Henson White Paper Seawater
Henson White Paper Seawater
Henson White Paper Seawater
Rob Henson
Uniti, LLC
The technical case for titanium application to seawater service was well established in the early 1970’s
and performance of titanium over the last 40 years has validated the technical case. Widespread use of
titanium for process plant application has grown significantly over the last 40 years in spite of
comparative cost with competing alloys. This challenge began to reverse in the early 2000’s as global
expansion of titanium production accelerated and the cost for competing alloys continued to rise.
With expanding global production (see FIGURE 1) the application base for titanium was able to expand
and this expansion allowed the stocking of service centers worldwide to support existing and developing
applications. Concurrent with this improved market position for titanium the global nickel and copper
industries faced increasing demand, rising energy prices and most importantly declining ore grades.
Producing commodities from low grade resources requires higher energy input and capital intensive
plants for the processing of large tonnage and low grade run‐of‐mine ore.
FIGURE 1
GLOBAL TITANIUM SPONGE PRODUCTION
USGS minerals information
This business case for titanium was demonstrated in 2010 with the largest ever industrial project for
titanium when the Ras Al Khair desalination plant was constructed utilizing near 6000 MT of titanium
tubing. The application of titanium on this large scale was a result of the proven 40 year history of
titanium in power generation and thermal desalination service together with the improved delivery for
titanium products and the rising price of copper alloys.
With titanium often the economic choice for seawater application the importance of the technical case
cannot be overstated and should be revisited. Many application engineers have ignored the potential
for titanium based on the misconception that titanium is hard to find and if found was too expensive to
consider. For that reason the technical case for titanium in seawater service is presented.
Corrosion resistance of titanium
The corrosion resistance of titanium is the result of a tenacious surface oxide composed of titanium
dioxide that autogenously repairs itself when damaged in the presence of even very low levels of oxygen
or water. The ceramic like corrosion resistance of titanium can be relied upon to resist corrosion in
seawater as follows (Ref 1):
General corrosion
Commercially pure titanium is immune to general corrosion in seawater and brackish water to
temperatures as high as 130 0C. Low levels of alloying additions such as palladium in the case of Grades
7,11,16 and 17 or Ni & Mo in the case of Grade 12 will extend general corrosion resistance to
temperatures in excess of 260 0C. Table 1 presents chemical composition ranges of those titanium
grades applied to seawater service.
Titanium O C N Fe Pd Mo Ni Al Va Ti
Grade max max max max range range range range range
1 0.18 0.08 0.03 0.20 Balance
2 0.25 0.08 0.03 0.30 Balance
3 0.35 0.08 0.05 0.30 Balance
5 2.5‐ 2.0‐
0.20 0.08 0.05 0.40 Balance
3.5 3.0
7 0.12‐
0.25 0.08 0.03 0.30 Balance
0.25
11 0.12‐
0.18 0.08 0.03 0.20 Balance
0.25
12 0.2‐ 0.6‐
0.25 0.08 0.03 0.30 Balance
0.4 0.9
16 0.04‐
0.25 0.08 0.03 0.30 Balance
0.08
17 0.04‐
0.18 0.08 0.03 0.20 Balance
0.08
Table 1
Composition of Selected ASTM Titanium Grades
Crevice corrosion
Commercially pure titanium (Grades 1, 2, and 3) is immune to crevice corrosion in aerated seawater to
temperatures of at least 70 0C. In deaerated seawater commercially pure titanium will resist crevice
corrosion to temperatures as high as 94 0C. When higher service temperatures are required or crevices
cannot be engineered out of the process equipment titanium grades containing alloy addition can be
applied to provide protection from crevice corrosion. Titanium grades containing additions of palladium
such as Grades 7, 11, 16 and 17 or titanium Grade 12 containing small additions of nickel and
molybdenum are economical choice to enhance protection from crevice corrosion.
Pitting Corrosion
Pitting is the localized attack of the exposed metal surface in the absence of crevices. Titanium is highly
resistant to pitting attack in seawater unless impressed currents higher than +5 volts are applied.
Titanium is routinely used in impressed current systems as the anodic breakdown potential exceeds that
of most common engineering materials.
Hydrogen Damage
Titanium is resistant to hydrogen damage in a wide range of applications including galvanic couples and
impressed current systems. The naturally occurring oxide film on titanium protects the base metal from
hydrogen absorption which would result in reduced ductility of the metal. Factors required for
hydrogen damage to titanium are:
o Mechanism for generating nascent hydrogen
o Metal temperature > 80 0C
o Solution pH <3 or >12
Eliminating anyone of these conditions will result in titanium being immune to hydrogen damage. (Ref 1)
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion is not normally a concern for titanium due to the noble nature of the metal. Coupling
with dissimilar metals will not result in corrosion issues as long as the entire system remains passive. If
active corrosion is occurring in the system then potential for hydrogen damage to titanium is possible.
Factors which influence galvanic corrosion are the cathode to anode surface area ratio, the solution
chemistry and temperature as indicated in the section on hydrogen damage. Avoiding galvanic
corrosion can be accomplished by coupling with a more compatible metal, electrical insulation of the
connection or designing the system in 100% titanium.
Erosion Corrosion
The hard adherent oxide on titanium provides a high level of protection from erosion corrosion in
flowing seawater even when sand particle are entrained in the process steam. Velocities as high as 30
meter/second are acceptable for titanium when no sand is present and 5 meters/sec when heavily laden
with sand.
Microbial Influenced Corrosion (MIC)
“Microbiologically influenced corrosion has been reported for all engineering metal and alloys with the
exception of predominantly titanium and high chromium ‐nickel alloys” (Ref 2). MIC can occur over a
wide range of temperature to 100 0C; however titanium is not affected by microbial influenced corrosion
in flowing or stagnant seawater service.
Enhancing the corrosion resistance of titanium
The addition of small amounts of certain elements will result in improved corrosion resistance of
titanium in reducing environments. The common alloy additions include:
Ti Grades 16 and 17 0.04% to 0.08% Pd
Ti Grades 7 and 11 0.12% to 0.25% Pd
Ti Grade 12 0.2% to 0.4% Mo and 0.6% to 0.9% Ni
These alloy “additions facilitate cathodic depolarization by providing sites of low hydrogen overvoltage,
which shifts alloy potential in the noble direction where oxide film passivation is possible” (Ref 3).
Materials commonly selected for seawater heat exchanger and piping systems include alloys which are
predominately copper and/or nickel and titanium. Each of the materials has benefits and limitations in
seawater service which will be compared and contrasted in the following paragraphs. Additionally, the
current comparative cost of these materials and factors which will likely influence future pricing for
copper and nickel will be addressed.
Resistance to the various forms of corrosion in seawater for selected alloys is presented in Table 2. It is
clear that only titanium is resistant to all forms of corrosion in seawater to temperature exceeding 70 0C;
super duplex alloys have a maximum reported service temperature of 40 0C (Ref 4) but are susceptible
to pitting of welds at much lower temperatures.
Erosion Corrosion S R R R R R
Pitting S S S R R R
Crevice S S S S S R
MIC S S S S R R
Weld S S S S R R
Galvanic S S S R R R
TABLE 2
Performance of Alloys in Seawater Service
R‐resistant, S‐susceptible
Fundamentals of Titanium Workshop, International Titanium Association Copyright 2013
A system for ranking Corrosion Resistant Alloys (CRAs) pitting resistance has been developed to predict
alloy resistance to pitting corrosion in chloride solutions. The Pitting Resistance Equivalency Number
(PREN) is based on the formula:
PREN = WCr + 3.3(WMo + 0.5WW) + 16WN
WCr is the weight % chromium in the alloy
WMo is the weight % molybdenum in the alloy
WW is the weight % tungsten in the alloy
WN is the weight % nitrogen in the alloy
Recommended PREN for seawater service is >40 (Ref 4), this requirements eliminates austenitic
stainless steels, duplex and super austenitic stainless from consideration. Only super duplex with a
PREN value of 42 can be considered and this alloy is limited to a maximum service temperature of 20 0C
according to ISO 21457, “Petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries – Materials selection
and corrosion control for oil and gas production systems”. Table 3 presents limitations for materials
selected for seawater service per ISO 21457.
Material Typical Limitation
Alloy 625 Maximum temperature: 30 0C
Maximum residual chlorine 0.7 mg/l
Alloy C276 Maximum temperature: 40 0C
Maximum residual chlorine 0.7 mg/l
25Cr duplex Maximum temperature: 20 0C
Maximum residual chlorine 0.7 mg/l
Titanium Grades 1 & 2 Unchlorinated seawater maximum temperature: 95 0C
Chlorinated seawater maximum temperature: 85 0C
CuNi 90/10 Maximum velocity 2.5 m/s
TABLE 3
ISO 21457
Even in the allowed temperature range there is danger of pitting due to chlorination of the system to
eliminate fouling and microbial activity. (Ref 5)
Figure 2 provides a comparison of pricing for various alloys often considered for seawater service (Ref
6). The data is based on the current purchase price of 6mm thick plate 305mm x 305mm. The relative
lower cost of titanium is due to continuing price increases for copper and nickel and the higher density
of these products.
Historical copper and nickel price trends are presented in Figure 3 and Figure 4, respectively. Production
of copper and nickel is relying on continually decreasing ore grades as high grade readily accessible
resources have been mined. The trend of decreasing mine grade requires ever greater energy input to
produce required tonnage of metal. With energy prices continuing to rise for many of the same reasons,
the expectation is that copper and nickel prices will continue steady escalation. Figure 5 presents the
trend of declining mine grade for copper produced at U.S. mines from 1862 through 2003.
The abundance of titanium in nature together with an installed global mining industry for titanium
minerals and global expansion of titanium metal production has facilitated growth in the industrial
titanium market. As the production base for titanium expands industry will benefit from improved
deliveries and less price volatility.
4.0
3.5
3.0
Price Unit Multiplier, Ti = 1
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
2507 6 Moly Ti2 Ti16 CuNi 70- Al 625 C276 CuNi 90-
30 Bronze 10
Figure 2
Comparative Cost, 6mm plate x 1 meter2
Normalized for strength and density
Figure 3
Copper Price Trend
January 2008 to January 2013
Figure 4
Nickel Price Trend
January 2008 to January 2013
% Cu
Figure 5
Historical Mine Grade for US Copper Mine, 1862 to 2003
Mining Journal
Copper ‐ Changing copper yields and grades
Publishing Date 07 Oct 2011
Optimizing design to reduce weight and space requirements
Titanium has twice the strength of copper‐nickel alloys and is nominally ½ the density. There is
significant savings to be realized when designs are optimized for titanium (Ref 7). The higher strength
means thinner wall sections, the higher velocity limitations for flowing seawater allows smaller diameter
pipe both of which add to space and weight savings. The cost to support a 1 kilogram load on the deck
of a floating oil production system has been estimated at 12 Euros by Doble & Havn (Ref 8) so weight
savings have a significant impact on project cost.
Case histories of titanium in seawater
Ras Al Khair (formerly Ras Al Zwar) Multi Stage Flash (MSF) desalination plant was built with 100%
titanium tubes based on capital costs being better than the costs with historical material selection. The
life of the MSF plant is expected to be more than 50 years which also impacts capital amortization and
subsequent operating costs. See Figure 6 for operation cost comparisons of desalination technologies.
According to Global Water Intelligence:
FIGURE 6
“The figure (6) refers to large seawater plants (100,000 m3/d) with the capital cost amortized over a life
of 20 years, and assuming an interest rate of 6%. Given that the lifespan of an MSF plant may be longer
than 40 years, the capital cost calculation would need to be adjusted accordingly”. (Ref 9)
When life of plant construction with titanium is considered, the operating cost of providing water for the
various technologies compares favorably. This new perspective on capital cost has resulted in two new
world class MSF plants in the last three years and is having an impact on material selection for certain
SWRO components which are exposed to seawater.
Developing applications
SWRO plants for LoSal Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). Plants destined for installation on
floating oil production units where weight, reliability and temperature fluctuations are
concerns. See Figure 7
Evaporation and crystallization plants for treating water produced from hydraulically
fractured gas wells
Figure 7
SWRO Plant for Offshore EOR Application
Pictures courtesy of Loterios
Conclusions
The industrial titanium market has expanded globally both in terms of supply and application to process
plant equipment. The expanded supply base has brought improved availability, reliable delivery and
more economical pricing to the market; the expanded application base has provided a robust reference
list of successful applications for titanium to a variety of industrial applications. These success stories
are fueling even more interest in using titanium products to combat corrosion and extend reliability of
equipment in harsh seawater service.
REFERENCES:
1. Corrosion of Titanium and Titanium Alloys. Ronald W. Schutz, RMI Titanium Company
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B: Corrosion: Materials. S.D. Cramer, B.S. Covino, Jr., editors, p252‐299
2. Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion, Brenda J. Little, Jason S. Lee
Naval Research Laboratory, Oceanography Division, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529‐5004
3. Optimized lean‐Pd Titanium Alloys for Aggressive Reducing Acid and Halide Service Environments
R.W. Schutz and Ming Xiao, RMI Titanium
4. R. Francis and G. Warburton, Marine Corrosion Resistance of ZERON 100 Super Duplex Stainless Steel.
Rolled Alloys, Report #TN779, December 2008
5. Te‐Lin Yau, Comparison of Titanium, Cupronickels, Monel and Super Duplex Stainless Steels in Chlorinated
Seawater at Ambient Temperatures. Unpublished report 2006
6. Chuck Young, Titanium, Is Not “Too Expensive”, ITA 2012
7. John Mountford, Titanium‐Properties, Advantages and Applications Solving the Corrosion Problems in
Marine Service. NACE 2002, Paper # 02170
8. Olaf Doble & Torfinn Havn, Lean Duplex Stainless Steel for Structural Applications. Duplex 2007
9. Technology choice still open at Yanbu 3 ‐ Vol 13, Issue 10 (October 2012)‐Global Water Intelligence