

The law of motion for the state xt is xt+1 = Axt + B1 u1t + B2 u2t where
     
1 0 0 0 0
A := 0 1 0 , B1 := 1 , B2 := 0
    
0 0 1 0 1
The optimal decision rule of firm i will take the form uit = − Fi xt , inducing the following closed
loop system for the evolution of x in the Markov perfect equilibrium:
xt+1 = ( A − B1 F1 − B1 F2 ) xt (2.157)
Parameters and Solution Consider the previously presented duopoly model with parameter
values of:
• a0 = 10
• a1 = 2
• β = 0.96
• γ = 12
From these we compute the infinite horizon MPE using the preceding code
"""
@authors: Chase Coleman, Thomas Sargent, John Stachurski
Markov Perfect Equilibrium for the simple duopoly example.
See the lecture at http://quant-econ.net/py/markov_perf.html for a

description of the model.
"""

import numpy as np
# == Parameters == #
a0 = 10.0
a1 = 2.0
beta = 0.96
gamma = 12.0
# == In LQ form == #
A = np.eye(3)
B1 = np.array([[0.], [1.], [0.]])

B2 = np.array([[0.], [0.], [1.]])
R1 = [[0., -a0/2, 0.],

[-a0/2., a1, a1/2.],

[0, a1/2., 0.]]
R2 = [[0., 0., -a0/2],

[0., 0., a1/2.],
[-a0/2, a1/2., a1]]
Q1 = Q2 = gamma
S1 = S2 = W1 = W2 = M1 = M2 = 0.0
# == Solve using QE's nnash function == #

F1, F2, P1, P2 = qe.nnash(A, B1, B2, R1, R2, Q1, Q2, S1, S2, W1, W2, M1, M2,
beta=beta)
# == Display policies == #
print("Computed policies for firm 1 and firm 2:\n")
print("F1 = {}".format(F1))
print("F2 = {}".format(F2))
print("\n")
Running the code produces the following output

In [1]: run duopoly_mpe.py
Computed policies for firm 1 and firm 2:
F1 = [[-0.66846615 0.29512482 0.07584666]]

F2 = [[-0.66846615 0.07584666 0.29512482]]
One way to see that Fi is indeed optimal for firm i taking F2 as given is to use QuantEcon’s LQ
class
In particular, let’s take F2 as computed above, plug it into (2.151) and (2.152) to get firm 1’s problem
and solve it using LQ
We hope that the resulting policy will agree with F1 as computed above
In [2]: Lambda1 = A - np.dot(B2, F2)
In [3]: lq1 = qe.LQ(Q1, R1, Lambda1, B1, beta=beta)
In [4]: P1_ih, F1_ih, d = lq1.stationary_values()
In [5]: F1_ih
Out[5]: array([[-0.66846611, 0.29512481, 0.07584666]])
This is close enough for rock and roll, as they say in the trade
Indeed, np.allclose agrees with our assessment
In [6]: np.allclose(F1, F1_ih)
Out[6]: True

Dynamics Let’s now investigate the dynamics of price and output in this simple duopoly model
under the MPE policies
Given our optimal policies F1 and F2, the state evolves according to (2.157)
The following program
• imports F1 and F2 from the previous program along with all parameters
• computes the evolution of xt using (2.157)
• extracts and plots industry output qt = q1t + q2t and price pt = a0 − a1 qt
from duopoly_mpe import *
AF = A - B1.dot(F1) - B2.dot(F2)
n = 20
x = np.empty((3, n))
x[:, 0] = 1, 1, 1
for t in range(n-1):
x[:, t+1] = np.dot(AF, x[:, t])
q1 = x[1, :]
q2 = x[2, :]
q = q1 + q2 # Total output, MPE
p = a0 - a1 * q # Price, MPE
fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(9, 5.8))

ax.plot(q, 'b-', lw=2, alpha=0.75, label='total output')
ax.plot(p, 'g-', lw=2, alpha=0.75, label='price')
ax.set_title('Output and prices, duopoly MPE')
ax.legend(frameon=False)
plt.show()
Note that the initial condition has been set to q10 = q20 = 1.0

To gain some perspective we can compare this to what happens in the monopoly case
The first panel in the next figure compares output of the monopolist and industry output under
the MPE, as a function of time
The second panel shows analogous curves for price
Here parameters are the same as above for both the MPE and monopoly solutions
The monopolist initial condition is q0 = 2.0 to mimic the industry initial condition q10 = q20 = 1.0
in the MPE case
As expected, output is higher and prices are lower under duopoly than monopoly
Exercises
Exercise 1 Replicate the pair of figures showing the comparison of output and prices for the mo-
nopolist and duopoly under MPE
Parameters are as in duopoly_mpe.py and you can use that code to compute MPE policies under
duopoly
The optimal policy in the monopolist case can be computed using QuantEcon’s LQ class

Exercise 2 In this exercise we consider a slightly more sophisticated duopoly problem

It takes the form of infinite horizon linear quadratic game proposed by Judd [Jud90]
Two firms set prices and quantities of two goods interrelated through their demand curves
Relevant variables are defined as follows:
• Iit = inventories of firm i at beginning of t
• qit = production of firm i during period t
• pit = price charged by firm i during period t
• Sit = sales made by firm i during period t
• Eit = costs of production of firm i during period t
• Cit = costs of carrying inventories for firm i during t
The firms’ cost functions are
• Cit = ci1 + ci2 Iit + 0.5ci3 Iit2
• Eit = ei1 + ei2 qit + 0.5ei3 q2it where eij , cij are positive scalars
Inventories obey the laws of motion
Ii,t+1 = (1 − δ) Iit + qit − Sit
Demand is governed by the linear schedule
St = Dpit + b
where
0
• St = S1t S2t
• D is a 2 × 2 negative definite matrix and
• b is a vector of constants
Firm i maximizes the undiscounted sum
T
1
lim
T →∞ T ∑ ( pit Sit − Eit − Cit )
t =0
We can convert this to a linear quadratic problem by taking

 
I1t
p
uit = it and xt =  I2t 
qit
1
Decision rules for price and quantity take the form uit = − Fi xt
The Markov perfect equilibrium of Judd’s model can be computed by filling in the matrices ap-
propriately
The exercise is to calculate these matrices and compute the following figures
The first figure shows the dynamics of inventories for each firm when the parameters are

2.16. MARKOV ASSET PRICING 381
delta = 0.02
D = np.array([[-1, 0.5], [0.5, -1]])
b = np.array([25, 25])
c1 = c2 = np.array([1, -2, 1])
e1 = e2 = np.array([10, 10, 3])
Inventories trend to a common steady state

If we increase the depreciation rate to δ = 0.05, then we expect steady state inventories to fall
This is indeed the case, as the next figure shows
Solutions
Solution notebook
2.16 Markov Asset Pricing

Contents
• Markov Asset Pricing
– Overview
– Pricing Models
– Finite Markov Asset Pricing
– Implementation
– Exercises
– Solutions
“A little knowledge of geometric series goes a long way” – Robert E. Lucas, Jr.
Overview
An asset is a claim on a stream of prospective payments

The spot price of an asset depends primarily on
• the anticipated dynamics for the stream of income accruing to the owners
• the pricing model, which determines how prices react to different income streams
In this lecture we consider some standard pricing models and dividend stream specifications
We study how prices and dividend-price ratios respond in these different scenarios
We also look at creating and pricing derivative assets by repackaging income streams
Key tools for the lecture are
• Formulas for predicting future values of functions of a Markov state
• A formula for predicting the discounted sum of future values of a Markov state
Pricing Models
We begin with some notation and then proceed to foundational pricing models
In what follows let d0 , d1 , . . . be a stream of dividends
• A time-t cum-dividend asset is a claim to the stream dt , dt+1 , . . .
• A time-t ex-dividend asset is a claim to the stream dt+1 , dt+2 , . . .
Risk Neutral Pricing Let β = 1/(1 + ρ) be an intertemporal discount factor

In other words, ρ is the rate at which agents discount the future
The basic risk-neutral asset pricing equation for pricing one unit of a cum-dividend asset is
p t = d t + β E t [ p t +1 ] (2.158)

This is a simple “cost equals expected benefit” relationship

Here E t [y] denotes the best forecast of y, conditioned on information available at time t
In the present case this information set consists of observations of dividends up until time t
For an ex-dividend asset (buy today in exchange for the asset and dividend tomorrow), the basic
risk-neutral asset pricing equation is
p t = β E t [ d t +1 + p t +1 ] (2.159)
Pricing Under Risk Aversion Let’s now introduce risk aversion by supposing that all agents
evaluate payoffs according to strictly concave period utility function u
In this setting Robert Lucas [Luc78] showed that under certain equilibrium conditions the price of
an ex-dividend asset obeys the famous consumption-based asset pricing equation
0
pt = E t β 0

u ( d t +1 )
( d t +1 + p t +1 ) (2.160)
u (dt )
Comparing (2.159) and (2.160), the difference is that β in (2.159) has been replaced by
u 0 ( d t +1 )
β
u0 (dt )
This term is usually called the stochastic discount factor

We give a full derivation of (2.160) in a later lecture
For now we focus more on implications
For the most part we will assume preferences take the form
c 1− γ
u(c) = with γ > 0 or u(c) = ln c
1−γ
Simple Examples What price dynamics result from these models?

The answer to this question depends on the process we specify for dividends
Let’s look at some examples that illustrate this idea
Example 1: Constant dividends, risk neutral pricing The simplest case is a constant, non-
random dividend stream dt = d > 0
Removing the expectation from (2.158) and iterating forward gives
pt = d + βpt+1
= d + β(d + βpt+2 )
..
.
= d + βd + β2 d + · · · + βk−1 d + βk pt+k

Unless prices explode in the future, this sequence converges to
1
pt = d
1−β
This price is the equilibrium price in the constant dividend case

The ex-dividend equilibrium price is pt = (1 − β)−1 βd
Example 2: Deterministic dividends, risk neutral pricing Consider a growing, non-random

dividend process dt = λt d0 where 0 < λβ < 1
The cum-dividend price under risk neutral pricing is then
dt λ t d0
pt = = (2.161)
1 − βλ 1 − βλ
(Hint: Set vt = pt /dt in (2.158) and then vt = vt+1 = v to solve for constant v)
The ex-dividend price is pt = (1 − βλ)−1 βλdt
If, in this example, we take λ = 1 + g, then the ex-dividend price becomes
1+g
pt = dt
ρ−g
This is called the Gordon formula
Example 3: Markov growth, risk neutral pricing Next we consider a dividend process where
the growth rate is Markovian
In particular,
d t +1 = λ t +1 d t where P{λt+1 = s j | λt = si } = Pij :=: P[i, j]
This notation means that {λt } is an n state Markov chain with transition matrix P and state space
s = { s1 , . . . , s n }
To obtain asset prices under risk neutrality, recall that in (2.161) the price dividend ratio pt /dt is
constant and depends on λ
This encourages us to guess that, in the current case, pt /dt is constant given λt
That is pt = v(λt )dt for some unknown function v on the state space
To simplify notation, let vi := v(si )
For a cum-dividend stock we find that vi = 1 + β ∑nj=1 Pij s j v j
Letting 1 be an n × 1 vector of ones and P̃ij = Pij s j , we can express this in matrix notation as
v = ( I − β P̃)−1 1
Here we are assuming invertibility, which requires that the growth rate of the Markov chain is not
too large relative to β

(In particular, that the eigenvalues of P̃ be strictly less than β−1 in modulus)
Similar reasoning yields the ex-dividend price-dividend ratio w, which satisfies
w = β( I − β P̃)−1 Ps0
Example 4: Deterministic dividends, risk averse pricing Our formula for pricing a cum-
dividend claim to a non random stream dt = λt d then becomes
pt = dt + βλ−γ pt+1
Guessing again that the price obeys pt = vdt where v is a constant price-dividend ratio, we have
vdt = dt + βλ−γ vdt+1 , or
1
v=
1 − βλ1−γ
If u0 (c) = 1/c, then the preceding formula for the price-dividend ratio becomes v = 1/(1 − β)
Here the price-dividend ratio is constant and independent of the dividend growth rate λ
Finite Markov Asset Pricing
For the remainder of the lecture we focus on computing asset prices when
• endowments follow a finite state Markov chain
• agents are risk averse, and prices obey (2.160)
Our finite state Markov setting emulates [MP85]
In particular, we’ll assume that there is an endowment of a consumption good that follows
c t +1 = λ t +1 c t (2.162)
Here λt is governed by the n state Markov chain discussed above

A Lucas tree is a unit claim on this endowment stream
We’ll price several distinct assets, including
• The Lucas tree itself
• A consol (a type of bond issued by the UK government in the 19th century)
• Finite and infinite horizon call options on a consol
Pricing the Lucas tree Using (2.160), the definition of u and (2.162) leads to
pt = E t βλt+1 (ct+1 + pt+1 )

h i
−γ
(2.163)
Drawing intuition from our earlier discussion on pricing with Markov growth, we guess a pricing
function of the form pt = v(λt )ct where v is yet to be determined

If we substitute this guess into (2.163) and rearrange, we obtain
v(λt )ct = E t βλt+1 (ct+1 + ct+1 v(λt+1 ))

h i
−γ
Using (2.162) again and simplifying gives
v(λt ) = E t βλt+1 (1 + v(λt+1 ))

h i
1− γ
As before we let v(si ) = vi , so that v is modeled as an n × 1 vector, and

n
vi = β ∑ Pij s j
1− γ
(1 + v j ) (2.164)
j =1
1− γ
Letting P̃ij = Pij s j , we can write (2.164) as v = β P̃1 + β P̃v
Assuming again that the eigenvalues of P̃ are strictly less than β−1 in modulus, we can solve this
to yield
v = β( I − β P̃)−1 P̃1 (2.165)
With log preferences, γ = 1 and hence s1−γ = 1, from which we obtain
β
v= 1
1−β
Thus, with log preferences, the price-dividend ratio for a Lucas tree is constant
A Risk-Free Consol Consider the same pure exchange representative agent economy
A risk-free consol promises to pay a constant amount ζ > 0 each period
Recycling notation, let pt now be the price of an ex-coupon claim to the consol
An ex-coupon claim to the consol entitles the owner at the end of period t to
• ζ in period t + 1, plus
• the right to sell the claim for pt+1 next period
The price satisfies
u0 (ct ) pt = βE t u0 (ct+1 )(ζ + pt+1 )

Substituting u0 (c) = c−γ into the above equation yields
ct pt = βE t ct+1 (ζ + pt+1 ) = βct E t λt+1 (ζ + pt+1 )

h i h i
−γ −γ −γ −γ
It follows that
p t = β E t λ t +1 ( ζ + p t +1 )
h i
−γ
(2.166)
Now guess that the price takes the form
p t = p ( λ t ) = pi when λ t = si

Then (2.166) becomes

pi = β ∑ Pij s j (ζ + p j )
−γ
which can be expressed as p = β P̌ζ1 + β P̌p, or
p = β( I − β P̌)−1 P̌ζ1 (2.167)

−γ
where P̌ij = Pij s j
Pricing an Option to Purchase the Consol Let’s now price options of varying maturity that give
the right to purchase a consol at a price pS
An infinite horizon call option We want to price an infinite horizon option to purchase a consol
at a price pS
The option entitles the owner at the beginning of a period either to
1. purchase the bond at price pS now, or
2. to hold the option until next period
Thus, the owner either exercises the option now, or chooses not to exercise and wait until next period
This is termed an infinite-horizon call option with strike price pS
The owner of the option is entitled to purchase the consol at the price pS at the beginning of any
period, after the coupon has been paid to the previous owner of the bond
The economy is identical with the one above
Let w(λt , pS ) be the value of the option when the time t growth state is known to be λt but before
the owner has decided whether or not to exercise the option at time t (i.e., today)
Recalling that p(λt ) is the value of the consol when the initial growth state is λt , the value of the
option satisfies
u 0 ( c t +1 )
w(λt , pS ) = max β E t 0

w ( λ t +1 , p S ), p ( λ t ) − p S
u (ct )
The first term on the right is the value of waiting, while the second is the value of exercising
We can also write this as
( )
n
β ∑ Pij s j w(s j , pS ), p(si ) − pS
−γ
w(si , pS ) = max (2.168)
j =1
−γ
Letting P̂ij = Pij s j and wi = w(si , pS ), we can express (2.168) as the nonlinear vector equation
w = max{ β P̂w, p − pS 1} (2.169)
To solve (2.169), form the operator T mapping vector w into vector Tw via
Tw = max{ β P̂w, p − pS 1}
Start at some initial w and iterate to convergence with T

Finite-horizon options Finite horizon options obey functional equations closely related to
(2.168)
A k period option expires after k periods
At time t, a k period option gives the owner the right to exercise the option to purchase the risk-free
consol at the strike price pS at t, t + 1, . . . , t + k − 1
The option expires at time t + k
Thus, for k = 1, 2, . . ., let w(si , k ) be the value of a k-period option
It obeys ( )
n
β∑
−γ
w(si , k ) = max Pij s j w(s j , k − 1), p ( si ) − p S
j =1
where w(si , 0) = 0 for all i

We can express the preceding as the sequence of nonlinear vector equations
( )
n
= max β ∑ P̂ij w j
(k) ( k −1)
wi , pi − p S , k = 1, 2, . . . with w0 = 0
j =1
Other Prices Let’s look at the pricing of several other assets
The one-period risk-free interest rate For this economy, the stochastic discount factor is
−γ
c t +1
m t +1 = β −γ = βλ− γ
t +1
ct
It follows that the reciprocal R− 1

t of the gross risk-free interest rate Rt is
n
E t mt+1 = β ∑ Pij s−j γ
j =1
or
m1 = βPs−γ
where the i-th element of m1 is the reciprocal of the one-period gross risk-free interest rate when
λ t = si
j period risk-free interest rates Let m j be an n × 1 vector whose i th component is the reciprocal
of the j -period gross risk-free interest rate when λt = si
−γ
Again, let P̂ij = Pij s j
Then m1 = β P̂, and m j+1 = P̂m j for j ≥ 1

Implementation
The class AssetPrices from the QuantEcon.applications package provides methods for computing
some of the prices described above
We print the code here for convenience
"""
Filename: asset_pricing.py
Authors: David Evans, John Stachurski and Thomas J. Sargent
Computes asset prices in an endowment economy when the endowment obeys

geometric growth driven by a finite state Markov chain. The transition
matrix of the Markov chain is P, and the set of states is s. The
discount factor is beta, and gamma is the coefficient of relative risk
aversion in the household's utility function.
References
----------
http://quant-econ.net/py/markov_asset.html
"""
import numpy as np
from numpy.linalg import solve
class AssetPrices(object):
r"""
A class to compute asset prices when the endowment follows a finite
Markov chain.
Parameters
----------
beta : scalar, float
Discount factor
Transition matrix
s : array_like(float)
Growth rate of consumption
gamma : scalar(float)
Coefficient of risk aversion
Attributes
----------
beta, P, s, gamma : see Parameters
n : scalar(int)
The number of rows in P
Examples
--------

>>> n = 5
>>> P = 0.0125 * np.ones((n, n))
>>> P += np.diag(0.95 - 0.0125 * np.ones(5))
>>> s = np.array([1.05, 1.025, 1.0, 0.975, 0.95])
>>> gamma = 2.0
>>> beta = 0.94
>>> ap = AssetPrices(beta, P, s, gamma)
>>> zeta = 1.0
>>> v = ap.tree_price()
>>> print("Lucas Tree Prices: %s" % v)
Lucas Tree Prices: [ 12.72221763 14.72515002 17.57142236
21.93570661 29.47401578]
>>> v_consol = ap.consol_price(zeta)

>>> print("Consol Bond Prices: %s" % v_consol)
Consol Bond Prices: [ 87.56860139 109.25108965 148.67554548
242.55144082 753.87100476]
>>> p_s = 150.0

>>> w_bar, w_bars = ap.call_option(zeta, p_s, T = [10,20,30])
>>> w_bar
array([ 64.30843769, 80.05179282, 108.67734545, 176.83933585,
603.87100476])
>>> w_bars
{10: array([ 44.79815889, 50.81409953, 58.61386544,
115.69837047, 603.87100476]),
20: array([ 56.73357192, 68.51905592, 86.69038119,
138.45961867, 603.87100476]),
30: array([ 60.62653565, 74.67608505, 98.38386204,
153.80497466, 603.87100476])}
"""
def __init__(self, beta, P, s, gamma):
self.beta, self.gamma = beta, gamma
self.P, self.s = P, s
self.n = self.P.shape[0]
def __repr__(self):
m = "AssetPrices(beta={b:g}, P='{n:g} by {n:g}', s={s}, gamma={g:g})"
return m.format(b=self.beta, n=self.P.shape[0], s=self.s, g=self.gamma)
def __str__(self):
m = """\
AssetPrices (Merha and Prescott, 1985):
- beta (discount factor) : {b:g}
- P (Transition matrix) : {n:g} by {n:g}
- s (growth rate of consumption) : {s:s}
- gamma (Coefficient of risk aversion) : {g:g}
"""
return dedent(m.format(b=self.beta, n=self.P.shape[0], s=repr(self.s),

g=self.gamma))

@property
def P_tilde(self):
P, s, gamma = self.P, self.s, self.gamma
return P * s**(1.0-gamma) # using broadcasting
@property
def P_check(self):
P, s, gamma = self.P, self.s, self.gamma
return P * s**(-gamma) # using broadcasting
def tree_price(self):
"""
Computes the function v such that the price of the lucas tree is
v(lambda)C_t
Returns
-------
v : array_like(float)
Lucas tree prices
"""
beta = self.beta
# == Compute v == #
P_tilde = self.P_tilde
O = np.ones(self.n)
v = beta * solve(I - beta * P_tilde, P_tilde.dot(O))
return v
def consol_price(self, zeta):

"""
Computes price of a consol bond with payoff zeta
Parameters
----------
zeta : scalar(float)
Coupon of the console
Returns
-------
p_bar : array_like(float)
Console bond prices
"""
beta = self.beta
# == Compute price == #
P_check = self.P_check

O = np.ones(self.n)
p_bar = beta * solve(I - beta * P_check, P_check.dot(zeta * O))
return p_bar
def call_option(self, zeta, p_s, T=[], epsilon=1e-8):

"""
Computes price of a call option on a consol bond, both finite
and infinite horizon
Parameters
----------
zeta : scalar(float)
Coupon of the console
p_s : scalar(float)
Strike price
T : iterable(integers)
Length of option in the finite horizon case
epsilon : scalar(float), optional(default=1e-8)

Tolerance for infinite horizon problem
Returns
-------
w_bar : array_like(float)
Infinite horizon call option prices
w_bars : dict
A dictionary of key-value pairs {t: vec}, where t is one of
the dates in the list T and vec is the option prices at that
date
"""
# == Simplify names, initialize variables == #
beta = self.beta
P_check = self.P_check
# == Compute consol price == #

v_bar = self.consol_price(zeta)
# == Compute option price == #

w_bar = np.zeros(self.n)
error = epsilon + 1
t = 0
w_bars = {}
while error > epsilon:
if t in T:
w_bars[t] = w_bar
# == Maximize across columns == #

to_stack = (beta*P_check.dot(w_bar), v_bar-p_s)

2.17. THE PERMANENT INCOME MODEL 393
w_bar_new = np.amax(np.vstack(to_stack), axis=0)
# == Find maximal difference of each component == #

error = np.amax(np.abs(w_bar-w_bar_new))
# == Update == #
w_bar = w_bar_new
t += 1
return w_bar, w_bars
Exercises
Exercise 1 Compute the price of the Lucas tree in an economy with the following primitives
n = 5
P = 0.0125 * np.ones((n, n))
P += np.diag(0.95 - 0.0125 * np.ones(5))
s = np.array([1.05, 1.025, 1.0, 0.975, 0.95]) # state values
gamma = 2.0
beta = 0.94
zeta = 1.0
Using the same set of primitives, compute the price of the risk-free console when ζ = 1
Do the same for the call option on the console when pS = 150.0
Compute the value of the option at dates T = [10,20,30]
Solutions
Solution notebook
2.17 The Permanent Income Model
Contents
• The Permanent Income Model
– Overview
– The Savings Problem
– Alternative Representations
– Two Classic Examples
– Further Reading
– Appendix: The Euler Equation

Overview
This lecture describes a rational expectations version of the famous permanent income model of
Friedman [Fri56]
Hall cast Friedman’s model within a linear-quadratic setting [Hal78]
Like Hall, we formulate an infinite-horizon linear-quadratic savings problem
We use the model as a vehicle for illustrating
• alternative formulations of the state of a dynamic system
• the idea of cointegration
• impulse response functions
• the idea that changes in consumption are useful as predictors of movements in income
The Savings Problem
In this section we state and solve the savings and consumption problem faced by the consumer
Preliminaries The discussion below requires a casual familiarity with martingales

A discrete time martingale is a stochastic process (i.e., a sequence of random variables) { Xt } with
finite mean and satisfying
E t [Xt+1 ] = Xt , t = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Here E t := E [· | Ft ] is a mathematical expectation conditional on the time t information set Ft
The latter is just a collection of random variables that the modeler declares to be visible at t
• When not explicitly defined, it is usually understood that Ft = { Xt , Xt−1 , . . . , X0 }
Martingales have the feature that the history of past outcomes provides no predictive power for
changes between current and future outcomes
For example, the current wealth of a gambler engaged in a “fair game” has this property
One common class of martingales is the family of random walks
A random walk is a stochastic process { Xt } that satisfies
X t +1 = X t + w t +1
for some iid zero mean innovation sequence {wt }

Evidently Xt can also be expressed as
t
Xt = ∑ w j + X0
j =1
Not every martingale arises as a random walk (see, for example, Wald’s martingale)

The Decision Problem A consumer has preferences over consumption streams that are ordered
by the utility functional
∞
" #
E 0 ∑ βt u(ct ) (2.170)
t =0
where
• E t is the mathematical expectation conditioned on the consumer’s time t information
• ct is time t consumption
• u is a strictly concave one-period utility function
• β ∈ (0, 1) is a discount factor
The consumer maximizes (2.170) by choosing a consumption, borrowing plan {ct , bt+1 }∞
t=0 subject
to the sequence of budget constraints
bt+1 = (1 + r )(ct + bt − yt ) t≥0 (2.171)
Here
• yt is an exogenous endowment process
• r > 0 is the risk-free interest rate
• bt is one-period risk-free debt maturing at t
• b0 is a given initial condition
Assumptions For the remainder of this lecture, we follow Friedman and Hall in assuming that
(1 + r ) −1 = β
Regarding the endowment process, we assume it has the state-space representation
xt+1 = Axt + Cwt+1 (2.172)

yt = Uxt (2.173)
where
• {wt } is an iid vector process with E wt = 0 and E wt wt0 = I
• the spectral radius of A satisfies ρ( A) < 1/β
• U is a selection vector that pins down yt as a particular linear combination of the elements
of xt .
The restriction on ρ( A) prevents income from growing so fast that some discounted geometric
sums of some infinite sequences below become infinite
We also impose the no Ponzi scheme condition
∞
" #
E0 ∑ βt bt2 <∞ (2.174)
t =0

This condition rules out an always-borrow scheme that would allow the household to enjoy un-
bounded or bliss consumption forever
Regarding preferences, we assume the quadratic utility function
u(ct ) = −(ct − c̄)2
where c̄ is a bliss level of consumption

(Along with this quadratic utility specification, we allow consumption to be negative)
First Order Conditions First-order conditions for maximizing (2.170) subject to (2.171) are
E t [u0 (ct+1 )] = u0 (ct ), t = 0, 1, . . . (2.175)
These equations are also known as the Euler equations for the model
If you’re not sure where they come from, you can find a proof sketch in the appendix
With our quadratic preference specification, (2.175) has the striking implication that consumption
follows a martingale:
E t [ c t +1 ] = c t (2.176)
(In fact quadratic preferences are necessary for this conclusion 8 )
One way to interpret (2.176) is that consumption will only change when “new information” about
permanent income is revealed
These ideas will be clarified below

The Optimal Decision Rule The state vector confronting the household at t is bt xt
Here
• xt is an exogenous component, unaffected by household behavior
• bt is an endogenous component (since it depends on the decision rule)
Note that xt contains all variables useful for forecasting the household’s future endowment
Now let’s deduce the optimal decision rule 9
Note: One way to solve the consumer’s problem is to apply dynamic programming as in this lecture.
We do this later. But first we use an alternative approach that is revealing and shows the work
that dynamic programming does for us automatically
8 A linear marginal utility is essential for deriving (2.176) from (2.175). Suppose instead that we had imposed
the following more standard assumptions on the utility function: u0 (c) > 0, u00 (c) < 0, u000 (c) > 0 and required
that c ≥ 0. The Euler equation remains (2.175). But the fact that u000 < 0 implies via Jensen’s inequality that
E 0 E0
t [ u ( ct+1 )] > u ( t [ ct+1 ]). This inequality together with (2.175) implies that E
t [ ct+1 ] > ct (consumption is said
to be a ‘submartingale’), so that consumption stochastically diverges to +∞. The consumer’s savings also diverge to
+∞.
9 An optimal decision rule is a map from current state into current actions—in this case, consumption

We want to solve the system of difference equations formed by (2.171) and (2.176) subject to the
boundary condition (2.174)
To accomplish this, observe first that (2.174) implies limt→∞ βt bt+1 = 0
Using this restriction on the debt path and solving (2.171) forward yields
∞
bt = ∑ β j ( yt+ j − ct+ j ) (2.177)
j =0
Take conditional expectations on both sides of (2.177) and use the law of iterated expectations to
deduce
∞
bt = ∑ β j E t [ y t + j ] −
ct
(2.178)
j =0
1−β
Expressed in terms of ct we get
∞
" #
c t = (1 − β ) ∑ β E t [ y t + j ] − bt
j
(2.179)
j =0
1
If we define the net rate of interest r by β = 1+r , we can also express this equation as
∞
" #
∑ β E t [ y t + j ] − bt
r j
ct =
1+r j =0
These last two equations assert that consumption equals economic income
• financial wealth equals bt
j =0 β E t [ y t + j ]
• non-financial wealth equals ∑∞ j
r
• A marginal propensity to consume out of wealth equals the interest factor 1+r
• economic income equals

– a constant marginal propensity to consume times the sum of nonfinancial wealth and
financial wealth
– the amount the household can consume while leaving its wealth intact
A State-Space Representation The preceding results provide a decision rule and hence the dy-
namics of both state and control variables

First note that equation (2.179) represents ct as a function of the state bt xt confronting the
household
If the last statement isn’t clear, recall that E t [yt+ j ] can be expressed as a function of xt , since the
latter contains all information useful for forecasting the household’s endowment process
In fact, from this discussion we see that
∞ ∞
" #
∑ β E t [ yt+ j ] = E t ∑ β yt+ j
j j
= U ( I − βA)−1 xt
j =0 j =0

Using this expression, we can obtain a linear state-space system governing consumption, debt and
income:
xt+1 = Axt + Cwt+1 (2.180)
−1
bt+1 = bt + U [( I − βA) ( A − I )] xt (2.181)
yt = Uxt (2.182)
−1
ct = (1 − β)[U ( I − βA) x t − bt ] (2.183)
Define
x A 0 C
zt = t , Ã = , C̃ =
bt U ( I − βA)−1 ( A − I ) 1 0
and
U 0 y
Ũ = , ỹt = t
(1 − β)U ( I − βA)−1 −(1 − β) bt
Then we can express equation (2.180) as
zt+1 = Ãzt + C̃wt+1 (2.184)
ỹt = Ũzt (2.185)
We can use the following formulas from state-space representation to compute population mean
µt = E zt and covariance Σt := E [(zt − µt )(zt − µt )0 ]
µt+1 = Ãµt with µ0 given (2.186)
Σt+1 = ÃΣt Ã0 + C̃ C̃ 0 with Σ0 given (2.187)

We can then compute the mean and covariance of ỹt from
µy,t = Ũµt Σy,t = ŨΣt Ũ 0 (2.188)
A Simple Example with iid Income To gain some preliminary intuition on the implications of
(2.180), let’s look at a highly stylized example where income is just iid
(Later examples will investigate more realistic income streams)
In particular, let {wt }∞
t=1 be iid and scalar standard normal, and let
1
xt 0 0 σ
xt = , A= , U= 1 µ , C=
1 0 1 0
Finally, let b0 = x01 = 0
Under these assumptions we have yt = µ + σwt ∼ N (µ, σ2 )
Further, if you work through the state space representation, you will see that
t −1
bt = − σ ∑ w j
j =1
t
c t = µ + (1 − β ) σ ∑ w j
j =1

Thus income is iid and debt and consumption are both Gaussian random walks
Defining assets as −bt , we see that assets are just the cumulative sum of unanticipated income
prior to the present date
The next figure shows a typical realization with r = 0.05, µ = 1 and σ = 0.15
Observe that consumption is considerably smoother than income

The figure below shows the consumption paths of 250 consumers with independent income
streams
The code for these figures can be found in perm_inc_figs.py

Alternative Representations
In this section we shed more light on the evolution of savings, debt and consumption by repre-
senting their dynamics in several different ways
Hall’s Representation Hall [Hal78] suggests a sharp way to summarize the implications of LQ
permanent income theory
First, to represent the solution for bt , shift (2.179) forward one period and eliminate bt+1 by using
(2.171) to obtain
∞
c t + 1 = ( 1 − β ) ∑ β j E t + 1 [ y t + j + 1 ] − ( 1 − β ) β − 1 ( c t + bt − y t )
h i
j =0
j=0 β E t yt+ j from the right side of the preceding equation and
If we add and subtract β−1 (1 − β) ∑∞ j
rearrange, we obtain
∞
c t +1 − c t = (1 − β ) ∑ β j E t +1 [ y t + j +1 ] − E t [ y t + j +1 ]

(2.189)
j =0
The right side is the time t + 1 innovation to the expected present value of the endowment process
{yt }
We can represent the optimal decision rule for ct , bt+1 in the form of (2.189) and (2.178), which is
repeated here:
∞
bt = ∑ β j E t [ y t + j ] −
1
ct (2.190)
j =0
1 − β
Equation (2.190) asserts that the household’s debt due at t equals the expected present value of its
endowment minus the expected present value of its consumption stream
A high debt thus indicates a large expected present value of surpluses yt − ct
Recalling again our discussion on forecasting geometric sums, we have
∞
E t ∑ β j yt+j = U ( I − βA)−1 xt
j =0
∞
E t+1 ∑ β j yt+j+1 = U ( I − βA)−1 xt+1
j =0
∞
E t ∑ β j yt+j+1 = U ( I − βA)−1 Axt
j =0
Using these formulas together with (2.172) and substituting into (2.189) and (2.190) gives the fol-
lowing representation for the consumer’s optimum decision rule:
ct+1 = ct + (1 − β)U ( I − βA)−1 Cwt+1 (2.191)
1
bt = U ( I − βA)−1 xt − ct (2.192)
1−β
yt = Uxt (2.193)
xt+1 = Axt + Cwt+1 (2.194)

Representation (2.191) makes clear that

• The state can be taken as (ct , xt )
– The endogenous part is ct and the exogenous part is xt
– Debt bt has disappeared as a component of the state because it is encoded in ct
• Consumption is a random walk with innovation (1 − β)U ( I − βA)−1 Cwt+1
– This is a more explicit representation of the martingale result in (2.176)
Cointegration Representation (2.191) reveals that the joint process {ct , bt } possesses the property
that Engle and Granger [EG87] called cointegration
Cointegration is a tool that allows us to apply powerful results from the theory of stationary pro-
cesses to (certain transformations of) nonstationary models
To clarify cointegration in the present context, suppose that xt is asymptotically stationary 10
Despite this, both ct and bt will be non-stationary because they have unit roots (see (2.180) for bt )
Nevertheless, there is a linear combination of ct , bt that is asymptotically stationary
In particular, from the second equality in (2.191) we have
(1 − β)bt + ct = (1 − β)U ( I − βA)−1 xt (2.195)
Hence the linear combination (1 − β)bt + ct is asymptotically stationary

Accordingly, Granger and Engle would call (1 − β) 1 a cointegrating vector for the state
0
When applied to the nonstationary vector process bt ct , it yields a process that is asymptoti-
cally stationary
Equation (2.195) can be arranged to take the form
∞
( 1 − β ) bt + c t = ( 1 − β ) E t ∑ β j y t + j , (2.196)
j =0
Equation (2.196) asserts that the cointegrating residual on the left side equals the conditional expec-
tation of the geometric sum of future incomes on the right 11
Cross-Sectional Implications Consider again (2.191), this time in light of our discussion of dis-
tribution dynamics in the lecture on linear systems
The dynamics of ct are given by
ct+1 = ct + (1 − β)U ( I − βA)−1 Cwt+1 (2.197)
or
t
ct = c0 + ∑ ŵ j for ŵt+1 := (1 − β)U ( I − βA)−1 Cwt+1
j =1
10 This would be the case if, for example, the spectral radius of A is strictly less than one
11 See Campbell and Shiller (1988) and Lettau and Ludvigson (2001, 2004) for interesting applications of related ideas.

The unit root affecting ct causes the time t variance of ct to grow linearly with t
In particular, since {ŵt } is iid, we have
Var[ct ] = Var[c0 ] + t σ̂2 (2.198)
when
σ̂2 := (1 − β)2 U ( I − βA)−1 CC 0 ( I − βA0 )−1 U 0
Assuming that σ̂ > 0, this means that {ct } has no asymptotic distribution
Let’s consider what this means for a cross-section of ex ante identical households born at time 0
Let the distribution of c0 represent the cross-section of initial consumption values
Equation (2.198) tells us that the distribution of ct spreads out over time at a rate proportional to t
A number of different studies have investigated this prediction (see, e.g., [DP94], [STY04])
Impulse Response Functions Impulse response functions measure the change in a dynamic sys-
tem subject to a given impulse (i.e., temporary shock)
The impulse response function of {ct } to the innovation {wt } is a box
In particular, the response of ct+ j to a unit increase in the innovation wt+1 is (1 − β)U ( I − βA)−1 C
for all j ≥ 1
Moving Average Representation It’s useful to express the innovation to the expected present
value of the endowment process in terms of a moving average representation for income yt
The endowment process defined by (2.172) has the moving average representation
y t +1 = d ( L ) w t +1 (2.199)
where
• d( L) = ∑∞ j
j=0 d j L for some sequence d j , where L is the lag operator
12
• at time t, the household has an information set 13 wt = [wt , wt−1 , . . .]

Notice that
y t + j − E t [ y t + j ] = d 0 w t + j + d 1 w t + j −1 + · · · + d j −1 w t +1
It follows that
E t +1 [ y t + j ] − E t [ y t + j ] = d j −1 w t +1 (2.200)
Using (2.200) in (2.189) gives
c t +1 − c t = (1 − β ) d ( β ) w t +1 (2.201)
The object d( β) is the present value of the moving average coefficients in the representation for the
endowment process yt
12 Representation (2.172) implies that d( L) = U ( I − AL)−1 C.
13 A moving average representation for a process yt is said to be fundamental if the linear space spanned by yt is equal
to the linear space spanned by wt . A time-invariant innovations representation, attained via the Kalman filter, is by
construction fundamental.

Two Classic Examples
We illustrate some of the preceding ideas with the following two examples
In both examples, the endowment follows the process yt = x1t + x2t where

x1t+1 1 0 x1t σ1 0 w1t+1
= +
x2t+1 0 0 x2t 0 σ2 w2t+1
Here
• wt+1 is an iid 2 × 1 process distributed as N (0, I )
• x1t is a permanent component of yt
• x2t is a purely transitory component
Example 1 Assume as before that the consumer observes the state xt at time t
In view of (2.191) we have
ct+1 − ct = σ1 w1t+1 + (1 − β)σ2 w2t+1 (2.202)
Formula (2.202) shows how an increment σ1 w1t+1 to the permanent component of income x1t+1
leads to
• a permanent one-for-one increase in consumption and
• no increase in savings −bt+1
But the purely transitory component of income σ2 w2t+1 leads to a permanent increment in con-
sumption by a fraction 1 − β of transitory income
The remaining fraction β is saved, leading to a permanent increment in −bt+1
Application of the formula for debt in (2.180) to this example shows that
bt+1 − bt = − x2t = −σ2 w2t (2.203)
This confirms that none of σ1 w1t is saved, while all of σ2 w2t is saved
The next figure illustrates these very different reactions to transitory and permanent income
shocks using impulse-response functions
The code for generating this figure is in file perm_income/perm_inc_ir.py from the applications
repository, as shown below
"""
Impulse response functions for the LQ permanent income model permanent and
transitory shocks.
"""
import numpy as np

r = 0.05
beta = 1 / (1 + r)
T = 20 # Time horizon
S = 5 # Impulse date
sigma1 = sigma2 = 0.15
def time_path(permanent=False):
"Time path of consumption and debt given shock sequence"
w1 = np.zeros(T+1)
w2 = np.zeros(T+1)
b = np.zeros(T+1)
c = np.zeros(T+1)
if permanent:
w1[S+1] = 1.0
else:
w2[S+1] = 1.0
b[t+1] = b[t] - sigma2 * w2[t]
c[t+1] = c[t] + sigma1 * w1[t+1] + (1 - beta) * sigma2 * w2[t+1]
return b, c
fig, axes = plt.subplots(2, 1)

p_args = {'lw': 2, 'alpha': 0.7}

L = 0.175
for ax in axes:
ax.grid(alpha=0.5)
ax.set_xlabel(r'Time')
ax.set_ylim(-L, L)
ax.plot((S, S), (-L, L), 'k-', lw=0.5)
ax = axes[0]
b, c = time_path(permanent=0)
ax.set_title('impulse-response, transitory income shock')
ax.plot(list(range(T+1)), c, 'g-', label="consumption", **p_args)
ax.plot(list(range(T+1)), b, 'b-', label="debt", **p_args)
ax.legend(loc='upper right')
ax = axes[1]
b, c = time_path(permanent=1)
ax.set_title('impulse-response, permanent income shock')
ax.plot(list(range(T+1)), c, 'g-', label="consumption", **p_args)
ax.plot(list(range(T+1)), b, 'b-', label="debt", **p_args)
plt.show()
Example 2 Assume now that at time t the consumer observes yt , and its history up to t, but not
xt
Under this assumption, it is appropriate to use an innovation representation to form A, C, U in (2.191)
The discussion in sections 2.9.1 and 2.11.3 of [LS12] shows that the pertinent state space represen-
tation for yt is

y t +1 1 −(1 − K ) yt 1
= + a
a t +1 0 0 at 1 t +1

yt
yt = 1 0
at
where
• K := the stationary Kalman gain
• a t : = y t − E [ y t | y t −1 , . . . , y 0 ]
In the same discussion in [LS12] it is shown that K ∈ [0, 1] and that K increases as σ1 /σ2 does
In other words, as the ratio of the standard deviation of the permanent shock to that of the transi-
tory shock increases
Applying formulas (2.191) implies
ct+1 − ct = [1 − β(1 − K )] at+1 (2.204)

where the endowment process can now be represented in terms of the univariate innovation to yt
as
y t +1 − y t = a t +1 − (1 − K ) a t (2.205)
Equation (2.205) indicates that the consumer regards
• fraction K of an innovation at+1 to yt+1 as permanent
• fraction 1 − K as purely transitory
The consumer permanently increases his consumption by the full amount of his estimate of the
permanent part of at+1 , but by only (1 − β) times his estimate of the purely transitory part of at+1
Therefore, in total he permanently increments his consumption by a fraction K + (1 − β)(1 − K ) =
1 − β(1 − K ) of at+1
He saves the remaining fraction β(1 − K )
According to equation (2.205), the first difference of income is a first-order moving average
Equation (2.204) asserts that the first difference of consumption is iid
Application of formula to this example shows that
bt + 1 − bt = ( K − 1 ) a t (2.206)
This indicates how the fraction K of the innovation to yt that is regarded as permanent influences
the fraction of the innovation that is saved
Further Reading
The model described above significantly changed how economists think about consumption
At the same time, it’s generally recognized that Hall’s version of the permanent income hypothesis
fails to capture all aspects of the consumption/savings data
For example, liquidity constraints and buffer stock savings appear to be important
Further discussion can be found in, e.g., [HM82], [Par99], [Dea91], [Car01]
Appendix: The Euler Equation
Where does the first order condition (2.175) come from?

Here we’ll give a proof for the two period case, which is representative of the general argument
The finite horizon equivalent of the no-Ponzi condition is that the agent cannot end her life in
debt, so b2 = 0
From the budget constraint (2.171) we then have
b1
c0 = − b0 + y0 and c1 = y1 − b1
1+r
Here b0 and y0 are given constants

Subsituting these constraints into our two period objective u(c0 ) + βE 0 [u(c1 )] gives
− b0 + y0 + β E 0 [u(y1 − b1 )]

b1
max u
b1 R
You will be able to verify that the first order condition is
u0 (c0 ) = βR E 0 [u0 (c1 )]
Using βR = 1 gives (2.175) in the two period case

The proof for the general case is not dissimilar


CHAPTER
THREE
ADVANCED APPLICATIONS
This advanced section of the course contains more complex applications, and can be read selec-
tively, according to your interests
3.1 Continuous State Markov Chains
Contents
• Continuous State Markov Chains
– Overview
– The Density Case
– Beyond Densities
– Stability
– Exercises
– Solutions
– Appendix
Overview
In a previous lecture we learned about finite Markov chains, a relatively elementary class of
stochastic dynamic models
The present lecture extends this analysis to continuous (i.e., uncountable) state Markov chains
Most stochastic dynamic models studied by economists either fit directly into this class or can be
represented as continuous state Markov chains after minor modifications
In this lecture, our focus will be on continuous Markov models that
• evolve in discrete time
• are often nonlinear
The fact that we accommodate nonlinear models here is significant, because linear stochastic mod-
els have their own highly developed tool set, as we’ll see later on
409
3.1. CONTINUOUS STATE MARKOV CHAINS 410
The question that interests us most is: Given a particular stochastic dynamic model, how will the
state of the system evolve over time?
In particular,
• What happens to the distribution of the state variables?
• Is there anything we can say about the “average behavior” of these variables?
• Is there a notion of “steady state” or “long run equilibrium” that’s applicable to the model?
– If so, how can we compute it?
Answering these questions will lead us to revisit many of the topics that occupied us in the finite
state case, such as simulation, distribution dynamics, stability, ergodicity, etc.
Note: For some people, the term “Markov chain” always refers to a process with a finite or
discrete state space. We follow the mainstream mathematical literature (e.g., [MT09]) in using the
term to refer to any discrete time Markov process
The Density Case
You are probably aware that some distributions can be represented by densities and some cannot
(For example, distributions on the real numbers R that put positive probability on individual
points have no density representation)
We are going to start our analysis by looking at Markov chains where the one step transition
probabilities have density representations
The benefit is that the density case offers a very direct parallel to the finite case in terms of notation
and intuition
Once we’ve built some intuition we’ll cover the general case
Definitions and Basic Properties In our lecture on finite Markov chains, we studied discrete
time Markov chains that evolve on a finite state space S
In this setting, the dynamics of the model are described by a stochastic matrix — a nonnegative
square matrix P = P[i, j] such that each row P[i, ·] sums to one
The interpretation of P is that P[i, j] represents the probability of transitioning from state i to state
j in one unit of time
In symbols,
P{ Xt+1 = j | Xt = i } = P[i, j]
Equivalently,
• P can be thought of as a family of distributions P[i, ·], one for each i ∈ S
• P[i, ·] is the distribution of Xt+1 given Xt = i

(As you probably recall, when using NumPy arrays, P[i, ·] is expressed as P[i,:])
In this section, we’ll allow S to be a subset of R, such as
• R itself
• the positive reals (0, ∞)
• a bounded interval ( a, b)
The family of discrete distributions P[i, ·] will be replaced by a family of densities p( x, ·), one for
each x ∈ S
Analogous to the finite state case, p( x, ·) is to be understood as the distribution (density) of Xt+1
given Xt = x
More formally, a stochastic kernel on S is a function p : S × S → R with the property that
1. p( x, y) ≥ 0 for all x, y ∈ S
R
2. p( x, y)dy = 1 for all x ∈ S
(Integrals are over the whole space unless otherwise specified)
For example, let S = R and consider the particular stochastic kernel pw defined by
( y − x )2

1
pw ( x, y) := √ exp − (3.1)
2π 2
What kind of model does pw represent?

The answer is, the (normally distributed) random walk
IID
X t +1 = X t + ξ t +1 where {ξ t } ∼ N (0, 1) (3.2)
To see this, let’s find the stochastic kernel p corresponding to (3.2)

Recall that p( x, ·) represents the distribution of Xt+1 given Xt = x
Letting Xt = x in (3.2) and considering the distribution of Xt+1 , we see that p( x, ·) = N ( x, 1)
In other words, p is exactly pw , as defined in (3.1)
Connection to Stochastic Difference Equations In the previous section, we made the connection
between stochastic difference equation (3.2) and stochastic kernel (3.1)
In economics and time series analysis we meet stochastic difference equations of all different
shapes and sizes
It will be useful for us if we have some systematic methods for converting stochastic difference
equations into stochastic kernels
To this end, consider the generic (scalar) stochastic difference equation given by
X t +1 = µ ( X t ) + σ ( X t ) ξ t +1 (3.3)
Here we assume that

IID
• {ξ t } ∼ φ, where φ is a given density on R
• µ and σ are given functions on S, with σ( x ) > 0 for all x
Example 1: The random walk (3.2) is a special case of (3.3), with µ( x ) = x and σ( x ) = 1
Example 2: Consider the ARCH model
Xt+1 = αXt + σt ξ t+1 , σt2 = β + γXt2 , β, γ > 0
Alternatively, we can write the model as
Xt+1 = αXt + ( β + γXt2 )1/2 ξ t+1 (3.4)
This is a special case of (3.3) with µ( x ) = αx and σ( x ) = ( β + γx2 )1/2 Example 3: With stochastic
production and a constant savings rate, the one-sector neoclassical growth model leads to a law
of motion for capital per worker such as
k t+1 = sAt+1 f (k t ) + (1 − δ)k t (3.5)
Here
• s is the rate of savings
• At+1 is a production shock
– The t + 1 subscript indicates that At+1 is not visible at time t
• δ is a depreciation rate
• f : R+ → R+ is a production function satisfying f (k ) > 0 whenever k > 0
(The fixed savings rate can be rationalized as the optimal policy for a particular set of technologies
and preferences (see [LS12], section 3.1.2), although we omit the details here)
Equation (3.5) is a special case of (3.3) with µ( x ) = (1 − δ) x and σ( x ) = s f ( x )
Now let’s obtain the stochastic kernel corresponding to the generic model (3.3)
To find it, note first that if U is a random variable with density f U , and V = a + bU for some
constants a, b with b > 0, then the density of V is given by
v−a

1
f V (v) = f U (3.6)
b b
(The proof is below. For a multidimensional version see EDTC, theorem 8.1.3)
Taking (3.6) as given for the moment, we can obtain the stochastic kernel p for (3.3) by recalling
that p( x, ·) is the conditional density of Xt+1 given Xt = x
In the present case, this is equivalent to stating that p( x, ·) is the density of Y := µ( x ) + σ( x ) ξ t+1
when ξ t+1 ∼ φ
Hence, by (3.6),
y − µ( x )

1
p( x, y) = φ (3.7)
σ( x) σ( x)

For example, the growth model in (3.5) has stochastic kernel

y − (1 − δ ) x

1
p( x, y) = φ (3.8)
s f (x) s f (x)
where φ is the density of At+1
(Regarding the state space S for this model, a natural choice is (0, ∞) — in which case σ( x ) = s f ( x )
is strictly positive for all s as required)
Distribution Dynamics In this section of our lecture on finite Markov chains, we asked the fol-
lowing question: If
1. { Xt } is a Markov chain with stochastic matrix P
2. the distribution of Xt is known to be ψt
then what is the distribution of Xt+1 ?
Letting ψt+1 denote the distribution of Xt+1 , the answer we gave was that
ψt+1 [ j] = ∑ P[i, j]ψt [i]

i ∈S
This intuitive equality states that the probability of being at j tomorrow is the probability of visit-
ing i today and then going on to j, summed over all possible i
In the density case, we just replace the sum with an integral and probability mass functions with
densities, yielding Z
ψt+1 (y) = p( x, y)ψt ( x ) dx, ∀y ∈ S (3.9)
It is convenient to think of this updating process in terms of an operator

(An operator is just a function, but the term is usually reserved for a function that sends functions
into functions)
Let D be the set of all densities on S, and let P be the operator from D to itself that takes density ψ
and sends it into new density ψP, where the latter is defined by
Z
(ψP)(y) = p( x, y)ψ( x )dx (3.10)
This operator is usually called the Markov operator corresponding to p
Note: Unlike most operators, we write P to the right of its argument, instead of to the left (i.e.,
ψP instead of Pψ). This is a common convention, with the intention being to maintain the parallel
with the finite case — see here
With this notation, we can write (3.9) more succinctly as ψt+1 (y) = (ψt P)(y) for all y, or, dropping
the y and letting “=” indicate equality of functions,
ψt+1 = ψt P (3.11)
Equation (3.11) tells us that if we specify a distribution for ψ0 , then the entire sequence of future
distributions can be obtained by iterating with P

It’s interesting to note that (3.11) is a deterministic difference equation

Thus, by converting a stochastic difference equation such as (3.3) into a stochastic kernel p and
hence an operator P, we convert a stochastic difference equation into a deterministic one (albeit in
a much higher dimensional space)
Note: Some people might be aware that discrete Markov chains are in fact a special case of the
continuous Markov chains we have just described. The reason is that probability mass functions
are densities with respect to the counting measure.
Computation To learn about the dynamics of a given process, it’s useful to compute and study
the sequences of densities generated by the model
One way to do this is to try to implement the iteration described by (3.10) and (3.11) using numer-
ical integration
However, to produce ψP from ψ via (3.10), you would need to integrate at every y, and there is a
continuum of such y
Another possibility is to discretize the model, but this introduces errors of unknown size
A nicer alternative in the present setting is to combine simulation with an elegant estimator called
the look ahead estimator
Let’s go over the ideas with reference to the growth model discussed above, the dynamics of which
we repeat here for convenience:
k t+1 = sAt+1 f (k t ) + (1 − δ)k t (3.12)
Our aim is to compute the sequence {ψt } associated with this model and fixed initial condition ψ0
To approximate ψt by simulation, recall that, by definition, ψt is the density of k t given k0 ∼ ψ0
If we wish to generate observations of this random variable, all we need to do is
1. draw k0 from the specified initial condition ψ0
2. draw the shocks A1 , . . . , At from their specified density φ
3. compute k t iteratively via (3.12)
If we repeat this n times, we get n independent observations k1t , . . . , knt
With these draws in hand, the next step is to generate some kind of representation of their distri-
bution ψt
A naive approach would be to use a histogram, or perhaps a smoothed histogram using SciPy’s
gaussian_kde function
However, in the present setting there is a much better way to do this, based on the look-ahead
estimator
With this estimator, to construct an estimate of ψt , we actually generate n observations of k t−1 ,
rather than k t

Now we take these n observations k1t−1 , . . . , knt−1 and form the estimate
1 n
n i∑
ψtn (y) = p(kit−1 , y) (3.13)
=1
where p is the growth model stochastic kernel in (3.8)

What is the justification for this slightly surprising estimator?
The idea is that, by the strong law of large numbers,
1 n
Z
n i∑
p(kit−1 , y) → Ep(kit−1 , y) = p( x, y)ψt−1 ( x ) dx = ψt (y)
=1
with probability one as n → ∞

Here the first equality is by the definition of ψt−1 , and the second is by (3.9)
We have just shown that our estimator ψtn (y) in (3.13) converges almost surely to ψt (y), which is
just what we want to compute
In fact much stronger convergence results are true (see, for example, this paper)
Implementation A class called LAE for estimating densities by this technique can be found in
QuantEcon
"""
Filename: lae.py
Authors: Thomas J. Sargent, John Stachurski,
Computes a sequence of marginal densities for a continuous state space

Markov chain :math:`X_t` where the transition probabilities can be represented
as densities. The estimate of the marginal density of :math:`X_t` is
.. math::
\frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=0}^n p(X_{t-1}î, y)
This is a density in y.
References
----------
http://quant-econ.net/py/stationary_densities.html
"""
import numpy as np
class LAE(object):

"""
An instance is a representation of a look ahead estimator associated
with a given stochastic kernel p and a vector of observations X.
Parameters
----------
p : function
The stochastic kernel. A function p(x, y) that is vectorized in
both x and y
X : array_like(float)
A vector containing observations
Attributes
----------
p, X : see Parameters
Examples
--------
>>> psi = LAE(p, X)
>>> y = np.linspace(0, 1, 100)
>>> psi(y) # Evaluate look ahead estimate at grid of points y
"""
def __init__(self, p, X):

X = X.flatten() # So we know what we're dealing with
n = len(X)
self.p, self.X = p, X.reshape((n, 1))
def __repr__(self):
def __str__(self):
m = """\
Look ahead estimator
- number of observations : {n}
"""
return dedent(m.format(n=self.X.size))
def __call__(self, y):

"""
A vectorized function that returns the value of the look ahead
estimate at the values in the array y.
Parameters
----------
A vector of points at which we wish to evaluate the look-
ahead estimator
Returns
-------
psi_vals : array_like(float)

The values of the density estimate at the points in y
"""
k = len(y)
v = self.p(self.X, y.reshape((1, k)))
psi_vals = np.mean(v, axis=0) # Take mean along each row
return psi_vals.flatten()
Given our use of the __call__ method, an instance of LAE acts as a callable object, which is essen-
tially a function that can store its own data (see this discussion)
This function returns the right-hand side of (3.13) using
• the data and stochastic kernel that it stores as its instance data
• the value y as its argument
The function is vectorized, in the sense that if psi is such an instance and y is an array, then the
call psi(y) acts elementwise
(This is the reason that we reshaped X and y inside the class — to make vectorization work)
Because the implementation is fully vectorized, it is about as efficient as it would be in C or Fortran
Example An example of usage for the stochastic growth model described above can be found in
stationary_densities/stochasticgrowth.py
When run, the code produces a figure like this

The figure shows part of the density sequence {ψt }, with each density computed via the look
ahead estimator
Notice that the sequence of densities shown in the figure seems to be converging — more on this
in just a moment
Another quick comment is that each of these distributions could be interpreted as a cross sectional
distribution (recall this discussion)
Beyond Densities
Up until now, we have focused exclusively on continuous state Markov chains where all condi-
tional distributions p( x, ·) are densities
As discussed above, not all distributions can be represented as densities
If the conditional distribution of Xt+1 given Xt = x cannot be represented as a density for some
x ∈ S, then we need a slightly different theory
The ultimate option is to switch from densities to probability measures, but not all readers will be
familiar with measure theory
We can, however, construct a fairly general theory using distribution functions
Example and Definitions To illustrate the issues, recall that Hopenhayn and Rogerson [HR93]
study a model of firm dynamics where individual firm productivity follows the exogenous process
IID
Xt+1 = a + ρXt + ξ t+1 , where {ξ t } ∼ N (0, σ2 )
As is, this fits into the density case we treated above

However, the authors wanted this process to take values in [0, 1], so they added boundaries at the
end points 0 and 1
One way to write this is
Xt+1 = h( a + ρXt + ξ t+1 ) where h ( x ) : = x 1 {0 ≤ x ≤ 1} + 1 { x > 1}
If you think about it, you will see that for any given x ∈ [0, 1], the conditional distribution of Xt+1
given Xt = x puts positive probability mass on 0 and 1
Hence it cannot be represented as a density
What we can do instead is use cumulative distribution functions (cdfs)
To this end, set
G ( x, y) := P{h( a + ρx + ξ t+1 ) ≤ y} (0 ≤ x, y ≤ 1)
This family of cdfs G ( x, ·) plays a role analogous to the stochastic kernel in the density case
The distribution dynamics in (3.9) are then replaced by
Z
Ft+1 (y) = G ( x, y) Ft (dx ) (3.14)

Here Ft and Ft+1 are cdfs representing the distribution of the current state and next period state
The intuition behind (3.14) is essentially the same as for (3.9)
Computation If you wish to compute these cdfs, you cannot use the look-ahead estimator as
before
Indeed, you should not use any density estimator, since the objects you are estimating/computing
are not densities
One good option is simulation as before, combined with the empirical distribution function
Stability
In our lecture on finite Markov chains we also studied stationarity, stability and ergodicity
Here we will cover the same topics for the continuous case
We will, however, treat only the density case (as in this section), where the stochastic kernel is a
family of densities
The general case is relatively similar — references are given below
Theoretical Results Analogous to the finite case, given a stochastic kernel p and corresponding
Markov operator as defined in (3.10), a density ψ∗ on S is called stationary for P if it is a fixed point
of the operator P
In other words, Z
ψ∗ (y) = p( x, y)ψ∗ ( x ) dx, ∀y ∈ S (3.15)
As with the finite case, if ψ∗ is stationary for P, and the distribution of X0 is ψ∗ , then, in view of
(3.11), Xt will have this same distribution for all t
Hence ψ∗ is the stochastic equivalent of a steady state
In the finite case, we learned that at least one stationary distribution exists, although there may be
many
When the state space is infinite, the situation is more complicated
Even existence can fail very easily
For example, the random walk model has no stationary density (see, e.g., EDTC, p. 210)
However, there are well-known conditions under which a stationary density ψ∗ exists
With additional conditions, we can also get a unique stationary density (ψ ∈ D and ψ = ψP =⇒
ψ = ψ∗ ), and also global convergence in the sense that
∀ ψ ∈ D, ψPt → ψ∗ as t→∞ (3.16)
This combination of existence, uniqueness and global convergence in the sense of (3.16) is often
referred to as global stability

Under very similar conditions, we get ergodicity, which means that
1 n
Z
n t∑
h ( Xt ) → h( x )ψ∗ ( x )dx as n → ∞ (3.17)
=1
for any (measurable) function h : S → R such that the right-hand side is finite
Note that the convergence in (3.17) does not depend on the distribution (or value) of X0
This is actually very important for simulation — it means we can learn about ψ∗ (i.e., approximate
the right hand side of (3.17) via the left hand side) without requiring any special knowledge about
what to do with X0
So what are these conditions we require to get global stability and ergodicity?
In essence, it must be the case that
1. Probability mass does not drift off to the “edges” of the state space
2. Sufficient “mixing” obtains
For one such set of conditions see theorem 8.2.14 of EDTC
In addition
• [SLP89] contains a classic (but slightly outdated) treatment of these topics
• From the mathematical literature, [LM94] and [MT09] give outstanding in depth treatments
• Section 8.1.2 of EDTC provides detailed intuition, and section 8.3 gives additional references
• EDTC, section 11.3.4 provides a specific treatment for the growth model we considered in
this lecture
An Example of Stability As stated above, the growth model treated here is stable under mild con-
ditions on the primitives
• See EDTC, section 11.3.4 for more details
We can see this stability in action — in particular, the convergence in (3.16) — by simulating the
path of densities from various initial conditions
Here is such a figure
All sequences are converging towards the same limit, regardless of their initial condition
The details regarding initial conditions and so on are given in this exercise, where you are asked to
replicate the figure
Computing Stationary Densities In the preceding figure, each sequence of densities is converg-
ing towards the unique stationary density ψ∗
Even from this figure we can get a fair idea what ψ∗ looks like, and where its mass is located
However, there is a much more direct way to estimate the stationary density, and it involves only
a slight modification of the look ahead estimator

Let’s say that we have a model of the form (3.3) that is stable and ergodic
Let p be the corresponding stochastic kernel, as given in (3.7)
To approximate the stationary density ψ∗ , we can simply generate a long time series X0 , X1 , . . . , Xn
and estimate ψ∗ via
1 n
ψn∗ (y) = ∑ p( Xt , y) (3.18)
n t =1
This is essentially the same as the look ahead estimator (3.13), except that now the observations
we generate are a single time series, rather than a cross section
The justification for (3.18) is that, with probability one as n → ∞,
1 n
Z
n t∑
p ( Xt , y ) → p( x, y)ψ∗ ( x ) dx = ψ∗ (y)
=1
where the convergence is by (3.17) and the equality on the right is by (3.15)
The right hand side is exactly what we want to compute
On top of this asymptotic result, it turns out that the rate of convergence for the look ahead esti-
mator is very good
The first exercise helps illustrate this point
Exercises
Exercise 1 Consider the simple threshold autoregressive model

IID
Xt+1 = θ | Xt | + (1 − θ 2 )1/2 ξ t+1 where {ξ t } ∼ N (0, 1) (3.19)

This is one of those rare nonlinear stochastic models where an analytical expression for the sta-
tionary density is available
In particular, provided that |θ | < 1, there is a unique stationary density ψ∗ given by

∗ θy
ψ (y) = 2 φ(y) Φ (3.20)
(1 − θ 2 )1/2
Here φ is the standard normal density and Φ is the standard normal cdf
As an exercise, compute the look ahead estimate of ψ∗ , as defined in (3.18), and compare it with
ψ∗ in (3.20) to see whether they are indeed close for large n
In doing so, set θ = 0.8 and n = 500
The next figure shows the result of such a computation
The additional density (black line) is a nonparametric kernel density estimate, added to the solu-
tion for illustration
(You can try to replicate it before looking at the solution if you want to)
As you can see, the look ahead estimator is a much tighter fit than the kernel density estimator
If you repeat the simulation you will see that this is consistently the case
Exercise 2 Replicate the figure on global convergence shown above

The densities come from the stochastic growth model treated at the start of the lecture
Begin with the code found in stationary_densities/stochasticgrowth.py
Use the same parameters
For the four initial distributions, use the shifted beta distributions

psi_0 = beta(5, 5, scale=0.5, loc=i*2)

for `ì in range(4)``
Exercise 3 A common way to compare distributions visually is with boxplots

To illustrate, let’s generate three artificial data sets and compare them with a boxplot
import numpy as np
n = 500
x = np.random.randn(n) # N(0, 1)
x = np.exp(x) # Map x to lognormal
y = np.random.randn(n) + 2.0 # N(2, 1)
z = np.random.randn(n) + 4.0 # N(4, 1)
fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(10, 6.6))

ax.boxplot([x, y, z])
ax.set_xticks((1, 2, 3))
ax.set_ylim(-2, 14)
ax.set_xticklabels((r'$X$', r'$Y$', r'$Z$'), fontsize=16)
plt.show()
The three data sets are
{ X1 , . . . , Xn } ∼ LN (0, 1), {Y1 , . . . , Yn } ∼ N (2, 1), and { Z1 , . . . , Zn } ∼ N (4, 1),
The figure looks as follows
Each data set is represented by a box, where the top and bottom of the box are the third and first
quartiles of the data, and the red line in the center is the median

3.2. THE LUCAS ASSET PRICING MODEL 424
The boxes give some indication as to

• the location of probability mass for each sample
• whether the distribution is right-skewed (as is the lognormal distribution), etc
Now let’s put these ideas to use in a simulation
Consider the threshold autoregressive model in (3.19)
We know that the distribution of Xt will converge to (3.20) whenever |θ | < 1
Let’s observe this convergence from different initial conditions using boxplots
In particular, the exercise is to generate J boxplot figures, one for each initial condition X0 in
initial_conditions = np.linspace(8, 0, J)
For each X0 in this set,

1. Generate k time series of length n, each starting at X0 and obeying (3.19)
2. Create a boxplot representing n distributions, where the t-th distribution shows the k obser-
vations of Xt
Use θ = 0.9, n = 20, k = 5000, J = 8
Solutions
Solution notebook
Appendix
Here’s the proof of (3.6)

Let FU and FV be the cumulative distributions of U and V respectively
By the definition of V, we have FV (v) = P{ a + bU ≤ v} = P{U ≤ (v − a)/b}
In other words, FV (v) = FU ((v − a)/b)
Differentiating with respect to v yields (3.6)
3.2 The Lucas Asset Pricing Model

Contents
• The Lucas Asset Pricing Model
– Overview
– The Lucas Model
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
As stated in an earlier lecture, an asset is a claim on a stream of prospective payments

What is the correct price to pay for such a claim?
The elegant asset pricing model of Lucas [Luc78] attempts to answer this question in an equilib-
rium setting with risk averse agents
While we mentioned some consequences of Lucas’ model earlier, it is now time to work through
the model more carefully, and try to understand where the fundamental asset pricing equation
comes from
A side benefit of studying Lucas’ model is that it provides a beautiful illustration of model build-
ing in general and equilibrium pricing in competitive models in particular
The Lucas Model
Lucas studied a pure exchange economy with a representative consumer (or household), where
• Pure exchange means that all endowments are exogenous
• Representative consumer means that either
– there is a single consumer (sometimes also referred to as a household), or
– all consumers have identical endowments and preferences
Either way, the assumption of a representative agent means that prices adjust to eradicate desires
to trade
This makes it very easy to compute competitive equilibrium prices
Basic Setup Let’s review the set up
Assets There is a single “productive unit” that costlessly generates a sequence of consumption
goods {yt }∞
t =0
Another way to view {yt }∞

t=0 is as a consumption endowment for this economy

We will assume that this endowment is Markovian, following the exogenous process
y t +1 = G ( y t , ξ t +1 )
Here {ξ t } is an iid shock sequence with known distribution φ and yt ≥ 0
An asset is a claim on all or part of this endowment stream
The consumption goods {yt }∞
t=0 are nonstorable, so holding assets is the only way to transfer
wealth into the future
For the purposes of intuition, it’s common to think of the productive unit as a “tree” that produces
fruit
Based on this idea, a “Lucas tree” is a claim on the consumption endowment
Consumers A representative consumer ranks consumption streams {ct } according to the time
separable utility functional
∞
E ∑ βt u(ct ) (3.21)
t =0
Here
• β ∈ (0, 1) is a fixed discount factor
• u is a strictly increasing, strictly concave, continuously differentiable period utility function
• E is a mathematical expectation
Pricing a Lucas Tree What is an appropriate price for a claim on the consumption endowment?
We’ll price an ex dividend claim, meaning that
• the seller retains this period’s dividend
• the buyer pays pt today to purchase a claim on
– yt+1 and
– the right to sell the claim tomorrow at price pt+1
Since this is a competitive model, the first step is to pin down consumer behavior, taking prices as
given
Next we’ll impose equilibrium constraints and try to back out prices
In the consumer problem, the consumer’s control variable is the share πt of the claim held in each
period
Thus, the consumer problem is to maximize (3.21) subject to
c t + π t +1 p t ≤ π t y t + π t p t
along with ct ≥ 0 and 0 ≤ πt ≤ 1 at each t
The decision to hold share πt is actually made at time t − 1
But this value is inherited as a state variable at time t, which explains the choice of subscript

The dynamic program We can write the consumer problem as a dynamic programming problem
Our first observation is that prices depend on current information, and current information is
really just the endowment process up until the current period
In fact the endowment process is Markovian, so that the only relevant information is the current
state y ∈ R+ (dropping the time subscript)
This leads us to guess an equilibrium where price is a function p of y
Remarks on the solution method
• Since this is a competitive (read: price taking) model, the consumer will take this function p
as given
• In this way we determine consumer behavior given p and then use equilibrium conditions
to recover p
• This is the standard way to solve competitive equilibrum models
Using the assumption that price is a given function p of y, we write the value function and con-
straint as Z
v(π, y) = max
0
u(c) + β v(π 0 , G (y, z))φ(dz)
c,π
subject to
c + π 0 p(y) ≤ πy + π p(y) (3.22)
We can invoke the fact that utility is increasing to claim equality in (3.22) and hence eliminate the
constraint, obtaining
Z
0 0
v(π, y) = max
0
u[π (y + p(y)) − π p(y)] + β v(π , G (y, z))φ(dz) (3.23)
π
The solution to this dynamic programming problem is an optimal policy expressing either π 0 or c
as a function of the state (π, y)
• Each one determines the other, since c(π, y) = π (y + p(y)) − π 0 (π, y) p(y)
Next steps What we need to do now is determine equilibrium prices

It seems that to obtain these, we will have to
1. Solve this two dimensional dynamic programming problem for the optimal policy
2. Impose equilibrium constraints
3. Solve out for the price function p(y) directly
However, as Lucas showed, there is a related but more straightforward way to do this
Equilibrium constraints Since the consumption good is not storable, in equilibrium we must
have ct = yt for all t
In addition, since there is one representative consumer (alternatively, since all consumers are iden-
tical), there should be no trade in equilibrium

In particular, the representative consumer owns the whole tree in every period, so πt = 1 for all t
Prices must adjust to satisfy these two constraints
The equilibrium price function Now observe that the first order condition for (3.23) can be
written as Z
u0 (c) p(y) = β v10 (π 0 , G (y, z))φ(dz)
where v10 is the derivative of v with respect to its first argument

To obtain v10 we can simply differentiate the right hand side of (3.23) with respect to π, yielding
v10 (π, y) = u0 (c)(y + p(y))
Next we impose the equilibrium constraints while combining the last two equations to get
u0 [ G (y, z)]
Z
p(y) = β [ G (y, z) + p( G (y, z))]φ(dz) (3.24)
u0 (y)
In sequential rather than functional notation, we can also write this as

0
pt = E t β 0

u ( c t +1 )
( c t +1 + p t +1 ) (3.25)
u (ct )
This is the famous consumption-based asset pricing equation

Before discussing it further we want to solve out for prices
Solving the Model Equation (3.24) is a functional equation in the unknown function p
The solution is an equilibrium price function p∗
Let’s look at how to obtain it
Setting up the problem Instead of solving for it directly we’ll follow Lucas’ indirect approach,
first setting
f (y) := u0 (y) p(y) (3.26)
so that (3.24) becomes Z
f (y) = h(y) + β f [ G (y, z)]φ(dz) (3.27)
u0 [ G (y, z)] G (y, z)φ(dz) is a function that depends only on the primitives
R
Here h(y) := β
Equation (3.27) is a functional equation in f
The plan is to solve out for f and convert back to p via (3.26)
To solve (3.27) we’ll use a standard method: convert it to a fixed point problem
First we introduce the operator T mapping f into T f as defined by
Z
( T f )(y) = h(y) + β f [ G (y, z)]φ(dz) (3.28)

The reason we do this is that a solution to (3.27) now corresponds to a function f ∗ satisfying
( T f ∗ )(y) = f ∗ (y) for all y
In other words, a solution is a fixed point of T
This means that we can use fixed point theory to obtain and compute the solution
A little fixed point theory Let cbR+ be the set of continuous bounded functions f : R+ → R+
We now show that
1. T has exactly one fixed point f ∗ in cbR+
2. For any f ∈ cbR+ , the sequence T k f converges uniformly to f ∗
(Note: If you find the mathematics heavy going you can take 1–2 as given and skip to the next
section)
Recall the Banach contraction mapping theorem
It tells us that the previous statements will be true if we can find an α < 1 such that
k T f − Tgk ≤ αk f − gk, ∀ f , g ∈ cbR+ (3.29)
Here k hk := supx∈R+ |h( x )|
To see that (3.29) is valid, pick any f , g ∈ cbR+ and any y ∈ R+
Observe that, since integrals get larger when absolute values are moved to the inside,
Z Z

| T f (y) − Tg(y)| = β f [ G (y, z)]φ(dz) − β g[ G (y, z)]φ(dz)
Z
≤β | f [ G (y, z)] − g[ G (y, z)]| φ(dz)
Z
≤β k f − gkφ(dz)
= βk f − gk
Since the right hand side is an upper bound, taking the sup over all y on the left hand side gives
(3.29) with α := β
Computation – An Example The preceding discussion tells that we can compute f ∗ by picking
any arbitrary f ∈ cbR+ and then iterating with T
The equilibrium price function p∗ can then be recovered by p∗ (y) = f ∗ (y)/u0 (y)
Let’s try this when ln yt+1 = α ln yt + σet+1 where {et } is iid and standard normal
Utility will take the isoelastic form u(c) = c1−γ /(1 − γ), where γ > 0 is the coefficient of relative
risk aversion
Some code to implement the iterative computational procedure can be found in lucastree.py from
the QuantEcon.applications repo

r"""
Filename: lucastree.py
Authors: Thomas Sargent, John Stachurski, Spencer Lyon
Solves the price function for the Lucas tree in a continuous state
setting, using piecewise linear approximation for the sequence of
candidate price functions. The consumption endownment follows the log
linear AR(1) process
.. math::
log y' = \alpha log y + \sigma \epsilon
where y' is a next period y and epsilon is an iid standard normal shock.
Hence
.. math::
y' = y^{\alpha} * \xi,
where
.. math::
\xi = e^(\sigma * \epsilon)
The distribution phi of xi is
.. math::
\phi = LN(0, \sigma^2),
where LN means lognormal.
"""
from __future__ import division # == Omit for Python 3.x == #
import numpy as np
from scipy.stats import lognorm
from scipy.integrate import fixed_quad
class LucasTree(object):
"""
Class to solve for the price of a the Lucas tree in the Lucas
asset pricing model
Parameters
----------
gamma : scalar(float)

The coefficient of risk aversion in the household's CRRA utility

function
The household's discount factor
alpha : scalar(float)
The correlation coefficient in the shock process
sigma : scalar(float)
The volatility of the shock process
grid : array_like(float), optional(default=None)
The grid points on which to evaluate the asset prices. Grid
points should be nonnegative. If None is passed, we will create
a reasonable one for you
Attributes
----------
gamma, beta, alpha, sigma, grid : see Parameters
grid_min, grid_max, grid_size : scalar(int)
Properties for grid upon which prices are evaluated
phi : scipy.stats.lognorm
The distribution for the shock process
Examples
--------
>>> tree = LucasTree(gamma=2, beta=0.95, alpha=0.90, sigma=0.1)
>>> grid, price_vals = tree.grid, tree.compute_lt_price()
"""
def __init__(self, gamma, beta, alpha, sigma, grid=None):

self.gamma = gamma
self.beta = beta
self.alpha = alpha
self.sigma = sigma
# == set up grid == #
if grid is None:
(self.grid, self.grid_min,
self.grid_max, self.grid_size) = self._new_grid()
else:
self.grid = np.asarray(grid)
self.grid_min = min(grid)
self.grid_max = max(grid)
self.grid_size = len(grid)
# == set up distribution for shocks == #

self.phi = lognorm(sigma)
# == set up integration bounds. 4 Standard deviations. Make them

# private attributes b/c users don't need to see them, but we
# only want to compute them once. == #
self._int_min = np.exp(-4.0 * sigma)
self._int_max = np.exp(4.0 * sigma)

# == Set up h from the Lucas Operator == #

self.h = self._init_h()
def __repr__(self):
m = "LucasTree(gamma={g}, beta={b}, alpha={a}, sigma={s})"
return m.format(g=self.gamma, b=self.beta, a=self.alpha, s=self.sigma)
def __str__(self):
m = """\
Lucas Pricing Model (Lucas, 1978):
- gamma (coefficient of risk aversion) : {g}
- alpha (correlation coefficient in shock process) : {a}
- sigma (volatility of shock process) : {s}
- grid bounds (bounds for where to compute prices) : ({gl:g}, {gu:g})
- grid points (number of grid points) : {gs}
"""
return dedent(m.format(g=self.gamma, b=self.beta, a=self.alpha,
s=self.sigma, gl=self.grid_min,
gu=self.grid_max, gs=self.grid_size))
def _init_h(self):
"""
Compute the function h in the Lucas operator as a vector of
values on the grid
Recall that h(y) = beta * int u'(G(y,z)) G(y,z) phi(dz)

"""
alpha, gamma, beta = self.alpha, self.gamma, self.beta
grid, grid_size = self.grid, self.grid_size
h = np.empty(grid_size)
# == u'(G(y,z)) G(y,z) == #
integrand = lambda z: (y**alpha * z)**(1 - gamma)
h[i] = beta * self.integrate(integrand)
return h
def _new_grid(self):
"""
Construct the default grid for the problem
This is defined to be np.linspace(0, 10, 100) when alpha > 1

and 100 evenly spaced points covering 4 standard deviations
when alpha < 1
"""
grid_size = 100
if abs(self.alpha) >= 1.0:
grid_min, grid_max = 0.0, 10.0
else:
# == Set the grid interval to contain most of the mass of the

# stationary distribution of the consumption endowment == #

ssd = self.sigma / np.sqrt(1 - self.alpha**2)
grid_min, grid_max = np.exp(-4 * ssd), np.exp(4 * ssd)
grid = np.linspace(grid_min, grid_max, grid_size)
return grid, grid_min, grid_max, grid_size
def integrate(self, g, int_min=None, int_max=None):

"""
Integrate the function g(z) * self.phi(z) from int_min to
int_max.
Parameters
----------
g : function
The function which to integrate
int_min, int_max : scalar(float), optional

The bounds of integration. If either of these parameters are
`None` (the default), they will be set to 4 standard
deviations above and below the mean.
Returns
-------
result : scalar(float)
The result of the integration
"""
# == Simplify notation == #
phi = self.phi
if int_min is None:
int_min = self._int_min
if int_max is None:
int_max = self._int_max
# == set up integrand and integrate == #

integrand = lambda z: g(z) * phi.pdf(z)
result, error = fixed_quad(integrand, int_min, int_max)
return result
def lucas_operator(self, f, Tf=None):

"""
The approximate Lucas operator, which computes and returns the
updated function Tf on the grid points.
Parameters
----------
f : array_like(float)
A candidate function on R_+ represented as points on a grid
and should be flat NumPy array with len(f) = len(grid)
Tf : array_like(float)

Optional storage array for Tf
Returns
-------
Tf : array_like(float)
The updated function Tf
Notes
-----
The argument `Tf` is optional, but recommended. If it is passed
into this function, then we do not have to allocate any memory
for the array here. As this function is often called many times
in an iterative algorithm, this can save significant computation
time.
"""
grid, h = self.grid, self.h
alpha, beta = self.alpha, self.beta
# == set up storage if needed == #

if Tf is None:
Tf = np.empty_like(f)
# == Apply the T operator to f == #

Af = lambda x: interp(x, grid, f) # Piecewise linear interpolation
Tf[i] = h[i] + beta * self.integrate(lambda z: Af(y**alpha * z))
return Tf
def compute_lt_price(self, error_tol=1e-3, max_iter=50, verbose=0):

"""
Compute the equilibrium price function associated with Lucas
tree lt
Parameters
----------
error_tol, max_iter, verbose
Arguments to be passed directly to
`quantecon.compute_fixed_point`. See that docstring for more
information
Returns
-------
price : array_like(float)
The prices at the grid points in the attribute `grid` of the
object
"""
grid, grid_size = self.grid, self.grid_size
lucas_operator, gamma = self.lucas_operator, self.gamma

# == Create storage array for compute_fixed_point. Reduces memory

# allocation and speeds code up == #
Tf = np.empty(grid_size)
# == Initial guess, just a vector of zeros == #

f_init = np.zeros(grid_size)
f = compute_fixed_point(lucas_operator, f_init, error_tol,
max_iter, verbose, Tf=Tf)
price = f * grid**gamma
return price
An example of usage is given in the docstring and repeated here

tree = LucasTree(gamma=2, beta=0.95, alpha=0.90, sigma=0.1)
grid, price_vals = tree.grid, tree.compute_lt_price()
Here’s the resulting price function
The price is increasing, even if we remove all serial correlation from the endowment process
The reason is that a larger current endowment reduces current marginal utility
The price must therefore rise to induce the household to consume the entire endowment (and
hence satisfy the resource constraint)
What happens with a more patient consumer?
Here the blue line corresponds to the previous parameters and the green line is price when β =
0.98

3.3. THE AIYAGARI MODEL 436
We see that when consumers are more patient the asset becomes more valuable, and the price of
the Lucas tree shifts up
Exercise 1 asks you to replicate this figure
Exercises
Exercise 1 Replicate the figure to show how discount rates affect prices
Solutions
Solution notebook
3.3 The Aiyagari Model
Overview
In this lecture we describe the structure of a class of models that build on work by Truman Bewley
[Bew77]
We begin by discussing an example of a Bewley model due to Rao Aiyagari
The model features
• Heterogeneous agents

• A single exogenous vehicle for borrowing and lending

• Limits on amounts individual agents may borrow
The Aiyagari model has been used to investigate many topics, including
• precautionary savings and the effect of liquidity constraints [Aiy94]
• risk sharing and asset pricing [HL96]
• the shape of the wealth distribution [BBZ15]
• etc., etc., etc.
References The primary reference for this lecture is [Aiy94]

A textbook treatment is available in chapter 18 of [LS12]
The Economy
Households Infinitely lived households / consumers face idiosyncratic income shocks

A unit interval of ex ante identical households face a common borrowing constraint
The savings problem faced by a typical household is
∞
max E ∑ βt u(ct )
t =0
subject to
at+1 + ct ≤ wzt + (1 + r ) at ct ≥ 0, and at ≥ − B
where
• ct is current consumption
• at is assets
• zt is an exogenous component of labor income capturing stochastic unemployment risk, etc.
• w is a wage rate
• r is a net interest rate
• B is the borrowing constraint
The exogenous process {zt } follows a finite state Markov chain with given stochastic matrix P
The wage and interest rate are fixed over time
In this simple version of the model, households supply labor inelastically because they do not
value leisure

Firms
Firms produce output by hiring capital and labor

Firms act competitively and face constant returns to scale
Since returns to scale are constant the number of firms does not matter
Hence we can consider a single (but nonetheless competitive) representative firm
The firm’s output is
Yt = AKtα N 1−α
where
• A and α are parameters with A > 0 and α ∈ (0, 1)
• Kt is aggregate capital
• N is total labor supply (which is constant in this simple version of the model)
The firm’s problem is n o
maxK,N AKtα N 1−α − rK − wN
From the first-order condition with respect to capital, the firm’s inverse demand for capital is
1− α
N
r = Aα (3.30)
K
Using this expression and the firm’s first-order condition for labor, we can pin down the equilib-
rium wage rate as a function of r as
w(r ) = A(1 − α)(α/(1 + r ))α/(1−α) (3.31)
Equilibrium We construct a stationary rational expectations equilibrium (SREE)

In such an equilibrium
• prices induce behavior that generates aggregate quantities consistent with the prices
• aggregate quantities and prices are constant over time
In more detail, an SREE lists a set of prices, savings and production policies such that
• households want to choose the specified savings policies taking the prices as given
• firms maximize profits taking the same prices as given
• the resulting aggregate quantities are consistent with the prices; in particular, the demand
for capital equals the supply
• aggregate quantities (defined as cross-sectional averages) are constant
In practice, once parameter values are set, we can check for an SREE by the following steps
1. pick a proposed quantity K for aggregate capital

2. determine corresponding prices, with interest rate r determined by (3.30) and a wage rate
w(r ) as given in (3.31)
3. determine the common optimal savings policy of the households given these prices
4. compute aggregate capital as the mean of steady state capital given this savings policy
If this final quantity agrees with K then we have a SREE
Code
Let’s look at how we might compute such an equilibrium in practice

To solve the household’s dynamic programming problem we’ll use the DiscreteDP class from
QuantEcon.py
Our first task is the least exciting one: write code that maps parameters for a household problem
into the R and Q matrices needed to generate an instance of DiscreteDP
Below is a piece of boilerplate code that does just this
It comes from the file aiyagari_household.py from the QuantEcon.applications repository
In reading the code, the following information will be helpful
• R needs to be a matrix where R[s, a] is the reward at state s under action a
• Q needs to be a three dimensional array where Q[s, a, s’] is the probability of transitioning
to state s’ when the current state is s and the current action is a
(For a detailed discussion of DiscreteDP see this lecture)
Here we take the state to be st := ( at , zt ), where at is assets and zt is the shock
The action is the choice of next period asset level at+1
We use Numba to speed up the loops so we can update the matrices efficiently when the parame-
ters change
The class also includes a default set of parameters that we’ll adopt unless otherwise specified
"""
Created on Wed Sep 23 17:00:17 EDT 2015
@authors: John Stachurski, Thomas Sargent
"""
import numpy as np
class Household(object):
"""
This class takes the parameters that define a household asset accumulation
problem and computes the corresponding reward and transition matrices R
and Q required to generate an instance of DiscreteDP, and thereby solve
for the optimal policy.

Comments on indexing: We need to enumerate the state space S as a sequence

S = {0, ..., n}. To this end, (a_i, z_i) index pairs are mapped to s_i
indices according to the rule
s_i = a_i * z_size + z_i
To invert this map, use
a_i = s_i // z_size (integer division)

z_i = s_i % z_size
"""
def __init__(self,
r=0.01, # interest rate
w=1.0, # wages
beta=0.96, # discount factor
a_min=1e-10,
Pi = [[0.9, 0.1], [0.1, 0.9]], # Markov chain
z_vals=[0.1, 1.0], # exogenous states
a_max=18,
a_size=200):
# Store values, set up grids over a and z

self.r, self.w, self.beta = r, w, beta
self.a_min, self.a_max, self.a_size = a_min, a_max, a_size
self.Pi = np.asarray(Pi)
self.z_vals = np.asarray(z_vals)
self.z_size = len(z_vals)
self.a_vals = np.linspace(a_min, a_max, a_size)

self.n = a_size * self.z_size
# Build the array Q

self.Q = np.zeros((self.n, a_size, self.n))
self.build_Q()
# Build the array R

self.R = np.empty((self.n, a_size))
self.build_R()
def set_prices(self, r, w):

"""
Use this method to reset prices. Calling the method will trigger a
re-build of R.
"""
self.r, self.w = r, w
self.build_R()
def build_Q(self):
populate_Q(self.Q, self.a_size, self.z_size, self.Pi)

def build_R(self):
self.R.fill(-np.inf)
populate_R(self.R, self.a_size, self.z_size, self.a_vals, self.z_vals, self.r, self.w)
# Do the hard work using JIT-ed functions
@jit(nopython=True)
def populate_R(R, a_size, z_size, a_vals, z_vals, r, w):
n = a_size * z_size
for s_i in range(n):
a_i = s_i // z_size
z_i = s_i % z_size
a = a_vals[a_i]
z = z_vals[z_i]
for new_a_i in range(a_size):
a_new = a_vals[new_a_i]
c = w * z + (1 + r) * a - a_new
if c > 0:
R[s_i, new_a_i] = np.log(c) # Utility
@jit(nopython=True)
def populate_Q(Q, a_size, z_size, Pi):
n = a_size * z_size
z_i = s_i % z_size
for a_i in range(a_size):
for next_z_i in range(z_size):
Q[s_i, a_i, a_i * z_size + next_z_i] = Pi[z_i, next_z_i]
@jit(nopython=True)
def asset_marginal(s_probs, a_size, z_size):
a_probs = np.zeros(a_size)
for a_i in range(a_size):
for z_i in range(z_size):
a_probs[a_i] += s_probs[a_i * z_size + z_i]
return a_probs
In the following examples our import statements assume that this code is stored as
aiyagari_household.py in the present working directory
As a first example of what we can do, let’s plot an optimal accumulation policy at a given interest
rate
"""
"""
import numpy as np


from aiyagari_household import Household
from quantecon.markov import DiscreteDP
# Example prices
r = 0.03
w = 0.956
# Create an instance of Household

am = Household(a_max=20, r=r, w=w)
# Use the instance to build a discrete dynamic program

am_ddp = DiscreteDP(am.R, am.Q, am.beta)
# Solve using policy function iteration

results = am_ddp.solve(method='policy_iteration')
# Simplify names
z_size, a_size = am.z_size, am.a_size
z_vals, a_vals = am.z_vals, am.a_vals
n = a_size * z_size
# Get all optimal actions across the set of a indices with z fixed in each row
a_star = np.empty((z_size, a_size))
a_i = s_i // z_size
z_i = s_i % z_size
a_star[z_i, a_i] = a_vals[results.sigma[s_i]]
fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(9, 9))

ax.plot(a_vals, a_vals, 'k--')# 45 degrees
for i in range(z_size):
lb = r'$z = {}$'.format(z_vals[i], '.2f')
ax.plot(a_vals, a_star[i, :], lw=2, alpha=0.6, label=lb)
ax.set_xlabel('current assets')
ax.set_ylabel('next period assets')
plt.show()
Here’s the output

The plot shows asset accumulation policies at different values of the exogenous state
Now we want to calculate the equilibrium
Let’s do this visually as a first pass
The following code draws aggregate supply and demand curves
The intersection gives equilibrium interest rates and capital
"""


"""
import numpy as np
from aiyagari_household import Household, asset_marginal
from quantecon.markov import DiscreteDP
A = 2.5
N = 0.05
alpha = 0.33
beta = 0.96
def r_to_w(r):
return A * (1 - alpha) * (alpha / (1 + r))**(alpha / (1 - alpha))
def rd(K):
return A * alpha * (N / K)**(1 - alpha)
def prices_to_capital_stock(am, r):

"""
Map prices to the induced level of capital stock.
Parameters:
----------
am : Household
An instance of an aiyagari_household.Household
r : float
The interest rate
"""
w = r_to_w(r)
am.set_prices(r, w)
aiyagari_ddp = DiscreteDP(am.R, am.Q, beta)
# Compute the optimal policy
results = aiyagari_ddp.solve(method='policy_iteration')
# Compute the stationary distribution
stationary_probs = results.mc.stationary_distributions[0]
# Extract the marginal distribution for assets
asset_probs = asset_marginal(stationary_probs, am.a_size, am.z_size)
# Return K
return np.sum(asset_probs * am.a_vals)
# Create an instance of Household

am = Household(a_max=20)
# Use the instance to build a discrete dynamic program

am_ddp = DiscreteDP(am.R, am.Q, am.beta)

3.4. MODELING CAREER CHOICE 445
# Create a grid of r values at which to compute demand and supply of capital

num_points = 20
r_vals = np.linspace(0.0, 0.04, num_points)
# Compute supply of capital

k_vals = np.empty(num_points)
for i, r in enumerate(r_vals):
k_vals[i] = prices_to_capital_stock(am, r)
# Plot against demand for capital by firms

fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(11, 8))
ax.plot(k_vals, r_vals, lw=2, alpha=0.6, label='supply of capital')
ax.plot(k_vals, rd(k_vals), lw=2, alpha=0.6, label='demand for capital')
ax.grid()
ax.set_xlabel('capital')
ax.set_ylabel('interest rate')
ax.legend(loc='upper right')
plt.show()
Here’s the corresponding plot
3.4 Modeling Career Choice

Contents
• Modeling Career Choice
– Overview
– Model
– Implementation: career.py
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
Next we study a computational problem concerning career and job choices. The model is origi-
nally due to Derek Neal [Nea99] and this exposition draws on the presentation in [LS12], section
6.5.
Model features
• career and job within career both chosen to maximize expected discounted wage flow
• infinite horizon dynamic programming with two states variables
Model
In what follows we distinguish between a career and a job, where

• a career is understood to be a general field encompassing many possible jobs, and
• a job is understood to be a position with a particular firm
For workers, wages can be decomposed into the contribution of job and career
• wt = θt + et , where
– θt is contribution of career at time t
– et is contribution of job at time t
At the start of time t, a worker has the following options
• retain a current (career, job) pair (θt , et ) — referred to hereafter as “stay put”
• retain a current career θt but redraw a job et — referred to hereafter as “new job”
• redraw both a career θt and a job et — referred to hereafter as “new life”
Draws of θ and e are independent of each other and past values, with
• θt ∼ F
• et ∼ G

Notice that the worker does not have the option to retain a job but redraw a career — starting a
new career always requires starting a new job
A young worker aims to maximize the expected sum of discounted wages
∞
E ∑ β t wt (3.32)
t =0
subject to the choice restrictions specified above

Let V (θ, e) denote the value function, which is the maximum of (3.32) over all feasible (career, job)
policies, given the initial state (θ, e)
The value function obeys
V (θ, e) = max{ I, I I, I I I },
where
I = θ + e + βV (θ, e) (3.33)
Z Z
II = θ + e0 G (de0 ) + β V (θ, e0 ) G (de0 )
Z Z Z Z
0 0 0 0
III = θ F (dθ ) + e G (de ) + β V (θ 0 , e0 ) G (de0 ) F (dθ 0 )
Evidently I, I I and I I I correspond to “stay put”, “new job” and “new life”, respectively
Parameterization As in [LS12], section 6.5, we will focus on a discrete version of the model,
parameterized as follows:
• both θ and e take values in the set np.linspace(0, B, N) — an even grid of N points be-
tween 0 and B inclusive
• N = 50
• B=5
• β = 0.95
The distributions F and G are discrete distributions generating draws from the grid points
np.linspace(0, B, N)
A very useful family of discrete distributions is the Beta-binomial family, with probability mass
function
n B(k + a, n − k + b)

p(k | n, a, b) = , k = 0, . . . , n
k B( a, b)
Interpretation:
• draw q from a Beta distribution with shape parameters ( a, b)
• run n independent binary trials, each with success probability q
• p(k | n, a, b) is the probability of k successes in these n trials
Nice properties:

• very flexible class of distributions, including uniform, symmetric unimodal, etc.

• only three parameters
Here’s a figure showing the effect of different shape parameters when n = 50
The code that generated this figure can be found here
Implementation: career.py
The QuantEcon.applications repo provides some code for solving the DP problem described above
See in particular this file, which is repeated here for convenience
"""
Filename: career.py
Authors: Thomas Sargent, John Stachurski
A class to solve the career / job choice model due to Derek Neal.
References
----------
http://quant-econ.net/py/career.html
.. [Neal1999] Neal, D. (1999). The Complexity of Job Mobility among

Young Men, Journal of Labor Economics, 17(2), 237-261.
"""
import numpy as np
from quantecon.distributions import BetaBinomial

class CareerWorkerProblem(object):
"""
An instance of the class is an object with data on a particular
problem of this type, including probabilites, discount factor and
sample space for the variables.
Parameters
----------
Discount factor
B : scalar(float), optional(default=0.95)
Upper bound of for both epsilon and theta
N : scalar(int), optional(default=50)
Number of possible realizations for both epsilon and theta
F_a : scalar(int or float), optional(default=1)
Parameter à` from the career distribution
F_b : scalar(int or float), optional(default=1)
Parameter `b` from the career distribution
G_a : scalar(int or float), optional(default=1)
Parameter à` from the job distribution
G_b : scalar(int or float), optional(default=1)
Parameter `b` from the job distribution
Attributes
----------
beta, B, N : see Parameters
theta : array_like(float, ndim=1)
A grid of values from 0 to B
epsilon : array_like(float, ndim=1)
A grid of values from 0 to B
F_probs : array_like(float, ndim=1)
The probabilities of different values for F
G_probs : array_like(float, ndim=1)
The probabilities of different values for G
F_mean : scalar(float)
The mean of the distribution for F
G_mean : scalar(float)
The mean of the distribution for G
"""
def __init__(self, B=5.0, beta=0.95, N=50, F_a=1, F_b=1, G_a=1,

G_b=1):
self.beta, self.N, self.B = beta, N, B
self.theta = np.linspace(0, B, N) # set of theta values
self.epsilon = np.linspace(0, B, N) # set of epsilon values
self.F_probs = BetaBinomial(N-1, F_a, F_b).pdf()
self.G_probs = BetaBinomial(N-1, G_a, G_b).pdf()
self.F_mean = np.sum(self.theta * self.F_probs)
self.G_mean = np.sum(self.epsilon * self.G_probs)
# Store these parameters for str and repr methods

self._F_a, self._F_b = F_a, F_b

self._G_a, self._G_b = G_a, G_b
def __repr__(self):
m = "CareerWorkerProblem(beta={b:g}, B={B:g}, N={n:g}, F_a={fa:g}, "
m += "F_b={fb:g}, G_a={ga:g}, G_b={gb:g})"
return m.format(b=self.beta, B=self.B, n=self.N, fa=self._F_a,
fb=self._F_b, ga=self._G_a, gb=self._G_b)
def __str__(self):
m = """\
CareerWorkerProblem (Neal, 1999)
- B (upper bound for epsilon and theta) : {B:g}
- N (number of realizations of epsilon and theta) : {n:g}
- F_a (parameter a from career distribution) : {fa:g}
- F_b (parameter b from career distribution) : {fb:g}
- G_a (parameter a from job distribution) : {ga:g}
- G_b (parameter b from job distribution) : {gb:g}
"""
return dedent(m.format(b=self.beta, B=self.B, n=self.N, fa=self._F_a,
fb=self._F_b, ga=self._G_a, gb=self._G_b))
def bellman_operator(self, v):

"""
The Bellman operator for the career / job choice model of Neal.
Parameters
----------
A 2D NumPy array representing the value function
Interpretation: :math:`v[i, j] = v(\theta_i, \epsilon_j)`
Returns
-------
new_v : array_like(float)
The updated value function Tv as an array of shape v.shape
"""
new_v = np.empty(v.shape)
for i in range(self.N):
for j in range(self.N):
# stay put
v1 = self.theta[i] + self.epsilon[j] + self.beta * v[i, j]
# new job
v2 = (self.theta[i] + self.G_mean + self.beta *
np.dot(v[i, :], self.G_probs))
# new life
v3 = (self.G_mean + self.F_mean + self.beta *
np.dot(self.F_probs, np.dot(v, self.G_probs)))
new_v[i, j] = max(v1, v2, v3)
return new_v

def get_greedy(self, v):

"""
Compute optimal actions taking v as the value function.
Parameters
----------
A 2D NumPy array representing the value function
Interpretation: :math:`v[i, j] = v(\theta_i, \epsilon_j)`
Returns
-------
policy : array_like(float)
A 2D NumPy array, where policy[i, j] is the optimal action
at :math:`(\theta_i, \epsilon_j)`.
The optimal action is represented as an integer in the set

1, 2, 3, where 1 = 'stay put', 2 = 'new job' and 3 = 'new
life'
"""
policy = np.empty(v.shape, dtype=int)
for i in range(self.N):
for j in range(self.N):
v1 = self.theta[i] + self.epsilon[j] + self.beta * v[i, j]
v2 = (self.theta[i] + self.G_mean + self.beta *
np.dot(v[i, :], self.G_probs))
v3 = (self.G_mean + self.F_mean + self.beta *
np.dot(self.F_probs, np.dot(v, self.G_probs)))
if v1 > max(v2, v3):
action = 1
elif v2 > max(v1, v3):
action = 2
else:
action = 3
policy[i, j] = action
return policy
The code defines

• a class CareerWorkerProblem that
– encapsulates all the details of a particular parameterization
– implement the Bellman operator T
In this model, T is defined by Tv(θ, e) = max{ I, I I, I I I }, where I, I I and I I I are as given in (3.33),
replacing V with v
The default probability distributions in CareerWorkerProblem correspond to discrete uniform dis-
tributions (see the Beta-binomial figure)
In fact all our default settings correspond to the version studied in [LS12], section 6.5.

Hence we can reproduce figures 6.5.1 and 6.5.2 shown there, which exhibit the value function and
optimal policy respectively
Here’s the value function
Fig. 3.1: Value function with uniform probabilities
The code used to produce this plot was career/career_vf_plot.py

The optimal policy can be represented as follows (see Exercise 3 for code)
Interpretation:
• If both job and career are poor or mediocre, the worker will experiment with new job and
new career
• If career is sufficiently good, the worker will hold it and experiment with new jobs until a
sufficiently good one is found
• If both job and career are good, the worker will stay put
Notice that the worker will always hold on to a sufficiently good career, but not necessarily hold
on to even the best paying job
The reason is that high lifetime wages require both variables to be large, and the worker cannot
change careers without changing jobs
• Sometimes a good job must be sacrificed in order to change to a better career

Exercises
Exercise 1 Using the default parameterization in the class CareerWorkerProblem, generate and
plot typical sample paths for θ and e when the worker follows the optimal policy
In particular, modulo randomness, reproduce the following figure (where the horizontal axis rep-
resents time)
Hint: To generate the draws from the distributions F and G, use the class DiscreteRV
Exercise 2 Let’s now consider how long it takes for the worker to settle down to a permanent
job, given a starting point of (θ, e) = (0, 0)
In other words, we want to study the distribution of the random variable
T ∗ := the first point in time from which the worker’s job no longer changes
Evidently, the worker’s job becomes permanent if and only if (θt , et ) enters the “stay put” region
of (θ, e) space
Letting S denote this region, T ∗ can be expressed as the first passage time to S under the optimal
policy:
T ∗ := inf{t ≥ 0 | (θt , et ) ∈ S}
Collect 25,000 draws of this random variable and compute the median (which should be about 7)
Repeat the exercise with β = 0.99 and interpret the change

3.5. ON-THE-JOB SEARCH 454
Exercise 3 As best you can, reproduce the figure showing the optimal policy
Hint: The get_greedy() function returns a representation of the optimal policy where values 1,
2 and 3 correspond to “stay put”, “new job” and “new life” respectively. Use this and contourf
from matplotlib.pyplot to produce the different shadings.
Now set G_a = G_b = 100 and generate a new figure with these parameters. Interpret.
Solutions
Solution notebook
3.5 On-the-Job Search
Contents
• On-the-Job Search
– Overview
– Model
– Implementation
– Solving for Policies
– Exercises
– Solutions

Overview
In this section we solve a simple on-the-job search model

• based on [LS12], exercise 6.18
• see also [add Jovanovic reference]
Model features
• job-specific human capital accumulation combined with on-the-job search
• infinite horizon dynamic programming with one state variable and two controls
Model
Let
• xt denote the time-t job-specific human capital of a worker employed at a given firm
• wt denote current wages
Let wt = xt (1 − st − φt ), where
• φt is investment in job-specific human capital for the current role
• st is search effort, devoted to obtaining new offers from other firms.
For as long as the worker remains in the current job, evolution of { xt } is given by xt+1 = G ( xt , φt )
When search effort at t is st , the worker receives a new job offer with probability π (st ) ∈ [0, 1]
Value of offer is Ut+1 , where {Ut } is iid with common distribution F
Worker has the right to reject the current offer and continue with existing job.
In particular, xt+1 = Ut+1 if accepts and xt+1 = G ( xt , φt ) if rejects
Letting bt+1 ∈ {0, 1} be binary with bt+1 = 1 indicating an offer, we can write
xt+1 = (1 − bt+1 ) G ( xt , φt ) + bt+1 max{ G ( xt , φt ), Ut+1 } (3.34)
Agent’s objective: maximize expected discounted sum of wages via controls {st } and {φt }
Taking the expectation of V ( xt+1 ) and using (3.34), the Bellman equation for this problem can be
written as
Z
V ( x ) = max x (1 − s − φ) + β(1 − π (s))V [ G ( x, φ)] + βπ (s) V [ G ( x, φ) ∨ u] F (du) . (3.35)
s + φ ≤1
Here nonnegativity of s and φ is understood, while a ∨ b := max{ a, b}

Parameterization In the implementation below, we will focus on the parameterization

√
G ( x, φ) = A( xφ)α , π (s) = s and F = Beta(2, 2)
with default parameter values

• A = 1.4
• α = 0.6
• β = 0.96
The Beta(2,2) distribution is supported on (0, 1). It has a unimodal, symmetric density peaked at
0.5.
Back-of-the-Envelope Calculations Before we solve the model, let’s make some quick calcula-
tions that provide intuition on what the solution should look like.
To begin, observe that the worker has two instruments to build capital and hence wages:
1. invest in capital specific to the current job via φ
2. search for a new job with better job-specific capital match via s
Since wages are x (1 − s − φ), marginal cost of investment via either φ or s is identical
Our risk neutral worker should focus on whatever instrument has the highest expected return
The relative expected return will depend on x
For example, suppose first that x = 0.05
• If s = 1 and φ = 0, then since G ( x, φ) = 0, taking expectations of (3.34) gives expected next
period capital equal to π (s)EU = EU = 0.5
• If s = 0 and φ = 1, then next period capital is G ( x, φ) = G (0.05, 1) ≈ 0.23
Both rates of return are good, but the return from search is better
Next suppose that x = 0.4
• If s = 1 and φ = 0, then expected next period capital is again 0.5
• If s = 0 and φ = 1, then G ( x, φ) = G (0.4, 1) ≈ 0.8
Return from investment via φ dominates expected return from search
Combining these observations gives us two informal predictions:
1. At any given state x, the two controls φ and s will function primarily as substitutes — worker
will focus on whichever instrument has the higher expected return
2. For sufficiently small x, search will be preferable to investment in job-specific human capital.
For larger x, the reverse will be true
Now let’s turn to implementation, and see if we can match our predictions.

Implementation
The QuantEcon package provides some code for solving the DP problem described above
See in particular jv.py, which is repeated here for convenience
"""
Filename: jv.py
References
-----------
http://quant-econ.net/py/jv.html
"""
import sys
import numpy as np
from scipy.integrate import fixed_quad as integrate
from scipy.optimize import minimize
import scipy.stats as stats
# The SLSQP method is faster and more stable, but it didn't give the
# correct answer in python 3. So, if we are in python 2, use SLSQP, otherwise
# use the only other option (to handle constraints): COBYLA
if sys.version_info[0] == 2:
method = "SLSQP"
else:
# python 3
method = "COBYLA"
epsilon = 1e-4 # A small number, used in the optimization routine
class JvWorker(object):
r"""
A Jovanovic-type model of employment with on-the-job search. The
value function is given by
.. math::
V(x) = \max_{\phi, s} w(x, \phi, s)
for
.. math::
w(x, \phi, s) := x(1 - \phi - s)

+ \beta (1 - \pi(s)) V(G(x, \phi))
+ \beta \pi(s) E V[ \max(G(x, \phi), U)]

Here
* x = human capital
* s = search effort
* :math:`\phi` = investment in human capital
* :math:`\pi(s)` = probability of new offer given search level s
* :math:`x(1 - \phi - s)` = wage
* :math:`G(x, \phi)` = new human capital when current job retained
* U = RV with distribution F -- new draw of human capital
Parameters
----------
A : scalar(float), optional(default=1.4)
Parameter in human capital transition function
alpha : scalar(float), optional(default=0.6)
Parameter in human capital transition function
Discount factor
grid_size : scalar(int), optional(default=50)
Grid size for discretization
G : function, optional(default=lambda x, phi: A * (x * phi)**alpha)
Transition function for human captial
pi : function, optional(default=sqrt)
Function mapping search effort (:math:`s \in (0,1)`) to
probability of getting new job offer
F : distribution, optional(default=Beta(2,2))
Distribution from which the value of new job offers is drawn
Attributes
----------
A, alpha, beta : see Parameters
x_grid : array_like(float)
The grid over the human capital
"""
def __init__(self, A=1.4, alpha=0.6, beta=0.96, grid_size=50,

G=None, pi=np.sqrt, F=stats.beta(2, 2)):
self.A, self.alpha, self.beta = A, alpha, beta
# === set defaults for G, pi and F === #

self.G = G if G is not None else lambda x, phi: A * (x * phi)**alpha
self.pi = pi
self.F = F
# === Set up grid over the state space for DP === #

# Max of grid is the max of a large quantile value for F and the
# fixed point y = G(y, 1).
grid_max = max(A**(1 / (1 - alpha)), self.F.ppf(1 - epsilon))
self.x_grid = np.linspace(epsilon, grid_max, grid_size)
def __repr__(self):
m = "JvWorker(A={a:g}, alpha={al:g}, beta={b:g}, grid_size={gs})"

return m.format(a=self.A, al=self.alpha, b=self.beta,

gs=self.x_grid.size)
def __str__(self):
m = """\
Jovanovic worker (on the job search):
- A (parameter in human capital transition function) : {a:g}
- alpha (parameter in human capital transition function) : {al:g}
- beta (parameter in human capital transition function) : {b:g}
- grid_size (number of grid points for human capital) : {gs}
- grid_max (maximum of grid for human capital) : {gm:g}
"""
return dedent(m.format(a=self.A, al=self.alpha, b=self.beta,
gs=self.x_grid.size, gm=self.x_grid.max()))
def bellman_operator(self, V, brute_force=False, return_policies=False):

"""
Returns the approximate value function TV by applying the
Bellman operator associated with the model to the function V.
Returns TV, or the V-greedy policies s_policy and phi_policy when

return_policies=True. In the function, the array V is replaced below
with a function Vf that implements linear interpolation over the
points (V(x), x) for x in x_grid.
Parameters
----------
V : array_like(float)
Array representing an approximate value function
brute_force : bool, optional(default=False)
Default is False. If the brute_force flag is True, then grid
search is performed at each maximization step.
return_policies : bool, optional(default=False)
Indicates whether to return just the updated value function
TV or both the greedy policy computed from V and TV
Returns
-------
s_policy : array_like(float)
The greedy policy computed from V. Only returned if
return_policies == True
new_V : array_like(float)
The updated value function Tv, as an array representing the
values TV(x) over x in x_grid.
"""
# === simplify names, set up arrays, etc. === #
G, pi, F, beta = self.G, self.pi, self.F, self.beta
Vf = lambda x: interp(x, self.x_grid, V)
N = len(self.x_grid)
new_V, s_policy, phi_policy = np.empty(N), np.empty(N), np.empty(N)

a, b = F.ppf(0.005), F.ppf(0.995) # Quantiles, for integration

c1 = lambda z: 1.0 - sum(z) # used to enforce s + phi <= 1
c2 = lambda z: z[0] - epsilon # used to enforce s >= epsilon
c3 = lambda z: z[1] - epsilon # used to enforce phi >= epsilon
guess = (0.2, 0.2)
constraints = [{"type": "ineq", "fun": i} for i in [c1, c2, c3]]
# === solve r.h.s. of Bellman equation === #

for i, x in enumerate(self.x_grid):
# === set up objective function === #

def w(z):
s, phi = z
h = lambda u: Vf(np.maximum(G(x, phi), u)) * F.pdf(u)
integral, err = integrate(h, a, b)
q = pi(s) * integral + (1.0 - pi(s)) * Vf(G(x, phi))
# == minus because we minimize == #
return - x * (1.0 - phi - s) - beta * q
# === either use SciPy solver === #

if not brute_force:
max_s, max_phi = minimize(w, guess, constraints=constraints,
options={"disp": 0},
method=method)["x"]
max_val = -w((max_s, max_phi))
# === or search on a grid === #

else:
search_grid = np.linspace(epsilon, 1.0, 15)
max_val = -1.0
for s in search_grid:
for phi in search_grid:
current_val = -w((s, phi)) if s + phi <= 1.0 else -1.0
if current_val > max_val:
max_val, max_s, max_phi = current_val, s, phi
# === store results === #

new_V[i] = max_val
s_policy[i], phi_policy[i] = max_s, max_phi
if return_policies:
return s_policy, phi_policy
else:
return new_V
The code is written to be relatively generic—and hence reusable

• For example, we use generic G ( x, φ) instead of specific A( xφ)α
Regarding the imports
• fixed_quad is a simple non-adaptive integration routine
• fmin_slsqp is a minimization routine that permits inequality constraints

Next we build a class called JvWorker that

• packages all the parameters and other basic attributes of a given model
• Implements the method bellman_operator for value function iteration
The bellman_operator method takes a candidate value function V and updates it to TV via
TV ( x ) = − min w(s, φ)
s + φ ≤1
where
Z
w(s, φ) := − x (1 − s − φ) + β(1 − π (s))V [ G ( x, φ)] + βπ (s) V [ G ( x, φ) ∨ u] F (du) (3.36)
Here we are minimizing instead of maximizing to fit with SciPy’s optimization routines
When we represent V, it will be with a NumPy array V giving values on grid x_grid
But to evaluate the right-hand side of (3.36), we need a function, so we replace the arrays V and
x_grid with a function Vf that gives linear iterpolation of V on x_grid
Hence in the preliminaries of bellman_operator
• from the array V we define a linear interpolation Vf of its values
– c1 is used to implement the constraint s + φ ≤ 1
– c2 is used to implement s ≥ e, a numerically stable
alternative to the true constraint s ≥ 0
– c3 does the same for φ
Inside the for loop, for each x in the grid over the state space, we set up the function w(z) =
w(s, φ) defined in (3.36).
The function is minimized over all feasible (s, φ) pairs, either by
• a relatively sophisticated solver from SciPy called fmin_slsqp, or
• brute force search over a grid
The former is much faster, but convergence to the global optimum is not guaranteed. Grid search
is a simple way to check results
Solving for Policies
Let’s plot the optimal policies and see what they look like
The code is in a file jv/jv_test.py from the applications repository and looks as follows
from quantecon.models import JvWorker
# === solve for optimal policy === #

wp = JvWorker(grid_size=25)
v_init = wp.x_grid * 0.5
V = compute_fixed_point(wp.bellman_operator, v_init, max_iter=40)
s_policy, phi_policy = wp.bellman_operator(V, return_policies=True)
# === plot policies === #

ax.set_xlim(0, max(wp.x_grid))
ax.set_ylim(-0.1, 1.1)
ax.plot(wp.x_grid, phi_policy, 'b-', label='phi')
ax.plot(wp.x_grid, s_policy, 'g-', label='s')
ax.set_xlabel("x")
ax.legend()
plt.show()
It produces the following figure
Fig. 3.2: Optimal policies
The horizontal axis is the state x, while the vertical axis gives s( x ) and φ( x )
Overall, the policies match well with our predictions from section.
• Worker switches from one investment strategy to the other depending on relative return
• For low values of x, the best option is to search for a new job
• Once x is larger, worker does better by investing in human capital specific to the current
position
Exercises
Exercise 1 Let’s look at the dynamics for the state process { xt } associated with these policies.
The dynamics are given by (3.34) when φt and st are chosen according to the optimal policies, and
P { bt + 1 = 1 } = π ( s t ) .

3.6. SEARCH WITH OFFER DISTRIBUTION UNKNOWN 463
Since the dynamics are random, analysis is a bit subtle

One way to do it is to plot, for each x in a relatively fine grid called plot_grid, a large number K
of realizations of xt+1 given xt = x. Plot this with one dot for each realization, in the form of a 45
degree diagram. Set:
K = 50
plot_grid_max, plot_grid_size = 1.2, 100
plot_grid = np.linspace(0, plot_grid_max, plot_grid_size)
ax.set_xlim(0, plot_grid_max)
ax.set_ylim(0, plot_grid_max)
By examining the plot, argue that under the optimal policies, the state xt will converge to a con-
stant value x̄ close to unity
Argue that at the steady state, st ≈ 0 and φt ≈ 0.6.
Exercise 2 In the preceding exercise we found that st converges to zero and φt converges to about
0.6
Since these results were calculated at a value of β close to one, let’s compare them to the best
choice for an infinitely patient worker.
Intuitively, an infinitely patient worker would like to maximize steady state wages, which are a
function of steady state capital.
You can take it as given—it’s certainly true—that the infinitely patient worker does not search in
the long run (i.e., st = 0 for large t)
Thus, given φ, steady state capital is the positive fixed point x ∗ (φ) of the map x 7→ G ( x, φ).
Steady state wages can be written as w∗ (φ) = x ∗ (φ)(1 − φ)
Graph w∗ (φ) with respect to φ, and examine the best choice of φ
Can you give a rough interpretation for the value that you see?
Solutions
Solution notebook
3.6 Search with Offer Distribution Unknown

Contents
• Search with Offer Distribution Unknown
– Overview
– Model
– Take 1: Solution by VFI
– Take 2: A More Efficient Method
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
In this lecture we consider an extension of the job search model developed by John J. McCall
[McC70]
In the McCall model, an unemployed worker decides when to accept a permanent position at a
specified wage, given
• his or her discount rate
• the level of unemployment compensation
• the distribution from which wage offers are drawn
In the version considered below, the wage distribution is unknown and must be learned
• Based on the presentation in [LS12], section 6.6
Model features
• Infinite horizon dynamic programming with two states and one binary control
• Bayesian updating to learn the unknown distribution
Model
Let’s first recall the basic McCall model [McC70] and then add the variation we want to consider
The Basic McCall Model Consider an unemployed worker who is presented in each period with
a permanent job offer at wage wt
At time t, our worker has two choices
1. Accept the offer and work permanently at constant wage wt
2. Reject the offer, receive unemployment compensation c, and reconsider next period
The wage sequence {wt } is iid and generated from known density h
The worker aims to maximize the expected discounted sum of earnings E ∑∞ t
t =0 β y t
Trade-off:

• Waiting too long for a good offer is costly, since the future is discounted
• Accepting too early is costly, since better offers will arrive with probability one
Let V (w) denote the maximal expected discounted sum of earnings that can be obtained by an
unemployed worker who starts with wage offer w in hand
The function V satisfies the recursion

w
Z
0 0 0
V (w) = max , c+β V (w )h(w )dw (3.37)
1−β
where the two terms on the r.h.s. are the respective payoffs from accepting and rejecting the
current offer w
The optimal policy is a map from states into actions, and hence a binary function of w
Not surprisingly, it turns out to have the form 1{w ≥ w̄}, where
• w̄ is a constant depending on ( β, h, c) called the reservation wage
• 1{w ≥ w̄} is an indicator function returning 1 if w ≥ w̄ and 0 otherwise
• 1 indicates “accept” and 0 indicates “reject”
For further details see [LS12], section 6.3
Offer Distribution Unknown Now let’s extend the model by considering the variation pre-
sented in [LS12], section 6.6
The model is as above, apart from the fact that
• the density h is unknown
• the worker learns about h by starting with a prior and updating based on wage offers that
he/she observes
The worker knows there are two possible distributions F and G — with densities f and g
At the start of time, “nature” selects h to be either f or g — the wage distribution from which the
entire sequence {wt } will be drawn
This choice is not observed by the worker, who puts prior probability π0 on f being chosen
Update rule: worker’s time t estimate of the distribution is πt f + (1 − πt ) g, where πt updates via
π t f ( w t +1 )
π t +1 = (3.38)
π t f ( w t +1 ) + (1 − π t ) g ( w t +1 )
This last expression follows from Bayes’ rule, which tells us that
P {W = w | h = f } P { h = f }
P{ h = f | W = w } =
P {W = w }
and P{W = w} = ∑ P {W = w | h = ψ } P { h = ψ }
ψ∈{ f ,g}
The fact that (3.38) is recursive allows us to progress to a recursive solution method

Letting
π f (w)
h π ( w ) : = π f ( w ) + (1 − π ) g ( w ) and q(w, π ) :=
π f ( w ) + (1 − π ) g ( w )
we can express the value function for the unemployed worker recursively as follows

w
Z
V (w, π ) = max , c + β V (w0 , π 0 ) hπ (w0 ) dw0 where π 0 = q(w0 , π ) (3.39)
1−β
Notice that the current guess π is a state variable, since it affects the worker’s perception of prob-
abilities for future rewards
Parameterization Following section 6.6 of [LS12], our baseline parameterization will be

• f = Beta(1, 1) and g = Beta(3, 1.2)
• β = 0.95 and c = 0.6
The densities f and g have the following shape
Looking Forward What kind of optimal policy might result from (3.39) and the parameterization
specified above?
Intuitively, if we accept at wa and wa ≤ wb , then — all other things being given — we should also
accept at wb
This suggests a policy of accepting whenever w exceeds some threshold value w̄
But w̄ should depend on π — in fact it should be decreasing in π because
• f is a less attractive offer distribution than g

• larger π means more weight on f and less on g

Thus larger π depresses the worker’s assessment of her future prospects, and relatively low cur-
rent offers become more attractive
Summary: We conjecture that the optimal policy is of the form 1{w ≥ w̄(π )} for some decreasing
function w̄
Take 1: Solution by VFI
Let’s set about solving the model and see how our results match with our intuition
We begin by solving via value function iteration (VFI), which is natural but ultimately turns out
to be second best
VFI is implemented in the file odu/odu.py contained in the QuantEcon.applications repo
The code is as follows
"""
Filename: odu.py
Solves the "Offer Distribution Unknown" Model by value function

iteration and a second faster method discussed in the corresponding
quantecon lecture.
"""
from scipy.interpolate import LinearNDInterpolator
from scipy.integrate import fixed_quad
from scipy.stats import beta as beta_distribution
from numpy import maximum as npmax
import numpy as np
class SearchProblem(object):
"""
A class to store a given parameterization of the "offer distribution
unknown" model.
Parameters
----------
The discount parameter
c : scalar(float), optional(default=0.6)
The unemployment compensation
F_a : scalar(float), optional(default=1)
First parameter of beta distribution on F
F_b : scalar(float), optional(default=1)
Second parameter of beta distribution on F
G_a : scalar(float), optional(default=3)

First parameter of beta distribution on G

G_b : scalar(float), optional(default=1.2)
Second parameter of beta distribution on G
w_max : scalar(float), optional(default=2)
Maximum wage possible
w_grid_size : scalar(int), optional(default=40)
Size of the grid on wages
pi_grid_size : scalar(int), optional(default=40)
Size of the grid on probabilities
Attributes
----------
beta, c, w_max : see Parameters
w_grid : np.ndarray
Grid points over wages, ndim=1
pi_grid : np.ndarray
Grid points over pi, ndim=1
grid_points : np.ndarray
Combined grid points, ndim=2
F : scipy.stats._distn_infrastructure.rv_frozen
Beta distribution with params (F_a, F_b), scaled by w_max
G : scipy.stats._distn_infrastructure.rv_frozen
Beta distribution with params (G_a, G_b), scaled by w_max
f : function
Density of F
g : function
Density of G
pi_min : scalar(float)
Minimum of grid over pi
pi_max : scalar(float)
Maximum of grid over pi
"""
def __init__(self, beta=0.95, c=0.6, F_a=1, F_b=1, G_a=3, G_b=1.2,

w_max=2, w_grid_size=40, pi_grid_size=40):
self.beta, self.c, self.w_max = beta, c, w_max

self.F = beta_distribution(F_a, F_b, scale=w_max)
self.G = beta_distribution(G_a, G_b, scale=w_max)
self.f, self.g = self.F.pdf, self.G.pdf # Density functions
self.pi_min, self.pi_max = 1e-3, 1 - 1e-3 # Avoids instability
self.w_grid = np.linspace(0, w_max, w_grid_size)
self.pi_grid = np.linspace(self.pi_min, self.pi_max, pi_grid_size)
x, y = np.meshgrid(self.w_grid, self.pi_grid)
self.grid_points = np.column_stack((x.ravel(1), y.ravel(1)))
def __repr__(self):
m = "SearchProblem(beta={b}, c={c}, F_a={fa}, F_b={fb}, G_a={ga}, "
m += "G_b={gb}, w_max={wu}, w_grid_size={wgs}, pi_grid_size={pgs})"
fa, fb = self.F.args
ga, gb = self.G.args
return m.format(b=self.beta, c=self.c, fa=fa, fb=fb, ga=ga,
gb=gb, wu=self.w_grid.max(),

wgs=self.w_grid.size, pgs=self.pi_grid.size)
def __str__(self):
m = """\
SearchProblem (offer distribution unknown):
- c (unemployment compensation) : {c}
- F (distribution F) : Beta({fa}, {fb:g})
- G (distribution G) : Beta({ga}, {gb:g})
- w bounds (bounds for wage offers) : ({wl:g}, {wu:g})
- w grid size (number of points in grid for wage) : {wgs}
- pi bounds (bounds for probability of dist f) : ({pl:g}, {pu:g})
- pi grid size (number of points in grid for pi) : {pgs}
"""
fa, fb = self.F.args
ga, gb = self.G.args
return dedent(m.format(b=self.beta, c=self.c, fa=fa, fb=fb, ga=ga,
gb=gb,
wl=self.w_grid.min(), wu=self.w_grid.max(),
wgs=self.w_grid.size,
pl=self.pi_grid.min(), pu=self.pi_grid.max(),
pgs=self.pi_grid.size))
def q(self, w, pi):

"""
Updates pi using Bayes' rule and the current wage observation w.
Returns
-------
new_pi : scalar(float)
The updated probability
"""
new_pi = 1.0 / (1 + ((1 - pi) * self.g(w)) / (pi * self.f(w)))
# Return new_pi when in [pi_min, pi_max] and else end points

new_pi = np.maximum(np.minimum(new_pi, self.pi_max), self.pi_min)
return new_pi
def bellman_operator(self, v):

"""
The Bellman operator. Including for comparison. Value function

iteration is not recommended for this problem. See the
reservation wage operator below.
Parameters
----------
v : array_like(float, ndim=1, length=len(pi_grid))
An approximate value function represented as a

one-dimensional array.
Returns
-------
new_v : array_like(float, ndim=1, length=len(pi_grid))
The updated value function
"""
f, g, beta, c, q = self.f, self.g, self.beta, self.c, self.q
vf = LinearNDInterpolator(self.grid_points, v)
N = len(v)
new_v = np.empty(N)
for i in range(N):
w, pi = self.grid_points[i, :]
v1 = w / (1 - beta)
integrand = lambda m: vf(m, q(m, pi)) * (pi * f(m)
+ (1 - pi) * g(m))
integral, error = fixed_quad(integrand, 0, self.w_max)
v2 = c + beta * integral
new_v[i] = max(v1, v2)
return new_v
def get_greedy(self, v):

"""
Compute optimal actions taking v as the value function.
Parameters
----------
v : array_like(float, ndim=1, length=len(pi_grid))
An approximate value function represented as a
one-dimensional array.
Returns
-------
policy : array_like(float, ndim=1, length=len(pi_grid))
The decision to accept or reject an offer where 1 indicates
accept and 0 indicates reject
"""
f, g, beta, c, q = self.f, self.g, self.beta, self.c, self.q
vf = LinearNDInterpolator(self.grid_points, v)
N = len(v)
policy = np.zeros(N, dtype=int)
for i in range(N):
w, pi = self.grid_points[i, :]
v1 = w / (1 - beta)

integrand = lambda m: vf(m, q(m, pi)) * (pi * f(m) +

(1 - pi) * g(m))
v2 = c + beta * integral
policy[i] = v1 > v2 # Evaluates to 1 or 0
return policy
def res_wage_operator(self, phi):

"""
Updates the reservation wage function guess phi via the operator
Q.
Parameters
----------
phi : array_like(float, ndim=1, length=len(pi_grid))
This is reservation wage guess
Returns
-------
new_phi : array_like(float, ndim=1, length=len(pi_grid))
The updated reservation wage guess.
"""
beta, c, f, g, q = self.beta, self.c, self.f, self.g, self.q
# == Turn phi into a function == #
phi_f = lambda p: interp(p, self.pi_grid, phi)
new_phi = np.empty(len(phi))
for i, pi in enumerate(self.pi_grid):
def integrand(x):
"Integral expression on right-hand side of operator"
return npmax(x, phi_f(q(x, pi))) * (pi*f(x) + (1 - pi)*g(x))
new_phi[i] = (1 - beta) * c + beta * integral
return new_phi
The class SearchProblem is used to store parameters and methods needed to compute optimal
actions
The Bellman operator is implemented as the method bellman_operator(), while get_greedy()
computes an approximate optimal policy from a guess v of the value function
We will omit a detailed discussion of the code because there is a more efficient solution method
These ideas are implemented in the res_wage_operator method
Before explaining it let’s look quickly at solutions computed from value function iteration
Here’s the value function:
The optimal policy:


Code for producing these figures can be found in file odu/odu_vfi_plots.py from the applications
repository
The code takes several minutes to run
The results fit well with our intuition from section looking forward
• The black line in the figure above corresponds to the function w̄(π ) introduced there
• decreasing as expected
Take 2: A More Efficient Method
Our implementation of VFI can be optimized to some degree,

But instead of pursuing that, let’s consider another method to solve for the optimal policy
Uses iteration with an operator having the same contraction rate as the Bellman operator, but
• one dimensional rather than two dimensional
• no maximization step
As a consequence, the algorithm is orders of magnitude faster than VFI
This section illustrates the point that when it comes to programming, a bit of mathematical
analysis goes a long way
Another Functional Equation To begin, note that when w = w̄(π ), the worker is indifferent
between accepting and rejecting
Hence the two choices on the right-hand side of (3.39) have equal value:
w̄(π )
Z
= c+β V (w0 , π 0 ) hπ (w0 ) dw0 (3.40)
1−β
Together, (3.39) and (3.40) give

w w̄(π )
V (w, π ) = max , (3.41)
1−β 1−β
Combining (3.40) and (3.41), we obtain
w0 w̄(π 0 )

w̄(π )
Z
= c+β max , hπ (w0 ) dw0
1−β 1−β 1−β
Multiplying by 1 − β, substituting in π 0 = q(w0 , π ) and using ◦ for composition of functions yields

Z
max w0 , w̄ ◦ q(w0 , π ) hπ (w0 ) dw0

w̄(π ) = (1 − β)c + β (3.42)
Equation (3.42) can be understood as a functional equation, where w̄ is the unknown function
• Let’s call it the reservation wage functional equation (RWFE)
• The solution w̄ to the RWFE is the object that we wish to compute

Solving the RWFE To solve the RWFE, we will first show that its solution is the fixed point of a
contraction mapping
To this end, let
• b[0, 1] be the bounded real-valued functions on [0, 1]
• kψk := supx∈[0,1] |ψ( x )|
Consider the operator Q mapping ψ ∈ b[0, 1] into Qψ ∈ b[0, 1] via

Z
max w0 , ψ ◦ q(w0 , π ) hπ (w0 ) dw0

( Qψ)(π ) = (1 − β)c + β (3.43)
Comparing (3.42) and (3.43), we see that the set of fixed points of Q exactly coincides with the set
of solutions to the RWFE
• If Qw̄ = w̄ then w̄ solves (3.42) and vice versa
Moreover, for any ψ, φ ∈ b[0, 1], basic algebra and the triangle inequality for integrals tells us that
Z
max w0 , ψ ◦ q(w0 , π ) − max w0 , φ ◦ q(w0 , π ) hπ (w0 ) dw0 (3.44)

|( Qψ)(π ) − ( Qφ)(π )| ≤ β
Working case by case, it is easy to check that for real numbers a, b, c we always have
| max{ a, b} − max{ a, c}| ≤ |b − c| (3.45)
Combining (3.44) and (3.45) yields

Z
ψ ◦ q(w0 , π ) − φ ◦ q(w0 , π ) hπ (w0 ) dw0 ≤ βkψ − φk

|( Qψ)(π ) − ( Qφ)(π )| ≤ β (3.46)
Taking the supremum over π now gives us
k Qψ − Qφk ≤ βkψ − φk (3.47)
In other words, Q is a contraction of modulus β on the complete metric space (b[0, 1], k · k)
Hence
• A unique solution w̄ to the RWFE exists in b[0, 1]
• Qk ψ → w̄ uniformly as k → ∞, for any ψ ∈ b[0, 1]
Implementation These ideas are implemented in the res_wage_operator method from odu.py
as shown above
The method corresponds to action of the operator Q
The following exercise asks you to exploit these facts to compute an approximation to w̄

3.7. OPTIMAL SAVINGS 475
Exercises
Exercise 1 Use the default parameters and the res_wage_operator method to compute an opti-
mal policy
Your result should coincide closely with the figure for the optimal policy shown above
Try experimenting with different parameters, and confirm that the change in the optimal policy
coincides with your intuition
Solutions
Solution notebook
3.7 Optimal Savings
Contents
• Optimal Savings
– Overview
– The Optimal Savings Problem
– Computation
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
Next we study the standard optimal savings problem for an infinitely lived consumer—the “com-
mon ancestor” described in [LS12], section 1.3
• Also known as the income fluctuation problem
• An important sub-problem for many representative macroeconomic models
– [Aiy94]
– [Hug93]
– etc.
• Useful references include [Dea91], [DH10], [Kuh13], [Rab02], [Rei09] and [SE77]
Our presentation of the model will be relatively brief
• For further details on economic intuition, implication and models, see [LS12]
• Proofs of all mathematical results stated below can be found in this paper

In this lecture we will explore an alternative to value function iteration (VFI) called policy function
iteration (PFI)
• Based on the Euler equation, and not to be confused with Howard’s policy iteration algo-
rithm
• Globally convergent under mild assumptions, even when utility is unbounded (both above
and below)
• Numerically, turns out to be faster and more efficient than VFI for this model
Model features
• Infinite horizon dynamic programming with two states and one control
The Optimal Savings Problem
Consider a household that chooses a state-contingent consumption plan {ct }t≥0 to maximize
∞
E ∑ βt u(ct )
t =0
subject to
ct + at+1 ≤ Rat + zt , ct ≥ 0, at ≥ −b t = 0, 1, . . . (3.48)
Here
• β ∈ (0, 1) is the discount factor
• at is asset holdings at time t, with ad-hoc borrowing constraint at ≥ −b
• ct is consumption
• zt is non-capital income (wages, unemployment compensation, etc.)
• R := 1 + r, where r > 0 is the interest rate on savings
Assumptions
1. {zt } is a finite Markov process with Markov matrix Π taking values in Z
2. | Z | < ∞ and Z ⊂ (0, ∞)
3. r > 0 and βR < 1
4. u is smooth, strictly increasing and strictly concave with limc→0 u0 (c) = ∞ and
limc→∞ u0 (c) = 0
The asset space is [−b, ∞) and the state is the pair ( a, z) ∈ S := [−b, ∞) × Z
A feasible consumption path from ( a, z) ∈ S is a consumption sequence {ct } such that {ct } and its
induced asset path { at } satisfy
1. ( a0 , z0 ) = ( a, z)
2. the feasibility constraints in (3.48), and

3. measurability of ct w.r.t. the filtration generated by {z1 , . . . , zt }

The meaning of the third point is just that consumption at time t can only be a function of outcomes
that have already been observed
The value function V : S → R is defined by
∞
( )
V ( a, z) := sup E ∑ β u(ct )
t
(3.49)
t =0
where the supremum is over all feasible consumption paths from ( a, z).
An optimal consumption path from ( a, z) is a feasible consumption path from ( a, z) that attains the
supremum in (3.49)
Given our assumptions, it is known that
1. For each ( a, z) ∈ S, a unique optimal consumption path from ( a, z) exists
2. This path is the unique feasible path from ( a, z) satisfying the Euler equality
u0 (ct ) = max βR Et [u0 (ct+1 )] , u0 ( Rat + zt + b)

(3.50)
and the transversality condition
lim βt E [u0 (ct ) at+1 ] = 0. (3.51)
t→∞
Moreover, there exists an optimal consumption function c∗ : S → [0, ∞) such that the path from ( a, z)
generated by
( a0 , z0 ) = ( a, z), zt+1 ∼ Π(zt , dy), ct = c∗ ( at , zt ) and at+1 = Rat + zt − ct
satisfies both (3.50) and (3.51), and hence is the unique optimal path from ( a, z)
In summary, to solve the optimization problem, we need to compute c∗
Computation
There are two standard ways to solve for c∗

1. Value function iteration (VFI)
2. Policy function iteration (PFI) using the Euler equality
Policy function iteration
We can rewrite (3.50) to make it a statement about functions rather than random variables
In particular, consider the functional equation
Z
u0 ◦ c ( a, z) = max γ u0 ◦ c { Ra + z − c( a, z), ź} Π(z, dź) , u0 ( Ra + z + b) (3.52)
where γ := βR and u0 ◦ c(s) := u0 (c(s))

Equation (3.52) is a functional equation in c
In order to identify a solution, let C be the set of candidate consumption functions c : S → R such
that

• each c ∈ C is continuous and (weakly) increasing

• min Z ≤ c( a, z) ≤ Ra + z + b for all ( a, z) ∈ S
In addition, let K : C → C be defined as follows:
For given c ∈ C , the value Kc( a, z) is the unique t ∈ J ( a, z) that solves
Z
0 0 0
u (t) = max γ u ◦ c { Ra + z − t, ź} Π(z, dź) , u ( Ra + z + b) (3.53)
where
J ( a, z) := {t ∈ R : min Z ≤ t ≤ Ra + z + b} (3.54)
We refer to K as Coleman’s policy function operator [Col90]
It is known that
• K is a contraction mapping on C under the metric
ρ(c, d) := k u0 ◦ c − u0 ◦ d k := sup | u0 (c(s)) − u0 (d(s)) | (c, d ∈ C )
s∈S
• The metric ρ is complete on C

• Convergence in ρ implies uniform convergence on compacts
In consequence, K has a unique fixed point c∗ ∈ C and K n c → c∗ as n → ∞ for any c ∈ C
By the definition of K, the fixed points of K in C coincide with the solutions to (3.52) in C
In particular, it can be shown that the path {ct } generated from ( a0 , z0 ) ∈ S using policy function
c∗ is the unique optimal path from ( a0 , z0 ) ∈ S
TL;DR The unique optimal policy can be computed by picking any c ∈ C and iterating with the
operator K defined in (3.53)
Value function iteration
The Bellman operator for this problem is given by
Z
Tv( a, z) = max u(c) + β v( Ra + z − c, ź)Π(z, dź) (3.55)
0≤c≤ Ra+z+b
We have to be careful with VFI (i.e., iterating with T) in this setting because u is not assumed to be
bounded
• In fact typically unbounded both above and below — e.g. u(c) = log c
• In which case, the standard DP theory does not apply
• T n v is not guaranteed to converge to the value function for arbitrary continous bounded v
Nonetheless, we can always try the strategy “iterate and hope”
• In this case we can check the outcome by comparing with PFI
• The latter is known to converge, as described above

Implementation The code in ifp.py from QuantEcon.applications provides implementations of

both VFI and PFI
The code is repeated here and a description and clarifications are given below
"""
Filename: ifp.py
Tools for solving the standard optimal savings / income fluctuation

problem for an infinitely lived consumer facing an exogenous income
process that evolves according to a Markov chain.
References
----------
http://quant-econ.net/py/ifp.html
"""
import numpy as np
from scipy.optimize import fminbound, brentq
class ConsumerProblem(object):
"""
A class for solving the income fluctuation problem. Iteration with
either the Coleman or Bellman operators from appropriate initial
conditions leads to convergence to the optimal consumption policy.
The income process is a finite state Markov chain. Note that the
Coleman operator is the preferred method, as it is almost always
faster and more accurate. The Bellman operator is only provided for
comparison.
Parameters
----------
r : scalar(float), optional(default=0.01)
A strictly positive scalar giving the interest rate
The discount factor, must satisfy (1 + r) * beta < 1
Pi : array_like(float), optional(default=((0.60, 0.40),(0.05, 0.95))
A 2D NumPy array giving the Markov matrix for {z_t}
z_vals : array_like(float), optional(default=(0.5, 0.95))
The state space of {z_t}
b : scalar(float), optional(default=0)
The borrowing constraint
grid_max : scalar(float), optional(default=16)
Max of the grid used to solve the problem
grid_size : scalar(int), optional(default=50)
Number of grid points to solve problem, a grid on [-b, grid_max]
u : callable, optional(default=np.log)
The utility function

du : callable, optional(default=lambda x: 1/x)

The derivative of u
Attributes
----------
r, beta, Pi, z_vals, b, u, du : see Parameters
asset_grid : np.ndarray
One dimensional grid for assets
"""
def __init__(self, r=0.01, beta=0.96, Pi=((0.6, 0.4), (0.05, 0.95)),

z_vals=(0.5, 1.0), b=0, grid_max=16, grid_size=50,
u=np.log, du=lambda x: 1/x):
self.u, self.du = u, du
self.r, self.R = r, 1 + r
self.beta, self.b = beta, b
self.Pi, self.z_vals = np.array(Pi), tuple(z_vals)
self.asset_grid = np.linspace(-b, grid_max, grid_size)
def __repr__(self):
m = "ConsumerProblem(r={r:g}, beta={be:g}, Pi='{n:g} by {n:g}', "
m += "z_vals={z}, b={b:g}, grid_max={gm:g}, grid_size={gs:g}, "
m += "u={u}, du={du})"
return m.format(r=self.r, be=self.beta, n=self.Pi.shape[0],
z=self.z_vals, b=self.b,
gm=self.asset_grid.max(), gs=self.asset_grid.size,
u=self.u, du=self.du)
def __str__(self):
m = """
Consumer Problem (optimal savings):
- r (interest rate) : {r:g}
- beta (discount rate) : {be:g}
- Pi (transition matrix) : {n} by {n}
- z_vals (state space of shocks) : {z}
- b (borrowing constraint) : {b:g}
- grid_max (maximum of asset grid) : {gm:g}
- grid_size (number of points in asset grid) : {gs:g}
- u (utility function) : {u}
- du (marginal utility function) : {du}
"""
return dedent(m.format(r=self.r, be=self.beta, n=self.Pi.shape[0],
z=self.z_vals, b=self.b,
gm=self.asset_grid.max(),
gs=self.asset_grid.size, u=self.u,
du=self.du))
def bellman_operator(self, V, return_policy=False):

"""
The approximate Bellman operator, which computes and returns the
updated value function TV (or the V-greedy policy c if
return_policy is True).

Parameters
----------
A NumPy array of dim len(cp.asset_grid) times len(cp.z_vals)
return_policy : bool, optional(default=False)
Indicates whether to return the greed policy given V or the
updated value function TV. Default is TV.
Returns
-------
array_like(float)
Returns either the greed policy given V or the updated value
function TV.
"""
# === Simplify names, set up arrays === #
R, Pi, beta, u, b = self.R, self.Pi, self.beta, self.u, self.b
asset_grid, z_vals = self.asset_grid, self.z_vals
new_V = np.empty(V.shape)
new_c = np.empty(V.shape)
z_idx = list(range(len(z_vals)))
# === Linear interpolation of V along the asset grid === #

vf = lambda a, i_z: interp(a, asset_grid, V[:, i_z])
# === Solve r.h.s. of Bellman equation === #

for i_a, a in enumerate(asset_grid):
for i_z, z in enumerate(z_vals):
def obj(c): # objective function to be *minimized*
y = sum(vf(R * a + z - c, j) * Pi[i_z, j] for j in z_idx)
return - u(c) - beta * y
c_star = fminbound(obj, np.min(z_vals), R * a + z + b)
new_c[i_a, i_z], new_V[i_a, i_z] = c_star, -obj(c_star)
if return_policy:
return new_c
else:
return new_V
def coleman_operator(self, c):

"""
The approximate Coleman operator.
Iteration with this operator corresponds to policy function

iteration. Computes and returns the updated consumption policy
c. The array c is replaced with a function cf that implements
univariate linear interpolation over the asset grid for each
possible value of z.
Parameters
----------
c : array_like(float)
A NumPy array of dim len(cp.asset_grid) times len(cp.z_vals)

Returns
-------
array_like(float)
The updated policy, where updating is by the Coleman
operator. function TV.
"""
# === simplify names, set up arrays === #
R, Pi, beta, du, b = self.R, self.Pi, self.beta, self.du, self.b
z_size = len(z_vals)
gamma = R * beta
vals = np.empty(z_size)
# === linear interpolation to get consumption function === #

def cf(a):
"""
The call cf(a) returns an array containing the values c(a,
z) for each z in z_vals. For each such z, the value c(a, z)
is constructed by univariate linear approximation over asset
space, based on the values in the array c
"""
for i in range(z_size):
vals[i] = interp(a, asset_grid, c[:, i])
return vals
# === solve for root to get Kc === #

Kc = np.empty(c.shape)
def h(t):
expectation = np.dot(du(cf(R * a + z - t)), Pi[i_z, :])
return du(t) - max(gamma * expectation, du(R * a + z + b))
Kc[i_a, i_z] = brentq(h, np.min(z_vals), R * a + z + b)
return Kc
def initialize(self):
"""
Creates a suitable initial conditions V and c for value function
and policy function iteration respectively.
Returns
-------
Initial condition for value function iteration
c : array_like(float)
Initial condition for Coleman operator iteration
"""
# === Simplify names, set up arrays === #
R, beta, u, b = self.R, self.beta, self.u, self.b

shape = len(asset_grid), len(z_vals)

V, c = np.empty(shape), np.empty(shape)
# === Populate V and c === #

c_max = R * a + z + b
c[i_a, i_z] = c_max
V[i_a, i_z] = u(c_max) / (1 - beta)
return V, c
The code contains a class called ConsumerProblem that

• stores all the relevant parameters of a given model
• defines methods
– bellman_operator, which implements the Bellman operator T specified above
– coleman_operator, which implements the Coleman operator K specified above
– initialize, which generates suitable initial conditions for iteration
The methods bellman_operator and coleman_operator both use linear interpolation along the
asset grid to approximate the value and consumption functions
The following exercises walk you through several applications where policy functions are com-
puted
In exercise 1 you will see that while VFI and PFI produce similar results, the latter is much faster
• Because we are exploiting analytically derived first order conditions
Another benefit of working in policy function space rather than value function space is that value
functions typically have more curvature
• Makes them harder to approximate numerically
Exercises
Exercise 1 The first exercise is to replicate the following figure, which compares PFI and VFI as
solution methods
The figure shows consumption policies computed by iteration of K and T respectively
• In the case of iteration with T, the final value function is used to compute the observed policy
Consumption is shown as a function of assets with income z held fixed at its smallest value
The following details are needed to replicate the figure
• The parameters are the default parameters in the definition of consumerProblem
• The initial conditions are the default ones from initialize()
• Both operators are iterated 80 times

When you run your code you will observe that iteration with K is faster than iteration with T
In the IPython shell, a comparison of the operators can be made as follows
In [1]: run ifp.py
In [3]: cp = ConsumerProblem()
In [4]: v, c = cp.initialize()
In [5]: timeit cp.bellman_operator(v)

10 loops, best of 3: 142 ms per loop
In [6]: timeit cp.coleman_operator(c)

The output shows that Coleman operator is about 6 times faster

From now on we will only use the Coleman operator
Exercise 2 Next let’s consider how the interest rate affects consumption
Reproduce the following figure, which shows (approximately) optimal consumption policies for
different interest rates
• Other than r, all parameters are at their default values
• r steps through np.linspace(0, 0.04, 4)
• Consumption is plotted against assets for income shock fixed at the smallest value

The figure shows that higher interest rates boost savings and hence suppress consumption
Exercise 3 Now let’s consider the long run asset levels held by households
We’ll take r = 0.03 and otherwise use default parameters
The following figure is a 45 degree diagram showing the law of motion for assets when consump-
tion is optimal
The green line and blue line represent the function
a0 = h( a, z) := Ra + z − c∗ ( a, z)
when income z takes its high and low values repectively

The dashed line is the 45 degree line
We can see from the figure that the dynamics will be stable — assets do not diverge
In fact there is a unique stationary distribution of assets that we can calculate by simulation
• Can be proved via theorem 2 of [HP92]
• Represents the long run dispersion of assets across households when households have id-
iosyncratic shocks
Ergodicity is valid here, so stationary probabilities can be calculated by averaging over a single
long time series
• Hence to approximate the stationary distribution we can simulate a long time series for
assets and histogram, as in the following figure
Your task is to replicate the figure


• Parameters are as discussed above

• The histogram in the figure used a single time series { at } of length 500,000
• Given the length of this time series, the initial condition ( a0 , z0 ) will not matter
• You might find it helpful to use the function mc_sample_path from quantecon
• Note that the simulations will be relatively slow due to the inherent need for loops — we’ll
talk about how to speed up this kind of code a bit later on
Exercise 4 Following on from exercises 2 and 3, let’s look at how savings and aggregate asset
holdings vary with the interest rate
• Note: [LS12] section 18.6 can be consulted for more background on the topic treated in this
exercise
For a given parameterization of the model, the mean of the stationary distribution can be inter-
preted as aggregate capital in an economy with a unit mass of ex-ante identical households facing
idiosyncratic shocks
Let’s look at how this measure of aggregate capital varies with the interest rate and borrowing
constraint
The next figure plots aggregate capital against the interest rate for b in (1, 3)
As is traditional, the price (interest rate) is on the vertical axis

The horizontal axis is aggregate capital computed as the mean of the stationary distribution
Exercise 4 is to replicate the figure, making use of code from previous exercises
Try to explain why the measure of aggregate capital is equal to −b when r = 0 for both cases
shown here

3.8. COVARIANCE STATIONARY PROCESSES 488
Solutions
Solution notebook
3.8 Covariance Stationary Processes
Contents
• Covariance Stationary Processes
– Overview
– Introduction
– Spectral Analysis
– Implementation
Overview
In this lecture we study covariance stationary linear stochastic processes, a class of models rou-
tinely used to study economic and financial time series
This class has the advantange of being
1. simple enough to be described by an elegant and comprehensive theory
2. relatively broad in terms of the kinds of dynamics it can represent
We consider these models in both the time and frequency domain
ARMA Processes We will focus much of our attention on linear covariance stationary models
with a finite number of parameters
In particular, we will study stationary ARMA processes, which form a cornerstone of the standard
theory of time series analysis
It’s well known that every ARMA processes can be represented in linear state space form
However, ARMA have some important structure that makes it valuable to study them separately
Spectral Analysis Analysis in the frequency domain is also called spectral analysis
In essence, spectral analysis provides an alternative representation of the autocovariance of a co-
variance stationary process
Having a second representation of this important object
• shines new light on the dynamics of the process in question
• allows for a simpler, more tractable representation in certain important cases
The famous Fourier transform and its inverse are used to map between the two representations

Other Reading For supplementary reading, see

• [Sar87], chapter 11
• John Cochrane’s notes on time series analysis, chapter 8
• [Shi95], chapter 6
• [CC08], all
Introduction
Consider a sequence of random variables { Xt } indexed by t ∈ Z and taking values in R

Thus, { Xt } begins in the infinite past and extends to the infinite future — a convenient and stan-
dard assumption
As in other fields, successful economic modeling typically requires identifying some deep struc-
ture in this process that is relatively constant over time
If such structure can be found, then each new observation Xt , Xt+1 , . . . provides additional infor-
mation about it — which is how we learn from data
For this reason, we will focus in what follows on processes that are stationary — or become so after
some transformation (differencing, cointegration, etc.)
Definitions A real-valued stochastic process { Xt } is called covariance stationary if

1. Its mean µ := EXt does not depend on t
2. For all k in Z, the k-th autocovariance γ(k ) := E( Xt − µ)( Xt+k − µ) is finite and depends
only on k
The function γ : Z → R is called the autocovariance function of the process
Throughout this lecture, we will work exclusively with zero-mean (i.e., µ = 0) covariance station-
ary processes
The zero-mean assumption costs nothing in terms of generality, since working with non-zero-
mean processes involves no more than adding a constant
Example 1: White Noise Perhaps the simplest class of covariance stationary processes is the
white noise processes
A process {et } is called a white noise process if
1. Eet = 0
2. γ(k ) = σ2 1{k = 0} for some σ > 0
(Here 1{k = 0} is defined to be 1 if k = 0 and zero otherwise)

Example 2: General Linear Processes From the simple building block provided by white noise,
we can construct a very flexible family of covariance stationary processes — the general linear
processes
∞
Xt = ∑ ψ j et − j , t∈Z (3.56)
j =0
where
• {et } is white noise
• {ψt } is a square summable sequence in R (that is, ∑∞
t=0 ψt < ∞)
2
The sequence {ψt } is often called a linear filter

With some manipulations it is possible to confirm that the autocovariance function for (3.56) is
∞
γ ( k ) = σ2 ∑ ψj ψj+k (3.57)
j =0
By the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality one can show that the last expression is finite. Clearly it does
not depend on t
Wold’s Decomposition Remarkably, the class of general linear processes goes a long way to-
wards describing the entire class of zero-mean covariance stationary processes
In particular, Wold’s theorem states that every zero-mean covariance stationary process { Xt } can
be written as
∞
Xt = ∑ ψ j et − j + ηt
j =0
where
• {et } is white noise
• {ψt } is square summable
• ηt can be expressed as a linear function of Xt−1 , Xt−2 , . . . and is perfectly predictable over
arbitrarily long horizons
For intuition and further discussion, see [Sar87], p. 286
AR and MA General linear processes are a very broad class of processes, and it often pays to
specialize to those for which there exists a representation having only finitely many parameters
(In fact, experience shows that models with a relatively small number of parameters typically
perform better than larger models, especially for forecasting)
One very simple example of such a model is the AR(1) process
Xt = φXt−1 + et where |φ| < 1 and {et } is white noise (3.58)
By direct substitution, it is easy to verify that Xt = ∑∞ j

j =0 φ e t − j
Hence { Xt } is a general linear process

Applying (3.57) to the previous expression for Xt , we get the AR(1) autocovariance function
σ2
γ(k ) = φk , k = 0, 1, . . . (3.59)
1 − φ2
The next figure plots this function for φ = 0.8 and φ = −0.8 with σ = 1
Another very simple process is the MA(1) process
Xt = et + θet−1
You will be able to verify that
γ (0) = σ 2 (1 + θ 2 ), γ(1) = σ2 θ, and γ(k) = 0 ∀k > 1
The AR(1) can be generalized to an AR(p) and likewise for the MA(1)
Putting all of this together, we get the
ARMA Processes A stochastic process { Xt } is called an autoregressive moving average process, or

ARMA(p, q), if it can be written as
Xt = φ1 Xt−1 + · · · + φ p Xt− p + et + θ1 et−1 + · · · + θq et−q (3.60)
where {et } is white noise

There is an alternative notation for ARMA processes in common use, based around the lag operator
L
Def. Given arbitrary variable Yt , let Lk Yt := Yt−k
It turns out that
• lag operators can lead to very succinct expressions for linear stochastic processes

• algebraic manipulations treating the lag operator as an ordinary scalar often are legitimate
Using L, we can rewrite (3.60) as
L0 Xt − φ1 L1 Xt − · · · − φ p L p Xt = L0 et + θ1 L1 et + · · · + θq Lq et (3.61)
If we let φ(z) and θ (z) be the polynomials
φ(z) := 1 − φ1 z − · · · − φ p z p and θ ( z ) : = 1 + θ1 z + · · · + θ q z q (3.62)
then (3.61) simplifies further to

φ ( L ) Xt = θ ( L ) et (3.63)
In what follows we always assume that the roots of the polynomial φ(z) lie outside the unit circle
in the complex plane
This condition is sufficient to guarantee that the ARMA(p, q) process is convariance stationary
In fact it implies that the process falls within the class of general linear processes described above
That is, given an ARMA(p, q) process { Xt } satisfying the unit circle condition, there exists a square
summable sequence {ψt } with Xt = ∑∞ j=0 ψ j et− j for all t
The sequence {ψt } can be obtained by a recursive procedure outlined on page 79 of [CC08]
In this context, the function t 7→ ψt is often called the impulse response function
Spectral Analysis
Autocovariance functions provide a great deal of infomation about covariance stationary pro-
cesses
In fact, for zero-mean Gaussian processes, the autocovariance function characterizes the entire
joint distribution
Even for non-Gaussian processes, it provides a significant amount of information
It turns out that there is an alternative representation of the autocovariance function of a covari-
ance stationary process, called the spectral density
At times, the spectral density is easier to derive, easier to manipulate and provides additional
intuition
Complex Numbers Before discussing the spectral density, we invite you to recall the main prop-
erties of complex numbers (or skip to the next section)
It can be helpful to remember that, in a formal sense, complex numbers are just points ( x, y) ∈ R2
endowed with a specific notion of multiplication
When ( x, y) is regarded as a complex number, x is called the real part and y is called the imaginary
part
The modulus or absolute value of a complex number z = ( x, y) is just its Euclidean norm in R2 , but
is usually written as |z| instead of kzk

The product of two complex numbers ( x, y) and (u, v) is defined to be ( xu − vy, xv + yu), while
addition is standard pointwise vector addition
When endowed with these notions of multiplication and addition, the set of complex numbers
forms a field — addition and multiplication play well together, just as they do in R
The complex number ( x, y) is often written as x + iy, where i is called the imaginary unit, and is
understood to obey i2 = −1
The x + iy notation can be thought of as an easy way to remember the definition of multiplication
given above, because, proceeding naively,
( x + iy)(u + iv) = xu − yv + i ( xv + yu)
Converted back to our first notation, this becomes ( xu − vy, xv + yu), which is the same as the
product of ( x, y) and (u, v) from our previous definition
Complex numbers are also sometimes expressed in their polar form reiω , which should be inter-
preted as
reiω := r (cos(ω ) + i sin(ω ))
Spectral Densities Let { Xt } be a covariance stationary process with autocovariance function γ

satisfying ∑k γ(k )2 < ∞
The spectral density f of { Xt } is defined as the discrete time Fourier transform of its autocovariance
function γ
f (ω ) := ∑ γ(k )e−iωk , ω∈R
k ∈Z
(Some authors normalize the expression on the right by constants such as 1/π — the chosen
convention makes little difference provided you are consistent)
Using the fact that γ is even, in the sense that γ(t) = γ(−t) for all t, you should be able to show
that
f (ω ) = γ(0) + 2 ∑ γ(k ) cos(ωk ) (3.64)
k ≥1
It is not difficult to confirm that f is

• real-valued
• even ( f (ω ) = f (−ω ) ), and
• 2π-periodic, in the sense that f (2π + ω ) = f (ω ) for all ω
It follows that the values of f on [0, π ] determine the values of f on all of R — the proof is an
exercise
For this reason it is standard to plot the spectral density only on the interval [0, π ]
Example 1: White Noise Consider a white noise process {et } with standard deviation σ
It is simple to check that in this case we have f (ω ) = σ2 . In particular, f is a constant function
As we will see, this can be interpreted as meaning that “all frequencies are equally present”

(White light has this property when frequency refers to the visible spectrum, a connection that
provides the origins of the term “white noise”)
Example 2: AR and :index‘MA‘ and ARMA It is an exercise to show that the MA(1) process
Xt = θet−1 + et has spectral density
f (ω ) = σ2 (1 + 2θ cos(ω ) + θ 2 ) (3.65)
With a bit more effort, it’s possible to show (see, e.g., p. 261 of [Sar87]) that the spectral density of
the AR(1) process Xt = φXt−1 + et is
σ2
f (ω ) = (3.66)
1 − 2φ cos(ω ) + φ2
More generally, it can be shown that the spectral density of the ARMA process (3.60) is
θ (eiω ) 2 2

f (ω ) =
σ (3.67)
φ(eiω )
where
• σ is the standard deviation of the white noise process {et }
• the polynomials φ(·) and θ (·) are as defined in (3.62)
The derivation of (3.67) uses the fact that convolutions become products under Fourier transfor-
mations
The proof is elegant and can be found in many places — see, for example, [Sar87], chapter 11,
section 4
It’s a nice exercise to verify that (3.65) and (3.66) are indeed special cases of (3.67)
Interpreting the Spectral Density Plotting (3.66) reveals the shape of the spectral density for the
AR(1) model when φ takes the values 0.8 and -0.8 respectively
These spectral densities correspond to the autocovariance functions for the AR(1) process shown
above
Informally, we think of the spectral density as being large at those ω ∈ [0, π ] such that the autoco-
variance function exhibits significant cycles at this “frequency”
To see the idea, let’s consider why, in the lower panel of the preceding figure, the spectral density
for the case φ = −0.8 is large at ω = π
Recall that the spectral density can be expressed as
f (ω ) = γ(0) + 2 ∑ γ(k ) cos(ωk ) = γ(0) + 2 ∑ (−0.8)k cos(ωk ) (3.68)

k ≥1 k ≥1
When we evaluate this at ω = π, we get a large number because cos(πk ) is large and positive
when (−0.8)k is positive, and large in absolute value and negative when (−0.8)k is negative


Hence the product is always large and positive, and hence the sum of the products on the right-
hand side of (3.68) is large
These ideas are illustrated in the next figure, which has k on the horizontal axis (click to enlarge)
On the other hand, if we evaluate f (ω ) at ω = π/3, then the cycles are not matched, the sequence
γ(k ) cos(ωk ) contains both positive and negative terms, and hence the sum of these terms is much
smaller
In summary, the spectral density is large at frequencies ω where the autocovariance function ex-
hibits cycles
Inverting the Transformation We have just seen that the spectral density is useful in the sense
that it provides a frequency-based perspective on the autocovariance structure of a covariance
stationary process
Another reason that the spectral density is useful is that it can be “inverted” to recover the auto-
covariance function via the inverse Fourier transform
In particular, for all k ∈ Z, we have
1
Z π
γ(k) = f (ω )eiωk dω (3.69)
2π −π
This is convenient in situations where the spectral density is easier to calculate and manipulate
than the autocovariance function
(For example, the expression (3.67) for the ARMA spectral density is much easier to work with
than the expression for the ARMA autocovariance)
Mathematical Theory This section is loosely based on [Sar87], p. 249-253, and included for those
who

• would like a bit more insight into spectral densities

• and have at least some background in Hilbert space theory
Others should feel free to skip to the next section — none of this material is necessary to progress
to computation
Recall that every separable Hilbert space H has a countable orthonormal basis { hk }
The nice thing about such a basis is that every f ∈ H satisfies
f = ∑ αk hk where αk := h f , hk i (3.70)
k
where h·, ·i denotes the inner product in H

Thus, f can be represented to any degree of precision by linearly combining basis vectors
The scalar sequence α = {αk } is called the Fourier coefficients of f , and satisfies ∑k |αk |2 < ∞
In other words, α is in `2 , the set of square summable sequences
Consider an operator T that maps α ∈ `2 into its expansion ∑k αk hk ∈ H
The Fourier coefficients of Tα are just α = {αk }, as you can verify by confirming that h Tα, hk i = αk
Using elementary results from Hilbert space theory, it can be shown that
• T is one-to-one — if α and β are distinct in `2 , then so are their expansions in H
• T is onto — if f ∈ H then its preimage in `2 is the sequence α given by αk = h f , hk i
• T is a linear isometry — in particular hα, βi = h Tα, Tβi
Summarizing these results, we say that any separable Hilbert space is isometrically isomorphic to
`2
In essence, this says that each separable Hilbert space we consider is just a different way of looking
at the fundamental space `2
With this in mind, let’s specialize to a setting where
• γ ∈ `2 is the autocovariance function of a covariance stationary process, and f is the spectral
density
• H = L2 , where L2Ris the set of square summable functions on the interval [−π, π ], with inner
π
product h g, hi = −π g(ω )h(ω )dω
• { hk } = the orthonormal basis for L2 given by the set of trigonometric functions
eiωk
hk (ω ) = √ , k ∈ Z, ω ∈ [−π, π ]
2π
Using the definition of T from above and the fact that f is even, we now have
eiωk 1
Tγ = ∑ γ ( k ) √
2π
= √ f (ω )
2π
(3.71)
k ∈Z
In other words, apart from a scalar multiple, the spectral density is just an transformation of γ ∈ `2
under a certain linear isometry — a different way to view γ

In particular, it is an expansion of the autocovariance function with respect to the trigonometric

basis functions in L2
As discussed above, the Fourier coefficients of Tγ are given by the sequence γ, and, in particular,
γ(k ) = h Tγ, hk i
Transforming this inner product into its integral expression and using (3.71) gives (3.69), justifying
our earlier expression for the inverse transform
Implementation
Most code for working with covariance stationary models deals with ARMA models
Python code for studying ARMA models can be found in the tsa submodule of statsmodels
Since this code doesn’t quite cover our needs — particularly vis-a-vis spectral analysis — we’ve
put together the module arma.py, which is part of QuantEcon.py package.
The module provides functions for mapping ARMA(p, q) models into their
1. impulse response function
2. simulated time series
3. autocovariance function
4. spectral density
In additional to individual plots of these entities, we provide functionality to generate 2x2 plots
containing all this information
In other words, we want to replicate the plots on pages 68–69 of [LS12]
Here’s an example corresponding to the model Xt = 0.5Xt−1 + et − 0.8et−2

Code For interest’s sake,‘‘arma.py‘‘ is printed below

"""
Filename: arma.py
Authors: Doc-Jin Jang, Jerry Choi, Thomas Sargent, John Stachurski
Provides functions for working with and visualizing scalar ARMA processes.
"""
import numpy as np
from numpy import conj, pi
from scipy.signal import dimpulse, freqz, dlsim
# == Ignore unnecessary warnings concerning casting complex variables back to

# floats == #
import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')
class ARMA(object):
r"""
This class represents scalar ARMA(p, q) processes.
If phi and theta are scalars, then the model is

understood to be
.. math::
X_t = \phi X_{t-1} + \epsilon_t + \theta \epsilon_{t-1}
where :math:èpsilon_t` is a white noise process with standard

deviation :math:`sigma`. If phi and theta are arrays or sequences,
then the interpretation is the ARMA(p, q) model
.. math::
X_t = \phi_1 X_{t-1} + ... + \phi_p X_{t-p} +
\epsilon_t + \theta_1 \epsilon_{t-1} + ... +

\theta_q \epsilon_{t-q}
where
* :math:`\phi = (\phi_1, \phi_2,..., \phi_p)`

* :math:`\theta = (\theta_1, \theta_2,..., \theta_q)`
* :math:`\sigma` is a scalar, the standard deviation of the
white noise
Parameters
----------
phi : scalar or iterable or array_like(float)
Autocorrelation values for the autocorrelated variable.
See above for explanation.

theta : scalar or iterable or array_like(float)

Autocorrelation values for the white noise of the model.
See above for explanation
sigma : scalar(float)
The standard deviation of the white noise
Attributes
----------
phi, theta, sigma : see Parmeters
ar_poly : array_like(float)
The polynomial form that is needed by scipy.signal to do the
processing we desire. Corresponds with the phi values
ma_poly : array_like(float)
The polynomial form that is needed by scipy.signal to do the
processing we desire. Corresponds with the theta values
"""
def __init__(self, phi, theta=0, sigma=1):

self._phi, self._theta = phi, theta
self.sigma = sigma
self.set_params()
def __repr__(self):
m = "ARMA(phi=%s , theta=%s , sigma=%s )"
return m % (self.phi, self.theta, self.sigma)
def __str__(self):
m = "An ARMA({p}, {q}) process"
p = np.asarray(self.phi).size
q = np.asarray(self.theta).size
return m.format(p=p, q=q)
# Special latex print method for working in notebook

def _repr_latex_(self):
m = r"$X_t = "
phi = np.atleast_1d(self.phi)
theta = np.atleast_1d(self.theta)
rhs = ""
for (tm, phi_p) in enumerate(phi):
# don't include terms if they are equal to zero
if abs(phi_p) > 1e-12:
rhs += r"%+g X_{t-%i }" % (phi_p, tm+1)
if rhs[0] == "+":
rhs = rhs[1:] # remove initial `+` if phi_1 was positive
rhs += r" + \epsilon_t"
for (tm, th_q) in enumerate(theta):

# don't include terms if they are equal to zero
if abs(th_q) > 1e-12:
rhs += r"%+g \epsilon_{t-%i }" % (th_q, tm+1)

return m + rhs + "$"
@property
def phi(self):
return self._phi
@phi.setter
def phi(self, new_value):
self._phi = new_value
self.set_params()
@property
def theta(self):
return self._theta
@theta.setter
def theta(self, new_value):
self._theta = new_value
self.set_params()
def set_params(self):
r"""
Internally, scipy.signal works with systems of the form
.. math::
ar_{poly}(L) X_t = ma_{poly}(L) \epsilon_t
where L is the lag operator. To match this, we set
.. math::
ar_{poly} = (1, -\phi_1, -\phi_2,..., -\phi_p)
ma_{poly} = (1, \theta_1, \theta_2,..., \theta_q)
In addition, ar_poly must be at least as long as ma_poly.

This can be achieved by padding it out with zeros when required.
"""
# === set up ma_poly === #
ma_poly = np.asarray(self._theta)
self.ma_poly = np.insert(ma_poly, 0, 1) # The array (1, theta)
# === set up ar_poly === #

if np.isscalar(self._phi):
ar_poly = np.array(-self._phi)
else:
ar_poly = -np.asarray(self._phi)
self.ar_poly = np.insert(ar_poly, 0, 1) # The array (1, -phi)
# === pad ar_poly with zeros if required === #

if len(self.ar_poly) < len(self.ma_poly):

temp = np.zeros(len(self.ma_poly) - len(self.ar_poly))

self.ar_poly = np.hstack((self.ar_poly, temp))
def impulse_response(self, impulse_length=30):

"""
Get the impulse response corresponding to our model.
Returns
-------
psi : array_like(float)
psi[j] is the response at lag j of the impulse response.
We take psi[0] as unity.
"""
sys = self.ma_poly, self.ar_poly, 1
times, psi = dimpulse(sys, n=impulse_length)
psi = psi[0].flatten() # Simplify return value into flat array
return psi
def spectral_density(self, two_pi=True, res=1200):

r"""
Compute the spectral density function. The spectral density is
the discrete time Fourier transform of the autocovariance
function. In particular,
.. math::
f(w) = \sum_k \gamma(k) exp(-ikw)
where gamma is the autocovariance function and the sum is over

the set of all integers.
Parameters
----------
two_pi : Boolean, optional
Compute the spectral density function over [0, pi] if
two_pi is False and [0, 2 pi] otherwise. Default value is
True
res : scalar or array_like(int), optional(default=1200)
If res is a scalar then the spectral density is computed at
`res` frequencies evenly spaced around the unit circle, but
if res is an array then the function computes the response
at the frequencies given by the array
Returns
-------
w : array_like(float)
The normalized frequencies at which h was computed, in
radians/sample
spect : array_like(float)
The frequency response

"""
w, h = freqz(self.ma_poly, self.ar_poly, worN=res, whole=two_pi)
spect = h * conj(h) * self.sigma**2
return w, spect
def autocovariance(self, num_autocov=16):

"""
Compute the autocovariance function from the ARMA parameters
over the integers range(num_autocov) using the spectral density
and the inverse Fourier transform.
Parameters
----------
num_autocov : scalar(int), optional(default=16)
The number of autocovariances to calculate
"""
spect = self.spectral_density()[1]
acov = np.fft.ifft(spect).real
# num_autocov should be <= len(acov) / 2

return acov[:num_autocov]
def simulation(self, ts_length=90):

"""
Compute a simulated sample path assuming Gaussian shocks.
Parameters
----------
ts_length : scalar(int), optional(default=90)
Number of periods to simulate for
Returns
-------
vals : array_like(float)
A simulation of the model that corresponds to this class
"""
sys = self.ma_poly, self.ar_poly, 1
u = np.random.randn(ts_length, 1) * self.sigma
vals = dlsim(sys, u)[1]
return vals.flatten()
def plot_impulse_response(self, ax=None, show=True):

if show:
ax.set_title('Impulse response')
yi = self.impulse_response()
ax.stem(list(range(len(yi))), yi)
ax.set_xlim(xmin=(-0.5))
ax.set_ylim(min(yi)-0.1, max(yi)+0.1)

ax.set_xlabel('time')
ax.set_ylabel('response')
if show:
plt.show()
def plot_spectral_density(self, ax=None, show=True):

if show:
ax.set_title('Spectral density')
w, spect = self.spectral_density(two_pi=False)
ax.semilogy(w, spect)
ax.set_xlim(0, pi)
ax.set_ylim(0, np.max(spect))
ax.set_xlabel('frequency')
ax.set_ylabel('spectrum')
if show:
plt.show()
def plot_autocovariance(self, ax=None, show=True):

if show:
ax.set_title('Autocovariance')
acov = self.autocovariance()
ax.stem(list(range(len(acov))), acov)
ax.set_xlim(-0.5, len(acov) - 0.5)
ax.set_ylabel('autocovariance')
if show:
plt.show()
def plot_simulation(self, ax=None, show=True):

if show:
ax.set_title('Sample path')
x_out = self.simulation()
ax.plot(x_out)
ax.set_ylabel('state space')
if show:
plt.show()
def quad_plot(self):
"""
Plots the impulse response, spectral_density, autocovariance,
and one realization of the process.
"""
plot_functions = [self.plot_impulse_response,
self.plot_spectral_density,
self.plot_autocovariance,

self.plot_simulation]
for plot_func, ax in zip(plot_functions, axes.flatten()):
plot_func(ax, show=False)
plt.show()

In [2]: phi = 0.5
In [3]: theta = 0, -0.8
In [4]: lp = qe.ARMA(phi, theta)
In [5]: lp.quad_plot()
Explanation The call

lp = ARMA(phi, theta, sigma)
creates an instance lp that represents the ARMA(p, q) model
Xt = φ1 Xt−1 + ... + φ p Xt− p + et + θ1 et−1 + ... + θq et−q
If phi and theta are arrays or sequences, then the interpretation will be
• phi holds the vector of parameters (φ1 , φ2 , ..., φ p )
• theta holds the vector of parameters (θ1 , θ2 , ..., θq )
The parameter sigma is always a scalar, the standard deviation of the white noise
We also permit phi and theta to be scalars, in which case the model will be interpreted as
Xt = φXt−1 + et + θet−1
The two numerical packages most useful for working with ARMA models are scipy.signal and
numpy.fft
The package scipy.signal expects the parameters to be passed in to its functions in a manner
consistent with the alternative ARMA notation (3.63)
For example, the impulse response sequence {ψt } discussed above can be obtained using
scipy.signal.dimpulse, and the function call should be of the form
times, psi = dimpulse((ma_poly, ar_poly, 1), n=impulse_length)
where ma_poly and ar_poly correspond to the polynomials in (3.62) — that is,
• ma_poly is the vector (1, θ1 , θ2 , . . . , θq )
• ar_poly is the vector (1, −φ1 , −φ2 , . . . , −φ p )

3.9. ESTIMATION OF SPECTRA 506
To this end, we also maintain the arrays ma_poly and ar_poly as instance data, with their values
computed automatically from the values of phi and theta supplied by the user
If the user decides to change the value of either phi or theta ex-post by assignments such as
lp.phi = (0.5, 0.2)
lp.theta = (0, -0.1)
then ma_poly and ar_poly should update automatically to reflect these new parameters
This is achieved in our implementation by using descriptors
Computing the Autocovariance Function As discussed above, for ARMA processes the spectral
density has a simple representation that is relatively easy to calculate
Given this fact, the easiest way to obtain the autocovariance function is to recover it from the
spectral density via the inverse Fourier transform
Here we use NumPy’s Fourier transform package np.fft, which wraps a standard Fortran-based
package called FFTPACK
A look at the np.fft documentation shows that the inverse transform np.fft.ifft takes a given se-
quence A0 , A1 , . . . , An−1 and returns the sequence a0 , a1 , . . . , an−1 defined by
1 n −1
n t∑
ak = At eik2πt/n
=0
Thus, if we set At = f (ωt ), where f is the spectral density and ωt := 2πt/n, then
1 n −1 1 2π n −1
n t∑ ∑
ak = f (ωt )eiωt k = f (ωt )eiωt k , ωt := 2πt/n
=0 2π n t =0
For n sufficiently large, we then have
Z 2π
1 1
Z π
iωk
ak ≈ f (ω )e dω = f (ω )eiωk dω
2π 0 2π −π
(You can check the last equality)
In view of (3.69) we have now shown that, for n sufficiently large, ak ≈ γ(k ) — which is exactly
what we want to compute
3.9 Estimation of Spectra
Contents
• Estimation of Spectra
– Overview
– Periodograms
– Smoothing
– Exercises
– Solutions

Overview
In a previous lecture we covered some fundamental properties of covariance stationary linear

stochastic processes
One objective for that lecture was to introduce spectral densities — a standard and very useful
technique for analyzing such processes
In this lecture we turn to the problem of estimating spectral densities and other related quantities
from data
Estimates of the spectral density are computed using what is known as a periodogram — which
in turn is computed via the famous fast Fourier transform
Once the basic technique has been explained, we will apply it to the analysis of several key macroe-
conomic time series
For supplementary reading, see [Sar87] or [CC08].
Periodograms
Recall that the spectral density f of a covariance stationary process with autocorrelation function
γ can be written as
f (ω ) = γ(0) + 2 ∑ γ(k ) cos(ωk ), ω∈R
k ≥1
Now consider the problem of estimating the spectral density of a given time series, when γ is
unknown
In particular, let X0 , . . . , Xn−1 be n consecutive observations of a single time series that is assumed
to be covariance stationary
The most common estimator of the spectral density of this process is the periodogram of
X0 , . . . , Xn−1 , which is defined as
2
1 n −1
I (ω ) := ∑ Xt eitω , ω∈R (3.72)

n t =0
(Recall that |z| denotes the modulus of complex number z)

Alternatively, I (ω ) can be expressed as
" #2 " #2 
n −1 n −1
1  
n  t∑ ∑
I (ω ) = X t cos ( ωt ) + X t sin ( ωt )
=0 t =0

It is straightforward to show that the function I is even and 2π-periodic (i.e., I (ω ) = I (−ω ) and
I (ω + 2π ) = I (ω ) for all ω ∈ R)
From these two results, you will be able to verify that the values of I on [0, π ] determine the values
of I on all of R
The next section helps to explain the connection between the periodogram and the spectral density

Interpretation To interpret the periodogram, it is convenient to focus on its values at the Fourier
frequencies
2πj
ω j := , j = 0, . . . , n − 1
n
In what sense is I (ω j ) an estimate of f (ω j )?
The answer is straightforward, although it does involve some algebra
With a bit of effort one can show that, for any integer j > 0,
n −1 n −1
t
∑e itω j
= ∑ exp i2πj
n
=0
t =0 t =0
Letting X̄ denote the sample mean n−1 ∑nt=−01 Xt , we then have

2
n −1 n −1 n −1
nI (ω j ) = ∑ ( Xt − X̄ )eitω j = ∑ ( Xt − X̄ )eitω j ∑ ( Xr − X̄ )e−irω j

t =0 t =0 r =0
By carefully working through the sums, one can transform this to

n −1 n −1 n −1
nI (ω j ) = ∑ (Xt − X̄ )2 + 2 ∑ ∑ (Xt − X̄ )(Xt−k − X̄ ) cos(ω j k)
t =0 k =1 t = k
Now let
1 n −1
n t∑
γ̂(k ) := ( Xt − X̄ )( Xt−k − X̄ ), k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1
=k
This is the sample autocovariance function, the natural “plug-in estimator” of the autocovariance
function γ
(“Plug-in estimator” is an informal term for an estimator found by replacing expectations with
sample means)
With this notation, we can now write
n −1
I (ω j ) = γ̂(0) + 2 ∑ γ̂(k) cos(ω j k)
k =1
Recalling our expression for f given above, we see that I (ω j ) is just a sample analog of f (ω j )
Calculation Let’s now consider how to compute the periodogram as defined in (3.72)
There are already functions available that will do this for us — an example is
statsmodels.tsa.stattools.periodogram in the statsmodels package
However, it is very simple to replicate their results, and this will give us a platform to make useful
extensions
The most common way to calculate the periodogram is via the discrete Fourier transform, which
in turn is implemented through the fast Fourier transform algorithm

In general, given a sequence a0 , . . . , an−1 , the discrete Fourier transform computes the sequence
n −1
tj
A j := ∑ at exp i2π , j = 0, . . . , n − 1
t =0 n
With numpy.fft.fft imported as fft and a0 , . . . , an−1 stored in NumPy array a, the function call
fft(a) returns the values A0 , . . . , An−1 as a NumPy array
It follows that, when the data X0 , . . . , Xn−1 is stored in array X, the values I (ω j ) at the Fourier
frequencies, which are given by

n −1 2
1 tj
∑ Xt exp i2π , j = 0, . . . , n − 1

n t =0 n
can be computed by np.abs(fft(X))**2 / len(X)

Note: The NumPy function abs acts elementwise, and correctly handles complex numbers (by
computing their modulus, which is exactly what we need)
Here’s a function that puts all this together
import numpy as np
from numpy.fft import fft
def periodogram(x):
"Argument x is a NumPy array containing the time series data"
n = len(x)
I_w = np.abs(fft(x))**2 / n
w = 2 * np.pi * np.arange(n) / n # Fourier frequencies
w, I_w = w[:int(n/2)], I_w[:int(n/2)] # Truncate to interval [0, pi]
return w, I_w
Let’s generate some data for this function using the ARMA class from QuantEcon
(See the lecture on linear processes for details on this class)
Here’s a code snippet that, once the preceding code has been run, generates data from the process
Xt = 0.5Xt−1 + et − 0.8et−2 (3.73)

where {et } is white noise with unit variance, and compares the periodogram to the actual spectral
density
from quantecon import ARMA
n = 40 # Data size
phi, theta = 0.5, (0, -0.8) # AR and MA parameters
lp = ARMA(phi, theta)
X = lp.simulation(ts_length=n)
x, y = periodogram(X)
ax.plot(x, y, 'b-', lw=2, alpha=0.5, label='periodogram')

x_sd, y_sd = lp.spectral_density(two_pi=False, resolution=120)

ax.plot(x_sd, y_sd, 'r-', lw=2, alpha=0.8, label='spectral density')
ax.legend()
plt.show()
Running this should produce a figure similar to this one
This estimate looks rather disappointing, but the data size is only 40, so perhaps it’s not surprising
that the estimate is poor
However, if we try again with n = 1200 the outcome is not much better
The periodogram is far too irregular relative to the underlying spectral density
This brings us to our next topic

Smoothing
There are two related issues here

One is that, given the way the fast Fourier transform is implemented, the number of points ω at
which I (ω ) is estimated increases in line with the amount of data
In other words, although we have more data, we are also using it to estimate more values
A second issue is that densities of all types are fundamentally hard to estimate without parame-
teric assumptions
Typically, nonparametric estimation of densities requires some degree of smoothing
The standard way that smoothing is applied to periodograms is by taking local averages
In other words, the value I (ω j ) is replaced with a weighted average of the adjacent values
I ( ω j − p ), I ( ω j − p +1 ), . . . , I ( ω j ), . . . , I ( ω j + p )
This weighted average can be written as

p
IS (ω j ) := ∑ w(`) I (ω j+` ) (3.74)
`=− p
where the weights w(− p), . . . , w( p) are a sequence of 2p + 1 nonnegative values summing to one
In generally, larger values of p indicate more smoothing — more on this below
The next figure shows the kind of sequence typically used
Note the smaller weights towards the edges and larger weights in the center, so that more distant
values from I (ω j ) have less weight than closer ones in the sum (3.74)
Estimation with Smoothing Our next step is to provide code that will not only estimate the
periodogram but also provide smoothing as required

Such functions have been written in estspec.py and are available via QuantEcon.py
The file estspec.py are printed below
"""
Filename: estspec.py
Functions for working with periodograms of scalar data.
"""
from __future__ import division, print_function

import numpy as np
from numpy.fft import fft
from pandas import ols, Series
def smooth(x, window_len=7, window='hanning'):

"""
Smooth the data in x using convolution with a window of requested
size and type.
Parameters
----------
A flat NumPy array containing the data to smooth
window_len : scalar(int), optional
An odd integer giving the length of the window. Defaults to 7.
window : string
A string giving the window type. Possible values are 'flat',
'hanning', 'hamming', 'bartlett' or 'blackman'
Returns
-------
array_like(float)
The smoothed values
Notes
-----
Application of the smoothing window at the top and bottom of x is
done by reflecting x around these points to extend it sufficiently
in each direction.
"""
if len(x) < window_len:
raise ValueError("Input vector length must be >= window length.")
if window_len < 3:
raise ValueError("Window length must be at least 3.")
if not window_len % 2: # window_len is even

window_len += 1

print("Window length reset to {}".format(window_len))
windows = {'hanning': np.hanning,

'hamming': np.hamming,
'bartlett': np.bartlett,
'blackman': np.blackman,
'flat': np.ones # moving average
}
# === Reflect x around x[0] and x[-1] prior to convolution === #

k = int(window_len / 2)
xb = x[:k] # First k elements
xt = x[-k:] # Last k elements
s = np.concatenate((xb[::-1], x, xt[::-1]))
# === Select window values === #

if window in windows.keys():
w = windows[window](window_len)
else:
msg = "Unrecognized window type '{}'".format(window)
print(msg + " Defaulting to hanning")
w = windows['hanning'](window_len)
return np.convolve(w / w.sum(), s, mode='valid')
def periodogram(x, window=None, window_len=7):

"""
Computes the periodogram
.. math::
I(w) = (1 / n) | sum_{t=0}^{n-1} x_t e^{itw} |^2
at the Fourier frequences w_j := 2 pi j / n, j = 0, ..., n - 1,

using the fast Fourier transform. Only the frequences w_j in [0,
pi] and corresponding values I(w_j) are returned. If a window type
is given then smoothing is performed.
Parameters
----------
window_len : scalar(int), optional(default=7)
window : string
Returns
-------
Fourier frequences at which periodogram is evaluated

I_w : array_like(float)
Values of periodogram at the Fourier frequences
"""
n = len(x)
I_w = np.abs(fft(x))**2 / n
w = 2 * np.pi * np.arange(n) / n # Fourier frequencies
w, I_w = w[:int(n/2)+1], I_w[:int(n/2)+1] # Take only values on [0, pi]
if window:
I_w = smooth(I_w, window_len=window_len, window=window)
return w, I_w
def ar_periodogram(x, window='hanning', window_len=7):

"""
Compute periodogram from data x, using prewhitening, smoothing and
recoloring. The data is fitted to an AR(1) model for prewhitening,
and the residuals are used to compute a first-pass periodogram with
smoothing. The fitted coefficients are then used for recoloring.
Parameters
----------
window_len : scalar(int), optional
window : string
Returns
-------
Fourier frequences at which periodogram is evaluated
I_w : array_like(float)
Values of periodogram at the Fourier frequences
"""
# === run regression === #
x_current, x_lagged = x[1:], x[:-1] # x_t and x_{t-1}
x_current, x_lagged = Series(x_current), Series(x_lagged) # pandas series
results = ols(y=x_current, x=x_lagged, intercept=True, nw_lags=1)
e_hat = results.resid.values
phi = results.beta['x']
# === compute periodogram on residuals === #

w, I_w = periodogram(e_hat, window=window, window_len=window_len)
# === recolor and return === #

I_w = I_w / np.abs(1 - phi * np.exp(1j * w))**2
return w, I_w

The listing displays three functions, smooth(), periodogram(), ar_periodogram(). We will dis-
cuss the first two here and the third one below
The periodogram() function returns a periodogram, optionally smoothed via the smooth() func-
tion
Regarding the smooth() function, since smoothing adds a nontrivial amount of computation, we
have applied a fairly terse array-centric method based around np.convolve
Readers are left to either explore or simply use this code according to their interests
The next three figures each show smoothed and unsmoothed periodograms, as well as the true
spectral density
(The model is the same as before — see equation (3.73) — and there are 400 observations)
From top figure to bottom, the window length is varied from small to large
In looking at the figure, we can see that for this model and data size, the window length chosen in
the middle figure provides the best fit
Relative to this value, the first window length provides insufficient smoothing, while the third
gives too much smoothing
Of course in real estimation problems the true spectral density is not visible and the choice of
appropriate smoothing will have to be made based on judgement/priors or some other theory
Pre-Filtering and Smoothing In the code listing above we showed three functions from the file
estspec.py
The third function in the file (ar_periodogram()) adds a pre-processing step to periodogram
smoothing
First we describe the basic idea, and after that we give the code
The essential idea is to
1. Transform the data in order to make estimation of the spectral density more efficient
2. Compute the periodogram associated with the transformed data
3. Reverse the effect of the transformation on the periodogram, so that it now estimates the
spectral density of the original process
Step 1 is called pre-filtering or pre-whitening, while step 3 is called recoloring
The first step is called pre-whitening because the transformation is usually designed to turn the
data into something closer to white noise
Why would this be desirable in terms of spectral density estimation?
The reason is that we are smoothing our estimated periodogram based on estimated values at
nearby points — recall (3.74)
The underlying assumption that makes this a good idea is that the true spectral density is rela-
tively regular — the value of I (ω ) is close to that of I (ω 0 ) when ω is close to ω 0


This will not be true in all cases, but it is certainly true for white noise
For white noise, I is as regular as possible — it is a constant function
In this case, values of I (ω 0 ) at points ω 0 near to ω provided the maximum possible amount of
information about the value I (ω )
Another way to put this is that if I is relatively constant, then we can use a large amount of
smoothing without introducing too much bias
The AR(1) Setting Let’s examine this idea more carefully in a particular setting — where the
data is assumed to be AR(1)
(More general ARMA settings can be handled using similar techniques to those described below)
Suppose in partcular that { Xt } is covariance stationary and AR(1), with
Xt+1 = µ + φXt + et+1 (3.75)
where µ and φ ∈ (−1, 1) are unknown parameters and {et } is white noise
It follows that if we regress Xt+1 on Xt and an intercept, the residuals will approximate white
noise
Let
• g be the spectral density of {et } — a constant function, as discussed above
• I0 be the periodogram estimated from the residuals — an estimate of g
• f be the spectral density of { Xt } — the object we are trying to estimate
In view of an earlier result we obtained while discussing ARMA processes, f and g are related by
2
1
f (ω ) = iω
g(ω ) (3.76)
1 − φe
This suggests that the recoloring step, which constructs an estimate I of f from I0 , should set
2
1
I (ω ) =

iω
I0 (ω )
1 − φ̂e
where φ̂ is the OLS estimate of φ

The code for ar_periodogram() — the third function in estspec.py — does exactly this. (See the
code here)
The next figure shows realizations of the two kinds of smoothed periodograms
1. “standard smoothed periodogram”, the ordinary smoothed periodogram, and
2. “AR smoothed periodogram”, the pre-whitened and recolored one generated by
ar_periodogram()

The periodograms are calculated from time series drawn from (3.75) with µ = 0 and φ = −0.9
Each time series is of length 150
The difference between the three subfigures is just randomness — each one uses a different draw
of the time series
In all cases, periodograms are fit with the “hamming” window and window length of 65
Overall, the fit of the AR smoothed periodogram is much better, in the sense of being closer to the
true spectral density
Exercises
Exercise 1 Replicate this figure (modulo randomness)

The model is as in equation (3.73) and there are 400 observations

3.10. ROBUSTNESS 519
For the smoothed periodogram, the windown type is “hamming”
Exercise 2 Replicate this figure (modulo randomness)

The model is as in equation (3.75), with µ = 0, φ = −0.9 and 150 observations in each time series
All periodograms are fit with the “hamming” window and window length of 65
Exercise 3 To be written. The exercise will be to use the code from this lecture to download FRED
data and generate periodograms for different kinds of macroeconomic data.
Solutions
Solution notebook
3.10 Robustness
Contents
• Robustness
– Overview
– The Model
– Constructing More Robust Policies
– Robustness as Outcome of a Two-Person Zero-Sum Game
– The Stochastic Case
– Implementation
– Application
– Appendix
Overview
This lecture modifies a Bellman equation to express a decision maker’s doubts about transition
dynamics
His specification doubts make the decision maker want a robust decision rule
Robust means insensitive to misspecification of transition dynamics
The decision maker has a single approximating model
He calls it approximating to acknowledge that he doesn’t completely trust it
He fears that outcomes will actually be determined by another model that he cannot describe
explicitly

All that he knows is that the actual data-generating model is in some (uncountable) set of models
that surrounds his approximating model
He quantifies the discrepancy between his approximating model and the genuine data-generating
model by using a quantity called entropy
(We’ll explain what entropy means below)
He wants a decision rule that will work well enough no matter which of those other models actu-
ally governs outcomes
This is what it means for his decision rule to be “robust to misspecification of an approximating
model”
This may sound like too much to ask for, but . . .
. . . a secret weapon is available to design robust decision rules
The secret weapon is max-min control theory
A value-maximizing decision maker enlists the aid of an (imaginary) value-minimizing model
chooser to construct bounds on the value attained by a given decision rule under different models
of the transition dynamics
The original decision maker uses those bounds to construct a decision rule with an assured per-
formance level, no matter which model actually governs outcomes
Note: In reading this lecture, please don’t think that our decision maker is paranoid when he
conducts a worst-case analysis. By designing a rule that works well against a worst-case, his
intention is to construct a rule that will work well across a set of models.
Sets of Models Imply Sets Of Values Our “robust” decision maker wants to know how well a
given rule will work when he does not know a single transition law . . .
. . . he wants to know sets of values that will be attained by a given decision rule F under a set of
transition laws
Ultimately, he wants to design a decision rule F that shapes these sets of values in ways that he
prefers
With this in mind, consider the following graph, which relates to a particular decision problem to
be explained below
The figure shows a value-entropy correspondence for a particular decision rule F
The shaded set is the graph of the correspondence, which maps entropy to a set of values associ-
ated with a set of models that surround the decision maker’s approximating model
Here
• Value refers to a sum of discounted rewards obtained by applying the decision rule F when
the state starts at some fixed initial state x0
• Entropy is a nonnegative number that measures the size of a set of models surrounding the
decision maker’s approximating model

– Entropy is zero when the set includes only the approximating model, indicating that
the decision maker completely trusts the approximating model
– Entropy is bigger, and the set of surrounding models is bigger, the less the decision
maker trusts the approximating model
The shaded region indicates that for all models having entropy less than or equal to the number
on the horizontal axis, the value obtained will be somewhere within the indicated set of values
Now let’s compare sets of values associated with two different decision rules, Fr and Fb
In the next figure,
• The red set shows the value-entropy correspondence for decision rule Fr
• The blue set shows the value-entropy correspondence for decision rule Fb
The blue correspondence is skinnier than the red correspondence
This conveys the sense in which the decision rule Fb is more robust than the decision rule Fr
• more robust means that the set of values is less sensitive to increasing misspecification as mea-
sured by entropy
Notice that the less robust rule Fr promises higher values for small misspecifications (small en-
tropy)
(But it is more fragile in the sense that it is more sensitive to perturbations of the approximating
model)
Below we’ll explain in detail how to construct these sets of values for a given F, but for now . . .
Here is a hint about the secret weapons we’ll use to construct these sets
• We’ll use some min problems to construct the lower bounds

• We’ll use some max problems to construct the upper bounds

We will also describe how to choose F to shape the sets of values
This will involve crafting a skinnier set at the cost of a lower level (at least for low values of entropy)
Inspiring Video If you want to understand more about why one serious quantitative researcher
is interested in this approach, we recommend Lars Peter Hansen’s Nobel lecture
Other References Our discussion in this lecture is based on

• [HS00]
• [HS08]
The Model
For simplicity, we present ideas in the context of a class of problems with linear transition laws
and quadratic objective functions
To fit in with our earlier lecture on LQ control, we will treat loss minimization rather than value
maximization
To begin, recall the infinite horizon LQ problem, where an agent chooses a sequence of controls {ut }
to minimize
∞
∑ βt xt0 Rxt + u0t Qut

(3.77)
t =0

subject to the linear law of motion
xt+1 = Axt + But + Cwt+1 , t = 0, 1, 2, . . . (3.78)
As before,
• xt is n × 1, A is n × n
• ut is k × 1, B is n × k
• wt is j × 1, C is n × j
• R is n × n and Q is k × k
Here xt is the state, ut is the control, and wt is a shock vector.
For now we take {wt } := {wt }∞
t=1 to be deterministic — a single fixed sequence
We also allow for model uncertainty on the part of the agent solving this optimization problem
In particular, the agent takes wt = 0 for all t ≥ 0 as a benchmark model, but admits the possibility
that this model might be wrong
As a consequence, she also considers a set of alternative models expressed in terms of sequences
{wt } that are “close” to the zero sequence
She seeks a policy that will do well enough for a set of alternative models whose members are
pinned down by sequences {wt }
Soon we’ll quantify the quality of a model specification in terms of the maximal size of the expres-
sion ∑∞
t =0 β
t +1 w 0 w
t +1 t +1
Constructing More Robust Policies
If our agent takes {wt } as a given deterministic sequence, then, drawing on intuition from earlier
lectures on dynamic programming, we can anticipate Bellman equations such as
Jt−1 ( x ) = min{ x 0 Rx + u0 Qu + β Jt ( Ax + Bu + Cwt )}

u
(Here J depends on t because the sequence {wt } is not recursive)

Our tool for studying robustness is to construct a rule that works well even if an adverse sequence
{wt } occurs
In our framework, “adverse” means “loss increasing”
As we’ll see, this will eventually lead us to construct the Bellman equation
J ( x ) = min max{ x 0 Rx + u0 Qu + β [ J ( Ax + Bu + Cw) − θw0 w]} (3.79)

u w
Notice that we’ve added the penalty term −θw0 w

Since w0 w = kwk2 , this term becomes influential when w moves away from the origin
The penalty parameter θ controls how much we penalize the maximizing agent for “harming” the
minmizing agent

By raising θ more and more, we more and more limit the ability of maximizing agent to distort
outcomes relative to the approximating model
So bigger θ is implicitly associated with smaller distortion sequences {wt }
Analyzing the Bellman equation So what does J in (3.79) look like?

As with the ordinary LQ control model, J takes the form J ( x ) = x 0 Px for some symmetric positive
definite matrix P
One of our main tasks will be to analyze and compute the matrix P
Related tasks will be to study associated feedback rules for ut and wt+1
First, using matrix calculus, you will be able to verify that
max{( Ax + Bu + Cw)0 P( Ax + Bu + Cw) − θw0 w}

w
= ( Ax + Bu)0 D( P)( Ax + Bu) (3.80)
where
D( P) := P + PC (θ I − C 0 PC )−1 C 0 P (3.81)
and I is a j × j identity matrix. Substituting this expression for the maximum into (3.79) yields
x 0 Px = min{ x 0 Rx + u0 Qu + β ( Ax + Bu)0 D( P)( Ax + Bu)} (3.82)

u
Using similar mathematics, the solution to this minimization problem is u = − Fx where F :=

( Q + βB0 D( P) B)−1 βB0 D( P) A
Substituting this minimizer back into (3.82) and working through the algebra gives x 0 Px =
x 0 B(D( P)) x for all x, or, equivalently,
P = B(D( P))
where D is the operator defined in (3.81) and
B( P) := R − β2 A0 PB( Q + βB0 PB)−1 B0 PA + βA0 PA
The operator B is the standard (i.e., non-robust) LQ Bellman operator, and P = B( P) is the stan-
dard matrix Riccati equation coming from the Bellman equation — see this discussion
Under some regularity conditions (see [HS08]), the operator B ◦ D has a unique positive definite
fixed point, which we denote below by P̂
A robust policy, indexed by θ, is u = − F̂x where
F̂ := ( Q + βB0 D( P̂) B)−1 βB0 D( P̂) A (3.83)
We also define
K̂ := (θ I − C 0 P̂C )−1 C 0 P̂( A − B F̂ ) (3.84)
The interpretation of K̂ is that wt+1 = K̂xt on the worst-case path of { xt }, in the sense that this
vector is the maximizer of (3.80) evaluated at the fixed rule u = − F̂x

Note that P̂, F̂, K̂ are all determined by the primitives and θ
Note also that if θ is very large, then D is approximately equal to the identity mapping
Hence, when θ is large, P̂ and F̂ are approximately equal to their standard LQ values
Furthermore, when θ is large, K̂ is approximately equal to zero
Conversely, smaller θ is associated with greater fear of model misspecification, and greater concern
for robustness
Robustness as Outcome of a Two-Person Zero-Sum Game
What we have done above can be interpreted in terms of a two-person zero-sum game in which
F̂, K̂ are Nash equilibrium objects
Agent 1 is our original agent, who seeks to minimize loss in the LQ program while admitting the
possibility of misspecification
Agent 2 is an imaginary malevolent player
Agent 2’s malevolence helps the original agent to compute bounds on his value function across a
set of models
We begin with agent 2’s problem
Agent 2’s Problem Agent 2

1. knows a fixed policy F specifying the behavior of agent 1, in the sense that ut = − Fxt for all
t
2. responds by choosing a shock sequence {wt } from a set of paths sufficiently close to the
benchmark sequence {0, 0, 0, . . .}
A natural way to say “sufficiently close to the zero sequence” is to restrict the summed inner
product ∑∞ 0
t=1 wt wt to be small
However, to obtain a time-invariant recusive formulation, it turns out to be convenient to restrict

a discounted inner product
∞
∑ βt wt0 wt ≤ η (3.85)
t =1
Now let F be a fixed policy, and let JF ( x0 , w) be the present-value cost of that policy given sequence
w := {wt } and initial condition x0 ∈ Rn
Substituting − Fxt for ut in (3.77), this value can be written as
∞
JF ( x0 , w ) : = ∑ βt xt0 ( R + F0 QF)xt (3.86)
t =0
where
xt+1 = ( A − BF ) xt + Cwt+1 (3.87)
and the initial condition x0 is as specified in the left side of (3.86)

Agent 2 chooses w to maximize agent 1’s loss JF ( x0 , w) subject to (3.85)

Using a Lagrangian formulation, we can express this problem as
∞
max ∑ βt xt0 ( R + F 0 QF ) xt − βθ (wt0 +1 wt+1 − η )

w
t =0
where { xt } satisfied (3.87) and θ is a Lagrange multiplier on constraint (3.85)

For the moment, let’s take θ as fixed, allowing us to drop the constant βθη term in the objective
function, and hence write the problem as
∞
max ∑ βt xt0 ( R + F 0 QF ) xt − βθwt0 +1 wt+1

w
t =0
or, equivalently,
∞
min ∑ βt − xt0 ( R + F 0 QF ) xt + βθwt0 +1 wt+1

(3.88)
w
t =0
subject to (3.87)
What’s striking about this optimization problem is that it is once again an LQ discounted dynamic
programming problem, with w = {wt } as the sequence of controls
The expression for the optimal policy can be found by applying the usual LQ formula (see here)
We denote it by K ( F, θ ), with the interpretation wt+1 = K ( F, θ ) xt
The remaining step for agent 2’s problem is to set θ to enforce the constraint (3.85), which can be
done by choosing θ = θη such that
∞
β ∑ βt xt0 K ( F, θη )0 K ( F, θη ) xt = η (3.89)
t =0
Here xt is given by (3.87) — which in this case becomes xt+1 = ( A − BF + CK ( F, θ )) xt
Using Agent 2’s Problem to Construct Bounds on the Value Sets
The Lower Bound Define the minimized object on the right side of problem (3.88) as Rθ ( x0 , F ).
Because “minimizers minimize” we have
∞ ∞
∑ βt − xt0 ( R + F 0 QF ) xt + βθ ∑ βt wt0 +1 wt+1 ,

R θ ( x0 , F ) ≤
t =0 t =0
where xt+1 = ( A − BF + CK ( F, θ )) xt and x0 is a given initial condition.

This inequality in turn implies the inequality
∞
∑ βt − xt0 ( R + F 0 QF ) xt

Rθ ( x0 , F ) − θ ent ≤ (3.90)
t =0

where
∞
ent := β ∑ βt wt0 +1 wt+1
t =0
The left side of inequality (3.90) is a straight line with slope −θ

Technically, it is a “separating hyperplane”
At a particular value of entropy, the line is tangent to the lower bound of values as a function of
entropy
In particular, the lower bound on the left side of (3.90) is attained when
∞
ent = β ∑ βt xt0 K ( F, θ )0 K ( F, θ ) xt (3.91)
t =0
To construct the lower bound on the set of values associated with all perturbations w satisfying the
entropy constraint (3.85) at a given entropy level, we proceed as follows:
• For a given θ, solve the minimization problem (3.88)
• Compute the minimizer Rθ ( x0 , F ) and the associated entropy using (3.91)
• Compute the lower bound on the value function Rθ ( x0 , F ) − θ ent and plot it against ent
• Repeat the preceding three steps for a range of values of θ to trace out the lower bound
Note: This procedure sweeps out a set of separating hyperplanes indexed by different values for
the Lagrange multiplier θ
The Upper Bound To construct an upper bound we use a very similar procedure
We simply replace the minimization problem (3.88) with the maximization problem
∞
Vθ̃ ( x0 , F ) = max ∑ βt − xt0 ( R + F 0 QF ) xt − βθ̃wt0 +1 wt+1

(3.92)
w
t =0
where now θ̃ > 0 penalizes the choice of w with larger entropy.

(Notice that θ̃ = −θ in problem (3.88))
Because “maximizers maximize” we have
∞ ∞
∑ βt − xt0 ( R + F 0 QF ) xt − βθ̃ ∑ βt wt0 +1 wt+1

Vθ̃ ( x0 , F ) ≥
t =0 t =0
which in turn implies the inequality

∞
∑ βt − xt0 ( R + F 0 QF ) xt

Vθ̃ ( x0 , F ) + θ̃ ent ≥ (3.93)
t =0
where
∞
ent ≡ β ∑ βt wt0 +1 wt+1
t =0

The left side of inequality (3.93) is a straight line with slope θ̃

The upper bound on the left side of (3.93) is attained when
∞
ent = β ∑ βt xt0 K ( F, θ̃ )0 K ( F, θ̃ ) xt (3.94)
t =0
To construct the upper bound on the set of values associated all perturbations w with a given en-
tropy we proceed much as we did for the lower bound
• For a given θ̃, solve the maximization problem (3.92)
• Compute the maximizer Vθ̃ ( x0 , F ) and the associated entropy using (3.94)
• Compute the upper bound on the value function Vθ̃ ( x0 , F ) + θ̃ ent and plot it against ent
• Repeat the preceding three steps for a range of values of θ̃ to trace out the upper bound
Reshaping the set of values Now in the interest of reshaping these sets of values by choosing F,
we turn to agent 1’s problem
Agent 1’s Problem Now we turn to agent 1, who solves

∞
min ∑ βt xt0 Rxt + u0t Qut − βθwt0 +1 wt+1

(3.95)
{ u t } t =0
where {wt+1 } satisfies wt+1 = Kxt

In other words, agent 1 minimizes
∞
∑ βt xt0 ( R − βθK 0 K ) xt + u0t Qut

(3.96)
t =0
subject to
xt+1 = ( A + CK ) xt + But (3.97)
Once again, the expression for the optimal policy can be found here — we denote it by F̃
Nash Equilibrium Clearly the F̃ we have obtained depends on K, which, in agent 2’s problem,
depended on an initial policy F
Holding all other parameters fixed, we can represent this relationship as a mapping Φ, where
F̃ = Φ(K ( F, θ ))
The map F 7→ Φ(K ( F, θ )) corresponds to a situation in which

1. agent 1 uses an arbitrary initial policy F
2. agent 2 best responds to agent 1 by choosing K ( F, θ )
3. agent 1 best responds to agent 2 by choosing F̃ = Φ(K ( F, θ ))

As you may have already guessed, the robust policy F̂ defined in (3.83) is a fixed point of the
mapping Φ
In particular, for any given θ,
1. K ( F̂, θ ) = K̂, where K̂ is as given in (3.84)
2. Φ(K̂ ) = F̂
A sketch of the proof is given in the appendix
The Stochastic Case
Now we turn to the stochastic case, where the sequence {wt } is treated as an iid sequence of
random vectors
In this setting, we suppose that our agent is uncertain about the conditional probability distribution
of wt+1
The agent takes the standard normal distribution N (0, I ) as the baseline conditional distribution,
while admitting the possibility that other “nearby” distributions prevail
These alternative conditional distributions of wt+1 might depend nonlinearly on the history xs , s ≤
t
To implement this idea, we need a notion of what it means for one distribution to be near another
one
Here we adopt a very useful measure of closeness for distributions known as the relative entropy,
or Kullback-Leibler divergence
For densities p, q, the Kullback-Leibler divergence of q from p is defined as

p( x )
Z
DKL ( p, q) := ln p( x ) dx
q( x )
Using this notation, we replace (3.79) with the stochastic analogue

Z
0 0
J ( x ) = min max x Rx + u Qu + β J ( Ax + Bu + Cw) ψ(dw) − θDKL (ψ, φ) (3.98)
u ψ∈P
Here P represents the set of all densities on Rn and φ is the benchmark distribution N (0, I )
The distribution φ is chosen as the least desirable conditional distribution in terms of next period
outcomes, while taking into account the penalty term θDKL (ψ, φ)
This penalty term plays a role analogous to the one played by the deterministic penalty θw0 w in
(3.79), since it discourages large deviations from the benchmark
Solving the Model The maximization problem in (3.98) appears highly nontrivial — after all,
we are maximizing over an infinite dimensional space consisting of the entire set of densities
However, it turns out that the solution is tractable, and in fact also falls within the class of normal
distributions

First, we note that J has the form J ( x ) = x 0 Px + d for some positive definite matrix P and constant
real number d
Moreover, it turns out that if ( I − θ −1 C 0 PC )−1 is nonsingular, then
Z
0
max ( Ax + Bu + Cw) P( Ax + Bu + Cw) ψ(dw) − θDKL (ψ, φ)
ψ∈P
= ( Ax + Bu)0 D( P)( Ax + Bu) + κ (θ, P) (3.99)
where
κ (θ, P) := θ ln[det( I − θ −1 C 0 PC )−1 ]
and the maximizer is the Gaussian distribution

ψ = N (θ I − C 0 PC )−1 C 0 P( Ax + Bu), ( I − θ −1 C 0 PC )−1 (3.100)
Substituting the expression for the maximum into Bellman equation (3.98) and using J ( x ) =
x 0 Px + d gives
x 0 Px + d = min x 0 Rx + u0 Qu + β ( Ax + Bu)0 D( P)( Ax + Bu) + β [d + κ (θ, P)]

(3.101)
u
Since constant terms do not affect minimizers, the solution is the same as (3.82), leading to
x 0 Px + d = x 0 B(D( P)) x + β [d + κ (θ, P)]
To solve this Bellman equation, we take P̂ to be the positive definite fixed point of B ◦ D
In addition, we take dˆ as the real number solving d = β [d + κ (θ, P)], which is
β
dˆ := κ (θ, P) (3.102)
1−β
The robust policy in this stochastic case is the minimizer in (3.101), which is once again u = − F̂x
for F̂ given by (3.83)
Substituting the robust policy into (3.100) we obtain the worst case shock distribution:
wt+1 ∼ N (K̂xt , ( I − θ −1 C 0 P̂C )−1 )
where K̂ is given by (3.84)

Note that the mean of the worst-case shock distribution is equal to the same worst-case wt+1 as in
the earlier deterministic setting
Computing Other Quantities Before turning to implementation, we briefly outline how to com-
pute several other quantities of interest

Worst-Case Value of a Policy One thing we will be interested in doing is holding a policy fixed
and computing the discounted loss associated with that policy
So let F be a given policy and let JF ( x ) be the associated loss, which, by analogy with (3.98),
satisfies
Z
0 0
JF ( x ) = max x ( R + F QF ) x + β JF (( A − BF ) x + Cw) ψ(dw) − θDKL (ψ, φ)
ψ∈P
Writing JF ( x ) = x 0 PF x + d F and applying the same argument used to derive (3.99) we get
x 0 PF x + d F = x 0 ( R + F 0 QF ) x + β x 0 ( A − BF )0 D( PF )( A − BF ) x + d F + κ (θ, PF )

To solve this we take PF to be the fixed point
PF = R + F 0 QF + β( A − BF )0 D( PF )( A − BF )
and
β β
d F := κ (θ, PF ) = θ ln[det( I − θ −1 C 0 PF C )−1 ] (3.103)
1−β 1−β
If you skip ahead to the appendix, you will be able to verify that − PF is the solution to the Bellman
equation in agent 2’s problem discussed above — we use this in our computations
Implementation
The QuantEcon.py package provides a class called RBLQ for implementation of robust LQ optimal
control
Here’s the relevant code, from file robustlq.py ‘‘
"""
Filename: robustlq.py
Authors: Chase Coleman, Spencer Lyon, Thomas Sargent, John Stachurski
Solves robust LQ control problems.
"""
from __future__ import division # Remove for Python 3.sx
import numpy as np
from .lqcontrol import LQ
from .quadsums import var_quadratic_sum
from numpy import dot, log, sqrt, identity, hstack, vstack, trace
from scipy.linalg import solve, inv, det
from .matrix_eqn import solve_discrete_lyapunov
class RBLQ(object):
r"""
Provides methods for analysing infinite horizon robust LQ control
problems of the form

.. math::
min_{u_t} sum_t beta^t {x_t' R x_t + u_t' Q u_t }
subject to
.. math::
x_{t+1} = A x_t + B u_t + C w_{t+1}
and with model misspecification parameter theta.
Parameters
----------
Q : array_like(float, ndim=2)
The cost(payoff) matrix for the controls. See above for more.
Q should be k x k and symmetric and positive definite
R : array_like(float, ndim=2)
The cost(payoff) matrix for the state. See above for more. R
should be n x n and symmetric and non-negative definite
A : array_like(float, ndim=2)
The matrix that corresponds with the state in the state space
system. A should be n x n
B : array_like(float, ndim=2)
The matrix that corresponds with the control in the state space
system. B should be n x k
C : array_like(float, ndim=2)
The matrix that corresponds with the random process in the
state space system. C should be n x j
The discount factor in the robust control problem
theta : scalar(float)
The robustness factor in the robust control problem
Attributes
----------
Q, R, A, B, C, beta, theta : see Parameters
k, n, j : scalar(int)
The dimensions of the matrices
"""
def __init__(self, Q, R, A, B, C, beta, theta):
# == Make sure all matrices can be treated as 2D arrays == #

A, B, C, Q, R = list(map(np.atleast_2d, (A, B, C, Q, R)))
self.A, self.B, self.C, self.Q, self.R = A, B, C, Q, R
# == Record dimensions == #
self.k = self.Q.shape[0]
self.n = self.R.shape[0]
self.j = self.C.shape[1]
# == Remaining parameters == #
self.beta, self.theta = beta, theta

def __repr__(self):
def __str__(self):
m = """\
Robust linear quadratic control system
- theta (robustness factor) : {th}
- n (number of state variables) : {n}
- k (number of control variables) : {k}
- j (number of shocks) : {j}
"""
return dedent(m.format(b=self.beta, n=self.n, k=self.k, j=self.j,
th=self.theta))
def d_operator(self, P):

r"""
The D operator, mapping P into
.. math::
D(P) := P + PC(theta I - C'PC)^{-1} C'P.
Parameters
----------
P : array_like(float, ndim=2)
A matrix that should be n x n
Returns
-------
dP : array_like(float, ndim=2)
The matrix P after applying the D operator
"""
C, theta = self.C, self.theta
I = np.identity(self.j)
S1 = dot(P, C)
S2 = dot(C.T, S1)
dP = P + dot(S1, solve(theta * I - S2, S1.T))
return dP
def b_operator(self, P):

r"""
The B operator, mapping P into
.. math::
B(P) := R - beta^2 A'PB(Q + beta B'PB)^{-1}B'PA + beta A'PA
and also returning

.. math::
F := (Q + beta B'PB)^{-1} beta B'PA
Parameters
----------
A matrix that should be n x n
Returns
-------
F : array_like(float, ndim=2)
The F matrix as defined above
new_p : array_like(float, ndim=2)
The matrix P after applying the B operator
"""
A, B, Q, R, beta = self.A, self.B, self.Q, self.R, self.beta
S1 = Q + beta * dot(B.T, dot(P, B))
S2 = beta * dot(B.T, dot(P, A))
S3 = beta * dot(A.T, dot(P, A))
F = solve(S1, S2)
new_P = R - dot(S2.T, solve(S1, S2)) + S3
return F, new_P
def robust_rule(self):
"""
This method solves the robust control problem by tricking it
into a stacked LQ problem, as described in chapter 2 of Hansen-
Sargent's text "Robustness." The optimal control with observed
state is
.. math::
u_t = - F x_t
And the value function is -x'Px
Returns
-------
The optimal control matrix from above
The positive semi-definite matrix defining the value
function
K : array_like(float, ndim=2)
the worst-case shock matrix K, where
:math:`w_{t+1} = K x_t` is the worst case shock
"""
A, B, C, Q, R = self.A, self.B, self.C, self.Q, self.R

beta, theta = self.beta, self.theta

k, j = self.k, self.j
# == Set up LQ version == #
I = identity(j)
Z = np.zeros((k, j))
Ba = hstack([B, C])
Qa = vstack([hstack([Q, Z]), hstack([Z.T, -beta*I*theta])])
lq = LQ(Qa, R, A, Ba, beta=beta)
# == Solve and convert back to robust problem == #

P, f, d = lq.stationary_values()
F = f[:k, :]
K = -f[k:f.shape[0], :]
return F, K, P
def robust_rule_simple(self, P_init=None, max_iter=80, tol=1e-8):

"""
A simple algorithm for computing the robust policy F and the
corresponding value function P, based around straightforward
iteration with the robust Bellman operator. This function is
easier to understand but one or two orders of magnitude slower
than self.robust_rule(). For more information see the docstring
of that method.
Parameters
----------
P_init : array_like(float, ndim=2), optional(default=None)
The initial guess for the value function matrix. It will
be a matrix of zeros if no guess is given
The maximum number of iterations that are allowed
The tolerance for convergence
Returns
-------
The optimal control matrix from above
The positive semi-definite matrix defining the value
function
the worst-case shock matrix K, where
:math:`w_{t+1} = K x_t` is the worst case shock
"""
A, B, C, Q, R = self.A, self.B, self.C, self.Q, self.R
# == Set up loop == #
P = np.zeros((self.n, self.n)) if P_init is None else P_init
iterate, e = 0, tol + 1

while iterate < max_iter and e > tol:

F, new_P = self.b_operator(self.d_operator(P))
e = np.sqrt(np.sum((new_P - P)**2))
iterate += 1
P = new_P
S1 = P.dot(C)
S2 = C.T.dot(S1)
K = inv(theta * I - S2).dot(S1.T).dot(A - B.dot(F))
return F, K, P
def F_to_K(self, F):

"""
Compute agent 2's best cost-minimizing response K, given F.
Parameters
----------
A k x n array
Returns
-------
Agent's best cost minimizing response for a given F
The value function for a given F
"""
Q2 = self.beta * self.theta
R2 = - self.R - dot(F.T, dot(self.Q, F))
A2 = self.A - dot(self.B, F)
B2 = self.C
lq = LQ(Q2, R2, A2, B2, beta=self.beta)
neg_P, neg_K, d = lq.stationary_values()
return -neg_K, -neg_P
def K_to_F(self, K):

"""
Compute agent 1's best value-maximizing response F, given K.
Parameters
----------
A j x n array
Returns
-------
The policy function for a given K
The value function for a given K

"""
A1 = self.A + dot(self.C, K)
B1 = self.B
Q1 = self.Q
R1 = self.R - self.beta * self.theta * dot(K.T, K)
lq = LQ(Q1, R1, A1, B1, beta=self.beta)
P, F, d = lq.stationary_values()
return F, P
def compute_deterministic_entropy(self, F, K, x0):

"""
Given K and F, compute the value of deterministic entropy, which

is sum_t beta^t x_t' K'K x_t with x_{t+1} = (A - BF + CK) x_t.
Parameters
----------
The policy function, a k x n array
The worst case matrix, a j x n array
x0 : array_like(float, ndim=1)
The initial condition for state
Returns
-------
e : scalar(int)
The deterministic entropy
"""
H0 = dot(K.T, K)
C0 = np.zeros((self.n, 1))
A0 = self.A - dot(self.B, F) + dot(self.C, K)
e = var_quadratic_sum(A0, C0, H0, self.beta, x0)
return e
def evaluate_F(self, F):

"""
Given a fixed policy F, with the interpretation u = -F x, this
function computes the matrix P_F and constant d_F associated
with discounted cost J_F(x) = x' P_F x + d_F.
Parameters
----------
The policy function, a k x n array
Returns
-------
P_F : array_like(float, ndim=2)
Matrix for discounted cost

d_F : scalar(float)
Constant for discounted cost
K_F : array_like(float, ndim=2)
Worst case policy
O_F : array_like(float, ndim=2)
Matrix for discounted entropy
o_F : scalar(float)
Constant for discounted entropy
"""
Q, R, A, B, C = self.Q, self.R, self.A, self.B, self.C
# == Solve for policies and costs using agent 2's problem == #

K_F, P_F = self.F_to_K(F)
H = inv(I - C.T.dot(P_F.dot(C)) / theta)
d_F = log(det(H))
# == Compute O_F and o_F == #

sig = -1.0 / theta
AO = sqrt(beta) * (A - dot(B, F) + dot(C, K_F))
O_F = solve_discrete_lyapunov(AO.T, beta * dot(K_F.T, K_F))
ho = (trace(H - 1) - d_F) / 2.0
tr = trace(dot(O_F, C.dot(H.dot(C.T))))
o_F = (ho + beta * tr) / (1 - beta)
return K_F, P_F, d_F, O_F, o_F
Here is a brief description of the methods of the class

• d_operator() and b_operator() implement D and B respectively
• robust_rule() and robust_rule_simple() both solve for the triple F̂, K̂, P̂, as described in
equations (3.83) – (3.84) and the surrounding discussion
– robust_rule() is more efficient
– robust_rule_simple() is more transparent and easier to follow
• K_to_F() and F_to_K() solve the decision problems of agent 1 and agent 2 respectively
• compute_deterministic_entropy() computes the left-hand side of (3.89)
• evaluate_F() computes the loss and entropy associated with a given policy — see this dis-
cussion
Application
Let us consider a monopolist similar to this one, but now facing model uncertainty
The inverse demand function is pt = a0 − a1 yt + dt

where
iid
dt+1 = ρdt + σd wt+1 , {wt } ∼ N (0, 1)
and all parameters are strictly positive
The period return function for the monopolist is
( y t +1 − y t )2
rt = pt yt − γ − cyt
2
Its objective is to maximize expected discounted profits, or, equivalently, to minimize
E ∑∞ t
t=0 β (−rt )
To form a linear regulator problem, we take the state and control to be

 
1
xt = yt  and ut = yt+1 − yt
dt
Setting b := ( a0 − c)/2 we define

 
0 b 0
R = −  b − a1 1/2 and Q = γ/2
0 1/2 0
For the transition matrices we set

     
1 0 0 0 0
A = 0 1 0  , B = 1 ,
 C = 0

0 0 ρ 0 σd
Our aim is to compute the value-entropy correspondences shown above

The parameters are
a0 = 100, a1 = 0.5, ρ = 0.9, σd = 0.05, β = 0.95, c = 2, γ = 50.0
The standard normal distribution for wt is understood as the agent’s baseline, with uncertainty
parameterized by θ
We compute value-entropy correspondences for two policies
1. The no concern for robustness policy F0 , which is the ordinary LQ loss minimizer
2. A “moderate” concern for robustness policy Fb , with θ = 0.02
The code for producing the graph shown above, with blue being for the robust policy, is given in
robustness/robust_monopolist.py
"""
Filename: robust_monopolist.py
Authors: Chase Coleman, Spencer Lyon, Thomas Sargent, John Stachurski
The robust control problem for a monopolist with adjustment costs. The

inverse demand curve is:
p_t = a_0 - a_1 y_t + d_t
where d_{t+1} = \rho d_t + \sigma_d w_{t+1} for w_t ~ N(0, 1) and iid.
The period return function for the monopolist is
r_t = p_t y_t - gamma (y_{t+1} - y_t)^2 / 2 - c y_t
The objective of the firm is E_t \sum_{t=0}^\infty \beta^t r_t
For the linear regulator, we take the state and control to be
x_t = (1, y_t, d_t) and u_t = y_{t+1} - y_t
"""
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
from scipy.linalg import eig
# == model parameters == #
a_0 = 100
a_1 = 0.5
rho = 0.9
sigma_d = 0.05
beta = 0.95
c = 2
gamma = 50.0
theta = 0.002
ac = (a_0 - c) / 2.0
# == Define LQ matrices == #
R = np.array([[0., ac, 0.],

[ac, -a_1, 0.5],
[0., 0.5, 0.]])
R = -R # For minimization
Q = gamma / 2
A = np.array([[1., 0., 0.],

[0., 1., 0.],
[0., 0., rho]])
B = np.array([[0.],
[1.],
[0.]])
C = np.array([[0.],

[0.],
[sigma_d]])
# -------------------------------------------------------------------------- #
# Functions
# -------------------------------------------------------------------------- #
def evaluate_policy(theta, F):

"""
Given theta (scalar, dtype=float) and policy F (array_like), returns the
value associated with that policy under the worst case path for {w_t}, as
well as the entropy level.
"""
rlq = qe.robustlq.RBLQ(Q, R, A, B, C, beta, theta)
K_F, P_F, d_F, O_F, o_F = rlq.evaluate_F(F)
x0 = np.array([[1.], [0.], [0.]])
value = - x0.T.dot(P_F.dot(x0)) - d_F
entropy = x0.T.dot(O_F.dot(x0)) + o_F
return list(map(float, (value, entropy)))
def value_and_entropy(emax, F, bw, grid_size=1000):

"""
Compute the value function and entropy levels for a theta path
increasing until it reaches the specified target entropy value.
Parameters
==========
emax: scalar
The target entropy value
F: array_like
The policy function to be evaluated
bw: str
A string specifying whether the implied shock path follows best
or worst assumptions. The only acceptable values are 'best' and
'worst'.
Returns
=======
df: pd.DataFrame
A pandas DataFrame containing the value function and entropy
values up to the emax parameter. The columns are 'value' and
'entropy'.
"""
if bw == 'worst':
thetas = 1 / np.linspace(1e-8, 1000, grid_size)
else:
thetas = -1 / np.linspace(1e-8, 1000, grid_size)

df = pd.DataFrame(index=thetas, columns=('value', 'entropy'))
for theta in thetas:

df.ix[theta] = evaluate_policy(theta, F)
if df.ix[theta, 'entropy'] >= emax:
break
df = df.dropna(how='any')
return df
# -------------------------------------------------------------------------- #
# Main
# -------------------------------------------------------------------------- #
# == Compute the optimal rule == #

optimal_lq = qe.lqcontrol.LQ(Q, R, A, B, C, beta)
Po, Fo, do = optimal_lq.stationary_values()
# == Compute a robust rule given theta == #

baseline_robust = qe.robustlq.RBLQ(Q, R, A, B, C, beta, theta)
Fb, Kb, Pb = baseline_robust.robust_rule()
# == Check the positive definiteness of worst-case covariance matrix to == #

# == ensure that theta exceeds the breakdown point == #
test_matrix = np.identity(Pb.shape[0]) - np.dot(C.T, Pb.dot(C)) / theta
eigenvals, eigenvecs = eig(test_matrix)
assert (eigenvals >= 0).all(), 'theta below breakdown point.'
emax = 1.6e6
optimal_best_case = value_and_entropy(emax, Fo, 'best')

robust_best_case = value_and_entropy(emax, Fb, 'best')
optimal_worst_case = value_and_entropy(emax, Fo, 'worst')
robust_worst_case = value_and_entropy(emax, Fb, 'worst')
ax.set_xlim(0, emax)
ax.set_ylabel("Value")
ax.set_xlabel("Entropy")
ax.grid()
for axis in 'x', 'y':

plt.ticklabel_format(style='sci', axis=axis, scilimits=(0, 0))
plot_args = {'lw': 2, 'alpha': 0.7}
colors = 'r', 'b'
df_pairs = ((optimal_best_case, optimal_worst_case),

(robust_best_case, robust_worst_case))
class Curve(object):
def __init__(self, x, y):

self.x, self.y = x, y
def __call__(self, z):

return interp(z, self.x, self.y)
for c, df_pair in zip(colors, df_pairs):

curves = []
for df in df_pair:
# == Plot curves == #
x, y = df['entropy'], df['value']
x, y = (np.asarray(a, dtype='float') for a in (x, y))
egrid = np.linspace(0, emax, 100)
curve = Curve(x, y)
print(ax.plot(egrid, curve(egrid), color=c, **plot_args))
curves.append(curve)
# == Color fill between curves == #
ax.fill_between(egrid,
curves[0](egrid),
curves[1](egrid),
color=c, alpha=0.1)
plt.show()
Here’s another such figure, with θ = 0.002 instead of 0.02
Can you explain the different shape of the value-entropy correspondence for the robust policy?

3.11. DYNAMIC STACKELBERG PROBLEMS 544
Appendix
We sketch the proof only of the first claim in this section, which is that, for any given θ, K ( F̂, θ ) = K̂,
where K̂ is as given in (3.84)
This is the content of the next lemma
Lemma. If P̂ is the fixed point of the map B ◦ D and F̂ is the robust policy as given in (3.83), then
K ( F̂, θ ) = (θ I − C 0 P̂C )−1 C 0 P̂( A − B F̂ ) (3.104)
Proof: As a first step, observe that when F = F̂, the Bellman equation associated with the LQ
problem (3.87) – (3.88) is
P̃ = − R − F̂ 0 Q F̂ − β2 ( A − B F̂ )0 P̃C ( βθ I + βC 0 P̃C )−1 C 0 P̃( A − B F̂ ) + β( A − B F̂ )0 P̃( A − B F̂ ) (3.105)
(revisit this discussion if you don’t know where (3.105) comes from) and the optimal policy is
wt+1 = − β( βθ I + βC 0 P̃C )−1 C 0 P̃( A − B F̂ ) xt
Suppose for a moment that − P̂ solves the Bellman equation (3.105)

In this case the policy becomes
wt+1 = (θ I − C 0 P̂C )−1 C 0 P̂( A − B F̂ ) xt
which is exactly the claim in (3.104)

Hence it remains only to show that − P̂ solves (3.105), or, in other words,
P̂ = R + F̂ 0 Q F̂ + β( A − B F̂ )0 P̂C (θ I + C 0 P̂C )−1 C 0 P̂( A − B F̂ ) + β( A − B F̂ )0 P̂( A − B F̂ )
Using the definition of D , we can rewrite the right-hand side more simply as
R + F̂ 0 Q F̂ + β( A − B F̂ )0 D( P̂)( A − B F̂ )
Although it involves a substantial amount of algebra, it can be shown that the latter is just P̂
(Hint: Use the fact that P̂ = B(D( P̂)))
3.11 Dynamic Stackelberg Problems
Contents
• Dynamic Stackelberg Problems
– Overview
– The Stackelberg Problem
– Solving the Stackelberg Problem
– Shadow prices
– A Large Firm With a Competitive Fringe
– Concluding Remarks
– Exercises

Overview
Previous lectures including the LQ dynamic programming, rational expectations equilibrium, and
Markov perfect equilibrium lectures have studied decision problems that are recursive in what we
can call “natural” state variables, such as
• stocks of capital (fiscal, financial and human)
• wealth
• information that helps forecast future prices and quantities that impinge on future payoffs
In problems that are recursive in the natural state variables, optimal decision rules are functions
of the natural state variables
In this lecture, we describe an important class of problems that are not recursive in the natural
state variables
Kydland and Prescott [KP77], [Pre77] and Calvo [Cal78] gave examples of such decision problems,
which have the following features
• The time t ≥ 0 actions of some decision makers depend on the time s ≥ t decisions of
another decision maker called a government or Stackelberg leader
• At time t = 0, the government or Stackelberg leader chooses his actions for all times s ≥ 0
• In choosing actions for all times at time 0, the government or leader is said to commit to a plan
In these problems, variables that encode history dependence appear in optimal decision rules of the
government or leader
Furthermore, the Stackelberg leader has distinct optimal decision rules for time t = 0, on the one
hand, and times t ≥ 1, on the other hand
The Stackelberg leader’s decision rules for t = 0 and t ≥ 1 have distinct state variables
These properties of the Stackelberg leader’s decision rules are symptoms of the time inconsistency
of optimal government plans
An expression of time inconsistency is that optimal decision rules are not recursive in natural state
variables
Examples of time inconsistent optimal rules are those of a large agent (e.g., a government) who
• confronts a competitive market composed of many small private agents, and in which
• the private agents’ decisions at each date are influenced by their forecasts of the government’s
future actions
In such settings, private agents’ stocks of capital and other durable assets at time t are partly
shaped by their past decisions that in turn were influenced by their earlier forecasts of the govern-
ment’s actions
The rational expectations equilibrium concept plays an essential role
Rational expectations implies that in choosing its future actions, the government (or leader)
chooses the private agents’ (or followers’) expectations about them

The government or leader understands and exploits that fact

In a rational expectations equilibrium, the government must confirm private agents’ earlier fore-
casts of the government’s time t actions
The requirement to confirm prior private sector forecasts puts constraints on the government’s
time t decisions that prevent its problem from being recursive in natural state variables
These additional constraints make the government’s decision rule at t depend on the entire history
of the natural state variables from time 0 to time t
An important lesson to be taught in this lecture is that if the natural state variables are properly
augmented with additional forward-looking state variables inherited from the past, then this class
of problems can be made recursive
This lesson yields substantial insights and affords significant computational advantages
This lecture displays these principles within the tractable framework of linear quadratic problems
It is based on chapter 19 of [LS12]
The Stackelberg Problem
We use the optimal linear regulator to solve a linear quadratic version of what is known as a
dynamic Stackelberg problem
For now we refer to the Stackelberg leader as the government and the Stackelberg follower as the
representative agent or private sector
Soon we’ll give an application with another interpretation of these two decision makers
Let zt be an nz × 1 vector of natural state variables, xt an n x × 1 vector of endogenous forward-
looking variables that are physically free to jump at t, and ut a vector of government instruments
The zt vector is inherited physically from the past
But xt is inherited from the past not physically but as a consequence of promises made earlier
Included in xt might be prices and quantities that adjust instantaneously to clear markets at time t

z
Let yt = t
xt
Define the government’s one-period loss function 1
r (y, u) = y0 Ry + u0 Qu (3.106)
Subject to an initial condition for z0 , but not for x0 , a government wants to maximize
∞
− ∑ βt r (yt , ut ) (3.107)
t =0
1 The problem assumes that there are no cross products between states and controls in the return function. A simple
transformation converts a problem whose return function has cross products into an equivalent problem that has no
cross products. For example, see [HS08] (chapter 4, pp. 72-73).

The government makes policy in light of the model

I 0 z t +1 Â11 Â12 zt
= + B̂ut (3.108)
G21 G22 xt+1 Â21 Â22 xt
We assume that the matrix on the left is invertible, so that we can multiply both sides of the above
equation by its inverse to obtain

z t +1 A11 A12 zt
= + But (3.109)
x t +1 A21 A22 xt
or
yt+1 = Ayt + But (3.110)
The government maximizes (3.107) by choosing sequences {ut , xt , zt+1 }∞
t=0 subject (3.110) and an
initial condition for z0
Note that we have an intitial condition for z0 but not for x0
x0 is among the variables to be chosen at time 0
The private sector’s behavior is summarized by the second block of equations of (3.109) or (3.110)
These typically include the first-order conditions of private agents’ optimization problem (i.e.,
their Euler equations)
These Euler equations summarize the forward-looking aspect of private agents’ behavior and ex-
press how their time t decisions depend on government actions at times s ≥ t
When combined with a stability condition to be imposed below, these Euler equations summarize
the private sector’s best response to the sequence of actions by the government.
The government uses its understanding of these responses to manipulate private sector actions.
To indicate the features of the problem that make xt a vector of forward-looking variables, write
the second block of system (3.108) as
xt = φ1 zt + φ2 zt+1 + φ3 ut + φ0 xt+1 , (3.111)

−1
where φ0 = Â22 G22 .
The models we study in this chapter typically satisfy
Forward-Looking Stability Condition The eigenvalues of φ0 are bounded in modulus by β−.5 .
This stability condition makes equation (3.111) explosive if solved ‘backwards’ but stable if solved
‘forwards’.
So we solve equation (3.111) forward to get
∞
∑ φ0
j
xt = φ1 zt+ j + φ2 zt+ j+1 + φ3 ut+ j . (3.112)
j =0
In choosing ut for t ≥ 1 at time 0, the government takes into account how future z and u affect
earlier x through equation (3.112).

The lecture on history dependent policies analyzes an example about Ramsey taxation in which,
as is typical of such problems, the last n x equations of (3.109) or (3.110) constitute implementability
constraints that are formed by the Euler equations of a competitive fringe or private sector
When combined with a stability condition to be imposed below, these Euler equations summarize
the private sector’s best response to the sequence of actions by the government
A certainty equivalence principle allows us to work with a nonstochastic model
That is, we would attain the same decision rule if we were to replace xt+1 with the forecast Et xt+1
and to add a shock process Cet+1 to the right side of (3.110), where et+1 is an IID random vector
with mean of zero and identity covariance matrix
Let X t denote the history of any variable X from 0 to t
[MS85], [HR85], [PL92], [Sar87], [Pea92], and others have all studied versions of the following
problem:
Problem S: The Stackelberg problem is to maximize (3.107) by choosing an x0 and a sequence of
decision rules, the time t component of which maps the time t history of the natural state zt into
the time t decision ut of the Stackelberg leader
The Stackelberg leader chooses this sequence of decision rules once and for all at time t = 0
Another way to say this is that he commits to this sequence of decision rules at time 0
The maximization is subject to a given initial condition for z0
But x0 is among the objects to be chosen by the Stackelberg leader
The optimal decision rule is history dependent, meaning that ut depends not only on zt but also
on lags of z
History dependence has two sources: (a) the government’s ability to commit 2 to a sequence of
rules at time 0 as in the lecture on history dependent policies, and (b) the forward-looking behavior
of the private sector embedded in the second block of equations (3.109)
Solving the Stackelberg Problem
Some Basic Notation For any vector at , define ~at = [ at , at+1 , . . .].
Define a feasible set of (~y1 , ~u0 ) sequences
∞
( )
Ω ( y0 ) = (~y1 , ~u0 ) : − ∑ β r (yt , ut ) > −∞ and yt+1 = Ayt + But , ∀t ≥ 0
t
t =0
Note that in the definition of Ω(y0 ), y0 is taken as given.

Eventually, the x0 component of y0 will be chosen, though it is taken as given in Ω(y0 )
2 The government would make different choices were it to choose sequentially, that is, were it to select its time t
action at time t. See the lecture on history dependent policies

Two Subproblems Once again we use backward induction

We express the Stackelberg problem in terms of the following two subproblems:
Subproblem 1
∞
v ( y0 ) = max − ∑ βt r (yt , ut ) (3.113)
(~y1 ,~u0 )∈Ω(y0 ) t =0
Subproblem 2
w(z0 ) = max v(y0 ) (3.114)
x0
Subproblem 1 is solved first, once-and-for-all at time 0, tentatively taking the vector of forward-
looking variables x0 as given
Then subproblem 2 is solved for x0
The value function w(z0 ) tells the value of the Stackelberg plan as a function of the vector of
natural state variables
Two Bellman equations We now describe Bellman equations for v(y) and w(z0 )
Subproblem 1 The value function v(y) in subproblem 1 satisfies the Bellman equation
v(y) = max
∗
{−r (y, u) + βv(y∗ )} (3.115)
u,y
where the maximization is subject to

y∗ = Ay + Bu (3.116)
and y∗ denotes next period’s value.
Substituting v(y) = −y0 Py into Bellman equation (3.115) gives
−y0 Py = maxu,y∗ −y0 Ry − u0 Qu − βy∗0 Py∗

which as in lecture linear regulator gives rise to the algebraic matrix Riccati equation
P = R + βA0 PA − β2 A0 PB( Q + βB0 PB)−1 B0 PA (3.117)
and the optimal decision rule coefficient vector
F = β( Q + βB0 PB)−1 B0 PA, (3.118)
where the optimal decision rule is

ut = − Fyt . (3.119)

Subproblem 2 The value function v(y0 ) satisfies
v(y0 ) = −z00 P11 z0 − 2x00 P21 z0 − x00 P22 x0 (3.120)
where
P11 P12
P=
P21 P22
Now choose x0 by equating to zero the gradient of v(y0 ) with respect to x0 :
−2P21 z0 − 2P22 x0 = 0,
which implies that

−1
x0 = − P22 P21 z0 . (3.121)
Summary We solve the Stackelberg problem by

• formulating a particular optimal linear regulator,
• solving the associated matrix Riccati equation (3.117) for P,
• computing F,
• then partitioning P to obtain representation (3.121)
Manifestation of time inconsistency We have seen that for t ≥ 0 the optimal decision rule for
the Stackelberg leader has the form
ut = − Fyt
or
ut = f 11 zt + f 12 xt
where for t ≥ 1, xt is effectively a state variable, albeit not a natural one, inherited from the past
The means that for t ≥ 1, xt is not a linear function of zt and that xt exerts an independent influence
on ut
The situation is different at t = 0
−1
For t = 0, the initialization the optimal choice of x0 = − P22 P21 z0 described in equation (3.121)
implies that
−1
u0 = ( f 11 − f 12 P22 P2,1 )z0 (3.122)
So for t = 0, u0 is a linear function of the natural state variable z0 only
−1
But for t ≥ 0, xt 6= − P22 P21 zt
Nor does xt equal any other linear combination of zt only for t ≥ 1
This means that xt has an independent role in shaping ut for t ≥ 1
All of this means that the Stackelberg leader’s decision rule at t ≥ 1 differs from its decision rule
at t = 0
As indicated at the beginning of this lecture, this is a symptom of the time inconsistency of the
optimal Stackelberg plan

Shadow prices
The history dependence of the government’s plan can be expressed in the dynamics of Lagrange
multipliers µ x on the last n x equations of (3.108) or (3.109)
These multipliers measure the cost today of honoring past government promises about current
and future settings of u
Later, we shall show that as a result of optimally choosing x0 , it is appropriate to initialize the
multipliers to zero at time t = 0
This is true because at t = 0, there are no past promises about u to honor
But the multipliers µ x take nonzero values thereafter, reflecting future costs to the government of
adhering to its commitment
From the linear regulator lecture, the formula µt = Pyt for the vector of shadow prices on the
transition equations is
µzt
µt =
µ xt
The shadow price µ xt on the forward-looking variables xt evidently equals
µ xt = P21 zt + P22 xt . (3.123)
So (3.121) is equivalent with

µ x0 = 0. (3.124)
History-dependent representation of decision rule For some purposes, it is useful to express

the decision rule for ut as a function of zt , zt−1 , and ut−1
This can be accomplished as follows
First note that ut = − Fyt implies that the closed loop law of motion for y is
yt+1 = ( A − BF )yt (3.125)
which it is convenient to represent as

z t +1 m11 m12 zt
= (3.126)
x t +1 m21 m22 xt
and write the decision rule for ut

ut = f 11 zt + f 12 xt (3.127)
−1 −1
Then where f 12 denotes the generalized inverse of f 12 , (3.127) implies xt = f 12 (ut − f 11 zt )
Equate the right side of this expression to the right side of the second line of (3.126) lagged once
and rearrange by using (3.127) lagged once and rearrange by using lagged once to eliminate µ x,t−1
to get
−1 −1
ut = f 12 m22 f 12 ut−1 + f 11 zt + f 12 (m21 − m22 f 12 f 11 )zt−1 (3.128)
or
ut = ρut−1 + α0 zt + α1 zt−1 (3.129)

for t ≥ 1
By making the instrument feed back on itself, the form of decision rule (3.129) potentially allows
for “instrument-smoothing” to emerge as an optimal rule under commitment
A Large Firm With a Competitive Fringe
As an example, this section studies the equilibrium of an industry with a large firm that acts as a
Stackelberg leader with respect to a competitive fringe
Sometimes the large firm is called ‘the monopolist’ even though there are actually many firms in
the industry
The industry produces a single nonstorable homogeneous good, the quantity of which is chosen
in the previous period
One large firm produces Qt and a representative firm in a competitive fringe produces qt
The representative firm in the competitive fringe acts as a price taker and chooses sequentially
The large firm commits to a policy at time 0, taking into account its ability to manipulate the price
sequence, both directly through the effects of its quantity choices on prices, and indirectly through
the responses of the competitive fringe to its forecasts of prices 3
The costs of production are Ct = eQt + .5gQ2t + .5c( Qt+1 − Qt )2 for the large firm and σt = dqt +
.5hq2t + .5c(qt+1 − qt )2 for the competitive firm, where d > 0, e > 0, c > 0, g > 0, h > 0 are cost
parameters
There is a linear inverse demand curve
p t = A0 − A1 ( Q t + q t ) + v t , (3.130)
where A0 , A1 are both positive and vt is a disturbance to demand governed by
vt+1 = ρvt + Ce ět+1 (3.131)
and where |ρ| < 1 and ět+1 is an IID sequence of random variables with mean zero and variance 1
In (3.130), qt is equilibrium output of the representative competitive firm
In equilibrium, qt = qt , but we must distinguish between qt and qt in posing the optimum problem
of a competitive firm
The competitive fringe The representative competitive firm regards { pt }∞

t=0 as an exogenous
stochastic process and chooses an output plan to maximize
∞
E0 ∑ βt { pt qt − σt } , β ∈ (0, 1) (3.132)
t =0
subject to q0 given, where Et is the mathematical expectation based on time t information

3[HS08] (chapter 16), uses this model as a laboratory to illustrate an equilibrium concept featuring robustness in
which at least one of the agents has doubts about the stochastic specification of the demand shock process.

Let it = qt+1 − qt
We regard it as the representative firm’s control at t
The first-order conditions for maximizing (3.132) are
it = Et βit+1 − c−1 βhqt+1 + c−1 βEt ( pt+1 − d) (3.133)
for t ≥ 0
We appeal to a certainty equivalence principle to justify working with a non-stochastic version of
(3.133) formed by dropping the expectation operator and the random term ět+1 from (3.131)
We use a method of [Sar79] and [Tow83] 4
We shift (3.130) forward one period, replace conditional expectations with realized values, use
(3.130) to substitute for pt+1 in (3.133), and set qt = qt and it for all t ≥ 0 to get
it = βit+1 − c−1 βhqt+1 + c−1 β( A0 − d) − c−1 βA1 qt+1 − c−1 βA1 Qt+1 + c−1 βvt+1 (3.134)
Given sufficiently stable sequences { Qt , vt }, we could solve (3.134) and it = qt+1 − qt to express
the competitive fringe’s output sequence as a function of the (tail of the) monopolist’s output
sequence
The dependence of it on future Qt ‘s opens an avenue for the monopolist to influence current
outcomes by its choice now of its future actions
It is this feature that makes the monopolist’s problem fail to be recursive in the natural state vari-
ables q, Q
The monopolist arrives at period t > 0 facing the constraint that it must confirm the expectations
about its time t decision upon which the competitive fringe based its decisions at dates before t
The monopolist’s problem The monopolist views the sequence of the competitive firm’s Euler
equations as constraints on its own opportunities
They are implementability constraints on the monopolist’s choices
Including the implementability constraints, we can represent the constraints in terms of the tran-
sition law impinging on the monopolist:
1 0 0 0 0
       
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
 0 1 0 0 0  v t +1   0 ρ 0 0 0  v t  0
       
 Q t +1  =  0 0 1 0 0  Q t  + 1 u t
 0 0 1 0 0     (3.135)
   
 0 0 0 1 0   q t +1   0 0 0 1 1  q t  0

c
A0 − d 1 − A1 − A1 − h c i t +1 0 0 0 0 β it 0
where ut = Qt+1 − Qt is the control of the monopolist

The last row portrays the implementability constraints (3.134)
4 They used this method to compute a rational expectations competitive equilibrium. The key step was to eliminate
price and output by substituting from the inverse demand curve and the production function into the firm’s first-order
conditions to get a difference equation in capital.

Represent (3.135) as
yt+1 = Ayt + But (3.136)
Although we have included the competitive fringe’s choice variable it as a component of the
“state” yt in the monopolist’s transition law (3.136), it is actually a “jump” variable
Nevertheless, the analysis above implies that the solution of the large firm’s problem is encoded
in the Riccati equation associated with (3.136) as the transition law
Let’s decode it
To match our general setup, we partition yt as y0t = z0t xt0 where z0t = 1 vt Qt qt and xt = it

The monopolist’s problem is

∞
max
{ut ,pt+1 ,Qt+1 ,qt+1 ,i }
∑ βt { pt Qt − Ct }
t t =0
subject to the given initial condition for z0 , equations (3.130) and (3.134) and it = qt+1 − qt , as well
as the laws of motion of the natural state variables z
Notice that the monopolist in effect chooses the price sequence, as well as the quantity sequence
of the competitive fringe, albeit subject to the restrictions imposed by the behavior of consumers,
as summarized by the demand curve (3.130) and the implementability constraint (3.134) that de-
scribes the best responses of firms in the competitive fringe
By substituting (3.130) into the above objective function, the monopolist’s problem can be ex-
pressed as
∞
max ∑ βt ( A0 − A1 (qt + Qt ) + vt ) Qt − eQt − .5gQ2t − .5cu2t

(3.137)
{ u t } t =0
subject to (3.136)
This can be written
∞
max − ∑ βt y0t Ryt + u0t Qut

(3.138)
{ut } t =0
subject to (3.136) where

A0 − e
 
0 0 02 0
 0 1
 0 02 0
R = −  A02−e 1
− A − .5g − A1
0
 
2 1 2
− A21
 
 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
c
and Q = 2
Under the Stackelberg plan, ut = − Fyt , which implies that the evolution of y under the Stackel-
berg plan as
yt+1 = ( A − BF )yt (3.139)
0
where yt = 1 vt Qt qt it

Recursive formulation of a follower’s problem We now make use of a “Big K, little k” trick (see
rational expectations equilibrium) to formulate a recursive version of a follower’s problem cast in
terms of an ordinary Bellman equation
The individual firm faces { pt } as a price taker and believes
p t = a0 − a1 Q t − a1 q t + v t (3.140)

y
≡ Ep t (3.141)
qt
From the point of the view of a representative firm in the competitive fringe, {yt } is an exogenous
process
A representative fringe firm wants to forecast y because it wants to forecast what it regards as the
exogenous price process { pt }.
Therefore it wants to forecast the determinant of future prices
• future values of Q and
• future values of q
0
An individual follower firm confronts state yt qt where qt is its current output as opposed to q
within y
(This is an application of the ‘’Big K, little k‘’ idea)
The follower faces law of motion

y t +1 A − BF 0 yt 0
= + i (3.142)
q t +1 0 1 qt 1 t
We can restate the optimization problem of the representative competitive firm

The firm takes yt as an exogenous process and chooses an output plan {qt } to maximize
∞
E0 ∑ βt { pt qt − σt } , β ∈ (0, 1)
t =0
subject to q0 given the law of motion (3.139) and the price function (3.140) and where the costs are
still σt = dqt + .5hq2t + .5c(qt+1 − qt )2
The representative firm’s problem is a linear-quadratic dynamic programming problem with ma-
trices As , Bs , Qs , Rs that can be constructed easily from the above information.
The representative firm’s decision rule can be represented as
 
1
 vt 
 
 Qt 
it = − Fs 
q 
 (3.143)
 t
 it 
qt

Now let’s stare at the decision rule (3.143) for it , apply “Big K, little k” logic, and ask what we want
in order to confirm that we have verified a recursive representation of a representative follower’s
choice problem
We want decision rule (3.143) to have the property that it = it when we evaluate the rule at qt = qt
We inherit these desires from the “Big K, little k” logic
Here we apply a “Big K, little k” logic in two parts to make the “representative firm be represen-
tative” after solving the representative firm’s optimization problem
• We want qt = qt
• We want it = it
Numerical example We computed the optimal Stackelberg plan for parameter settings
A0 , A1 , ρ, Ce , c, d, e, g, h, β = 100, 1, .8, .2, 1, 20, 20, .2, .2, .95 5
For these parameter values the decision rule is
 
1
 vt 
 

ut = ( Qt+1 − Qt ) = 83.98 0.78 −0.95 −1.31 −2.07  Qt 

q 
t
it
for t ≥ 0
and  
1
 v0 
x0 ≡ i0 = 31.08 0.29 −0.15 −0.56  
 Q0 
q0

For this example, starting from z0 = 1 v0 Q0 q0 = 1 0 25 46 , the monopolist chooses
to set i0 = 1.43
That choice implies that
• i1 = 0.25, and

• z1 = 1 v1 Q1 q1 = 1 0 21.83 47.43
A monopolist who started from the initial conditions z̃0 = z1 would set i0 = 1.10 instead of .25 as
called for under the original optimal plan
Thr preceding little calculation reflects the time inconsistency of the monopolist’s optimal plan
5 These calculations were performed by the Python program from QuantEcon.applications in
dyn_stack/oligopoly.py.

The recursive representation of the decision rule for a representative fringe firm is
 
1
 vt 
 
 Qt 
it = 0 0 0 .34 1 −.34  q 

 t
 it 
qt
Notice that as expected it = it when we evaluate this decision rule at qt = qt
Concluding Remarks
This lecture is our first encounter with a class of problems in which optimal decision rules are
history dependent 6
We shall encounter another example in the lecture on history dependent policies
There are many more such problems - see chapters 20-24 of [LS12]
Exercises
Exercise 1 There is no uncertainty

For t ≥ 0, a monetary authority sets the growth of (the log of) money according to
m t +1 = m t + u t (3.144)
subject to the initial condition m0 > 0 given

The demand for money is
m t − p t = − α ( p t +1 − p t ) (3.145)
where α > 0 and pt is the log of the price level
Equation (3.144) can be interpreted as the Euler equation of the holders of money
a. Briefly interpret how (3.144) makes the demand for real balances vary inversely with the ex-
pected rate of inflation. Temporarily (only for this part of the exercise) drop (3.144) and assume
instead that {mt } is a given sequence satisfying ∑∞ t=0 mt < + ∞. Solve the difference equation
2
(3.144) “forward” to express pt as a function of current and future values of ms . Note how future
values of m influence the current price level.
At time 0, a monetary authority chooses (commits to) a possibly history-dependent strategy for
setting {ut }∞
t =0
The monetary authority orders sequences {mt , pt }∞

t=0 according to
∞
− ∑ .95t ( pt − p)2 + u2t + .00001m2t

(3.146)
t =0
6 For another application of the techniques in this lecture and how they related to the method recommended by
[KP80b], please see this lecture .

Assume that m0 = 10, α = 5, p̄ = 1

b. Please briefly interpret this problem as one where the monetary authority wants to stabilize the
price level, subject to costs of adjusting the money supply and some implementability constraints.
(We include the term .00001m2t for purely technical reasons that you need not discuss.)
c. Please write and run a Python program to find the optimal sequence {ut }∞
t =0
d. Display the optimal decision rule for ut as a function of ut−1 , mt , mt−1

e. Compute the optimal {mt , pt }t sequence for t = 0, . . . , 10
Hints:
• The optimal {mt } sequence must satisfy ∑∞
t=0 (.95) mt < + ∞
t 2
• Code can be found in the file lqcontrol.py from the QuantEcon.py package that implements
the optimal linear regulator
Exercise 2 A representative consumer has quadratic utility functional

∞
∑ βt −.5(b − ct )2

(3.147)
t =0
where β ∈ (0, 1), b = 30, and ct is time t consumption

The consumer faces a sequence of budget constraints
ct + at+1 = (1 + r ) at + yt − τt (3.148)
where
• at is the household’s holdings of an asset at the beginning of t
• r > 0 is a constant net interest rate satisfying β(1 + r ) < 1
• yt is the consumer’s endowment at t
The consumer’s plan for (ct , at+1 ) has to obey the boundary condition ∑∞
t =0 β a t < + ∞
t 2
Assume that y0 , a0 are given initial conditions and that yt obeys
yt = ρyt−1 , t ≥ 1, (3.149)
where |ρ| < 1. Assume that a0 = 0, y0 = 3, and ρ = .9

At time 0, a planner commits to a plan for taxes {τt }∞
t =0
The planner designs the plan to maximize

∞
∑ βt −.5(ct − b)2 − τt2

(3.150)
t =0
over {ct , τt }∞
t=0 subject to the implementability constraints in (3.148) for t ≥ 0 and
λ t = β (1 + r ) λ t +1 (3.151)

3.12. OPTIMAL TAXATION 559
for t ≥ 0, where λt ≡ (b − ct )
a. Argue that (3.151) is the Euler equation for a consumer who maximizes (3.147) subject to (3.148),
taking {τt } as a given sequence
b. Formulate the planner’s problem as a Stackelberg problem
c. For β = .95, b = 30, β(1 + r ) = .95, formulate an artificial optimal linear regulator problem and
use it to solve the Stackelberg problem
d. Give a recursive representation of the Stackelberg plan for τt
3.12 Optimal Taxation
Contents
• Optimal Taxation
– Overview
– The Ramsey Problem
– Implementation
– Examples
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
In this lecture we study optimal fiscal policy in a linear quadratic setting

We slightly modify a well-known model model of Robert Lucas and Nancy Stokey [LS83] so that
convenient formulas for solving linear-quadratic models can be applied to simplify the calcula-
tions
The economy consists of a representative household and a benevolent government
The government finances an exogenous stream of government purchases with state-contingent
loans and a linear tax on labor income
A linear tax is sometimes called a flat-rate tax
The household maximizes utility by choosing paths for consumption and labor, taking prices and
the government’s tax rate and borrowing plans as given
Maximum attainable utility for the household depends on the government’s tax and borrowing
plans
The Ramsey problem [Ram27] is to choose tax and borrowing plans that maximize the household’s
welfare, taking the household’s optimizing behavior as given
There is a large number of competitive equilibria indexed by different government fiscal policies
The Ramsey planner chooses the best competitive equilibrium

We want to study the dynamics of tax rates, tax revenues, government debt under a Ramsey plan
Because the Lucas and Stokey model features state-contingent government debt, the government
debt dynamics differ substantially from those in a model of Robert Barro [Bar79]
The treatment given here closely follows this manuscript, prepared by Thomas J. Sargent and
Francois R. Velde
We cover only the key features of the problem in this lecture, leaving you to refer to that source
for additional results and intuition
Model Features
• Linear quadratic (LQ) model
• Representative household
• Stochastic dynamic programming over an infinite horizon
• Distortionary taxation
The Ramsey Problem
We begin by outlining the key assumptions regarding technology, households and the government
sector
Technology Labor can be converted one-for-one into a single, non-storable consumption good
In the usual spirit of the LQ model, the amount of labor supplied in each period is unrestricted
This is unrealistic, but helpful when it comes to solving the model
Realistic labor supply can be induced by suitable parameter values
Households Consider a representative household who chooses a path {`t , ct } for labor and con-
sumption to maximize
1 ∞
− E ∑ βt (ct − bt )2 + `2t

(3.152)
2 t =0
subject to the budget constraint
∞
E ∑ βt p0t [dt + (1 − τt )`t + st − ct ] = 0 (3.153)
t =0
Here
• β is a discount factor in (0, 1)
• p0t is state price at time t
• bt is a stochastic preference parameter
• dt is an endowment process

• τt is a flat tax rate on labor income

• st is a promised time-t coupon payment on debt issued by the government
The budget constraint requires that the present value of consumption be restricted to equal the
present value of endowments, labor income and coupon payments on bond holdings
Government The government imposes a linear tax on labor income, fully committing to a
stochastic path of tax rates at time zero
The government also issues state-contingent debt
Given government tax and borrowing plans, we can construct a competitive equilibrium with
distorting government taxes
Among all such competitive equilibria, the Ramsey plan is the one that maximizes the welfare of
the representative consumer
Exogenous Variables Endowments, government expenditure, the preference parameter bt and

promised coupon payments on initial government debt st are all exogenous, and given by
• d t = Sd x t
• gt = S g x t
• bt = S b x t
• s t = Ss x t
The matrices Sd , Sg , Sb , Ss are primitives and { xt } is an exogenous stochastic process taking values
in Rk
We consider two specifications for { xt }
1. Discrete case: { xt } is a discrete state Markov chain with transition matrix P
2. VAR case: { xt } obeys xt+1 = Axt + Cwt+1 where {wt } is independent zero mean Gaussian
with identify covariance matrix
Feasibility The period-by-period feasibility restriction for this economy is
c t + gt = d t + ` t (3.154)
A labor-consumption process {`t , ct } is called feasible if (3.154) holds for all t
Government budget constraint Where p0t is a scaled Arrow-Debreu price, the time zero govern-
ment budget constraint is
∞
E ∑ βt p0t (st + gt − τt `t ) = 0 (3.155)
t =0

Equilibrium An equilibrium is a feasible allocation {`t , ct }, a sequence of prices { pt }, and a tax

system {τt } such that
1. The allocation {`t , ct } is optimal for the household given { pt } and {τt }
2. The government’s budget constraint (3.155) is satisfied
The Ramsey problem is to choose the equilibrium {`t , ct , τt , pt } that maximizes the household’s wel-
fare
If {`t , ct , τt , pt } is a solution to the Ramsey problem, then {τt } is called the Ramsey plan
The solution procedure we adopt is
1. Use the first order conditions from the household problem to pin down prices and alloca-
tions given {τt }
2. Use these expressions to rewrite the government budget constraint (3.155) in terms of exoge-
nous variables and allocations
3. Maximize the household’s objective function (3.152) subject to the constraint constructed in
step 2 and the feasibility constraint (3.154)
The solution to this maximization problem pins down all quantities of interest
Solution Step one is to obtain the first order conditions for the household’s problem, taking taxes
and prices as given
Letting µ be the Lagrange multiplier on (3.153), the first order conditions are pt = (ct − bt )/µ and
`t = (ct − bt )(1 − τt )
Rearranging and normalizing at µ = b0 − c0 , we can write these conditions as
bt − c t `t
pt = and τt = 1 − (3.156)
b0 − c0 bt − c t
Substituting (3.156) into the government’s budget constraint (3.155) yields
∞
E ∑ βt (bt − ct )(st + gt − `t ) + `2t = 0

(3.157)
t =0
The Ramsey problem now amounts to maximizing (3.152) subject to (3.157) and (3.154)
The associated Lagrangian is
∞
1
L = E ∑ β − (ct − bt ) + `t + λ (bt − ct )(`t − st − gt ) − `t + µt [dt + `t − ct − gt ]
t 2 2 2

t =0 2
(3.158)
The first order conditions associated with ct and `t are
−(ct − bt ) + λ[−`t + ( gt + st )] = µt
and
`t − λ[(bt − ct ) − 2`t ] = µt

Combining these last two equalities with (3.154) and working through the algebra, one can show
that
`t = `¯ t − νmt and ct = c̄t − νmt (3.159)
where
• ν := λ/(1 + 2λ)
• `¯ t := (bt − dt + gt )/2
• c̄t := (bt + dt − gt )/2
• mt := (bt − dt − st )/2
Apart from ν, all of these quantities are expressed in terms of exogenous variables
To solve for ν, we can use the government’s budget constraint again
The term inside the brackets in (3.157) is (bt − ct )(st + gt ) − (bt − ct )`t + `2t
Using (3.159), the definitions above and the fact that `¯ = b − c̄, this term can be rewritten as
(bt − c̄t )( gt + st ) + 2m2t (ν2 − ν)
Reinserting into (3.157), we get
∞ ∞
( ) ( )
E ∑ β (bt − c̄t )( gt + st )
t
+ ( ν − ν )E
2
∑β t
2m2t =0 (3.160)
t =0 t =0
Although it might not be clear yet, we are nearly there:

• The two expectations terms in (3.160) can be solved for in terms of model primitives
• This in turn allows us to solve for the Lagrange multiplier ν
• With ν in hand, we can go back and solve for the allocations via (3.159)
• Once we have the allocations, prices and the tax system can be derived from (3.156)
Solving the Quadratic Term Let’s consider how to obtain the term ν in (3.160)
If we can solve the two expected geometric sums
∞ ∞
( ) ( )
b0 := E ∑ βt (bt − c̄t )( gt + st ) and a0 : = E ∑ βt 2m2t (3.161)
t =0 t =0
then the problem reduces to solving
b0 + a0 (ν2 − ν) = 0
for ν
Provided that 4b0 < a0 , there is a unique solution ν ∈ (0, 1/2), and a unique corresponding λ > 0
Let’s work out how to solve the expectations terms in (3.161)

For the first one, the random variable (bt − c̄t )( gt + st ) inside the summation can be expressed as
1 0
x ( S − Sd + S g ) 0 ( S g + Ss ) x t
2 t b
For the second expectation in (3.161), the random variable 2m2t can be written as
1 0
x ( S − Sd − Ss ) 0 ( Sb − Sd − Ss ) x t
2 t b
It follows that both of these expectations terms are special cases of the expression
∞
q( x0 ) = E ∑ βt xt0 Hxt (3.162)
t =0
where H is a conformable matrix, and xt0 is the transpose of column vector xt

Suppose first that { xt } is the Gaussian VAR described above
In this case, the formula for computing q( x0 ) is known to be q( x0 ) = x00 Qx0 + v, where
• Q is the solution to Q = H + βA0 QA, and
• v = trace (C 0 QC ) β/(1 − β)
The first equation is known as a discrete Lyapunov equation, and can be solved using this function
Next suppose that { xt } is the discrete Markov process described above
Suppose further that each xt takes values in the state space { x1 , . . . , x N } ⊂ Rk
Let h : Rk → R be a given function, and suppose that we wish to evaluate
∞
q ( x0 ) = E ∑ β t h ( x t ) given x0 = x j
t =0
For example, in the discussion above, h( xt ) = xt0 Hxt

It is legitimate to pass the expectation through the sum, leading to
∞
q ( x0 ) = ∑ βt ( Pt h)[ j] (3.163)
t =0
Here
• Pt is the t-th power of the transition matrix P
• h is, with some abuse of notation, the vector (h( x1 ), . . . , h( x N ))
• ( Pt h)[ j] indicates the j-th element of Pt h
It can be show that (3.163) is in fact equal to the j-th element of the vector ( I − βP)−1 h
This last fact is applied in the calculations below

Other Variables We are interested in tracking several other variables besides the ones described
above
One is the present value of government obligations outstanding at time t, which can be expressed
as
∞
Bt := Et ∑ β j ptt+ j (τt+ j `t+ j − gt+ j ) (3.164)
j =0
Using our expression for prices and the Ramsey plan, we can also write Bt as
∞ (bt+ j − ct+ j )(`t+ j − gt+ j ) − `2t+ j

Bt = Et ∑ β j
j =0
bt − c t
This variation is more convenient for computation

Yet another way to write Bt is
∞
Bt = ∑ R−tj 1 (τt+ j `t+ j − gt+ j )
j =0
where
R−
tj : = Et β pt+ j
1 j t
Here Rtj can be thought of as the gross j-period risk-free rate on holding government debt between
t and j
Furthermore, letting Rt be the one-period risk-free rate, we define
πt+1 := Bt+1 − Rt [ Bt − (τt `t − gt )]
and
t
Πt := ∑ πt
s =0
The term πt+1 is the payout on the public’s portfolio of government debt
As shown in the original manuscript, if we distort one-step-ahead transition probabilities by
the adjustment factor
ptt+1
ξ t :=
Et ptt+1
then Πt is a martingale under the distorted probabilities
See the treatment in the manuscript for more discussion and intuition
For now we will concern ourselves with computation
Implementation
The following code provides functions for

1. Solving for the Ramsey plan given a specification of the economy
2. Simulating the dynamics of the major variables

The file is lqramsey/lqramsey.py from the applications repository

Description and clarifications are given below
"""
Filename: lqramsey.py
Authors: Thomas Sargent, Doc-Jin Jang, Jeong-hun Choi, John Stachurski
This module provides code to compute Ramsey equilibria in a LQ economy with

distortionary taxation. The program computes allocations (consumption,
leisure), tax rates, revenues, the net present value of the debt and other
related quantities.
Functions for plotting the results are also provided below.
See the lecture at http://quant-econ.net/py/lqramsey.html for a description of

the model.
"""
import sys
import numpy as np
from numpy import sqrt, eye, dot, zeros, cumsum
from numpy.random import randn
import scipy.linalg
from collections import namedtuple
from quantecon import nullspace, mc_sample_path, var_quadratic_sum
# == Set up a namedtuple to store data on the model economy == #

Economy = namedtuple('economy',
('beta', # Discount factor
'Sg', # Govt spending selector matrix
'Sd', # Exogenous endowment selector matrix
'Sb', # Utility parameter selector matrix
'Ss', # Coupon payments selector matrix
'discrete', # Discrete or continuous -- boolean
'proc')) # Stochastic process parameters
# == Set up a namedtuple to store return values for compute_paths() == #

Path = namedtuple('path',
('g', # Govt spending
'd', # Endowment
'b', # Utility shift parameter
's', # Coupon payment on existing debt
'c', # Consumption
'l', # Labor
'p', # Price
'tau', # Tax rate
'rvn', # Revenue
'B', # Govt debt
'R', # Risk free gross return
'pi', # One-period risk-free interest rate

'Pi', # Cumulative rate of return, adjusted

'xi')) # Adjustment factor for Pi
def compute_paths(T, econ):

"""
Compute simulated time paths for exogenous and endogenous variables.
Parameters
===========
T: int
Length of the simulation
econ: a namedtuple of type 'Economy', containing

beta - Discount factor
Sg - Govt spending selector matrix
Sd - Exogenous endowment selector matrix
Sb - Utility parameter selector matrix
Ss - Coupon payments selector matrix
discrete - Discrete exogenous process (True or False)
proc - Stochastic process parameters
Returns
========
path: a namedtuple of type 'Path', containing
g - Govt spending
d - Endowment
b - Utility shift parameter
s - Coupon payment on existing debt
c - Consumption
l - Labor
p - Price
tau - Tax rate
rvn - Revenue
B - Govt debt
R - Risk free gross return
pi - One-period risk-free interest rate
Pi - Cumulative rate of return, adjusted
xi - Adjustment factor for Pi
The corresponding values are flat numpy ndarrays.
"""
beta, Sg, Sd, Sb, Ss = econ.beta, econ.Sg, econ.Sd, econ.Sb, econ.Ss
if econ.discrete:
P, x_vals = econ.proc
else:
A, C = econ.proc
# == Simulate the exogenous process x == #

if econ.discrete:
state = mc_sample_path(P, init=0, sample_size=T)
x = x_vals[:, state]
else:
# == Generate an initial condition x0 satisfying x0 = A x0 == #
nx, nx = A.shape
x0 = nullspace((eye(nx) - A))
x0 = -x0 if (x0[nx-1] < 0) else x0
x0 = x0 / x0[nx-1]
# == Generate a time series x of length T starting from x0 == #

nx, nw = C.shape
x = zeros((nx, T))
w = randn(nw, T)
x[:, 0] = x0.T
x[:, t] = dot(A, x[:, t-1]) + dot(C, w[:, t])
# == Compute exogenous variable sequences == #

g, d, b, s = (dot(S, x).flatten() for S in (Sg, Sd, Sb, Ss))
# == Solve for Lagrange multiplier in the govt budget constraint == #

# In fact we solve for nu = lambda / (1 + 2*lambda). Here nu is the
# solution to a quadratic equation a(nu**2 - nu) + b = 0 where
# a and b are expected discounted sums of quadratic forms of the state.
Sm = Sb - Sd - Ss
# == Compute a and b == #
if econ.discrete:
ns = P.shape[0]
F = scipy.linalg.inv(np.identity(ns) - beta * P)
a0 = 0.5 * dot(F, dot(Sm, x_vals).T**2)[0]
H = dot(Sb - Sd + Sg, x_vals) * dot(Sg - Ss, x_vals)
b0 = 0.5 * dot(F, H.T)[0]
a0, b0 = float(a0), float(b0)
else:
H = dot(Sm.T, Sm)
a0 = 0.5 * var_quadratic_sum(A, C, H, beta, x0)
H = dot((Sb - Sd + Sg).T, (Sg + Ss))
b0 = 0.5 * var_quadratic_sum(A, C, H, beta, x0)
# == Test that nu has a real solution before assigning == #

warning_msg = """
Hint: you probably set government spending too {}. Elect a {}
Congress and start over.
"""
disc = a0**2 - 4 * a0 * b0
if disc >= 0:
nu = 0.5 * (a0 - sqrt(disc)) / a0
else:
print("There is no Ramsey equilibrium for these parameters.")
print(warning_msg.format('high', 'Republican'))
sys.exit(0)

# == Test that the Lagrange multiplier has the right sign == #

if nu * (0.5 - nu) < 0:
print("Negative multiplier on the government budget constraint.")
print(warning_msg.format('low', 'Democratic'))
sys.exit(0)
# == Solve for the allocation given nu and x == #

Sc = 0.5 * (Sb + Sd - Sg - nu * Sm)
Sl = 0.5 * (Sb - Sd + Sg - nu * Sm)
c = dot(Sc, x).flatten()
l = dot(Sl, x).flatten()
p = dot(Sb - Sc, x).flatten() # Price without normalization
tau = 1 - l / (b - c)
rvn = l * tau
# == Compute remaining variables == #

if econ.discrete:
H = dot(Sb - Sc, x_vals) * dot(Sl - Sg, x_vals) - dot(Sl, x_vals)**2
temp = dot(F, H.T).flatten()
B = temp[state] / p
H = dot(P[state, :], dot(Sb - Sc, x_vals).T).flatten()
R = p / (beta * H)
temp = dot(P[state, :], dot(Sb - Sc, x_vals).T).flatten()
xi = p[1:] / temp[:T-1]
else:
H = dot(Sl.T, Sl) - dot((Sb - Sc).T, Sl - Sg)
L = np.empty(T)
for t in range(T):
L[t] = var_quadratic_sum(A, C, H, beta, x[:, t])
B = L / p
Rinv = (beta * dot(dot(Sb - Sc, A), x)).flatten() / p
R = 1 / Rinv
AF1 = dot(Sb - Sc, x[:, 1:])
AF2 = dot(dot(Sb - Sc, A), x[:, :T-1])
xi = AF1 / AF2
xi = xi.flatten()
pi = B[1:] - R[:T-1] * B[:T-1] - rvn[:T-1] + g[:T-1]

Pi = cumsum(pi * xi)
# == Prepare return values == #

path = Path(g=g,
d=d,
b=b,
s=s,
c=c,
l=l,
p=p,
tau=tau,
rvn=rvn,
B=B,
R=R,
pi=pi,

Pi=Pi,
xi=xi)
return path
def gen_fig_1(path):
"""
The parameter is the path namedtuple returned by compute_paths(). See
the docstring of that function for details.
"""
T = len(path.c)
# == Prepare axes == #
for i in range(num_rows):
for j in range(num_cols):
axes[i, j].grid()
axes[i, j].set_xlabel(r'Time')
bbox = (0., 1.02, 1., .102)
p_args = {'lw': 2, 'alpha': 0.7}
# == Plot consumption, govt expenditure and revenue == #

ax = axes[0, 0]
ax.plot(path.rvn, label=r'$\tau_t \ell_t$', **p_args)
ax.plot(path.g, label=r'$g_t$', **p_args)
ax.plot(path.c, label=r'$c_t$', **p_args)
ax.legend(ncol=3, **legend_args)
# == Plot govt expenditure and debt == #

ax = axes[0, 1]
ax.plot(list(range(1, T+1)), path.rvn, label=r'$\tau_t \ell_t$', **p_args)
ax.plot(list(range(1, T+1)), path.g, label=r'$g_t$', **p_args)
ax.plot(list(range(1, T)), path.B[1:T], label=r'$B_{t+1}$', **p_args)
# == Plot risk free return == #

ax = axes[1, 0]
ax.plot(list(range(1, T+1)), path.R - 1, label=r'$R_t - 1$', **p_args)
# == Plot revenue, expenditure and risk free rate == #

ax = axes[1, 1]
ax.plot(list(range(1, T+1)), path.rvn, label=r'$\tau_t \ell_t$', **p_args)
ax.plot(list(range(1, T+1)), path.g, label=r'$g_t$', **p_args)
axes[1, 1].plot(list(range(1, T)), path.pi, label=r'$\pi_{t+1}$', **p_args)
plt.show()

def gen_fig_2(path):
"""
The parameter is the path namedtuple returned by compute_paths(). See
the docstring of that function for details.
"""
T = len(path.c)
# == Prepare axes == #
bbox = (0., 1.02, 1., .102)
bbox = (0., 1.02, 1., .102)
p_args = {'lw': 2, 'alpha': 0.7}
# == Plot adjustment factor == #

ax = axes[0]
ax.plot(list(range(2, T+1)), path.xi, label=r'$\xi_t$', **p_args)
ax.grid()
# == Plot adjusted cumulative return == #

ax = axes[1]
ax.plot(list(range(2, T+1)), path.Pi, label=r'$\Pi_t$', **p_args)
ax.grid()
plt.show()
Comments on the Code The function var_quadratic_sum imported from quadsums is for com-
puting the value of (3.162) when the exogenous process { xt } is of the VAR type described above
Below the definition of the function, you will see definitions of two namedtuple objects, Economy
and Path
The first is used to collect all the parameters and primitives of a given LQ economy, while the
second collects output of the computations
In Python, a namedtuple is a popular data type from the collections module of the standard
library that replicates the functionality of a tuple, but also allows you to assign a name to each
tuple element
These elements can then be references via dotted attribute notation — see for example the use of
path in the function gen_fig_1()
The benefits of using namedtuples:
• Keeps content organized by meaning

• Helps reduce the number of global variables

Other than that, our code is long but relatively straightforward
Examples
Let’s look at two examples of usage
The Continuous Case Our first example adopts the VAR specification described above
Regarding the primitives, we set
• β = 1/1.05
• bt = 2.135 and st = dt = 0 for all t
Government spending evolves according to
gt+1 − µ g = ρ( gt − µ g ) + Cg w g,t+1
p
with ρ = 0.7, µ g = 0.35 and Cg = µ g 1 − ρ2 /10
Here’s the code, from file lqramsey/lqramsey_ar1.py
"""
Filename: lqramsey_ar1.py
Example 1: Govt spending is AR(1) and state is (g, 1).
"""
import numpy as np
from numpy import array
import lqramsey
beta = 1 / 1.05
rho, mg = .7, .35
A = np.identity(2)
A[0, :] = rho, mg * (1-rho)
C = np.zeros((2, 1))
C[0, 0] = np.sqrt(1 - rho**2) * mg / 10
Sg = array((1, 0)).reshape(1, 2)
Sd = array((0, 0)).reshape(1, 2)
Sb = array((0, 2.135)).reshape(1, 2)
Ss = array((0, 0)).reshape(1, 2)
economy = lqramsey.Economy(beta=beta,
Sg=Sg,
Sd=Sd,
Sb=Sb,
Ss=Ss,

discrete=False,
proc=(A, C))
T = 50
path = lqramsey.compute_paths(T, economy)
lqramsey.gen_fig_1(path)
Running the program produces the figure
The legends on the figures indicate the variables being tracked

Most obvious from the figure is tax smoothing in the sense that tax revenue is much less variable
than government expenditure
After running the code above, if you then execute lqramsey.gen_fig_2(path) from your IPython
shell you will produce the figure
See the original manuscript for comments and interpretation
The Discrete Case Our second example adopts a discrete Markov specification for the exoge-
nous process
Here’s the code, from file lqramsey/lqramsey_discrete.py
"""
Filename: lqramsey_discrete.py
LQ Ramsey model with discrete exogenous process.
"""
from numpy import array
import lqramsey

beta = 1 / 1.05
P = array([[0.8, 0.2, 0.0],
[0.0, 0.5, 0.5],
[0.0, 0.0, 1.0]])
# == Possible states of the world == #
# Each column is a state of the world. The rows are [g d b s 1]
x_vals = array([[0.5, 0.5, 0.25],
[0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
[2.2, 2.2, 2.2],
[0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
[1.0, 1.0, 1.0]])
Sg = array((1, 0, 0, 0, 0)).reshape(1, 5)
Sd = array((0, 1, 0, 0, 0)).reshape(1, 5)
Sb = array((0, 0, 1, 0, 0)).reshape(1, 5)
Ss = array((0, 0, 0, 1, 0)).reshape(1, 5)
economy = lqramsey.Economy(beta=beta,
Sg=Sg,
Sd=Sd,
Sb=Sb,
Ss=Ss,
discrete=True,
proc=(P, x_vals))
T = 15

3.13. HISTORY DEPENDENT PUBLIC POLICIES 575
path = lqramsey.compute_paths(T, economy)

lqramsey.gen_fig_1(path)
The call gen_fig_1(path) generates the figure
while gen_fig_2(path) generates

See the original manuscript for comments and interpretation
Exercises
Exercise 1 Modify the VAR example given above, setting
gt+1 − µ g = ρ( gt−3 − µ g ) + Cg w g,t+1

p
with ρ = 0.95 and Cg = 0.7 1 − ρ2
Produce the corresponding figures
Solutions
Solution notebook
3.13 History Dependent Public Policies

Contents
• History Dependent Public Policies
– Overview
– Two Sources of History Dependence
– Competitive equilibrium
– Ramsey Problem
– Two Subproblems
– Time Inconsistency
– Credible Policy
– Concluding remarks
Overview
This lecture describes history-dependent public policies and some of their representations
History dependent policies are decision rules that depend on the entire past history of the state
variables
History dependent policies naturally emerge in Ramsey problems
A Ramsey planner (typically interpreted as a government) devises a plan of actions at time t = 0

to follow at all future dates and for all contingencies

In order to make a plan, he takes as given Euler equations expressing private agents’ first-order
necessary conditions
He also takes into account that his future actions affect earlier decisions by private agents, an
avenue opened up by the maintained assumption of rational expectations
Another setting in which history dependent policies naturally emerge is where instead of a Ram-
sey planner there is a sequence of government administrators whose time t member takes as given
the policies used by its successors
We study these ideas in the context of a model in which a benevolent tax authority is forced
• to raise a prescribed present value of revenues
• to do so by imposing a distorting flat rate tax on the output of a competitive representative
firm
The firm faces costs of adjustment and lives within a competitive equilibrium, which in turn im-
poses restrictions on the tax authority 7
References The presentation below is based on a recent paper by Evans and Sargent [ES13]
Regarding techniques, we will make use of the methods described in
1. the linear regulator lecture
2. the solving LQ dynamic Stackelberg problems lecture
Two Sources of History Dependence
We compare two timing protocols

1. An infinitely lived benevolent tax authority solves a Ramsey problem
2. There is a sequence of tax authorities, each choosing only a time t tax rate
Under both timing protocols, optimal tax policies are history-dependent
But history dependence captures different economic forces across the two timing protocols
In the first timing protocol, history dependence expresses the time-inconsistency of the Ramsey plan
In the second timing protocol, history dependence reflects the unfolding of constraints that assure
that a time t government administrator wants to confirm the representative firm’s expectations
about government actions
We describe recursive representations of history-dependent tax policies under both timing proto-
cols
Ramsey Timing Protocol The first timing protocol models a policy maker who can be said to
‘commit’, choosing a sequence of tax rates once-and-for-all at time 0
7 We could also call a competitive equilibrium a rational expectations equilibrium.

Sequence of Governments Timing Protocol For the second timing protocol we use the notion
of a sustainable plan proposed in [CK90], also referred to as a credible public policy in [Sto89]
A key idea here is that history-dependent policies can be arranged so that, when regarded as a
representative firm’s forecasting functions, they confront policy makers with incentives to confirm
them
We follow Chang [Cha98] in expressing such history-dependent plans recursively
Credibility considerations contribute an additional auxiliary state variable in the form of a
promised value to the planner
It expresses how decisions must unfold to give the government the incentive to confirm private
sector expectations when the government chooses sequentially
Note: We occasionally hear confusion about the consequences of recursive representations of

government policies under our two timing protocols. It is incorrect to regard a recursive represen-
tation of the Ramsey plan as in any way ‘solving a time-inconsistency problem’. On the contrary,
the evolution of the auxiliary state variable that augments the authentic ones under our first tim-
ing protocol ought to be viewed as expressing the time-inconsistency of a Ramsey plan. Despite
that, in literatures about practical monetary policy one sometimes hears interpretations that sell
Ramsey plans in settings where our sequential timing protocol is the one that more accurately
characterizes decision making. Please beware of discussions that toss around claims about cred-
ibility if you don’t also see recursive representations of policies with the complete list of state
variables appearing in our [Cha98] -like analysis that we present below.
Competitive equilibrium
A representative competitive firm sells output qt at price pt when market-wide output is Qt

The market as a whole faces a downward sloping inverse demand function
p t = A0 − A1 Q t , A0 > 0, A1 > 0 (3.165)
The representative firm
• has given initial condition q0
• endures quadratic adjustment costs d2 (qt+1 − qt )2
• pays a flat rate tax τt per unit of output
• treats { pt , τt }∞
t=0 as exogenous
• chooses {qt+1 }∞
t=0 to maximize
∞
d
∑ βt pt qt − (qt+1 − qt )2 − τt qt

(3.166)
t =0 2
Let ut := qt+1 − qt be the firm’s ‘control variable’ at time t
First-order conditions for the representative firm’s problem are
β β
ut = pt+1 + βut+1 − τt+1 , t = 0, 1, . . . (3.167)
d d

To compute a competitive equilibrium, it is appropriate to take (3.167), eliminate pt in favor of Qt

by using (3.165), and then set qt = Qt
This last step makes the representative firm be representative 8
We arrive at
β β
ut = ( A0 − A1 Qt+1 ) + βut+1 − τt+1 (3.168)
d d
Q t +1 = Q t + u t (3.169)
Notation: For any scalar xt , let ~x = { xt }∞
t =0
Given a tax sequence {τt+1 }∞ t=0 , a competitive equilibrium is a price sequence ~

p and an output
sequence Q~ that satisfy (3.165), (3.168), and (3.169)
For any sequence ~x = { xt }∞ x1 : = { x t } ∞

t=0 , the sequence ~ t=1 is called the continuation sequence or
simply the continuation
Note that a competitive equilibrium consists of a first period value u0 = Q1 − Q0 and a continua-
tion competitive equilibrium with initial condition Q1
Also, a continuation of a competitive equilibrium is a competitive equilibrium
Following the lead of [Cha98], we shall make extensive use of the following property:
• A continuation ~τ1 = {τt }∞
t=1 of a tax policy ~
τ influences u0 via (3.168) entirely through its
impact on u1
A continuation competitive equilibrium can be indexed by a u1 that satisfies (3.168)
In the spirit of [KP80a] , we shall use ut+1 to describe what we shall call a promised marginal
value that a competitive equilibrium offers to a representative firm 9
Define Qt := [ Q0 , . . . , Qt ]
A history-dependent tax policy is a sequence of functions {σt }∞ t
t=0 with σt mapping Q into a
choice of τt+1
Below, we shall
• Study history-dependent tax policies that either solve a Ramsey plan or are credible
• Describe recursive representations of both types of history-dependent policies
Ramsey Problem
The planner’s objective is cast in terms of consumer surplus net of the firm’s adjustment costs
8 It is important not to set q = Q prematurely. To make the firm a price taker, this equality should be imposed after
t t
and not before solving the firm’s optimization problem.
9 We could instead, perhaps with more accuracy, define a promised marginal value as β ( A − A Q
0 1 t+1 ) − βτt+1 +
ut+1 /β, since this is the object to which the firm’s first-order condition instructs it to equate to the marginal cost dut
of ut = qt+1 − qt . This choice would align better with how Chang [Cha98] chose to express his competitive equilib-
rium recursively. But given (ut , Qt ), the representative firm knows ( Qt+1 , τt+1 ), so it is adequate to take ut+1 as the
intermediate variable that summarizes how ~τt+1 affects the firm’s choice of ut .

Consumer surplus is
Z Q
A1 2
( A0 − A1 x )dx = A0 Q − Q
0 2
Hence the planner’s one-period return function is
A1 2 d 2
A0 Q t − Q − ut (3.170)
2 t 2
At time t = 0, a Ramsey planner faces the intertemporal budget constraint
∞
∑ βt τt Qt = G0 (3.171)
t =1
Note that (3.171) forbids taxation of initial output Q0

~ ~u)
The Ramsey problem is to choose a tax sequence ~τ1 and a competitive equilibrium outcome ( Q,
that maximize
∞
A1 2 d 2
∑ β A0 Q t − 2 Q t − 2 u t
t
(3.172)
t =0
subject to (3.171)
Thus, the Ramsey timing protocol is:
1. At time 0, knowing ( Q0 , G0 ), the Ramsey planner chooses {τt+1 }∞
t =0
2. Given Q0 , {τt+1 }t=0 , a competitive equilibrium outcome {ut , Qt+1 }∞

∞

t=0 emerges
Note: In bringing out the timing protocol associated with a Ramsey plan, we run head on into
a set of issues analyzed by Bassetto [Bas05]. This is because our definition of the Ramsey timing
protocol doesn’t completely describe all conceivable actions by the government and firms as time
unfolds. For example, the definition is silent about how the government would respond if firms,
for some unspecified reason, were to choose to deviate from the competitive equilibrium associ-
ated with the Ramsey plan, possibly prompting violation of government budget balance. This is
an example of the issues raised by [Bas05], who identifies a class of government policy problems
whose proper formulation requires supplying a complete and coherent description of all actors’
behavior across all possible histories. Implicitly, we are assuming that a more complete description
of a government strategy could be specified that (a) agrees with ours along the Ramsey outcome,
and (b) suffices uniquely to implement the Ramsey plan by deterring firms from taking actions
that deviate from the Ramsey outcome path.
Computing a Ramsey Plan The planner chooses {ut }∞ ∞

t=0 , { τt }t=1 to maximize (3.172) subject to
(3.168), (3.169), and (3.171)
To formulate this problem as a Lagrangian, attach a Lagrange multiplier µ to the budget constraint
(3.171)
Then the planner chooses {ut }∞ ∞
t=0 , { τt }t=1 to maximize and the Lagrange multiplier µ to minimize
∞ ∞
" #
A1 2 d 2
∑ β ( A0 Qt − 2 Qt − 2 ut ) + µ ∑ β τt Qt − G0 − τ0 Q0
t t
(3.173)
t =0 t =0

subject to and (3.168) and (3.169)

The Ramsey problem is a special case of the linear quadratic dynamic Stackelberg problem ana-
lyzed in this lecture
The key implementability conditions are (3.168) for t ≥ 0
Holding fixed µ and G0 , the Lagrangian for the planning problem can be abbreviated as
∞
A1 2 d 2
max ∑ β A0 Qt −t
Q − ut + µτt Qt
{ut ,τt+1 } t=0 2 t 2
Define  
  1
1
z Qt 
yt := t = 

zt :=  Qt  and 
ut  τt 
τt
ut
Here the elements of zt are natural state variables and ut is a forward looking variable that we
treat as a state variable for t ≥ 1
But u0 is a choice variable for the Ramsey planner.
We include τt as a state variable for bookkeeping purposes: it helps to map the problem into a
linear regulator problem with no cross products between states and controls
However, it will be a redundant state variable in the sense that the optimal tax τt+1 will not depend
on τt
The government chooses τt+1 at time t as a function of the time t state
Thus, we can rewrite the Ramsey problem as
∞
max − ∑ βt y0t Ryt (3.174)
{yt ,τt+1 } t =0
subject to z0 given and the law of motion

yt+1 = Ayt + Bτt+1 (3.175)
where  
0 − A20 0 0 1 0 0 0
   
0
 A0 A1 −µ  0 1 0 1 
− 0 0

R= 2 2 2 , A= 0 , B=

−µ
 
 0 0 0  0 0 0 1
2 A1 A1
0 0 0 d − Ad0 d 0 d + β
1 1
d
2
Two Subproblems
Working backwards, we first present the Bellman equation for the value function that takes both
zt and ut as given. Then we present a value function that takes only z0 as given and is the indirect
utility function that arises from choosing u0 optimally.
Let v( Qt , τt , ut ) be the optimum value function for the time t ≥ 1 government administrator facing
state Qt , τt , ut .
Let w( Q0 ) be the value of the Ramsey plan starting from Q0

Subproblem 1 Here the Bellman equation is

A1 2 d 2
v( Qt , τt , ut ) = max A0 Qt − Q − ut + µτt Qt + βv( Qt+1 , τt+1 , ut+1 )
τt+1 2 t 2
where the maximization is subject to the constraints
Q t +1 = Q t + u t
and
A0 A A 1 1
u t +1 = − + 1 Qt + 1 + ut + τt+1
d d d β d
Here we regard ut as a state
Subproblem 2 The subproblem 2 Bellman equation is
w(z0 ) = max v( Q0 , 0, u0 )
u0
Details Define the state vector to be

 
1
 Qt  zt
yt = 
 τt  = ut ,

ut
0
where zt = 1 Qt τt are authentic state variables and ut is a variable whose time 0 value is a
‘jump’ variable but whose values for dates t ≥ 1 will become state variables that encode history
dependence in the Ramsey plan
v(yt ) = max −y0t Ryt + βv(yt+1 )

(3.176)
τt+1
where the maximization is subject to the constraint
yt+1 = Ayt + Bτt+1
and where
 
0 − A20 0 0 1 0 0 0
   
0
 A0 A1 −µ 0 1 0 1 
− 0 0
 
R= 2 2
−µ
2 , A =  0 0 0 0  , and B =  1  .
  
 0 2 0 0 
A1 A1
0 0 0 d − Ad0 d 0 d + β
1 1
d
2
Functional equation (3.176) has solution
v(yt ) = −y0t Pyt
where
• P solves the algebraic matrix Riccati equation P = R + βA0 PA − βA0 PB( B0 PB)−1 B0 PA
• the optimal policy function is given by τt+1 = − Fyt for F = ( B0 PB)−1 B0 PA

Now we turn to subproblem 1.

∂v
Evidently the optimal choice of u0 satisfies ∂u0 =0
If we partition P as
P P12
P = 11
P21 P22
then we have
∂
z00 P11 z0 + z00 P12 u0 + u00 P21 z0 + u00 P22 u0 = P12
0

0= z0 + P21 u0 + 2P22 u0
∂u0
which implies
−1
u0 = − P22 P21 z0 (3.177)
Thus, the Ramsey plan is

zt z t +1 z
τt+1 = − F and = ( A − BF ) t
ut u t +1 ut
−1
0
with initial state z0 − P22 P21 z0
Recursive Representation An outcome of the preceding results is that the Ramsey plan can be
represented recursively as the choice of an initial marginal utility (or rate of growth of output)
according to a function
u0 = υ ( Q0 | µ ) (3.178)
that obeys (3.177) and the following updating equations for t ≥ 0:
τt+1 = τ ( Qt , ut |µ) (3.179)
Q t +1 = Q t + u t (3.180)
u t +1 = u ( Q t , u t | µ ) (3.181)
We have conditioned the functions υ, τ, and u by µ to emphasize how the dependence of F on G0
appears indirectly through the Lagrange multiplier µ
An Example Calculation We’ll discuss how to compute µ below but first consider the following
numerical example
We take the parameter set [ A0 , A1 , d, β, Q0 ] = [100, .05, .2, .95, 100] and compute the Ramsey plan
with the following piece of code
import numpy as np
from quantecon import LQ
from quantecon.matrix_eqn import solve_discrete_lyapunov
from scipy.optimize import root

def computeG(A0, A1, d, Q0, tau0, beta, mu):

"""
Compute government income given mu and return tax revenues and
policy matrixes for the planner.
Parameters
----------
A0 : float
A constant parameter for the inverse demand function
A1 : float
A constant parameter for the inverse demand function
d : float
A constant parameter for quadratic adjustment cost of production
Q0 : float
An initial condition for production
tau0 : float
An initial condition for taxes
beta : float
A constant parameter for discounting
mu : float
Lagrange multiplier
Returns
-------
T0 : array(float)
Present discounted value of government spending
A : array(float)
One of the transition matrices for the states
B : array(float)
Another transition matrix for the states
F : array(float)
Policy rule matrix
P : array(float)
Value function matrix
"""
# Create Matrices for solving Ramsey problem
R = np.array([[0, -A0/2, 0, 0],
[-A0/2, A1/2, -mu/2, 0],
[0, -mu/2, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0, d/2]])
A = np.array([[1, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0, 1],
[0, 0, 0, 0],
[-A0/d, A1/d, 0, A1/d+1/beta]])
B = np.array([0, 0, 1, 1/d]).reshape(-1, 1)
Q = 0
# Use LQ to solve the Ramsey Problem.

lq = LQ(Q, -R, A, B, beta=beta)
P, F, d = lq.stationary_values()

# Need y_0 to compute government tax revenue.

P21 = P[3, :3]
P22 = P[3, 3]
z0 = np.array([1, Q0, tau0]).reshape(-1, 1)
u0 = -P22**(-1) * P21.dot(z0)
y0 = np.vstack([z0, u0])
# Define A_F and S matricies

AF = A - B.dot(F)
S = np.array([0, 1, 0, 0]).reshape(-1, 1).dot(np.array([[0, 0, 1, 0]]))
# Solves equation (25)

temp = beta * AF.T.dot(S).dot(AF)
Omega = solve_discrete_lyapunov(np.sqrt(beta) * AF.T, temp)
T0 = y0.T.dot(Omega).dot(y0)
return T0, A, B, F, P
# == Primitives == #
T = 20
A0 = 100.0
A1 = 0.05
d = 0.20
beta = 0.95
# == Initial conditions == #
mu0 = 0.0025
Q0 = 1000.0
tau0 = 0.0
def gg(mu):
"""
Computes the tax revenues for the government given Lagrangian
multiplier mu.
"""
return computeG(A0, A1, d, Q0, tau0, beta, mu)
# == Solve the Ramsey problem and associated government revenue == #

G0, A, B, F, P = gg(mu0)
# == Compute the optimal u0 == #

P21 = P[3, :3]
P22 = P[3, 3]
z0 = np.array([1, Q0, tau0]).reshape(-1, 1)
u0 = -P22**(-1) * P21.dot(z0)
# == Initialize vectors == #
y = np.zeros((4, T))
uhat = np.zeros(T)
uhatdif = np.zeros(T)

tauhat = np.zeros(T)
tauhatdif = np.zeros(T-1)
mu = np.zeros(T)
G = np.zeros(T)
GPay = np.zeros(T)
# == Initial conditions == #
G[0] = G0
mu[0] = mu0
uhatdif[0] = 0
uhat[0] = u0
y[:, 0] = np.vstack([z0, u0]).flatten()

# Iterate government policy
y[:, t] = (A-B.dot(F)).dot(y[:, t-1])
# update G
G[t] = (G[t-1] - beta*y[1, t]*y[2, t])/beta
GPay[t] = beta*y[1, t]*y[2, t]
# Compute the mu if the government were able to reset its plan

# ff is the tax revenues the government would receive if they reset the
# plan with Lagrange multiplier mu minus current G
ff = lambda mu: (gg(mu)[0]-G[t]).flatten()
# find ff = 0
mu[t] = root(ff, mu[t-1]).x
temp, Atemp, Btemp, Ftemp, Ptemp = gg(mu[t])
# Compute alternative decisions

P21temp = Ptemp[3, :3]
P22temp = P[3, 3]
uhat[t] = -P22temp**(-1)*P21temp.dot(y[:3, t])
yhat = (Atemp-Btemp.dot(Ftemp)).dot(np.hstack([y[0:3, t-1], uhat[t-1]]))

tauhat[t] = yhat[3]
tauhatdif[t-1] = tauhat[t]-y[3, t]
uhatdif[t] = uhat[t]-y[3, t]
if __name__ == '__main__':
print("1 Q tau u")
print(y)
print("-F")
print(-F)
The program can also be found in the QuantEcon GitHub repository

It computes a number of sequences besides the Ramsey plan, some of which have already been
discussed, while others will be described below
The next figure uses the program to compute and show the Ramsey plan for τ and the Ramsey out-

come for ( Qt , ut )
From top to bottom, the panels show Qt , τt and ut := Qt+1 − Qt over t = 0, . . . , 15
The optimal decision rule is 10
τt+1 = −248.0624 − 0.1242Qt − 0.3347ut (3.182)
Notice how the Ramsey plan calls for a high tax at t = 1 followed by a perpetual stream of lower
taxes
Taxing heavily at first, less later expresses time-inconsistency of the optimal plan for {τt+1 }∞
t =0
We’ll characterize this formally after first discussing how to compute µ.
10 As promised, τt does not appear in the Ramsey planner’s decision rule for τt+1 .

0 0
Computing µ Define the selector vectors eτ = 0 0 1 0 and eQ = 0 1 0 0 and express
τt = eτ0 yt and Qt = e0Q yt
Evidently Qt τt = y0t eQ eτ0 yt = y0t Syt where S := eQ eτ0
We want to compute
∞
T0 = ∑ βt τt Qt = τ1 Q1 + βT1
t =1
where T1 = ∑∞
t =2 βt−1 Qt τt
The present values T0 and T1 are connected by
T0 = βy00 A0F SA F y0 + βT1
Guess a solution that takes the form Tt = y0t Ωyt , then find an Ω that satisfies
Ω = βA0F SA F + βA0F ΩA F (3.183)
Equation (3.183) is a discrete Lyapunov equation that can be solved for Ω using QuantEcon’s
solve_discrete_lyapunov function
The matrix F and therefore the matrix A F = A − BF depend on µ
To find a µ that guarantees that T0 = G0 we proceed as follows:
1. Guess an initial µ, compute a tentative Ramsey plan and the implied T0 = y00 Ω(µ)y0
2. If T0 > G0 , lower µ; if T0 < µ, raise µ
3. Continue iterating on step 3 until T0 = G0
Time Inconsistency
Recall that the Ramsey planner chooses {ut }∞ ∞

t=0 , { τt }t=1 to maximize
∞
A1 2 d 2
∑ β A0 Q t − 2 Q t − 2 u t
t
t =0
subject to (3.168), (3.169), and (3.171)

We express the outcome that a Ramsey plan is time-inconsistent the following way
Proposition. A continuation of a Ramsey plan is not a Ramsey plan
Let
∞
A1 2 d 2
w ( Q0 , u0 | µ0 ) = ∑β t
A0 Q t − Q − ut
2 t 2
(3.184)
t =0
where
• { Qt , ut }∞
t=0 are evaluated under the Ramsey plan whose recursive representation is given by
(3.179), (3.180), (3.181)
• µ0 is the value of the Lagrange multiplier that assures budget balance, computed as de-
scribed above

Evidently, these continuation values satisfy the recursion
A1 2 d 2
w ( Q t , u t | µ0 ) = A0 Q t − Q − ut + βw( Qt+1 , ut+1 |µ0 ) (3.185)
2 t 2
for all t ≥ 0, where Qt+1 = Qt + ut
Under the timing protocol affiliated with the Ramsey plan, the planner is committed to the out-
come of iterations on (3.179), (3.180), (3.181)
In particular, when time t comes, the Ramsey planner is committed to the value of ut implied by
the Ramsey plan and receives continuation value w( Qt , ut , µ0 )
That the Ramsey plan is time-inconsistent can be seen by subjecting it to the following ‘revolu-
tionary’ test
First, define continuation revenues Gt that the government raises along the original Ramsey out-
come by
t
Gt = β−t ( G0 − ∑ βs τs Qs ) (3.186)
s =1
where {τt , Qt }∞
t=0 is the original Ramsey outcome
11
Then at time t ≥ 1,
1. take ( Qt , Gt ) inherited from the original Ramsey plan as initial conditions
2. invite a brand new Ramsey planner to compute a new Ramsey plan, solving for a new ut , to
be called ǔt , and for a new µ, to be called µ̌t
The revised Lagrange multiplier µ̌t is chosen so that, under the new Ramsey plan, the government
is able to raise enough continuation revenues Gt given by (3.186)
Would this new Ramsey plan be a continuation of the original plan?
The answer is no because along a Ramsey plan, for t ≥ 1, in general it is true that

w Qt , υ( Qt |µ̌)|µ̌ > w( Qt , ut |µ0 ) (3.187)
Inequality (3.187) expresses a continuation Ramsey planner’s incentive to deviate from a time 0
Ramsey plan by
1. resetting ut according to (3.178)
2. adjusting the Lagrange multiplier on the continuation appropriately to account for tax rev-
enues already collected 12
Inequality (3.187) expresses the time-inconsistency of a Ramsey plan
11 The continuation revenues G are the time t present value of revenues that must be raised to satisfy the original
t
time 0 government intertemporal budget constraint, taking into account the revenues already raised from s = 1, . . . , t
under the original Ramsey plan.
12 For example, let the Ramsey plan yield time 1 revenues Q τ . Then at time 1, a continuation Ramsey planner
1 1
G − βQ1 τ1
would want to raise continuation revenues, expressed in units of time 1 goods, of G̃1 := β . To finance the
remainder revenues, the continuation Ramsey planner would find a continuation Lagrange multiplier µ by applying
the three-step procedure from the previous section to revenue requirements G̃1 .

A Simulation To bring out the time inconsistency of the Ramsey plan, we compare
• the time t values of τt+1 under the original Ramsey plan with
• the value τ̌t+1 associated with a new Ramsey plan begun at time t with initial conditions
( Qt , Gt ) generated by following the original Ramsey plan
Here again Gt := β−t ( G0 − ∑ts=1 βs τs Qs )
The difference ∆τt := τ̌t − τt is shown in the top panel of the following figure

In the second panel we compare the time t outcome for ut under the original Ramsey plan with
the time t value of this new Ramsey problem starting from ( Qt , Gt )

To compute ut under the new Ramsey plan, we use the following version of formula (3.177):
−1
ǔt = − P22 (µ̌t ) P21 (µ̌t )zt
Here zt is evaluated along the Ramsey outcome path, where we have included µ̌t to emphasize
the dependence of P on the Lagrange multiplier µ0 13
To compute ut along the Ramsey path, we just iterate the recursion starting (??) from the initial Q0
with u0 being given by formula (3.177)
Thus the second panel indicates how far the reinitialized value ǔt value departs from the time t
outcome along the Ramsey plan
Note that the restarted plan raises the time t + 1 tax and consequently lowers the time t value of
ut
Associated with the new Ramsey plan at t is a value of the Lagrange multiplier on the continuation
government budget constraint
This is the third panel of the figure
The fourth panel plots the required continuation revenues Gt implied by the original Ramsey plan
These figures help us understand the time inconsistency of the Ramsey plan
Further Intuition One feature to note is the large difference between τ̌t+1 and τt+1 in the top
panel of the figure
If the government is able to reset to a new Ramsey plan at time t, it chooses a significantly higher
tax rate than if it were required to maintain the original Ramsey plan
The intuition here is that the government is required to finance a given present value of expendi-
tures with distorting taxes τ
The quadratic adjustment costs prevent firms from reacting strongly to variations in the tax rate
for next period, which tilts a time t Ramsey planner toward using time t + 1 taxes
As was noted before, this is evident in the first figure, where the government taxes the next period
heavily and then falls back to a constant tax from then on
This can also been seen in the third panel of the second figure, where the government pays off a
significant portion of the debt using the first period tax rate
The similarities between the graphs in the last two panels of the second figure reveals that there is a
one-to-one mapping between G and µ
The Ramsey plan can then only be time consistent if Gt remains constant over time, which will not
be true in general
Credible Policy
We express the theme of this section in the following: In general, a continuation of a Ramsey plan
is not a Ramsey plan
13 It can be verified that this formula puts non-zero weight only on the components 1 and Qt of zt .

This is sometimes summarized by saying that a Ramsey plan is not credible

On the other hand, a continuation of a credible plan is a credible plan
The literature on a credible public policy ([CK90] and [Sto89]) arranges strategies and incentives so
that public policies can be implemented by a sequence of government decision makers instead of a
single Ramsey planner who chooses an entire sequence of history-dependent actions once and for
all at time t = 0
Here we confine ourselves to sketching how recursive methods can be used to characterize credi-
ble policies in our model
A key reference on these topics is [Cha98]
A credibility problem arises because we assume that the timing of decisions differs from those for
a Ramsey problem
A sequential timing protocol is a protocol such that
1. At each t ≥ 0, given Qt and expectations about a continuation tax policy {τs+1 }∞
s=t and a
continuation price sequence { ps+1 }∞
s=t , the representative firm chooses u t
2. At each t, given ( Qt , ut ), a government chooses τt+1

Item (2) captures that taxes are now set sequentially, the time t + 1 tax being set after the govern-
ment has observed ut
Of course, the representative firm sets ut in light of its expectations of how the government will
ultimately choose to set future taxes
A credible tax plan {τs+1 }∞
s=t
• is anticipated by the representative firm, and

• is one that a time t government chooses to confirm
We use the following recursion, closely related to but different from (3.185), to define the continu-
ation value function for the government:
A1 2 d 2
Jt = A0 Qt − Q − ut + βJt+1 (τt+1 , Gt+1 ) (3.188)
2 t 2
This differs from (3.185) because
• continuation values are now allowed to depend explicitly on values of the choice τt+1 , and
• continuation government revenue to be raised Gt+1 need not be ones called for by the pre-
vailing government policy
Thus, deviations from that policy are allowed, an alteration that recognizes that τt is chosen se-
quentially
Express the government budget constraint as requiring that G0 solves the difference equation
Gt = βτt+1 Qt+1 + βGt+1 , t≥0 (3.189)
subject to the terminal condition limt→+∞ βt Gt = 0

Because the government is choosing sequentially, it is convenient to

• take Gt as a state variable at t and

• to regard the time t government as choosing (τt+1 , Gt+1 ) subject to constraint (3.189)
To express the notion of a credible government plan concisely, we expand the strategy space by
also adding Jt itself as a state variable and allowing policies to take the following recursive forms
14
Regard J0 as an a discounted present value promised to the Ramsey planner and take it as an
initial condition.
Then after choosing u0 according to
u0 = υ( Q0 , G0 , J0 ), (3.190)
choose subsequent taxes, outputs, and continuation values according to recursions that can be
represented as
τ̂t+1 = τ ( Qt , ut , Gt , Jt ) (3.191)
ut+1 = ξ ( Qt , ut , Gt , Jt , τt+1 ) (3.192)
Gt+1 = β−1 Gt − τt+1 Qt+1 (3.193)
Jt+1 (τt+1 , Gt+1 ) = ν( Qt , ut , Gt+1 , Jt , τt+1 ) (3.194)

Here
• τ̂t+1 is the time t + 1 government action called for by the plan, while
• τt+1 is possibly some one-time deviation that the time t + 1 government contemplates and
• Gt+1 is the associated continuation tax collections
The plan is said to be credible if, for each t and each state ( Qt , ut , Gt , Jt ), the plan satisfies the
incentive constraint
A1 2 d 2
Jt = A0 Qt − Q − u + βJt+1 (τ̂t+1 , Ĝt+1 ) (3.195)
2 t 2 t
A d 2
≥ A0 Qt − 1 Q2t − u + βJt+1 (τt+1 , Gt+1 ) (3.196)
2 2 t
for all tax rates τt+1 ∈ R available to the government

Gt −τ̂t+1 Qt+1
Here Ĝt+1 = β
• Inequality expresses that continuation values adjust to deviations in ways that discourage
the government from deviating from the prescribed τ̂t+1
• Inequality (3.195) indicates that two continuation values Jt+1 contribute to sustaining time t
promised value Jt
14 This choice is the key to what [LS12] call ‘dynamic programming squared’.

– Jt+1 (τ̂t+1 , Ĝt+1 ) is the continuation value when the government chooses to confirm the
private sector’s expectation, formed according to the decision rule (3.191) 15
– Jt+1 (τt+1 , Gt+1 ) tells the continuation consequences should the government disappoint
the private sector’s expectations
The internal structure of a credible plan deters deviations from it
That (3.195) maps two continuation values Jt+1 (τt+1 , Gt+1 ) and Jt+1 (τ̂t+1 , Ĝt+1 ) into one promised
value Jt reflects how a credible plan arranges a system of private sector expectations that induces
the government to choose to confirm them
Chang [Cha98] builds on how inequality (3.195) maps two continuation values into one
Remark Let J be the set of values associated with credible plans
Every value J ∈ J can be attained by a credible plan that has a recursive representation of form
form (3.191), (3.192), (3.193)
The set of values can be computed as the largest fixed point of an operator that maps sets of
candidate values into sets of values
Given a value within this set, it is possible to construct a government strategy of the recursive
form (3.191), (3.192), (3.193) that attains that value
In many cases, there is set a of values and associated credible plans
In those cases where the Ramsey outcome is credible, a multiplicity of credible plans is a key part
of the story because, as we have seen earlier, a continuation of a Ramsey plan is not a Ramsey plan
For it to be credible, a Ramsey outcome must be supported by a worse outcome associated with
another plan, the prospect of reversion to which sustains the Ramsey outcome
Concluding remarks
The term ‘optimal policy’, which pervades an important applied monetary economics literature,
means different things under different timing protocols
Under the ‘static’ Ramsey timing protocol (i.e., choose a sequence once-and-for-all), we obtain a
unique plan
Here the phrase ‘optimal policy’ seems to fit well, since the Ramsey planner optimally reaps early
benefits from influencing the private sector’s beliefs about the government’s later actions
When we adopt the sequential timing protocol associated with credible public policies, ‘optimal
policy’ is a more ambiguous description
There is a multiplicity of credible plans
True, the theory explains how it is optimal for the government to confirm the private sector’s
expectations about its actions along a credible plan
But some credible plans have very bad outcomes
15 Note the double role played by (3.191): as decision rule for the government and as the private sector’s rule for
forecasting government actions.

3.14. OPTIMAL TAXATION WITH STATE-CONTINGENT DEBT 596
These bad outcomes are central to the theory because it is the presence of bad credible plans that
makes possible better ones by sustaining the low continuation values that appear in the second
line of incentive constraint (3.195)
Recently, many have taken for granted that ‘optimal policy’ means ‘follow the Ramsey plan’ 16
In pursuit of more attractive ways to describe a Ramsey plan when policy making is in practice
done sequentially, some writers have repackaged a Ramsey plan in the following way
• Take a Ramsey outcome - a sequence of endogenous variables under a Ramsey plan - and
reinterpret it (or perhaps only a subset of its variables) as a target path of relationships among
outcome variables to be assigned to a sequence of policy makers 17
• If appropriate (infinite dimensional) invertibility conditions are satisfied, it can happen that
following the Ramsey plan is the only way to hit the target path 18
• The spirit of this work is to say, “in a democracy we are obliged to live with the sequential
timing protocol, so let’s constrain policy makers’ objectives in ways that will force them to
follow a Ramsey plan in spite of their benevolence” 19
• By this slight of hand, we acquire a theory of an optimal outcome target path
This ‘invertibility’ argument leaves open two important loose ends:
1. implementation, and
2. time consistency
As for (1), repackaging a Ramsey plan (or the tail of a Ramsey plan) as a target outcome sequence
does not confront the delicate issue of how that target path is to be implemented 20
As for (2), it is an interesting question whether the ‘invertibility’ logic can repackage and conceal
a Ramsey plan well enough to make policy makers forget or ignore the benevolent intentions that
give rise to the time inconsistency of a Ramsey plan in the first place
To attain such an optimal output path, policy makers must forget their benevolent intentions be-
cause there will inevitably occur temptations to deviate from that target path, and the implied
relationship among variables like inflation, output, and interest rates along it
Remark The continuation of such an optimal target path is not an optimal target path
3.14 Optimal Taxation with State-Contingent Debt
16 It is possible to read [Woo03] and [GW10] as making some carefully qualified statements of this type. Some of the
qualifications can be interpreted as advice ‘eventually’ to follow a tail of a Ramsey plan.
17 In our model, the Ramsey outcome would be a path (~ ~ ).
p, Q
18 See [GW10].
19 Sometimes the analysis is framed in terms of following the Ramsey plan only from some future date T onwards.
20 See [Bas05] and [ACK10].

Contents
• Optimal Taxation with State-Contingent Debt
– Overview
– A competitive equilibrium with distorting taxes
– Recursive formulation of the Ramsey problem
– Examples
– Implementation
Overview
This lecture describes a celebrated model of optimal fiscal policy by Robert E. Lucas, Jr., and Nancy
Stokey [LS83].
The model revisits classic issues about how to pay for a war.
The model features
• a government that must finance an exogenous stream of government expenditures with
– a flat rate tax on labor
– trades in a full array of Arrow state contingent securities
• a representative consumer who values consumption and leisure
• a linear production function mapping leisure into a single good
• a Ramsey planner who at time t = 0 chooses a plan for taxes and borrowing for all t ≥ 0
After first presenting the model in a space of sequences, we shall reformulate it recursively in
terms of two Bellman equations formulated along lines that we encountered in Dynamic Stackel-
berg models.
As in Dynamic Stackelberg models, to apply dynamic programming we shall define the state
vector artfully
In particular, we shall include forward-looking variables that summarize the optimal responses of
private agents to the Ramsey plan
See also Optimal taxation for an analysis within a linear-quadratic setting
A competitive equilibrium with distorting taxes
For t ≥ 0, the history st = [st , st−1 , . . . , s0 ] of an exogenous state st has joint probability density
π t ( s t ).
Government purchases g(s) are an exact time-invariant function of s.
Let ct (st ), `t (st ), and nt (st ) denote consumption, leisure, and labor supply, respectively, at history
st

A representative household is endowed with one unit of time that can be divided between leisure
`t and labor nt :
nt (st ) + `t (st ) = 1 (3.197)
Output equals nt (st ) and can be divided between ct (st ) and gt (st )
c t ( s t ) + gt ( s t ) = n t ( s t ) (3.198)
A representative household’s preferences over {ct (st ), `t (st )}∞

t=0 are ordered by
∞
∑ ∑ βt πt (st )u[ct (st ), `t (st )] (3.199)
t =0 st
where the utility function u is increasing, strictly concave, and three times continuously differen-
tiable in both arguments
The technology pins down a pre-tax wage rate to unity for all t, st
The government imposes a flat rate tax τt (st ) on labor income at time t, history st
There are complete markets in one-period Arrow securities
One unit of an Arrow security issued at time t at history st and promising to pay one unit of time
t + 1 consumption in state st+1 costs pt (st+1 |st )
The government issues one-period Arrow securities each period
The government has a sequence of budget constraints whose time t ≥ 0 component is
g(st ) = τt (st )nt (st ) + ∑ p t ( s t + 1 | s t ) bt + 1 ( s t + 1 | s t ) − bt ( s t | s t − 1 ) (3.200)

s t +1
where
• pt (st+1 |st ) is the competitive equilibrium price of one-period Arrow state-contingent securi-
ties
• bt (st |st−1 ) is government debt falling due at time t, history st .
Here pt (st+1 |st ) is the price of one unit of consumption at date t + 1 in state st+1 at date t and
history st
The initial government debt b0 (s0 ) is a given initial condition
The representative household has a sequence of budget constraints whose time t ≥ 0 component
is
ct (st ) + ∑ pt (st+1 |st )bt+1 (st+1 |st ) = 1 − τt (st ) nt (st ) + bt (st |st−1 ) ∀t ≥ 0.

(3.201)
s t +1
A government policy is an exogenous sequence { g(st )}∞ t ∞

t=0 , a tax rate sequence { τt ( s )}t=0 , and a
t + 1
government debt sequence {bt+1 (s )}t=0∞
A feasible allocation is a consumption-labor supply plan {ct (st ), nt (st )}∞

t=0 that satisfies (3.198) at
all t, st
A price system is a sequence of Arrow securities prices { pt (st+1 |st )}∞
t =0
The household faces the price system as a price-taker and takes the government policy as given.

The household’s optimization problem is to choose {ct (st ), `t (st )}∞

t=0 to maximize (3.199) subject
to (3.201) and (3.197) for all t, s t
A competitive equilibrium with distorting taxes is a feasible allocation, a price system, and a
government policy such that
• Given the price system and the government policy, the allocation solves household’s opti-
mization problem.
• Given the allocation, government policy, and price system, the government’s budget con-
straint is satisfied for all t, st
Note: There is a large number of competitive equilibria with distorting taxes, indexed by different
government policies.
The Ramsey problem or optimal taxation problem is to choose a competitive equilibrium with
distorting taxes that maximizes (3.199)
Primal approach We apply a popular approach to solving a Ramsey problem, called the primal
approach
The idea is to use first-order conditions for household optimization to eliminate taxes and prices
in favor of quantities, then pose an optimum problem cast entirely in terms of quantities
After Ramsey quantities have been found, taxes and prices can then be unwound from the alloca-
tion
The primal approach uses four steps:
1. Obtain the first-order conditions of the household’s problem and solve these conditions for
{q0t (st ), τt (st )}∞ t t ∞
t=0 as functions of the allocation { ct ( s ), nt ( s )}t=0 .
2. Substitute these expressions for taxes and prices in terms of the allocation into the house-
hold’s present-value budget constraint
• This intertemporal constraint involves only the allocation and is regarded as an imple-
mentability constraint.
3. Find the Ramsey allocation that maximizes the utility of the representative consumer (3.199)
subject to the feasibility constraints (3.197) and (3.198) and the implementability condition
derived in step 2.
• This optimal allocation is called the Ramsey allocation.
4. Use the Ramsey allocation together with the formulas from step 1 to find taxes and prices.
The implementability constraint By sequential substitution of one one-period budget con-

straint (3.201) into another, we can obtain the household’s present-value budget constraint:
∞ ∞
∑ ∑ q0t (st )ct (st ) = ∑ ∑ q0t (st )[1 − τt (st )]wt (st )nt (st ) + b0 (3.202)
t =0 s t t =0 s t
Here {q0t (st )}∞

t=1 can be interpreted as a time 0 Arrow-Debreu price system

The Arrow-Debreu price system is related to the system of Arrow securities prices through the
recursion:
q0t+1 (st+1 ) = pt (st+1 |st )q0t (st ) (3.203)
To approach the Ramsey problem, we study the household’s optimization problem
First-order conditions for the household’s problem for `t (st ) and bt (st+1 |st ), respectively, imply
ul (st )
(1 − τt (st )) = (3.204)
uc (st )
and
u c ( s t +1 )

t t
pt+1 (st+1 |s ) = βπ( st+1 |s ) (3.205)
uc (st )
where π( st+1 |st ) is the probability distribution of st+1 conditional on history st
Equation (3.205) implies that the Arrow-Debreu price system satisfies
uc (st )
q0t (st ) = βt πt (st ) (3.206)
u c ( s0 )
Use the first-order conditions (3.204) and (3.205) to eliminate taxes and prices from (3.202) to derive
the implementability condition
∞
∑ ∑ βt πt (st )[uc (st )ct (st ) − u` (st )nt (st )] − uc (s0 )b0 = 0. (3.207)
t =0 s t
The Ramsey problem is to choose a feasible allocation that maximizes

∞
∑ ∑ βt πt (st )u[ct (st ), 1 − nt (st )] (3.208)
t =0 st
subject to (3.207)
Solution details First define a “pseudo utility function”
V ct (st ), nt (st ), Φ = u[ct (st ), 1 − nt (st )] + Φ uc (st )ct (st ) − u` (st )nt (st ) ,

(3.209)
where Φ is a Lagrange multiplier on the implementability condition (3.202).

Next form the Lagrangian
∞ n h io
J= ∑∑ β t
π t ( s t
) V [ c t ( s t
) , n t ( s t
) , Φ ] + θ t ( s t
) n t ( s t
) − c t ( s t
) − g t ( s t ) − Φuc (0)b0 (3.210)
t =0 s t
where {θt (st ); ∀st }t≥0 is a sequence of Lagrange multipliers on the feasible conditions (3.198)
For given initial government debt b0 , we want to maximize J with respect to {ct (st ), nt (st ); ∀st }t≥0 .

The first-order conditions for the Ramsey problem for periods t ≥ 1 and t = 0, respectively, are
ct (st ): (1 + Φ)uc (st ) + Φ ucc (st )ct (st ) − u`c (st )nt (st ) − θt (st ) = 0, t ≥ 1,

: label : eqFONCRamsey1
nt (st ): − (1 + Φ)u` (st ) − Φ uc` (st )ct (st ) − u`` (st )nt (st ) + θt (st ) = 0, t ≥ 1

and
c0 (s0 , b0 ): (1 + Φ)uc (s0 ) + Φ ucc (s0 )c0 (s0 ) − u`c (s0 )n0 (s0 ) − θ0 (s0 ) − Φucc (s0 )b0 = 0,

n0 (s0 , b0 ): − (1 + Φ)u` (s0 ) − Φ uc` (s0 )c0 (s0 ) − u`` (s0 )n0 (s0 ) + θ0 (s0 ) + Φuc` (s0 )b0 = 0.

(3.211)
It is instructive to use first-order conditions (??) for t ≥ 1 to eliminate the multiplier θt (st )
For convenience, we suppress the time subscript and the index st and obtain
(1 + Φ)uc (c, 1 − c − g) + Φ cucc (c, 1 − c − g) − (c + g)u`c (c, 1 − c − g)

= (1 + Φ)u` (c, 1 − c − g) + Φ cuc` (c, 1 − c − g) − (c + g)u`` (c, 1 − c − g) ,

(3.212)
where we have imposed conditions (3.197) and (3.198)

Equation (3.212) is one equation that can be solved to express the one unknown c as a function of
the one exogenous variable g
Notice that a counterpart to bt (st |st−1 ) does not appear in (3.212), so c does not depend on it
But things are different for time t = 0
An analogous argument for the t = 0 equations (3.211) would lead to one equation that can be
solved for c0 and a function of the pair ( g(s0 ), b0 )
These outcomes mean that the following statement would be true even if we were to specify that
government purchases are history dependent functions gt (st ) of the history of st rather than being
a time-invariant function of st .
Proposition: If government purchases are equal after two histories st and s̃ j for t, j ≥ 0, i.e., if
gt (st ) = g j (s̃ j ) = g,
then it follows from (3.212) that the optimal choices of consumption and leisure, (ct (st ), `t (st )) and
(c j (s̃ j ), ` j (s̃ j )), are identical.
The proposition affirms that the optimal allocation is a function of the current realized quantity
of government purchases g only and does not depend on the specific history leading up to that
outcome.
The Ramsey allocation for a given Φ Temporarily take Φ as given.

We shall compute c0 (s0 , b0 ) and n0 (s0 , b0 ) from the first-order conditions (3.211).
Evidently, for t ≥ 1, c and n depend on the time t realization of g only.
But for t = 0, c and n depend on both g0 and the government’s initial debt b0 .

Thus, while b0 influences c0 and n0 , there appears no analogous variable bt that influences ct and
nt for t ≥ 1.
The absence of bt as a determinant of the Ramsey allocation for t ≥ 1 but not for t = 0 is a tell-tale
sign of the time-inconsistency of a Ramsey plan.
Φ has to take a value that assures that the consumer’s and the government’s budget constraints
are both satisfied at a candidate Ramsey allocation and price system associated with that Φ.
Further specialization At this point, it is useful to specialize the model in the following way.
We assume that s is governed by a finite state Markov chain with states s ∈ [1, . . . , S] and transition
matrix Π, where
Π(s0 |s) = Prob(st+1 = s0 |st = s).
Also, assume that government purchases g are an exact time-invariant function g(s) of s.
We maintain these assumptions throughout the remainder of this lecture.
Determining Φ We complete the Ramsey plan by computing the Lagrange multiplier Φ on the
implementability constraint (3.207)
Government budget balance restricts Φ via the following line of reasoning.
The household’s first-order conditions imply
ul (st )
(1 − τt (st )) = (3.213)
uc (st )
and the implied one-period Arrow securities prices
u c ( s t +1 )
pt+1 (st+1 |st ) = βΠ(st+1 |st ) . (3.214)
uc (st )
Substituting from (3.213), (3.214), and the feasibility condition (3.198) into the recursive version
(3.201) of the household budget constraint gives
uc (st )[nt (st ) − gt (st )] + β ∑ Π(st+1 |st )uc (st+1 )bt+1 (st+1 |st )
s t +1
= ul (st )nt (st ) + uc (st )bt (st |st−1 ). (3.215)
Define the product xt (st ) = uc (st )bt (st |st−1 ).

Notice that xt (st ) appears on the right side of while β times the conditional expectation of
xt+1 (st+1 ) appears on the left side
Hence the equation shares much of the structure of a simple asset pricing equation with xt being
analogous to the price of the asset at time t.
We learned earlier that for a Ramsey allocation, ct (st ), nt (st ) and bt (st |st−1 ), and therefore also
xt (st ), are each functions only of st , being independent of the history st−1 for t ≥ 1.

That means that we can express equation (3.215) as
uc (s)[n(s) − g(s)] + β ∑ Π(s0 |s) x 0 (s0 ) = ul (s)n(s) + x (s), (3.216)

s0
where s0 denotes a next period value of s and x 0 (s0 ) denotes a next period value of x.
Equation (3.216) is easy to solve for x (s) for s = 1, . . . , S.
If we let ~n, ~g, ~x denote S × 1 vectors whose ith elements are the respective n, g, and x values when
s = i, and let Π be the transition matrix for the Markov state s, then we can express as the matrix
equation
~uc (~n − ~g) + βΠ~x = ~ul~n + ~x. (3.217)
This is a system of S linear equations in the S × 1 vector x, whose solution is
~x = ( I − βΠ)−1 [~uc (~n − ~g) − ~ul~n]. (3.218)
In these equations, by ~uc~n, for example, we mean element-by-element multiplication of the two
vectors.
x (s)
After solving for ~x, we can find b(st |st−1 ) in Markov state st = s from b(s) = uc (s)
or the matrix
equation
~b = ~x , (3.219)
~uc
where division here means element-by-element division of the respective components of the S × 1
vectors ~x and ~uc .
Here is a computational algorithm:
1. Start with a guess for the value for Φ, then use the first-order conditions and the feasibility
conditions to compute c(st ), n(st ) for s ∈ [1, . . . , S] and c0 (s0 , b0 ) and n0 (s0 , b0 ), given Φ.
These are 2(S + 1) equations in 2(S + 1) unknowns.
2. Solve the S equations (3.218) for the S elements of ~x. These depend on Φ.
3. Find a Φ that satisfies
S
uc,0 b0 = uc,0 (n0 − g0 ) − ul,0 n0 + β ∑ Π(s|s0 ) x (s) (3.220)
s =1
by gradually raising Φ if the left side of exceeds the right side and lowering Φ if the
left side is smaller.
4. After computing a Ramsey allocation, we can recover the flat tax rate on labor from (3.204)
and the implied one-period Arrow securities prices from (3.205)
In summary, when gt is a time invariant function of a Markov state st , a Ramsey plan can be
constructed by solving 3S + 3 equations in S components each of ~c, ~n, and ~x together with n0 , c0 ,
and Φ.

Time inconsistency Let {τt (st )}∞ t ∞

t=0 , { bt+1 ( st+1 | s )}t=0 be a time 0, state s0 Ramsey plan.
Then {τj (sτ )}∞ j ∞ t

j=t , { b j+1 ( s j+1 | s )} j=t is a time t, history s continuation of a time 0, state s0 Ramsey
plan.
A time t, history st Ramsey plan is a Ramsey plan that starts from initial conditions st , bt (st |st−1 ).
A time t, history st continuation of a time 0, state 0 Ramsey planner is not a time t, history st
Ramsey plan.
The means that a Ramsey plan is not time consistent or time inconsistent
The reason is that the continuation Ramsey plan takes uct bt (st |st−1 ) as given, not bt (st |st−1 )
We shall discuss this more below
Recursive formulation of the Ramsey problem
xt (st ) = uc (st )bt (st |st−1 ) in equation (3.215) appears to be a purely “forward-looking” variable.
But xt (st ) is a also a natural candidate for a state variable in a recursive formulation of the Ramsey
problem
Intertemporal delegation To express a Ramsey plan recursively, we imagine that a time 0 Ram-
sey planner is followed by a sequence of continuation Ramsey planners at times t = 1, 2, . . ..
A “continuation Ramsey planner” has a different objective function and faces different constraints
than a Ramsey planner.
A key step in representing a Ramsey plan recursively is to regard the marginal utility scaled gov-
ernment debts xt (st ) = uc (st )bt (st |st−1 ) as predetermined quantities that continuation Ramsey
planners at times t ≥ 1 are obligated to attain.
A time t ≥ 1 continuation Ramsey planner delivers xt by choosing a suitable nt , ct pair and a list
of st+1 -contingent continuation quantities xt+1 to bequeath to a time t + 1 continuation Ramsey
planner.
A time t ≥ 1 continuation Ramsey planner faces xt , st as state variables.
But the time 0 Ramsey planner faces b0 , not x0 , as a state variable.
Furthermore, the Ramsey planner cares about (c0 (s0 ), `0 (s0 )), while continuation Ramsey plan-
ners do not.
The time 0 Ramsey planner hands x1 as a function of s1 to a time 1 continuation Ramsey planner.
These lines of delegated authorities and responsibilities across time express the continuation Ram-
sey planners’ obligations to implement their parts of the original Ramsey plan, designed once-and-
for-all at time 0.
Two Bellman equations After st has been realized at time t ≥ 1, the state variables confronting
the time t continuation Ramsey planner are ( xt , st ).

• Let V ( x, s) be the value of a continuation Ramsey plan at xt = x, st = s for t ≥ 1.

• Let W (b, s) be the value of the Ramsey plan at time 0 at b0 = b and s0 = s.
We work backwards by presenting a Bellman equation for V ( x, s) first, then a Bellman equation
for W (b, s).
The continuation Ramsey problem The Bellman equation for a time t ≥ 1 continuation Ramsey
planner is
V ( x, s) = max u(n − g(s), 1 − n) + β ∑ Π(s0 |s)V ( x 0 , s0 ) (3.221)
n,{ x 0 (s0 )} s0 ∈S
where maximization over n and the S elements of x 0 (s0 ) is subject to the single implementability
constraint for t ≥ 1
x = uc (n − g(s)) − ul n + β ∑ Π(s0 |s) x 0 (s0 ) (3.222)
s0 ∈S
Here uc and ul are today’s values of the marginal utilities.

For each given value of x, s, the continuation Ramsey planner chooses n and one x 0 (s0 ) for each
s0 ∈ S .
Associated with a value function V ( x, s) that solves Bellman equation are S + 1 time-invariant
policy functions
n t = f ( x t , s t ), t ≥ 1
(3.223)
xt+1 (st+1 ) = h(st+1 ; xt , st ), st+1 ∈ S , t ≥ 1.
The Ramsey problem The Bellman equation for the time 0 Ramsey planner is
W (b0 , s0 ) = max
n0 ,{ x 0 (s1 )}
u ( n 0 − g0 , 1 − n 0 ) + β ∑ Π ( s1 | s0 )V ( x 0 ( s1 ), s1 ) (3.224)
s1 ∈S
where the maximization over n0 and the S elements of x 0 (s1 ) is subject to the time 0 implementabil-
ity constraint
uc,0 b0 = uc,0 (n0 − g0 ) − ul,0 n0 + β ∑ Π(s1 |s0 ) x 0 (s1 ) (3.225)
s1 ∈S
coming from restriction (3.220)

Associated with a value function W (b0 , n0 ) that solves Bellman equation are S + 1 time 0 policy
functions
n0 = f 0 (b0 , s0 )
(3.226)
x1 (s1 ) = h0 (s1 ; b0 , s0 ).
Notice the appearance of state variables (b0 , s0 ) in the time 0 policy functions for the Ramsey
planner as compared to ( xt , st ) in the policy functions (3.223) for the time t ≥ 1 continuation
Ramsey planners.
The value function V ( xt , st ) of the time t continuation Ramsey planner equals Et ∑∞
τ =t β
τ − t u ( c , l ),
t t
where the consumption and leisure processes are evaluated along the original time 0 Ramsey plan.

First-order conditions Attach a Lagrange multiplier Φ1 ( x, s) to constraint (3.222) and a Lagrange

multiplier Φ0 to constraint (3.220).
Working backwards, the first-order conditions for the time t ≥ 1 constrained maximization prob-
lem on the right side of the continuation Ramsey planner’s Bellman equation (3.221) are
βΠ(s0 |s)Vx ( x 0 , s0 ) − βΠ(s0 |s)Φ1 = 0 (3.227)
for x 0 (s0 ) and
(1 + Φ1 )(uc − ul ) + Φ1 [n(ull − ulc ) + (n − g(s))(ucc − ulc )] = 0 (3.228)
for n.
Given Φ1 , equation (3.228) is one equation to be solved for n as a function of s (or of g(s)).
Equation (3.227) implies Vx ( x 0 , s0 ) = Φ1 , while an envelope condition is Vx ( x, s) = Φ1 , so it follows
that
Vx ( x 0 , s0 ) = Vx ( x, s) = Φ1 ( x, s). (3.229)
For the time 0 problem on the right side of the Ramsey planner’s Bellman equation (3.224), the
first-order conditions are
Vx ( x (s1 ), s1 ) = Φ0 (3.230)
for x (s1 ), s1 ∈ S , and
i
(1 + Φ0 )(uc,0 − un,0 ) + Φ0 n0 (ull,0 − ulc,0 ) + (n0 − g(s0 ))(ucc,0 − ucl,0 )

(3.231)
− Φ0 (ucc,0 − ucl,0 )b0 = 0
Notice the similarities and differences between the first-order conditions for t ≥ 1 and for t = 0.
An additional term is present in (3.231) except in the three special cases in which
• b0 = 0, or
• uc is constant (i.e., preferences are quasi-linear in consumption), or
• initial government assets are sufficiently large to finance all government purchases with
interest from those assets, so that Φ0 = 0.
Except in these special cases, the allocation and the labor tax rate as functions of st differ between
dates t = 0 and subsequent dates t ≥ 1.
Naturally, the first order conditions in this recursive formulation of the Ramsey problem agree
with the first-order conditions derived when we first formulated the Ramsey plan in the space of
sequences
State variable degeneracy Equations (3.230) and (3.231) imply that Φ0 = Φ1 and that
Vx ( xt , st ) = Φ0 (3.232)
for all t ≥ 1.
When V is concave in x, this implies state-variable degeneracy along a Ramsey plan in the sense that
for t ≥ 1, xt will be a time-invariant function of st .
Given Φ0 , this function mapping st into xt can be expressed as a vector ~x that solves equation for
n and c as functions of g that are associated with Φ = Φ0 .

Manifestations of time inconsistency While the marginal utility adjusted level of government
debt xt is a key state variable for the continuation Ramsey planners at t ≥ 1, it is not a state
variable at time 0.
The time 0 Ramsey planner faces b0 , not x0 = uc,0 b0 , as a state variable.
The discrepancy in state variables faced by the time 0 Ramsey planner and the time t ≥ 1 con-
tinuation Ramsey planners captures the differing obligations and incentives faced by the time 0
Ramsey planner and the time t ≥ 1 continuation Ramsey planners.
• The time 0 Ramsey planner is obligated to honor government debt b0 measured in time 0
consumption goods
• The time 0 Ramsey planner can manipulate the value of government debt as measured by
uc,0 b0 .
• In contrast, time t ≥ 1 continuation Ramsey planners are obligated not to alter values of
debt, as measured by uc,t bt , that they inherit from an earlier Ramsey planner or continuation
Ramsey planner.
When government expenditures gt are a time invariant function of a Markov state st , a Ramsey
plan and associated Ramsey allocation feature marginal utilities of consumption uc (st ) that, given
Φ, for t ≥ 1 depend only on st , but that for t = 0 depend on b0 as well.
This means that uc (st ) will be a time invariant function of st for t ≥ 1, but except when b0 = 0, a
different function for t = 0.
This in turn means that prices of one period Arrow securities pt (st+1 |st ) = p(st+1 |st ) will be the
same time invariant functions of (st+1 , st ) for t ≥ 1, but a different function p0 (s1 |s0 ) for t = 0,
except when b0 = 0.
The differences between these time 0 and time t ≥ 1 objects reflect the workings of the Ramsey
planner’s incentive to manipulate Arrow security prices and, through them, the value of initial
government debt b0 .
Examples
Anticipated One Period War This example illustrates in a simple setting how a Ramsey planner
manages uncertainty.
Government expenditures are known for sure in all periods except one
• For t < 3 or t > 3 we assume that gt = gl = 0.1.
• At t = 3 a war occcurs with probability 0.5.
– If there is war, g3 = gh = 0.2
– If there is no war g3 = gl = 02..
We define the components of the state vector as the following six (t, g) pairs:
(0, gl ), (1, gl ), (2, gl ), (3, gl ), (3, gh ), (t ≥ 4, gl ).
We think of these 6 states as corresponding to s = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

The transition matrix is  

0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0.5 0.5 0
P=
0

 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
The government expenditure at each state is
 
0.1
0.1
 
0.1
g=
0.1 .

 
0.2
0.1
We assume that the representative agent has utility function
c 1− σ n 1+ γ
u(c, n) = −
1−σ 1+γ
and set σ = 2, γ = 2., and the discount factor β = 0.9
Note: For convenience in terms of matching our computer code, we have expressed utility as a
function of n rather than leisure l
We set initial government debt b0 = 1

The following figure plots the Ramsey tax under both realizations of the time t = 3 government
expenditure shock
• black when g3 = .1, and
• red when g3 = .2
Tax smoothing
• the tax rate is constant for all t ≥ 1
– For t ≥ 1, t 6= 3, this is a consequence of gt being the same at all those dates
– For t = 3, it is a consequence of the special one-period utility function that we have
assumed
– Under other one-period utility functions, the time t = 3 tax rate could be either higher
or lower than for dates t ≥ 1, t 6= 3
• the tax rate is the same at t = 3 for both the high gt outcome and the low gt outcome
We have assumed that at t = 0, the government owes positive debt b0
It sets the time t = 0 tax rate partly with an eye to reducing the value uc,0 b0 of b0
It does this by increasing consumption at time t = 0 relative to consumption in later periods


This has the consequence of raising the time t = 0 value of gross interest rate for risk-free loans
between periods t and t + 1, which equals
uc,t
Rt =
βEt [uc,t+1 ]
A tax policy that makes time t = 0 consumption be higher than time t = 1 consumption evidently
increases the risk-free rate one-period interest rate, Rt , at t = 0
Raising the time t = 0 risk-free interest rate makes time t = 0 consumption goods cheaper relative
to consumption goods at later dates, thereby lowering the value uc,0 b0 of initial government debt
b0
We see this in a figure below that plots the time path for the risk free interest rate under both
realizations of the time t = 3 government expenditure shock
The figure illustrates how the government lowers the interest rate at time 0 by raising consump-
tion.
Government saving At time t = 0 the government evidently dissaves since b1 > b0

• This is a consequence of it setting a lower tax rate at t = 0, implying more consumption then
At time t = 1 the government evidently saves since it has set the tax rate sufficiently high to allow
it to set b2 < b1
• Its motive for doing this is that it anticipates a likely war at t = 3
At time t = 2 the government then trades state-contingent Arrow securities to hedge against war
at t = 3.
• It purchases a security that pays off when g3 = gh
• It sells a security that pays off when g3 = gl

• These purchases are designed in such a way that regardless of whether or not there is a war
at t = 3, the government will begin period t = 4 with the same government debt
• This time t = 4 debt level is one that can be serviced with revenues from the constant tax
rate set at times t ≥ 1
At times t ≥ 4 the government rolls over its debt, knowing that the tax rate is set at level required
to service the interest payments on the debt and government expenditures
Time 0 manipulation of interest rate We have seen that when b0 > 0, the Ramsey plan sets
the time t = 0 tax partly with an eye toward raising a risk-free interest rate for one-period loans
between times t = 0 and t = 1
By raising this interest rate, the plan makes time t = 0 goods cheap relative to consumption goods
at later times
By doing this, it lowers the value of time t = 0 debt that somehow it has inherited and must
finance
Time 0 and Time Inconsistency In the preceding example, the Ramsey tax rate at time 0 differs
from its value at time 1
To explore what is going on here, let’s simplify things by removing the possibility of war at time
t=3
The Ramsey problem then includes no randomness because gt = gl for all t
The figure below plots the Ramsey tax rates at time t = 0 and time t ≥ 1 as functions of the initial
government debt

The figure indicates that if the government enters with positive debt, it sets a tax rate at t = 0 that
is less than all later tax rates
By setting a lower tax rate at t = 0, the government raises consumption, which reduces the value
uc,0 b0 of its initial debt
It does this by increasing c0 and thereby lowering uc,0
Conversely, if b0 < 0, the Ramsey planner sets the tax rate at t = 0 higher than in subsequent
periods.
A side effect of lowering time t = 0 consumption is that it raises the one-period interest rate at
time 0 above that of subsequent periods.
There are only two values of initial government debt at which the tax rate is constant for all t ≥ 0
The first is b0 = 0.
• Here the government can’t use the t = 0 tax rate to alter the value of the initial debt
The second occurs when the government enters with sufficiently large assets that the Ramsey
planner can achieve first best and sets τt = 0 for all t
It is only for these two values of initial government debt that the Ramsey plan is time consistent.
Another way of saying this is that, except for these two values of initial government debt, a con-
tinuation of a Ramsey plan is not a Ramsey plan
To illustrate this, consider a Ramsey planner who starts with an initial government debt b1 associ-
ated with one of the Ramsey plans computed above
Call τ1R the time t = 0 tax rate chosen by the Ramsey planner confronting this value for initial
government debt government
The figure below shows both the tax rate at time 1 chosen by our original Ramsey planner and
what the new Ramsey planner would choose for its time t = 0
The tax rates in the figure are equal for only two values of initial government debt.

Tax Smoothing and non-CES preferences The complete tax smoothing for t ≥ 1 in the preced-
ing example is a consequence of our having assumed CES preferences
To see what is driving this outcome, we begin by noting that the tax rate will be a time invariant
function τ (Φ, g) of the Lagrange multiplier on the implementability constraint and government
expenditures
For CES preferences, we can exploit the relations Ucc c = −σUc and Unn n = γUn to derive
(1 + (1 − σ)Φ)Uc
=1
1 + (1 − γ)Φ)Un
from the first order conditions.
This equation immediately implies that the tax rate is constant
For other preferences, the tax rate may not be constant.
For example, let the period utility function be
u(c, n) = log(c) + 0.69 log(1 − n)
and suppose that gt follows a two state i.i.d. process with equal weights on gl and gh
The figure below plots a sample path of the Ramsey tax rate
We computed the tax rate by using both the sequential and recursive approaches described above
As should be expected, the recursive and sequential solutions produce almost identical allocations
Unlike outcomes with CES preferences, the tax rate is not perfectly smoothed
Instead the government raises the tax rate when gt is high

Implementation
The following code implements the examples above

The module lucas_stokey.py from the QuantEcon applications repo solves and simulates the Ram-
sey plan policy using both the recursive and sequential techniques.
We implement both techniques as classes that take as an input an object called Para
Para calibrates an economy, including a discount factor, a transition matrix, and a vector of gov-
ernment expenditures
It also contains the utility function U and its derivatives, which allows us easily to alter the period
utility function
# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
"""
Created on Wed Feb 18 15:43:37 2015
@author: dgevans
"""
import numpy as np
from scipy.optimize import root
from scipy.optimize import fmin_slsqp
from scipy.interpolate import UnivariateSpline
from quantecon.markov import mc_sample_path
class Planners_Allocation_Sequential(object):
'''
Class returns planner's allocation as a function of the multiplier on the
implementability constraint mu
'''
def __init__(self,Para):
'''
Initializes the class from the calibration Para
'''
self.beta = Para.beta
self.Pi = Para.Pi
self.G = Para.G
self.S = len(Para.Pi) # number of states
self.Theta = Para.Theta
self.Para = Para
#now find the first best allocation
self.find_first_best()
def find_first_best(self):
'''
Find the first best allocation
'''
Para = self.Para
S,Theta,Uc,Un,G = self.S,self.Theta,Para.Uc,Para.Un,self.G

def res(z):
c = z[:S]
n = z[S:]
return np.hstack(
[Theta*Uc(c,n)+Un(c,n), Theta*n - c - G]
)
res = root(res,0.5*np.ones(2*S))
if not res.success:
raise Exception('Could not find first best')
self.cFB = res.x[:S]
self.nFB = res.x[S:]
self.XiFB = Uc(self.cFB,self.nFB) #multiplier on the resource constraint.
self.zFB = np.hstack([self.cFB,self.nFB,self.XiFB])
def time1_allocation(self,mu):
'''
Computes optimal allocation for time t\geq 1 for a given \mu
'''
Para = self.Para
S,Theta,G,Uc,Ucc,Un,Unn = self.S,self.Theta,self.G,Para.Uc,Para.Ucc,Para.Un,Para.Unn
def FOC(z):
c = z[:S]
n = z[S:2*S]
Xi = z[2*S:]
return np.hstack([
Uc(c,n) - mu*(Ucc(c,n)*c+Uc(c,n)) -Xi, #foc c
Un(c,n) - mu*(Unn(c,n)*n+Un(c,n)) + Theta*Xi, #foc n
Theta*n - c - G #resource constraint
])
#find the root of the FOC

res = root(FOC,self.zFB)
if not res.success:
raise Exception('Could not find LS allocation.')
z = res.x
c,n,Xi = z[:S],z[S:2*S],z[2*S:]
#now compute x
I = Uc(c,n)*c + Un(c,n)*n
x = np.linalg.solve(np.eye(S) - self.beta*self.Pi, I )
return c,n,x,Xi
def time0_allocation(self,B_,s_0):
'''
Finds the optimal allocation given initial government debt B_ and state s_0
'''
Para,Pi,Theta,G,beta = self.Para,self.Pi,self.Theta,self.G,self.beta
Uc,Ucc,Un,Unn = Para.Uc,Para.Ucc,Para.Un,Para.Unn
#first order conditions of planner's problem

def FOC(z):
mu,c,n,Xi = z
xprime = self.time1_allocation(mu)[2]
return np.hstack([
Uc(c,n)*(c-B_) + Un(c,n)*n + beta*Pi[s_0].dot(xprime),
Uc(c,n) - mu*(Ucc(c,n)*(c-B_) + Uc(c,n)) - Xi,
Un(c,n) - mu*(Unn(c,n)*n+Un(c,n)) + Theta[s_0]*Xi,
(Theta*n - c - G)[s_0]
])
#find root
res = root(FOC,np.array([0.,self.cFB[s_0],self.nFB[s_0],self.XiFB[s_0]]))
if not res.success:
raise Exception('Could not find time 0 LS allocation.')
return res.x
def time1_value(self,mu):
'''
Find the value associated with multiplier mu
'''
c,n,x,Xi = self.time1_allocation(mu)
U = self.Para.U(c,n)
V = np.linalg.solve(np.eye(self.S) - self.beta*self.Pi, U )
return c,n,x,V
def Tau(self,c,n):
'''
Computes Tau given c,n
'''
Para = self.Para
Uc,Un = Para.Uc(c,n),Para.Un(c,n)
return 1+Un/(self.Theta * Uc)
def simulate(self,B_,s_0,T,sHist=None):
'''
Simulates planners policies for T periods
'''
Para,Pi,beta = self.Para,self.Pi,self.beta
Uc = Para.Uc
if sHist == None:
sHist = mc_sample_path(Pi,s_0,T)
cHist,nHist,Bhist,TauHist,muHist = np.zeros((5,T))
RHist = np.zeros(T-1)
#time0
mu,cHist[0],nHist[0],_ = self.time0_allocation(B_,s_0)
TauHist[0] = self.Tau(cHist[0],nHist[0])[s_0]
Bhist[0] = B_
muHist[0] = mu

#time 1 onward
for t in range(1,T):
c,n,x,Xi = self.time1_allocation(mu)
Tau = self.Tau(c,n)
u_c = Uc(c,n)
s = sHist[t]
Eu_c = Pi[sHist[t-1]].dot(u_c)
cHist[t],nHist[t],Bhist[t],TauHist[t] = c[s],n[s],x[s]/u_c[s],Tau[s]
RHist[t-1] = Uc(cHist[t-1],nHist[t-1])/(beta*Eu_c)
muHist[t] = mu
return cHist,nHist,Bhist,TauHist,sHist,muHist,RHist
class Planners_Allocation_Bellman(object):
'''
Compute the planner's allocation by solving Bellman
equation.
'''
def __init__(self,Para,mugrid):
'''
'''
self.Pi = Para.Pi
self.G = Para.G
self.Para = Para
self.mugrid = mugrid
#now find the first best allocation

self.solve_time1_bellman()
self.T.time_0 = True #Bellman equation now solves time 0 problem
def solve_time1_bellman(self):
'''
Solve the time 1 Bellman equation for calibration Para and initial grid mugrid0
'''
Para,mugrid0 = self.Para,self.mugrid
S = len(Para.Pi)
#First get initial fit

PP = Planners_Allocation_Sequential(Para)
c,n,x,V = map(np.vstack, zip(*map(lambda mu: PP.time1_value(mu),mugrid0)) )
Vf,cf,nf,xprimef = {},{},{},{}
for s in range(2):
cf[s] = UnivariateSpline(x[:,s],c[:,s])

nf[s] = UnivariateSpline(x[:,s],n[:,s])
Vf[s] = UnivariateSpline(x[:,s],V[:,s])
for sprime in range(S):
xprimef[s,sprime] = UnivariateSpline(x[:,s],x[:,s])
policies = [cf,nf,xprimef]
#create xgrid
xbar = [x.min(0).max(),x.max(0).min()]
xgrid = np.linspace(xbar[0],xbar[1],len(mugrid0))
self.xgrid = xgrid
#Now iterate on bellman equation

T = BellmanEquation(Para,xgrid,policies)
diff = 1.
while diff > 1e-5:
PF = T(Vf)
Vfnew,policies = self.fit_policy_function(PF)
diff = 0.
for s in range(S):
diff = max(diff, np.abs((Vf[s](xgrid)-Vfnew[s](xgrid))/Vf[s](xgrid)).max() )
print(diff)
Vf = Vfnew
#store value function policies and Bellman Equations

self.Vf = Vf
self.policies = policies
self.T = T
def fit_policy_function(self,PF):
'''
Fits the policy functions PF using the points xgrid using UnivariateSpline
'''
xgrid,S = self.xgrid,self.S
Vf,cf,nf,xprimef = {},{},{},{}
for s in range(S):
PFvec = np.vstack(map(lambda x:PF(x,s),xgrid))
Vf[s] = UnivariateSpline(xgrid,PFvec[:,0],s=0)
cf[s] = UnivariateSpline(xgrid,PFvec[:,1],s=0,k=1)
nf[s] = UnivariateSpline(xgrid,PFvec[:,2],s=0,k=1)
xprimef[s,sprime] = UnivariateSpline(xgrid,PFvec[:,3+sprime],s=0,k=1)
return Vf,[cf,nf,xprimef]
def Tau(self,c,n):
'''
Computes Tau given c,n
'''

Para = self.Para
Uc,Un = Para.Uc(c,n),Para.Un(c,n)
return 1+Un/(self.Theta * Uc)
def time0_allocation(self,B_,s0):
'''
Finds the optimal allocation given initial government debt B_ and state s_0
'''
PF = self.T(self.Vf)
z0 = PF(B_,s0)
c0,n0,xprime0 = z0[1],z0[2],z0[3:]
return c0,n0,xprime0
def simulate(self,B_,s_0,T,sHist=None):
'''
Simulates Ramsey plan for T periods
'''
Para,Pi = self.Para,self.Pi
Uc = Para.Uc
cf,nf,xprimef = self.policies
if sHist == None:
sHist = mc_sample_path(Pi,s_0,T)
cHist,nHist,Bhist,TauHist,muHist = np.zeros((5,T))
RHist = np.zeros(T-1)
#time0
cHist[0],nHist[0],xprime = self.time0_allocation(B_,s_0)
TauHist[0] = self.Tau(cHist[0],nHist[0])[s_0]
Bhist[0] = B_
muHist[0] = 0.
#time 1 onward
for t in range(1,T):
s,x = sHist[t],xprime[sHist[t]]
c,n,xprime = np.empty(self.S),nf[s](x),np.empty(self.S)
for shat in range(self.S):
c[shat] = cf[shat](x)
for sprime in range(self.S):
xprime[sprime] = xprimef[s,sprime](x)
Tau = self.Tau(c,n)[s]
u_c = Uc(c,n)
Eu_c = Pi[sHist[t-1]].dot(u_c)
muHist[t] = self.Vf[s](x,1)
RHist[t-1] = Uc(cHist[t-1],nHist[t-1])/(self.beta*Eu_c)
cHist[t],nHist[t],Bhist[t],TauHist[t] = c[s],n,x/u_c[s],Tau
return cHist,nHist,Bhist,TauHist,sHist,muHist,RHist

class BellmanEquation(object):
'''
Bellman equation for the continuation of the Lucas-Stokey Problem
'''
def __init__(self,Para,xgrid,policies0):
'''
'''
self.Pi = Para.Pi
self.G = Para.G
self.Para = Para
self.xbar = [min(xgrid),max(xgrid)]
self.time_0 = False
self.z0 = {}
cf,nf,xprimef = policies0
for s in range(self.S):
for x in xgrid:
xprime0 = np.empty(self.S)
for sprime in range(self.S):
xprime0[sprime] = xprimef[s,sprime](x)
self.z0[x,s] = np.hstack([cf[s](x),nf[s](x),xprime0])
self.find_first_best()
def find_first_best(self):
'''
Find the first best allocation
'''
Para = self.Para
S,Theta,Uc,Un,G = self.S,self.Theta,Para.Uc,Para.Un,self.G
def res(z):
c = z[:S]
n = z[S:]
return np.hstack(
[Theta*Uc(c,n)+Un(c,n), Theta*n - c - G]
)
res = root(res,0.5*np.ones(2*S))
if not res.success:
raise Exception('Could not find first best')
self.cFB = res.x[:S]
self.nFB = res.x[S:]
IFB = Uc(self.cFB,self.nFB)*self.cFB + Un(self.cFB,self.nFB)*self.nFB
self.xFB = np.linalg.solve(np.eye(S) - self.beta*self.Pi, IFB)
self.zFB = {}

for s in range(S):
self.zFB[s] = np.hstack([self.cFB[s],self.nFB[s],self.xFB])
def __call__(self,Vf):
'''
Given continuation value function next period return value function this
period return T(V) and optimal policies
'''
if not self.time_0:
PF = lambda x,s: self.get_policies_time1(x,s,Vf)
else:
PF = lambda B_,s0: self.get_policies_time0(B_,s0,Vf)
return PF
def get_policies_time1(self,x,s,Vf):
'''
Finds the optimal policies
'''
Para,beta,Theta,G,S,Pi = self.Para,self.beta,self.Theta,self.G,self.S,self.Pi
U,Uc,Un = Para.U,Para.Uc,Para.Un
def objf(z):
c,n,xprime = z[0],z[1],z[2:]
Vprime = np.empty(S)
Vprime[sprime] = Vf[sprime](xprime[sprime])
return -(U(c,n)+beta*Pi[s].dot(Vprime))
def cons(z):
c,n,xprime = z[0],z[1],z[2:]
return np.hstack([
x - Uc(c,n)*c-Un(c,n)*n - beta*Pi[s].dot(xprime),
(Theta*n - c - G)[s]
])
out,fx,_,imode,smode = fmin_slsqp(objf,self.z0[x,s],f_eqcons=cons,
bounds=[(0.,100),(0.,100)]+[self.xbar]*S,full_output=True,iprint=0)
if imode >0:
raise Exception(smode)
self.z0[x,s] = out
return np.hstack([-fx,out])
def get_policies_time0(self,B_,s0,Vf):
'''
Finds the optimal policies
'''
Para,beta,Theta,G,S,Pi = self.Para,self.beta,self.Theta,self.G,self.S,self.Pi

3.15. OPTIMAL TAXATION WITHOUT STATE-CONTINGENT DEBT 622
U,Uc,Un = Para.U,Para.Uc,Para.Un
def objf(z):
c,n,xprime = z[0],z[1],z[2:]
Vprime = np.empty(S)
Vprime[sprime] = Vf[sprime](xprime[sprime])
return -(U(c,n)+beta*Pi[s0].dot(Vprime))
def cons(z):
c,n,xprime = z[0],z[1],z[2:]
return np.hstack([
-Uc(c,n)*(c-B_)-Un(c,n)*n - beta*Pi[s0].dot(xprime),
(Theta*n - c - G)[s0]
])
out,fx,_,imode,smode = fmin_slsqp(objf,self.zFB[s0],f_eqcons=cons,
bounds=[(0.,100),(0.,100)]+[self.xbar]*S,full_output=True,iprint=0)
if imode >0:
raise Exception(smode)
return np.hstack([-fx,out])
The file main_LS.py solves and plots the examples.

Calibrations are in opt_tax_recur/calibrations/CES.py and calibrations/BGP.py
Further Comments A related lecture describes an extension of the Lucas-Stokey model by Aiya-
gari, Marcet, Sargent, and Seppälä (2002) [AMSS02]
In their (AMSS) economy, only a risk-free bond is traded
We compare the recursive representation of the Lucas-Stokey model presented in this lecture with
the one in that lecture
By comparing these recursive formulations, we can glean a sense in which the dimension of the
state is lower in the Lucas Stokey model.
Accompanying that difference in dimension are quite different dynamics of government debt
3.15 Optimal Taxation without State-Contingent Debt
Overview
In an earlier lecture we described a model of optimal taxation with state-contingent debt due to
Robert Lucas and Nancy Stokey [LS83].

Aiyagari, Marcet, Sargent, and Seppälä [AMSS02] (hereafter, AMSS) adapt this framework to
study optimal taxation without state-contingent debt.
In this lecture we
• describe the assumptions and equilibrium concepts
• solve the model
• implement the model numerically and
• conduct some policy experiments
We begin with an introduction to the model.
A competitive equilibrium with distorting taxes
Many but not all features of the economy are identical to those of the Lucas-Stokey economy.
Let’s start with the things that are.
For t ≥ 0, the history of the state is represented by st = [st , st−1 , . . . , s0 ] .
Government purchases g(s) are an exact time-invariant function of s.
Let ct (st ), `t (st ), and nt (st ) denote consumption, leisure, and labor supply, respectively, at history
st at time t.
A representative household is endowed with one unit of time that can be divided between leisure
`t and labor nt :
nt (st ) + `t (st ) = 1. (3.233)
Output equals nt (st ) and can be divided between consumption ct (st ) and gt (st )
c t ( s t ) + gt ( s t ) = n t ( s t ). (3.234)
A representative household’s preferences over {ct (st ), `t (st )}∞

t=0 are ordered by
∞
∑ ∑ βt πt (st )u[ct (st ), `t (st )], (3.235)
t =0 st
where
• πt (st ) is a joint probability distribution over the sequence st , and
• the utility function u is increasing, strictly concave, and three times continuously differen-
tiable in both arguments
The technology pins down a pre-tax wage rate to unity for all t, st
The government imposes a flat rate tax τt (st ) on labor income at time t, history st
Lucas and Stokey assumed that there are complete markets in one-period Arrow securities.
It is at this point that AMSS [AMSS02] modify the Lucas and Stokey economy

Risk-free debt only In period t and history st , let

• bt+1 (st ) be the amount of government indebtedness carried over to and maturing in period
t + 1, denominated in t + 1 goods.
• Rt (st ) be the risk-free gross interest rate between periods t and t + 1
• Tt (st ) be a nonnegative lump-sum transfer to the representative household 21
The market value at time t of government debt equals bt+1 (st ) divided by Rt (st ).
The government’s budget constraint in period t at history st is
bt + 1 ( s t )
bt (st−1 ) = τtn (st )nt (st ) − gt (st ) − Tt (st ) +
Rt (st )
(3.236)
b (st )
≡ z ( s ) + t +1 t ,
t
Rt (s )
where z(st ) is the net-of-interest government surplus.

To rule out Ponzi schemes, we assume that the government is subject to a natural debt limit (to
be discussed in a forthcoming lecture).
The consumption Euler equation for a representative household able to trade only one period
risk-free debt with one-period gross interest rate Rt (st ) is
t +1 )
1 t +1 t u c ( s
Rt (st )
= ∑ t +1 p t ( s | s t
) = ∑ t +1 βπ ( s | s )
uc (st )
.
s t +1 s t +1 | s t
Substituting this expression into the government’s budget constraint (3.236) yields:
u c ( s t +1 )
bt ( s t − 1 ) = z ( s t ) + ∑ βπt+1 (st+1 |st )
uc (st )
bt + 1 ( s t ) . (3.237)
s t +1 | s t
That bt+1 (st ) is the same for all realizations of st+1 captures its risk-free quality
We will now replace this constant bt+1 (st ) by another expression of the same magnitude.
In fact, we have as many candidate expressions for that magnitude as there are possible states st+1
That is,
• For each state st+1 there is a government budget constraint that is the analogue to expression
(3.237) where the time index is moved one period forward.
• All of those budget constraints have a right side that equals bt+1 (st ).
Instead of picking one of these candidate expressions to replace all occurrences of bt+1 (st ) in equa-
tion (3.237), we replace bt+1 (st ) when the summation index in equation is st+1 by the right side of
next period’s budget constraint that is associated with that particular realization st+1 .
21 In an allocation that solves the Ramsey problem and that levies distorting taxes on labor, why would the govern-
ment ever want to hand revenues back to the private sector? Not in an economy with state-contingent debt, since any
such allocation could be improved by lowering distortionary taxes rather than handing out lump-sum transfers. But
without state-contingent debt there can be circumstances when a government would like to make lump-sum transfers
to the private sector.

These substitutions give rise to the following expression:
u c ( s t +1 ) bt + 2 ( s t + 1 )

bt ( s t −1 t
) = z(s ) + ∑ βπt+1 (s t +1
|s )t
uc (st )
z(s t +1
)+
R t +1 ( s t +1 )
.
s t +1 | s t
After similar repeated substitutions for all future occurrences of government indebtedness, and
by invoking the natural debt limit, we arrive at:
∞
uc (st+ j )
bt ( s t − 1 ) = ∑ ∑ β j πt+ j ( st+ j | st )
uc (st )
z ( st+ j )
j =0 s t + j | s t
∞ t+ j )
(3.238)
= Et ∑ β j uc (s
z(s t+ j
).
j =0
uc (st )
Restriction (3.238) is a sequence of implementability constraints on a Ramsey allocation in an AMSS

economy.
Expression (3.238) at time t = 0 and initial state s0 , is an implementability constraint on a Ramsey
allocation in a Lucas-Stokey economy too:
∞
uc (s j )
b0 (s−1 ) = E 0 ∑ β j z ( s j ). (3.239)
j =0
u c ( s0 )
Comparison with Lucas-Stokey economy It is instructive to compare the present economy with-
out state-contingent debt to the Lucas-Stokey economy.
Suppose that the initial government debt in period 0 and state s0 is the same across the two
economies:
b0 (s−1 ) = b0 (s0 |s−1 ).
Implementability condition (3.239) of our AMSS economy is exactly the same as the one for the
Lucas-Stokey economy
While (3.239) is the only implementability condition arising from budget constraints in the com-
plete markets economy, many more implementability conditions must be satisfied in the AMSS
economy because there is no state-contingent debt.
Because the beginning-of-period indebtedness is the same across any two histories, for any two
realizations st and s̃t that share the same history until the previous period, i.e., st−1 = s̃t−1 , we
must impose equality across the right sides of their respective budget constraints, as depicted in
expression (3.237).
Ramsey problem without state-contingent debt The Ramsey planner chooses an allocation that
solves
∞
E 0 ∑ β t u c t ( s t ), 1 − c t ( s t ) − gt ( s t )

max
{ct (st ),bt+1 (st )} t =0
where the maximization is subject to
∞ j
E 0 ∑ β j uuc((ss0)) z(s j ) ≥ b0 (s−1 ) (3.240)
j =0 c

and
∞ t+ j
E t ∑ β j uuc ((sst )) z(st+j ) = bt (st−1 ) ∀ st (3.241)
j =0 c
given b0 (s−1 )
Here we have
• substituted the resource constraint into the utility function, and also
• substituted the resource constraint into the net-of-interest government surplus and
• used the household’s first-order condition, 1 − τtn (st ) = u` (st )/uc (st ), to eliminate the labor
tax rate.
Hence, the net-of-interest government surplus now reads
u (st )

z(st ) = 1 − ` t ct (st ) + gt (st ) − gt (st ) − Tt (st ) . : label : AMSS4 4

uc (s )
Lagrangian formulation Let γ0 (s0 ) be a nonnegative Lagrange multiplier on constraint (3.240).

As in the Lucas-Stokey economy, this multiplier is strictly positive if the government must resort
to distortionary taxation; otherwise it equals zero.
The force of the assumption that markets in state-contingent securities have been shut down
but that a market in a risk-free security remains is that we have to attach stochastic processes
{γt (st )}∞
t=1 of Lagrange multipliers to the implementability constraints (3.241)
Depending on how the constraints bind, these multipliers might be positive or negative,
γt (st ) ≥ (≤) 0 if the constraint binds in this direction

∞ t+ j
E t ∑ β j uuc ((sst )) z(st+j ) ≥ (≤) bt (st−1 ).
j =0 c
A negative multiplier γt (st ) < 0 means that if we could relax constraint , we would like to increase
the beginning-of-period indebtedness for that particular realization of history st
That would let us reduce the beginning-of-period indebtedness for some other history 22
These features flow from the fact that the government cannot use state-contingent debt and there-
fore cannot allocate its indebtedness most efficiently across future states.
Apply two transformations to the Lagrangian.
Multiply constraint by uc (s0 ) and the constraints by βt uc (st ).
22 We will soon see from the first-order conditions of the Ramsey problem, there would then exist another realization
s̃t with the same history up until the previous period, i.e., s̃t−1 = st−1 , but where the multiplier on constraint takes on
a positive value γt (s̃t ) > 0.

Then the Lagrangian for the Ramsey problem can be represented as

∞
J = E 0 ∑ β u c t ( s t ), 1 − c t ( s t ) − gt ( s t )

t

t =0
∞
E t ∑ β uc (s
h i
t j t+ j t+ j t t −1
+ γt ( s ) ) z(s ) − u c ( s ) bt ( s )
j =0
(3.242)
∞
= E 0 ∑ β t u c t ( s t ), 1 − c t ( s t ) − gt ( s t )

t =0
i
t −1
+ Ψ t ( s ) u c ( s ) z ( s ) − γt ( s ) u c ( s ) bt ( s
t t t t t
) ,
where
Ψ t ( s t ) = Ψ t − 1 ( s t − 1 ) + γt ( s t ) and Ψ−1 (s−1 ) = 0. (3.243)
In (3.242), the second equality uses the law of iterated expectations and Abel’s summation for-
mula.
The first-order condition with respect to ct (st ) can be expressed as
uc (st ) − u` (st ) + Ψt (st ) ucc (st ) − uc` (st ) z(st ) + uc (st ) zc (st )

− γt (st ) ucc (st ) − uc` (st ) bt (st−1 ) = 0 (3.244)

and with respect to bt (st ),

Et
h i
t +1 t +1
γt + 1 ( s ) uc (s ) =0 (3.245)
If we substitute z(st ) from equation (3.240) and its derivative zc (st ) into first-order condition
(3.244), we will find only two differences from the corresponding condition for the optimal al-
location in a Lucas-Stokey economy with state-contingent government debt.
1. The term involving bt (st−1 ) in first-order condition (3.244) does not appear in the corre-
sponding expression for the Lucas-Stokey economy
• This term reflects the constraint that beginning-of-period government indebtedness
must be the same across all realizations of next period’s state, a constraint that is not
present if government debt can be state contingent.
2. The Lagrange multiplier Ψt (st ) in first-order condition (3.244) may change over time in re-
sponse to realizations of the state, while the multiplier Φ in the Lucas-Stokey economy is
time invariant.
To analyze the AMSS model, we find it useful to adopt a recursive formulation using tech-
niques like those in the lectures on dynamic stackelberg models and optimal taxation with state-
contingent debt
A recursive version of AMSS model
We now describe a recursive version of the AMSS economy.

We have noted that from the point of view of the Ramsey planner, the restriction to one-period
risk-free securities

• leaves intact the single implementability constraint on allocations from the Lucas-Stokey
economy
• while adding measurability constraints on functions of tails of the allocations at each time
and history.
These functions represent the present values of government surpluses.
We now explore how these constraints alter the Bellman equations for a time 0 Ramsey planner
and for time t ≥ 1, history st continuation Ramsey planners.
Recasting state variables In the AMSS setting, the government faces a sequence of budget con-
straints
τt (st )nt (st ) + Tt (st ) + bt+1 (st )/Rt (st ) = gt + bt (st−1 ),
where Rt (st ) is the gross risk-free rate of interest between t and t + 1 at history st and Tt (st ) are
nonnegative transfers.
In most of the remainder of this lecture, we shall set transfers to zero.
In this case the household faces a sequence of budget constraints
bt (st−1 ) + (1 − τt (st ))nt (st ) = ct (st ) + bt+1 (st )/Rt (st ). (3.246)
The household’s first-order conditions are uc,t = βRt E t uc,t+1 and (1 − τt )uc,t = ul,t .
Using these to eliminate Rt and τt from the budget constraint (3.246) gives
ul,t (st ) β(E t uc,t+1 )bt+1 (st )
bt ( s t − 1 ) + t
nt (st ) = ct (st ) + (3.247)
uc,t (s ) uc,t (st )
or
uc,t (st )bt (st−1 ) + ul,t (st )nt (st ) = uc,t (st )ct (st ) + β(E t uc,t+1 )bt+1 (st ) (3.248)
Now define
bt + 1 ( s t )
xt ≡ βbt+1 (st )E t uc,t+1 = uc,t (st ) (3.249)
Rt (st )
and represent the household’s budget constraint at time t, history st as
uc,t xt−1
βE t−1 uc,t
= uc,t ct − ul,t nt + xt (3.250)
for t ≥ 1.
Measurability constraints Write equation (3.248) as

ul,t (st ) β(E t uc,t+1 )bt+1 (st )
bt ( s t − 1 ) = c t ( s t ) − n t ( s t
) + , (3.251)
uc,t (st ) uc,t
The right side of equation (3.251) expresses the time t value of government debt in terms of a linear
combination of terms whose individual components are measurable with respect to st
The sum of the right side of equation (3.251) has to equal bt (st−1 )
The means that is has to be measurable with respect to st−1
These are the measureablility constraints that the AMSS model adds to the single time 0 implemen-
tation constraint imposed in the Lucas and Stokey model.

Two Bellman equations Let

• V ( x− , s− ) be the continuation value of a continuation Ramsey plan at xt−1 = x− , st−1 = s−
for t ≥ 1.
• W (b, s) be the value of the Ramsey plan at time 0 at b0 = b and s0 = s.
We distinguish between to types of planners:
For t ≥ 1, the value function for a continuation Ramsey planner satisfies the Bellman equation
V ( x− , s− ) = max ∑ Π(s|s− ) [u(n(s) − g(s), 1 − n(s)) + βV (x(s), s)]

{n(s),x (s)} s
(3.252)
subject to the following collection of implementability constraints, one for each s ∈ S :
uc (s) x−
= uc (s)(n(s) − g(s)) − ul (s)n(s) + x (s). (3.253)
β ∑s̃ Π(s̃|s− )uc (s̃)
A continuation Ramsey planner at t ≥ 1 takes ( xt−1 , st−1 ) = ( x− , s− ) as given and chooses

(nt (st ), xt (st )) = (n(s), x (s)) for s ∈ S before st is realized.
The Ramsey planner takes (b0 , s0 ) as given and chooses (n0 , x0 ). The Bellman equation for the
time t = 0 Ramsey planner is
W (b0 , s0 ) = max u(n0 − g0 , 1 − n0 ) + βV ( x0 , s0 ) (3.254)

n0 ,x0
subject to
uc,0 b0 = uc,0 (n0 − g0 ) − ul,0 n0 + x0 . (3.255)
Martingale supercedes state-variable degeneracy Let µ(s|s− )Π(s|s− ) be a Lagrange multiplier

on constraint (3.253) for state s.
After forming an appropriate Lagrangian, we find that the continuation Ramsey planner’s first-
order condition with respect to x (s) is
βVx ( x (s), s) = µ(s|s− ). (3.256)
Applying the envelope theorem to Bellman equation (3.252) gives
uc (s)
Vx ( x− , s− ) = ∑ Π(s|s− )µ(s|s− ) β ∑ . (3.257)
s s̃ Π ( s̃ | s− ) uc ( s̃ )
Equations (3.256) and (3.257) imply that

uc (s)
Vx ( x− , s− ) = ∑ Π(s|s− ) Vx ( x (s), s). (3.258)
s ∑s̃ Π(s̃|s− )uc (s̃)
Equation (3.258) states that Vx ( x, s) is a risk-adjusted martingale

This means that Vx ( x, s) is a martingale with respect to the probability distribution over st se-
quences generated by the twisted transition probability matrix:
uc (s)
Π̌(s|s− ) ≡ Π(s|s− ) .
∑s̃ Π(s̃|s− )uc (s̃)

Nonnegative transfers Suppose that instead of imposing Tt = 0, we impose a nonnegativity

constraint Tt ≥ 0 on transfers
We also consider the special case of quasi-linear preferences studied by AMSS, u(c, l ) = c + H (l ).
In this case, Vx ( x, s) ≤ 0 is a non-positive martingale.
By the martingale convergence theorem Vx ( x, s) converges almost surely.
Furthermore, when the Markov chain Π(s|s− ) and the function g(s) are such that gt is perpetually
random, Vx ( x, s) almost surely converges to zero.
For quasi-linear preferences, the first-order condition with respect to n(s) becomes
(1 − µ(s|s− ))(1 − ul (s)) + µ(s|s− )n(s)ull (s) = 0.
Since µ(s|s− ) = βVx ( x (s), x ) converges to zero, in the limit ul (s) = 1 = uc (s), so that τ ( x (s), s) =
0.
Thus, in the limit, the government accumulates sufficient assets to finance all expenditures from
earnings on those assets, returning any excess revenues to the household as nonnegative lump
sum transfers.
Absence of state-variable degeneracy Along a Ramsey plan, the state variable xt = xt (st , b0 )
becomes a function of the history st and also the initial government debt b0 .
In our recursive formulation of the Lucas-Stokey, we found that
• the counterpart to Vx ( x, s) is time invariant and equal to the Lagrange multiplier on the
Lucas-Stokey implementability constraint.
• the time invariance of Vx ( x, s) in the Lucas-Stokey model is the source of the key feature of
the Lucas-Stokey model, namely, state variable degeneracy (i.e., xt is an exact function of st ),
That Vx ( x, s) varies over time according to a twisted martingale means that there is no state-
variable degeneracy in the AMSS model.
In the AMSS model, both x and s are needed to describe the state.
This property of the AMSS model is what transmits a twisted martingale-like component to con-
sumption, employment, and the tax rate.
Special case of AMSS model
That the Ramsey allocation for the AMSS model differs from the Ramsey allocation of the Lucas-
Stokey model is a symptom that the measurability constraints bind.
Following Bhandari, Evans, Golosov, and Sargent [BEGS13] (henceforth BEGS), we now consider
a special case of the AMSS model in which these constraints don’t bind.
Here the AMSS Ramsey planner chooses not to issue state-contingent debt, though he is free to do
so.
The environment is one in which fluctuations in the risk-free interest rate provide the insurance
that the Ramsey planner wants.

Following BEGS, we set S = 2 and assume that the state st is i.i.d., so that the transition matrix
Π(s0 |s) = Π(s0 ) for s = 1, 2.
Following BEGS, it is useful to consider the following special case of the implementability con-
straints evaluated at the constant value of the state variable x− = x (s) = x̌:
uc (s) x̌
= uc (s)(n(s) − g(s)) − ul (s)n(s) + x̌, s = 1, 2. (3.259)
β ∑s̃ Π(s̃)uc (s̃)
We guess and verify that the scaled Lagrange multiplier µ(s) = µ is a constant independent of s.
At a fixed x, because Vx ( x, s) must be independent of s− , equation becomes

uc (s)
Vx ( x̌ ) = ∑ Π(s) Vx ( x̌ ) = Vx ( x̌ ).
s ∑s̃ Π(s̃)uc (s̃)
This confirms that µ(s) = βVx is constant at some value µ.

For the continuation Ramsey planner facing implementability constraints (3.259), the first-order
conditions with respect to n(s) become
uc (s) − ul (s)µ×

x̌
(ucc (s) − ucl (s)) − uc (s) − n(s)(ucc (s) − ucl (s)) − ulc (s)n(s) + ul (s)
β ∑s̃ Π(s̃)uc (s̃)
= 0. (3.260)
Equations (3.260) and are four equations in the four unknowns n(s), s = 1, 2, x̌, and µ.
Under some regularity conditions on the period utility function u(c, l ), BEGS show that these
equations have a unique solution featuring a negative value of x̌.
Consumption c(s) and the flat-rate tax on labor τ (s) can then be constructed as history-
independent functions of s.
bt + 1 ( s )
In this AMSS economy, x̌ = x (s) = uc (s) Rt (s)
.
The risk-free interest rate, the tax rate, and the marginal utility of consumption fluctuate with s,
but x does not and neither does µ(s).
The labor tax rate and the allocation depend only on the current value of s.
For this special AMSS economy to be in a steady state from time 0 onward, it is necessary that
initial debt b0 satisfy the time 0 implementability constraint at the value x̌ and the realized value
of s0 .
We can solve for this level of b0 by plugging the n(s0 ) and x̌ that solve our four equation system
into
uc,0 b0 = uc,0 (n0 − g0 ) − ul,0 n0 + x̌
and solving for b0 .
This b0 assures that a steady state x̌ prevails from time 0 on.

Relationship to a Lucas-Stokey economy The constant value of the Lagrange multiplier µ(s) in
the Ramsey plan for our special AMSS economy is a tell tale sign that the measurability restrictions
imposed on the Ramsey allocation by the requirement that government debt must be risk free are
slack.
When they bind, those measurability restrictions cause the AMSS tax policy and allocation to be
history dependent — that’s what activates flucations in the risk-adjusted martingale.
Because those measurability conditions are slack in this special AMSS economy, we can also view
this as a Lucas-Stokey economy that starts from a particular initial government debt.
The setting of b0 for the corresponding Lucas-Stokey implementability constraint solves
uc,0 b0 = uc,0 (n0 − g0 ) − ul,0 + β x̌.
In this Lucas-Stokey economy, although the Ramsey planner is free to issue state-contingent debt,
it chooses not to and instead issues only risk-free debt.
It achieves the desired risk-sharing with the private sector by altering the amounts of one-period
risk-free debt it issues at each curent state, while understanding the equilibrium interest rate fluc-
tuations that its tax policy induces.
Convergence to the special case In an i.i.d., S = 2 AMSS economy in which the initial b0 does not
equal the special value described in the previous subsection, x fluctuates and is history-dependent.
The Lagrange multiplier µs (st ) is a non trivial risk-adjusted martingale and the allocation and
distorting tax rate are both history dependent, as is true generally in an AMSS economy.
However, BEGS describe conditions under which such an i.i.d., S = 2 AMSS economy in which
the representative agent dislikes consumption risk converges to a Lucas-Stokey economy in the
sense that xt → x̌ as t → ∞.
The following subsection displays a numerical example that exhibits convergence.
Examples
We now turn to some computations

Code to generate the following figures can be found in the files amss.py and amss_figures.py from
the applications repository QuantEcon.applications
Anticipated One-Period War In our lecture on optimal taxation with state contingent debt we
studied in a simple setting how the government manages uncertainty.
As in that lecture, we assume the one-period utility function
c 1− σ n 1+ γ
u(c, n) = −
1−σ 1+γ
Note: For convenience in terms of matching our computer code, we have expressed utility as a

function of n rather than leisure l
As before, we set γ = σ = 2 and β = .9

We consider the same government expenditure process studied in the lecture on optimal taxation
with state contingent debt
As before government expenditures are known for sure in all periods except one
• For t < 3 or t > 3 we assume that gt = gl = 0.1.
• At t = 3 a war occurs with probability 0.5.
– If there is war, g3 = gh = 0.2
– If there is no war g3 = gl = 0.1.
The trick is to define the components of the state vector as the following six (t, g) pairs:
(0, gl ), (1, gl ), (2, gl ), (3, gl ), (3, gh ), (t ≥ 4, gl ).
We think of these 6 states as corresponding to s = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

The transition matrix is  
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0.5 0.5 0
P=
0

 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
The government expenditure at each state is

0.1
0.1
 
0.1
g=
0.1 .

 
0.2
0.1
We assume the same utility parameters as the Lucas-Stokey economy

The following figure plots the Ramsey tax policy under both complete and incomplete markets
for both possible realizations of the state at time t = 3.
The optimal policies with access to state contingent debt are represented by black lines, while the
optimal policies with a risk free bond are in red.
Paths with circles are histories in which there is peace, while those with triangle denote war
How the Ramsey planner responds to war depending on the structure of the asset market.
If it is able to trade state contingent debt then, at time t = 2, it increases its debt burden in the
states when there is peace
That helps it to reduce the debt burden when there is war


3.16. DEFAULT RISK AND INCOME FLUCTUATIONS 635
This pattern facilities smoothing tax rates across states

The government without state contingent debt cannot do this
Instead, it must enter with the same level of debt at all possible states of the world at time t = 3.
It responds to this constraint by smoothing tax rates across time
To finance a war it raises taxes and issues more debt
To service the additional debt burden, it raises taxes in all future periods
The absence of state contingent debt leads to an important difference in the optimal tax policy
When the Ramsey planner has access to state contingent debt, the optimal tax policy is history
independent
• the tax rate is a only of the current level of government spending, given the Lagrange mul-
tiplier on the implementability constraint
Without state contingent debt, the optimal policy is history dependent.
• A war at time t = 3 causes a permanent increase in the tax rate
Perpetual War Alert The history dependence can be seen more starkly in a case where the gov-
ernment perpetually faces the prospect of war
This case was studied in the final example of the lecture on optimal taxation with state-contingent
debt
There, each period the government faces a constant probability, 0.5, of war.
In addition, this example features BGP preferences
u(c, n) = log(c) + 0.69 log(1 − n)
so even with state contingent debt tax rates will not be constant.
The figure below plots the optimal tax policies for both the case of state contingent (circles) and
non state contingent debt (triangles).
When the government experiences a prolonged period of peace, it is able to reduce government
debt and permanently lower tax rates.
However, the government must finance a long war by borrowing and raising taxes.
This results in a drift away from the policies with state contingent debt that depends on the history
of shocks received.
This is even more evident in the following figure that plots the evolution of the two policies over
200 periods.
3.16 Default Risk and Income Fluctuations



Contents
• Default Risk and Income Fluctuations
– Overview
– Structure
– Equilibrium
– Computation
– Results
– Exercises
– Solutions
Overview
This lecture computes versions of Arellano’s [Are08] model of sovereign default

The model describes interactions among default risk, output, and an equilibrium interest rate that
includes a premium for endogenous default risk
The decision maker is a government of a small open economy that borrows from risk-neutral
foreign creditors
The foreign lenders must be compensated for default risk
The government borrows and lends abroad in order to smooth the consumption of its citizens
The government repays its debt only if it wants to, but declining to pay has adverse consequences
The interest rate on government debt adjusts in response to the state-dependent default probabil-
ity chosen by government
The model yields outcomes that help interpret sovereign default experiences, including
• countercyclical interest rates on sovereign debt
• countercyclical trade balance
• high volatility of consumption relative to output
Notably, long recessions caused by bad draws in the income process increase the government’s
incentive to default
This can lead to
• spikes in interest rates
• temporary losses of access to international credit markets
• large drops in output, consumption, and welfare
• large capital outflows during recessions
Such dynamics are consistent with experiences of many countries

Structure
In this section we describe the main features of the model
Output, Consumption and Debt A small open economy is endowed with an exogenous stochas-
tically fluctuating potential output stream {yt }
Potential output is realized in periods in which the government honors its sovereign debt
The output good can be traded or consumed
The sequence {yt } is described by a Markov process with stochastic density kernel p(y, y0 )
Households within the country are identical and rank stochastic consumption streams according
to
∞
E ∑ βt u(ct ) (3.261)
t =0
Here
• 0 < β < 1 is a time discount factor
• u is an increasing and strictly concave utility function
Consumption sequences enjoyed by households are affected by the government’s decision to bor-
row or lend internationally
The government is benevolent in the sense that its aim is to maximize (3.261)
The government is the only domestic actor with access to foreign credit
Because household are averse to consumption fluctuations, the government will try to smooth
consumption by borrowing from (and lending to) foreign creditors
Asset Markets The only credit instrument available to the government is a one-period bond
traded in international credit markets
The bond market has the following features
• The bond matures in one period and is not state contingent
• A purchase of a bond with face value B0 is a claim to B0 units of the consumption good next
period
• The cost of the contract is qB0
– if B0 < 0, then −qB0 units of the good are received in the current period, for a promise
to repay − B units next period
– the price q = q( B0 , y) will depend on both B0 and y in equilibrium
Earnings on the government portfolio are paid lump sum to households
Conditional on absence of default, the resource constraint for the economy at any point in time is
c = y + B − q( B0 , y) B0 (3.262)

Here and below, a prime denotes a next period value or a claim maturing next period
To rule out Ponzi schemes, we also require that B ≥ − Z in every period
• Z is chosen to be sufficiently large that the constraint never binds in equilibrium
Financial Markets Foreign creditors

• are risk neutral
• know the domestic output stochastic process {yt } and observe yt , yt−1 , . . . , at time t
• can borrow or lend without limit in an international credit market at a constant international
interest rate r
• receive full payment if the government chooses to pay
• receive zero if the government defaults on its one-period debt due
When the government defaults with probability δ, expected net payoffs are
1−δ 0
qB0 − B (3.263)
1+r
Government’s decisions At each point in time t, the government decides between

1. defaulting
2. meeting its current obligations and purchasing or selling an optimal quantity of its one-
period sovereign debt
Defaulting means failing to repay its current obligations
If the government defaults in the current period, then consumption equals current output
A sovereign default has two further consequences:
1. Output falls from y to h(y), where 0 ≤ h(y) ≤ y
2. The country loses access to foreign credit
While in a state of default, the economy regains access to foreign credit in each subsequent period
with probability θ
Equilibrium
Informally, a recursive equilibrium for this economy is a sequence of interest rates on its sovereign
debt, a stochastic sequence of government default decisions and an implied flow of household
consumption such that
1. Consumption satisfies the resource constraint
2. The government maximizes household utility taking into account
• the resource constraint

• the effect of its choices on the price of bonds

3. The interest rate on the government’s debt includes a risk-premium sufficient to make for-
eign creditors expect on average to earn the constant risk-free international interest rate
To express these ideas more precisely, consider first the choices of the government, which
1. enters a period with initial assets B,
2. observes current output y, and
3. chooses either to
(a) default, or
(b) to repay B and set next period’s asset level to B0
In a recursive formulation,
• state variables for the government comprise the pair ( B, y)
• v( B, y) is the optimum value of the government’s problem when it faces the choice of
whether to pay or default at the beginning of a period
• vc ( B, y) is the value of choosing to pay obligatons falling due
• vd (y) is the value of choosing to default
vd (y) does not depend on B because, when access to credit is eventually regained, net foreign
assets equal 0
Expressed recursively, the value of defaulting is
Z
θv(0, y0 ) + (1 − θ )vd (y0 ) p(y, y0 )dy0

vd (y) = u(h(y)) + β
The value of paying is

Z
0 0 0 0 0 0
vc ( B, y) = max
0
u(y − q( B , y) B + B) + β v( B , y ) p(y, y )dy
B ≥− Z
The three value functions are linked by
v( B, y) = max{vc ( B, y), vd (y)}
The government chooses to default when
vc ( B, y) < vd (y)
and hence the probability of default next period given current holdings B0 is
Z
δ( B0 , y) := 1{vc ( B0 , y0 ) < vd (y0 )} p(y, y0 )dy0 (3.264)
Given zero profits for foreign creditors in equilibrium, we can now pin down the bond price by
combining (3.263) and (3.264) to obtain
1 − δ( B0 , y)
q( B0 , y) = (3.265)
1+r

Computation
Let’s now compute an equilibrium of Arellano’s model

The equilibrium objects are the value function v( B, y), the associated default decision rule, and the
pricing function q( B0 , y)
We’ll use our code to replicate Arellano’s results
After that we’ll perform some additional simulations
The majority of the code below was written by Chase Coleman
It uses a slightly modified version of the algorithm recommended by Arellano
• The appendix to [Are08] recommends value function iteration until convergence, updating
the price and then repeating
• Instead, we update the bond price at every value function iteration step
The second approach is faster and the two different procedures deliver very similar results
Here is a more detailed description of our algorithm:
1. Guess a value function v( B, y) and price function q( B0 , y)
2. At each pair ( B, y),
• update the value of defaulting vd (y)
• update the value of continuing vc ( B, y)
3. Update the value function v(B, y), the default rule, and the price function
4. Check for convergence. If converged, stop. If not, go to step 2.
We use simple discretization on a grid of asset holdings and income levels
The output process is discretized using Tauchen’s quadrature method
Numba has been used in two places to speed up the code
The code can be found in the file arellano_vfi.py from the QuantEcon.applications package but we
repeat it here for convenience
(Results and discussion are given below the code)
"""
Filename: arellano_vfi.py
Authors: Chase Coleman, John Stachurski
Solve the Arellano default risk model
References
----------
http://quant-econ.net/py/arellano.html

.. Arellano, Cristina. "Default risk and income fluctuations in emerging

economies." The American Economic Review (2008): 690-712.
"""
import numpy as np
import random
class Arellano_Economy(object):
"""
Arellano 2008 deals with a small open economy whose government
invests in foreign assets in order to smooth the consumption of
domestic households. Domestic households receive a stochastic
path of income.
Parameters
----------
beta : float
Time discounting parameter
gamma : float
Risk-aversion parameter
r : float
int lending rate
rho : float
Persistence in the income process
eta : float
Standard deviation of the income process
theta : float
Probability of re-entering financial markets in each period
ny : int
Number of points in y grid
nB : int
Number of points in B grid
tol : float
Error tolerance in iteration
maxit : int
Maximum number of iterations
"""
def __init__(self,
beta=.953, # time discount rate
gamma=2., # risk aversion
r=0.017, # international interest rate
rho=.945, # persistence in output
eta=0.025, # st dev of output shock
theta=0.282, # prob of regaining access
ny=21, # number of points in y grid
nB=251, # number of points in B grid
tol=1e-8, # error tolerance in iteration
maxit=10000):

# Save parameters
self.beta, self.gamma, self.r = beta, gamma, r
self.rho, self.eta, self.theta = rho, eta, theta
self.ny, self.nB = ny, nB
# Create grids and discretize Markov process

self.Bgrid = np.linspace(-.45, .45, nB)
log_ygrid, Py = qe.markov.tauchen(rho, eta, 3, ny)
self.ygrid = np.exp(log_ygrid)
self.Py = Py
# Output when in default

ymean = np.mean(self.ygrid)
self.def_y = np.minimum(0.969 * ymean, self.ygrid)
# Allocate memory
self.Vd = np.zeros(ny)
self.Vc = np.zeros((ny, nB))
self.V = np.zeros((ny, nB))
self.Q = np.ones((ny, nB)) * .95 # Initial guess for prices
self.default_prob = np.empty((ny, nB))
# Compute the value functions, prices, and default prob

self.solve(tol=tol, maxit=maxit)
# Compute the optimal savings policy conditional on no default
self.compute_savings_policy()
def solve(self, tol=1e-8, maxit=10000):

# Iteration Stuff
it = 0
dist = 10.
# Alloc memory to store next iterate of value function

V_upd = np.zeros((self.ny, self.nB))
# == Main loop == #
while dist > tol and maxit > it:
# Compute expectations for this iteration

Vs = self.V, self.Vd, self.Vc
EV, EVd, EVc = (np.dot(self.Py, v) for v in Vs)
# Run inner loop to update value functions Vc and Vd.

# Note that Vc and Vd are updated in place. Other objects
# are not modified.
_inner_loop(self.ygrid, self.def_y, self.Bgrid, self.Vd, self.Vc,
EVc, EVd, EV, self.Q,
self.beta, self.theta, self.gamma)
# Update prices
Vd_compat = np.repeat(self.Vd, self.nB).reshape(self.ny, self.nB)
default_states = Vd_compat > self.Vc

self.default_prob[:, :] = np.dot(self.Py, default_states)

self.Q[:, :] = (1 - self.default_prob)/(1 + self.r)
# Update main value function and distance

V_upd[:, :] = np.maximum(self.Vc, Vd_compat)
dist = np.max(np.abs(V_upd - self.V))
self.V[:, :] = V_upd[:, :]
it += 1
if it % 25 == 0:
print("Running iteration {} with dist of {}".format(it, dist))
return None
def compute_savings_policy(self):
"""
Compute optimal savings B' conditional on not defaulting.
The policy is recorded as an index value in Bgrid.
"""
# Allocate memory
self.next_B_index = np.empty((self.ny, self.nB))
EV = np.dot(self.Py, self.V)
_compute_savings_policy(self.ygrid, self.Bgrid, self.Q, EV,

self.gamma, self.beta, self.next_B_index)
def simulate(self, T, y_init=None, B_init=None):

"""
Simulate time series for output, consumption, B'.
"""
# Find index i such that Bgrid[i] is near 0
zero_B_index = np.searchsorted(self.Bgrid, 0)
if y_init is None:
# Set to index near the mean of the ygrid
y_init = np.searchsorted(self.ygrid, self.ygrid.mean())
if B_init is None:
B_init = zero_B_index
# Start off not in default
in_default = False
# Initialize Markov chain for output
mc = qe.markov.MarkovChain(self.Py)
y_sim_indices = mc.simulate(T, init=y_init)

B_sim_indices = np.empty(T, dtype=np.int64)
B_sim_indices[0] = B_init
q_sim = np.empty(T)
in_default_series = np.zeros(T, dtype=np.int64)
for t in range(T-1):

yi, Bi = y_sim_indices[t], B_sim_indices[t]

if not in_default:
if self.Vc[yi, Bi] < self.Vd[yi]:
in_default = True
Bi_next = zero_B_index
else:
new_index = self.next_B_index[yi, Bi]
Bi_next = new_index
else:
in_default_series[t] = 1
Bi_next = zero_B_index
if random.uniform(0, 1) < self.theta:
in_default = False
B_sim_indices[t+1] = Bi_next
q_sim[t] = self.Q[yi, Bi_next]
q_sim[-1] = q_sim[-2] # Extrapolate for the last price

return_vecs = (self.ygrid[y_sim_indices],
self.Bgrid[B_sim_indices],
q_sim,
in_default_series)
return return_vecs
@jit(nopython=True)
def u(c, gamma):
return c**(1-gamma)/(1-gamma)
@jit(nopython=True)
def _inner_loop(ygrid, def_y, Bgrid, Vd, Vc, EVc,
EVd, EV, qq, beta, theta, gamma):
"""
This is a numba version of the inner loop of the solve in the
Arellano class. It updates Vd and Vc in place.
"""
ny, nB = len(ygrid), len(Bgrid)
zero_ind = nB // 2 # Integer division
for iy in range(ny):
y = ygrid[iy] # Pull out current y
# Compute Vd
Vd[iy] = u(def_y[iy], gamma) + \
beta * (theta * EVc[iy, zero_ind] + (1 - theta) * EVd[iy])
# Compute Vc
for ib in range(nB):
B = Bgrid[ib] # Pull out current B
current_max = -1e14
for ib_next in range(nB):
c = max(y - qq[iy, ib_next] * Bgrid[ib_next] + B, 1e-14)

m = u(c, gamma) + beta * EV[iy, ib_next]

if m > current_max:
current_max = m
Vc[iy, ib] = current_max
return None
@jit(nopython=True)
def _compute_savings_policy(ygrid, Bgrid, Q, EV, gamma, beta, next_B_index):
# Compute best index in Bgrid given iy, ib
ny, nB = len(ygrid), len(Bgrid)
for iy in range(ny):
y = ygrid[iy]
for ib in range(nB):
B = Bgrid[ib]
current_max = -1e10
for ib_next in range(nB):
c = max(y - Q[iy, ib_next] * Bgrid[ib_next] + B, 1e-14)
m = u(c, gamma) + beta * EV[iy, ib_next]
if m > current_max:
current_max = m
current_max_index = ib_next
next_B_index[iy, ib] = current_max_index
return None
Results
Let’s start by trying to replicate the results obtained in [Are08]

In what follows, all results are computed using the same parameter values used by Arellano
The values can be seen in the __init__ method of the Arellano_Economy shown above
• For example, r=0.017 matches the average quarterly rate on a 5 year US treasury over the
period 1983–2001
Details on how to compute the figures are given as solutions to the exercises
The first figure shows the bond price schedule and replicates Figure 3 of Arellano
• y L is 5% below the mean of the y grid values
• y H is 5% above the mean of the y grid values
The grid used to compute this figure was relatively coarse (ny, nB = 21, 251) in order to match the
original
Here’s the same relationships computed on a finer grid (ny, nB = 51, 551)
In either case, the figure shows that
• Higher levels of debt (larger − B0 ) induce larger discounts on the face value, which corre-
spond to higher interest rates


• Lower income also causes more discounting, as foreign creditors anticipate greater likeli-
hood of default
The next figure plots value functions and replicates the right hand panel of Figure 4 of [Are08]
We can use the results of the computation to study the default probability δ( B0 , y) defined in (3.264)
The next plot shows these default probabilities over ( B0 , y) as a heat map
As anticipated, the probability that the government chooses to default in the following period
increases with indebtedness and with falls with income
Next let’s run a time series simulation of {yt }, { Bt } and q( Bt+1 , yt )
The grey vertical bars correspond to periods when the economy is in default


One notable feature of the simulated data is the nonlinear response of interest rates
Periods of relative stability are followed by sharp spikes in the discount rate on government debt
Exercises
Exercise 1 To the extent that you can, replicate the figures shown above
• Use the parameter values listed as defaults in the __init__ method of the Arellano_Economy
• The time series will of course vary depending on the shock draws
Solutions
Solution notebook


CHAPTER
FOUR
SOLUTIONS
Each lecture with exercises has a link to solutions immediately after the exercises
The links are to static versions of IPython Notebook files — the originals
are located in matching topic folders contained in the ‘QuantEcon.applications
<https://github.com/QuantEcon/QuantEcon.applications‘_ repo. For example, to obtain a
solutions notebook for the schelling chapter, it can be found here
If you look at a typical solution notebook you’ll see a download icon on top right
You can download a copy of the ipynb file (the notebook file) using that icon
Now start IPython notebook and navigate to the downloaded ipynb file
Once you open it in IPython notebook it should be running live, allowing you to make changes
653
654

CHAPTER
FIVE
FAQS / USEFUL RESOURCES
This page collects FAQs, useful links and commands
5.1 FAQs
5.2 How do I install Python?
See this lecture
5.3 How do I start Python?
Run one of these commands in the system terminal (terminal, cmd, etc., depending on your OS)
• python — the basic Python shell (actually, don’t use it, see the next command)
• ipython — a much better Python shell
• ipython notebook — start IPython Notebook on local machine
See here for more details on running Python
5.4 How can I get help on a Python command?
See this discussion
5.5 Where do I get all the Python programs from the lectures?
To import the quantecon library this discussion

To get all the code at once, visit our public applications code repository
• https://github.com/QuantEcon/QuantEcon.applications
See this lecture for more details on how to download the programs
655
5.6. WHAT’S GIT? 656
5.6 What’s Git?
• See this exercise
5.7 Other Resources
5.8 IPython Magics
Common IPython commands (IPython magics)

• run foo.py — run file foo.py
• pwd — show present working directory
• ls — list contents of present working directory
• cd dir_name — change to directory dir_name
• cd .. — go back
• load file_name.py — load file_name.py into cell
5.9 IPython Cell Magics
These are for use in the IPython notebook

• %%file new_file.py — put at top of cell to save contents as new_file.py
• %%timeit — time execution of the current cell
5.10 Useful Links
• Anaconda Python distribution

• Wakari — cloud computing with IPython Notebook interface
• Sagemath Cloud — another cloud computing environment that runs Python
• r/python — Get your hit of Python news
• Kevin Sheppard’s Python course — Includes an on line text and econometric applications
• Python for Economists — A course by Alex Bell
• Quandl — A Python interface to Quandl

5.10. USEFUL LINKS 657
PDF Lectures
A quick introduction to Python in slide format

• Lecture 1
• Lecture 2

5.10. USEFUL LINKS 658

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Acknowledgements: These lectures have benefitted greatly from comments and suggestion from
our colleagues, students and friends. Special thanks go to Anmol Bhandari, Jeong-Hun Choi,
Chase Coleman, David Evans, Chenghan Hou, Doc-Jin Jang, Spencer Lyon, Qingyin Ma, Matthew
McKay, Tomohito Okabe, Alex Olssen, Nathan Palmer and Yixiao Zhou.

INDEX
A Value Function Iteration, 303, 304

A Simple Optimal Growth Model, 300 Dynamic Typing, 168
AR, 494 E
ARMA, 491, 494
ARMA Processes, 488 Eigenvalues, 181, 193
Eigenvectors, 181, 193
B Ergodicity, 198, 211
Bellman Equation, 519 F
Bisection, 129
Finite Markov Asset Pricing, 382, 385
C Lucas Tree, 385
Central Limit Theorem, 225, 231 Finite Markov Chains, 198, 199
Intuition, 232 Stochastic Matrices, 199
Multivariate Case, 236 Fixed Point Theory, 429
cloud computing, 15, 178 G
amazon ec2, 15
General Linear Processes, 490
google app engine, 15
Git, 34
Python, 166
pythonanywhere, 15 H
sagemath cloud, 15 History Dependent Public Policies, 575, 576
wakari, 15 Competitive Equilibrium, 578
CLT, 225 Ramsey Timing, 577
Complex Numbers, 492 Sequence of Governments Timing, 578
Continuous State Markov Chains, 409 Timing Protocols, 577
Covariance Stationary, 489
Covariance Stationary Processes, 488 I
AR, 490 Immutable, 95
MA, 490 Integration, 125, 132
Cython, 167, 175 IPython, 18, 159
Debugging, 162
D Magics, 159
Data Sources, 154 Reloading Modules, 160
World Bank, 156 Shell, 32
Dynamic Programming, 300, 302 Timing Code, 160
Computation, 304 Irreducibility and Aperiodicity, 198, 204
Shortest Paths, 217
Theory, 303 J
Unbounded Utility, 304 Jupyter, 16, 18
666
INDEX 667
Jupyter Notebook Optimality (Finite Horizon), 324

Basics, 19 Lucas Model, 425
Figures, 24 Assets, 425
Help, 25 Computation, 429
nbviewer, 27 Consumers, 426
Setup, 19 Dynamic Program, 427
Sharing, 27 Equilibrium Constraints, 427
Equilibrium Price Funtion, 428
K Pricing, 426
Kalman Filter, 278 Solving, 428
Programming Implementation, 284
Recursive Procedure, 283 M
Marginal Distributions, 198, 203
L Markov Asset Pricing, 381, 382
Lake Model, 264 Overview, 382
Law of Large Numbers, 225 Markov Chains, 199
Illustration, 227 Calculating Stationary Distributions, 209
Multivariate Case, 236 Continuous State, 409
Proof, 226 Convergence to Stationarity, 210
Linear Algebra, 125, 133, 181 Cross-Sectional Distributions, 204
Differentiating Linear and Quadratic Ergodicity, 211
Forms, 196 Forecasting Future Values, 211
Eigenvalues, 193 Future Probabilities, 204
Eigenvectors, 193 Irreducibility, Aperiodicity, 204
Matrices, 186 Marginal Distributions, 203
Matrix Norms, 196 Simulation, 201
Neumann’s Theorem, 196 Stationary Distributions, 208
Positive Definite Matrices, 196 Markov Perfect Equilibrium, 368
SciPy, 193 Applications, 375
Series Expansions, 195 Background, 369
Spectral Radius, 196 Overview, 368
Vectors, 182 Matplotlib, 10, 133, 134
Linear Markov Perfect Equilibria, 370 3D Plots, 142
Linear State Space Models, 238 Multiple Plots on One Axis, 139
Distributions, 244, 245 Object-Oriented API, 135
Ergodicity, 249 Simple API, 134
Martingale Difference Shocks, 240 Subplots, 140
Moments, 244 Matrix
Moving Average Representations, 244 Determinants, 191
Prediction, 254 Inverse, 191
Seasonals, 242 Maps, 189
Stationarity, 249 Numpy, 188
Time Trends, 243 Operations, 187
Univariate Autoregressive Processes, 241 Solving Systems of Equations, 189
Vector Autoregressions, 242 McCall Model, 464
LLN, 225 Modeling
LQ Control, 321 Career Choice, 445
Infinite Horizon, 331 Models

INDEX 668
Linear State Space, 240 Computation, 477

Lucas Asset Pricing, 424 Problem, 476
Markov Asset Pricing, 381 Programming Implementation, 479
McCall, 464 Optimal Taxation, 559
On-the-Job Search, 454 Optimization, 125, 132
Permanent Income, 393 Multivariate, 132
Pricing, 382
Schelling’s Segregation Model, 220 P
Mutable, 95 Pandas, 13, 144, 145
Accessing Data, 155
N DataFrames, 147
NetworkX, 14 Series, 146
Neumann’s Theorem, 196 parallel computing, 15, 178
Newton-Raphson Method, 130 copperhead, 15
Nonparametric Estimation, 511 ipython, 15
Numba, 167, 172 pycuda, 15
NumPy, 112, 113, 125 starcluster, 15
Arrays, 113 Periodograms, 506, 507
Arrays (Creating), 115 Computation, 508
Arrays (Indexing), 116 Interpretation, 508
Arrays (Methods), 117 Permanent Income Model, 393
Arrays (Operations), 119 Hall’s Representation, 400
Arrays (Shape and Dimension), 114 Savings Problem, 394
Comparisons, 121 Positive Definite Matrices, 196
Matrix Multiplication, 120 Pricing Models, 382
Universal Functions, 170 Finite Markov Asset Pricing, 385
Vectorized Functions, 121 Risk Aversion, 383
Risk Neutral, 382
O pyMC, 14
Object Oriented Programming, 63 pystan, 14
Classes, 66 Python, 16
Key Concepts, 64 Anaconda, 17
Methods, 70 Assertions, 97
Special Methods, 78 Cloud Computing, 166
Terminology, 64 common uses, 8
On-the-Job Search, 454 Comparison, 57
Model, 455 Conditions, 42
Model Features, 455 Content, 82
Parameterization, 456 Cython, 175
Programming Implementation, 457 Data Types, 49
Solving for Policies, 461 Decorators, 101, 102, 105
Optimal Growth Descriptors, 101, 103
Model, 301 Dictionaries, 52
Policy Function, 309 Docstrings, 60
Policy Funtion Approach, 302 Exceptions, 98
Optimal Growth Part II: Adding Some Bling, For loop, 39
311 Functions, 41, 59
Optimal Savings, 475 Generator Functions, 107

INDEX 669
Generators, 106 Type, 81

Handling Errors, 97 urllib.request, 154
Identity, 83 Variable Names, 88
import, 53 Vectorization, 169
Indentation, 40 While loop, 41
Interfacing with Fortran, 178 python, 7
Interpreter, 91
Introductory Example, 35 Q
IO, 54 QuantEcon, 27
IPython, 18 Installation, 28
Iterables, 86 Repository, 28
Iteration, 55, 85
Iterators, 85, 86, 88 R
keyword arguments, 61 Ramsey Problem, 576, 579
lambda functions, 61 Computing, 580
List comprehension, 44 Credible Policy, 592
Lists, 38 Optimal Taxation, 559
Logical Expressions, 58 Recursive Representation, 583
Matplotlib, 133 Time Inconsistency, 588
Methods, 83 Two Subproblems, 581
Namespace (__builtins__), 93 Rational Expectations Equilibrium, 360
Namespace (Global), 92 Competitive Equilbrium (w. Adjustment
Namespace (Local), 92 Costs), 362
Namespace (Resolution), 93 Computation, 365
Namespaces, 89 Definition, 362
Nuitka, 179 Planning Problem Approach, 365
Numba, 172 Robustness, 519
NumPy, 112
Object Oriented Programming, 63 S
Objects, 80 Schelling Segregation Model, 220
Packages, 38 scientific programming, 9
Pandas, 144 Blaze, 16
Parakeet, 179 CVXPY, 16
Paths, 55 Jupyter, 16
PEP8, 62 Numba, 16
Properties, 105 numeric, 10
PyPI, 16 PyTables, 16
PyPy, 179 scikit-learn, 14
Pyston, 179 SciPy, 123–125
Pythran, 179 Bisection, 129
Recursion, 110 Fixed Points, 131
Runtime Errors, 98 Integration, 132
Scientific Libraries, 45 Linear Algebra, 133
SciPy, 123, 124 Multivariate Root Finding, 131
Sets, 52 Newton-Raphson Method, 130
Slicing, 52 Optimization, 132
syntax and design, 9 Statistics, 126
Tuples, 51 Smoothing, 506, 511

INDEX 670
Spectra, 506
Estimation, 506
Spectra, Estimation
AR(1) Setting, 517
Fast Fourier Transform, 507
Pre-Filtering, 515
Smoothing, 511, 515
Spectral Analysis, 488, 492
Spectral Densities, 493
Spectral Density, 494
interpretation, 494
Inverting the Transformation, 496
Mathematical Theory, 496
Spectral Radius, 196
Static Types, 168
Stationary Distributions, 198, 208
statsmodels, 14
Stochastic Matrices, 199
SymPy, 11
T
Text Editors, 32
U
Unbounded Utility, 304
urllib.request, 154
V
Value Function Iteration, 303
Vectorization, 167, 169
Operations on Arrays, 169
Vectors, 181, 182
Inner Product, 184
Linear Independence, 185
Norm, 184
Operations, 183
Span, 184
W
Wakari, 166
White Noise, 489, 493
Wold’s Decomposition, 490

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QUANTITATIVE ECONOMICS with Python

Thomas Sargent and John Stachurski

January 26, 2016

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

2 Introductory Applications 181

3 Advanced Applications 409

5 FAQs / Useful Resources 655

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

1.1 About Python

In this lecture we will

Python is a general purpose programming language conceived in 1989 by Dutch programmer

Python is free and open source

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

• Walt Disney Animation, etc., etc.

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

In [3]: b = np.cos(a) # Apply cosine to each element of a

In [4]: c = np.ones(25) # An array of 25 ones

In [5]: np.dot(c, c) # Compute inner product

In [6]: from scipy.integrate import quad

In [7]: phi = norm()

In [8]: value, error = quad(phi.pdf, -2, 2) # Integrate using Gaussian quadrature

SciPy includes many of the standard routines used in

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

• Plots, histograms, contour images, 3D, bar charts, etc., etc.

Example contour plot

Symbolic Algebra It’s useful to be able to manipulate symbolic expressions, as in Mathematica

In [11]: x, y = Symbol('x'), Symbol('y') # Treat 'x' and 'y' as algebraic symbols

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

We can manipulate expressions

and calculate limits, derivatives and integrals

In [22]: import scipy as sp

In [24]: dates = pd.date_range('28/12/2010', periods=5)

In [25]: df = pd.DataFrame(data, columns=('price', 'weight'), index=dates)

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

2010-12-28 0.007255 1.129998

Other Useful Statistics Libraries

G = nx.random_geometric_graph(200, 0.12) # Generate random graph

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

The figure it produces looks as follows

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

• Browse some Python projects on GitHub

1.2 Setting up Your Python Environment

This lecture is intended to be the first step on your Python journey

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

4. install the Python programs that underpin these lectures

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

• for a slightly over-hyped review, see this article

The output tells us the notebook is running at http://localhost:8888/

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

A Test Program Let’s run a test program

# Use custom colors and opacity

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

T HOMAS S ARGENT AND J OHN S TACHURSKI January 26, 2016

Tab Completion One nice feature of Jupyter is tab completion