Iws Fabrication Application PDF

IIW/EWF Diploma -
Fabrication and Application (Foundation)

FAA1
Training & Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL, UK
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Rev 3 August 2010
Contents
Copyright  TWI Ltd 2010
IIW/EWF Diploma -
Fabrication and Application (Foundation)
Contents
Section Subject
Pre training briefing
1 Quality Assurance and Quality Control

1.1 Definitions
1.2 Quality system standards
1.3 Auditing and documentation
1.4 Quality requirements for welding
1.5 Calibration/validation of welding equipment
1.6 Workshop exercise
1.7 Questions on validation and in-process monitoring
2 Approval Testing
2.1 Welder approvals BS.EN.287
2.2 Training
2.3 Definitions
2.4 Codes of practice and application standards
2.5 Other welding approval standards
2.6 Questions on approval testing and quality control
2.7 Practical on procedure and welder qualification testing
2.8 Questions on welding procedure and welder approvals
2.9 Practical exercise on codes of practice and application standards
3 Development of Residual Stress and Distortion

3.1 Factors effecting residual stresses and distortion
3.2 Typical material properties
3.3 Characteristics of materials which determine the amount of distortion
and residual stresses
3.4 Correcting distortion
3.5 Questions
4 Plant Facilities and Equipment

4.1 Factory layout
4.2 Joint fit-up and jigging
4.3 Positioning equipment
4.4 Questions
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Rev 3 August 2010
Contents
5 Safety in the Welding Shop

5.1 Arcs
5.2 Hot metal
5.3 Fire
5.4 Noise
5.5 Cables
5.6 Mechanical hazards
5.7 Filter glasses
5.8 Electrical
5.9 Gas cylinders
5.10 Fumes and gasses
5.11 Parent metal
5.12 Surface coating
5.13 Air
5.14 Ventilation
5.15 Other protective measures
5.16 Recommendations for specific processes
5.17 Questions
6 Economics of Welding
6.1 Deposition rate
6.2 Consumable efficiency
6.3 Arc time duty cycle
6.4 Joint design
6.5 Downtime
6.6 Questions
7 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

7.1 Visual testing
7.2 Penetrant testing
7.3 Magnetic particle inspection (MP)
7.4 Eddy current testing (ET)
7.5 Ultrasonic testing (UT)
7.6 Radiographic testing (RT)
7.7 Visual inspection
7.8 NDT Methods
7.9 Comparison between X and gamma sources
7.10 Radiological protection
7.11 Choice of method
7.12 NDT clarification schemes
7.13 PCN personal certification in NDT
7.14 Standards and specifications
7.15 Questions
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Rev 3 August 2010
Contents
8 Repair by Welding
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types of defects
8.3 General techniques for typical repairs
8.4 Groove shape
8.5 Welding processes
8.6 Summary
8.7 Questions
9 Typical Exam Practice Question
10 Additional information: Welding consumables – storage and

handling
11 Additional information: Preheat and interpass temperature

equipment and control
12 Additional information: weld defects/imperfections
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Section 1
Quality Assurance and Quality Control
Rev 3 September 2010
1 Quality Assurance and Quality Control

1.1 Definitions
Before we consider what quality assurance and quality control is, let us first
define quality. This is best described as being the fitness-for-purpose of a
product, service or activity. BS 7448 Part 1 Quality Vocabulary, describes
quality as the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service
that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.
Quality assurance is all those planned and systematic actions necessary to

provide adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy given
requirements for quality. Quality control is described as the operational
techniques and activities that are used to fulfil requirements for quality.
Quality assurance is therefore the documented plans and systems by which

confidence in a product is provided and comprises all of the paperwork
systems that are used to plan, control and record activities, ie the
documentation.
Quality control is those activities which monitor the quality of the product.
The operational techniques of checking materials, dimensional checks,
inspection before, during and after welding, non-destructive testing,
hydraulic or leak testing, ie activities which take place after the event and
which check that a specified activity has been carried out correctly.
Quality assurance has been introduced to ensure that the activity is right
first time on the principle that prevention is better than cure. This can be
achieved by planning and anticipating problems.
In order to satisfy this requirement a documented quality system is needed

which sets out in a formal framework the basis of control for the critical
activities. This framework in general, comprises of four tiers of
documentation. The highest tier being the company quality manual,
cascading down through quality systems, quality plans and detailed
manufacturing and inspection instructions.
1.1.1 Quality system

Can be defined as:
The organisation structures, responsibilities, procedures, processes and

resources for implementing quality management.
The quality manual and support procedures document an organisation's

quality system.
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1.1.2 Quality manual

Can be defined as:
A document setting out the general quality policies, procedures and

practices of an organisation.
The word general, is important in this definition. The quality manual is

usually the first indication a purchaser or prospective client has of a
company's approach to quality. This document should contain a statement
of the company's total commitment to quality by means of a quality policy
statement signed by the Chairman, MD or Chief Executive of the company.
This policy statement should be prominently displayed within the company.
1.1.3 Procedure
Can be defined as:
A document that describes how an activity is to be performed and by whom.
Note: The definitions used above are based on those given in British
Standards:
 BS 7448: Part 1: ISO 8402: Quality Vocabulary Internal terms.

 BS 4778: Part 2: Glossary of terms used in quality assurance.
Note, that a procedure is not a detailed work instruction such as a welding

procedure but a statement of who does what and how, it describes the
corporate plan for achieving quality. But there may be times when an
organisation needs to operate in a different way from the corporate system,
for example, for a unique project or to satisfy a specific customer's
requirements.
In these circumstances an appropriate quality system can be documented in

the form of a project off-contract specific quality plan.
1.1.4 Quality plan

Can be defined as:
A document setting out the specific quality practices, resources and

sequence of activities relevant to a particular product, service, contract or
project.
A quality plan is the corporate quality system suitably modified to reflect

specific equipments. It may compromise a project quality manual
incorporating appropriate sections from the corporate quality manual which
apply. It is generally a detailed document.
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Project procedures may well include:
 Existing procedures appropriate to the contract.

 Existing procedures amended for the contract.
 New procedures to meet specific requirements for the contract.
Some contracts may well call for a combination of all three.
1.2 Quality system standards

Quality system standards specify the minimum requirements of quality
systems for application to specific products or services.
Standards are normally used for the following purposes:
 As guidance to an organisation introducing quality assurance.

 As a basis for evaluating an organisation's quality system (assessment).
 To specify the quality assurance requirements when invoked in a
contract.
The standard common in the UK is ISO 9000.
1.2.1 Quality Records

A quality record is any document that indicates the inspection performed,
quantities inspected, results obtained, positive identification of the material
inspected to drawing or part number, the signature or stamp of the person
carrying out the inspection and date of inspection. Quality records might
also indicate the qualification of personnel, calibration of equipment or other
records not directly related to the product.
Questions that need to be addressed include:

What quality records are to be maintained, eg receiving inspection reports,
NDT results, test certificates, final inspection reports and non-conformance
reports (including any feedback or corrective action generated).
 Where are the records filed and by whom?

 How long are the quality records retained?
 Are the quality records available to the customer for analysis and
review?
 Are records easily retrievable?
 Is a suitable environment available to minimise deterioration or damage
to stored records?
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1.2.2 Typical quality record contents

The Quality Record Package for a welded product will be defined
specifically for a contract but should include the following types of
information:
a) Records of stage inspections in the form of check sheets or quality

plans.
b) Non-conformity reports and concession records.
c) Where appropriate, As built drawings.
d) Welding procedures.
e) Welder approvals.
f) Welding consumable records.
g) Weld history records.
h) NDT reports.
i) Heat treatment records.
j) Hydraulic and/or other testing records.
k) Where appropriate, material test certificates.
l) Final acceptance certificates.
1.2.3 What areas of a business need to be covered by ISO 9000?

This standard requires the following elements of the business to have set
procedures.
 Management responsibility - who is responsible for what?

 Quality system - how does the system operate?
 Contract review, allows personnel to see what the requirement is and
who has been asked to do what.
 Design review and control, ensure smooth passage from drawing board
to end product.
 Documentation controls, make sure the correct documents are available.
 Purchasing, make sure we have the right products and services.
 Purchaser supplied product, make sure that these items are also OK.
 Product identification and traceability, what is it and where is it?
 Process control, lets everyone know clearly how to make the product.
 Inspection and test, describes how to inspect and test it.
 Inspection, measuring and test equipment, make sure the equipment
used is correct.
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 Inspection and test status, where is the product in the inspection cycle?
 Control of non-conforming product, ensures incorrect product is not
used.
 Corrective action, find the root cause of the problem and solve it.
 Handling, storage, packing and delivery, don't damage it now it's made.
 Quality records, the need is for documented evidence that the company
meet specific requirements.
 Internal quality audits, are quality activities performing as planned?
 Training, it cannot be manufactured effectively if people are not
adequately trained and qualified.
 Servicing, if carried out by the company, effective procedures are
required.
 Statistical techniques, use them to build-in product quality.
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Quality Programme Documentation
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The Welding Inspector
Responsibilities
Ensure compliance to Ensure workmanship Ensure welding criteria by

standard or code policing work and
documentation
Attributes
Honesty Literacy Fitness
integrity
Physical Eyesight
Duties
Observe
measure
identify
Before During After

welding welding welding
Material Voltage PWHT
Consumables Amperage Visual assessment
Welding processes Travel speed NDT assessment
Joint fit-up Interpass temperature
Preheat Interpass cleaning
Tack welding/clamping
Alignment
Calibration
Safety
Accept Reject
Collect and collate all

documents which may
include: Repair Concession
Code or standard
material certificates ID area
Consumable certificates Mark out
Calibration certificates Remove
Drawing(s) Re-weld
Welding procedure Re-inspect
Approval certificates
Inspection records
PWHT records
Other test records
Concessions Acceptance of the product
Compliance certificates
Inspector passes the document

package to a higher authority for final
approval
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1.3 Auditing and documentation

Quality manuals, procedures and work instructions, etc provide the objective
evidence that the systems of control have been adequately planned.
The records and documentation generated by carrying out work in

accordance with these systems provides the evidence that the systems are
being followed by all. Systems of control, no matter how effective they are,
will tend to deteriorate because of human errors, such errors being
perpetuated or because of changes in the nature of the business.
In order to ensure that the systems are being followed and are effective and
to determine if changes are needed it is necessary to monitor them. This is
achieved by auditing the system and reviewing the results of the audit in
order to implement any changes.
1.3.1 What is an audit?

Quality audits examine a quality system for adequacy and correct
implementation. They are defined in BS 4778 Part 1 as:
Systematic and independent examinations to determine whether quality

activities and related results comply with planned arrangements and
whether these arrangements are implemented effectively and are suitable to
achieve objectives.
Auditing is carried out to provide objective evidence that the system is

working in accordance with the procedures. When an audit is complete the
results are analysed by management who must ensure that the quality
policy is satisfied and modify the quality system if necessary.
1.3.2 Which type of audit?

There are two depths of audit:
A systems audit which is quite shallow and simply examines the system to
confirm that it follows the quality manual and that procedures are in place.
A Compliance audit, which is an in depth audit examining compliance with

procedures.
1.3.3 Auditing of documentation

A documentation audit is regarded as being a compliance audit, where
documentation is examined in depth.
Items to check in such an audit should include:
 Is all the documentation available?

 Is the documentation schedule in accordance with contract or
specification requirements?
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 Does the documentation itself comply with contract or specification

requirements? For example, are weld procedure and welders correctly
qualified?
 Is it the correct material composition?
 Is the documentation legible?
 Have all the interested parties eg inspection department, independent
third party inspectors and client inspectors, signed off where required?
 Have provisions been made for storage? Which includes the ability to
retrieve documents and the storage conditions to prevent deterioration?
Documentation audits should be carried out by the manufacturer/supplier as

a matter of course.
Customers will also frequently require access to carry out their own audits.
Remember that no job is finished until the paperwork is complete.
Failure of a documentation audit carried out by a client will often result in a

delay in payment, even though the component may have been delivered to
the client. There can often be a consequential financial penalty.
1.4 Quality requirements for welding

Within the international community, welding has been confirmed as a
special process which means that it will require to be controlled by specialist
management and utilise specialist personnel.
The welding co-ordination (ISO 14731) and the welding quality systems
standards (ISO 3834) have been prepared in support of this ruling.
It is perceived that these standards will be references in other application

standards and will be used as set criteria for the qualification of fabricators.
Currently there are a number of European Standards or codes that refer to

ISO 3834
 EN 13445:2002 unfired pressure vessels.

 prEN 15085: Railway applications – Welding of Railway vehicles and
components.
 Pr EN 1090 Execution of steel structures.
 EN 12732: 2000 Gas supply systems – Welding steel pipework –
functional requirements.
 EN 12592: 2001 Water tube boilers and auxiliary installations.
 National Structural Steelwork Specification for Building Construction (5th
Edition), (NSSSBC ).
It is also becoming more common for a requirement that the fabricator has a
quality system compliant with ISO 3834 to be specified as a condition of the
customer contract.
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1.4.1 Qualification of welding fabricators - ISO 3834

This is in five parts.
Part 1 - Guidance for use describes how the standard works.
Part 2 - Quality requirements for welding - Fusion welding of metallic

materials - Comprehensive quality system.
This standard is suitable for use by a manufacturer or an assessment body,
as a supplement to ISO 9001 or 9002 providing detailed guidance on the
requirements needed to be in place to adequately control welding.
Part 3 - Quality requirements for welding, Fusion welding of metallic

materials, Standard quality system.
This standard can be applied where a documented quality system for the
control of welding is required but which will not be used in conjunction with
ISO 9001 or 9002.
Part 4 - Quality requirements for welding - Fusion welding of metallic

materials - Elementary system.
This standard provides criteria appropriate for the control of welding when
neither or the following conditions apply:
 A quality system according to ISO 9000 is not to be applied.

 The combination of selected welding processes, procedures and the final
welds are such that documented welding control have minor importance
in respect to the overall integrity of the product.
Part 5 - Documents with which it is necessary to conform to claim

conformity to the quality requirements of ISO 3834-2, ISO 3834-3 or
ISO 3834-4
This lists all of the other documents or standards that are required for
compliance with ISO 3834 such as sspecification and qualification of
welding procedures and approval testing of welders, etc.
The manufacturer should select one of the three parts from 2-4 specifying
different levels of quality requirements, based on the following criteria
related to products:
 The extent and significance of safety-critical products;

 The complexity of manufacture;
 The range of products manufactured;
 The range of different materials used;
 The extent to which metallurgical problems may occur;
 The extent to which manufacturing imperfections, e.g. misalignment,
distortion or weld imperfection, affect product performance.
This approach offers a cascading qualification, for example, part 2

(comprehensive) also gives compliance for lower levels.
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As previously stated, It is intended that BS EN ISO 3834 complements,

rather than conflicts with, quality systems established to meet the
requirements of ISO 9000 and in the case of a comprehensive quality
system for welding fabrication (part 2), requires additionally to ISO 9000 that
specific procedures are used to control the following:
1 Review of requirements.
2 Technical review.
3 Sub-contracting.
4 Welders and welding operators.
5 Welding co-ordination personnel.
6 Inspection and testing personnel.
7 Production and testing equipment.
8 Equipment maintenance.
9 Description of equipment.
10 Production planning.
11 Welding procedure specifications.
12 Qualification of welding procedures.
13 Batch testing of consumables (if required by contract).
14 Storage and handling of welding consumables.
15 Storage of parent material.
16 Post-weld heat treatment procedure.
17 Inspection and testing before, during and after welding.
18 Non-conformance and corrective actions.
19 Calibration or validation of measuring, inspection and testing equipment.
20 Identification during process (if required by contract).
21 Traceability if required no specific requirement (if required by contract).
22 Quality records (if required by contract).
A company applying for certification to ISO 3834 will usually be required to

follow certain stages such as follows:
 Client returns preliminary enquiry.

 Quotation.
 Detailed forms sent to client.
 Assessment team appointed by auditor.
 Preliminary visit by auditor (not mandatory but usual) to carry out a gap
analysis.
 Document review by auditor to review procedures against ISO 3834.
 On site assessment conducted by auditor to demonstrate that the client
has accrued evidence that procedures are used and that these are
overseen by the welding co-ordination team.
 Assessment recommendations made.
 Certificate issued (5 year validity).
 Surveillance (yearly).
This process, from application to certificate issue, can take months to

complete.
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1.4.2 Welding co-ordination

A key part of ISO 3834 is in the definition of responsibilities of the welding
co-ordination personnel. ISO 14731 defines these personnel and the
technical knowledge that they require. The main role falls to the Responsible
Welding Co-ordinator (RWC).
One or more personnel in a company may perform the welding co-ordination

function but each part of the requirements of ISO 3834 listed above will
require input from the welding co-ordination team.
Table 1 in ISO 14731 gives guidance to those tasks, which may require a
welding co-ordinator input. The technical knowledge required by the co-
ordinator will obviously depend upon the complexity of the product. The
standard defines three levels of knowledge and experience:
1 Comprehensive: Equivalent to the level of an International/European

Welding Engineer.
2 Specific: Equivalent to the level of an International/European Welding
Technologist.
3 Basic: Equivalent to the level of an International/European Welding
Specialist.
It can be seen that the three levels of technical knowledge defined imply a
matching with the three levels of quality requirements required from parts 2
to 4 of ISO 3834.
The IIW route is not mandatory; there are in fact three possible routes to
demonstrate technical knowledge:
 IIW Qualification and experience (via interview).

 Interview to assess knowledge without IIW qualification (professional
review in 3834 Audit).
 Externally sub contract to an external subcontractor with appropriate
knowledge and experience, again an interview is required (it would be
expected that external resource will be familiar with the company
applying for certification and will be contracted to visit regularly).
1.5 Calibration/Validation of Welding Equipment

Faulty equipment does not enhance the quality of work, it should follow that
equipment used in production, or for welder and procedure approval tests,
should be in a sound condition in all respects in order to avoid breakdown
during production or testing.
One important point to note is the accuracy of meters and the repeatability
of the machine's controls in relation to output performance. Welding current
connections and return leads on all arc welding equipment should be
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checked for tightness prior to commencing welding, failure to do so may

lead to voltage losses affecting arcing conditions.
Where semi-automatic gas shielded processes are used, care should be

taken to ensure that the wire feeding systems are also repeatable and
accurate. Additionally it would be expected that flowmeters controlling
shielding and purging gases are calibrated.
This activity is collectively known as validation

A requirement in many industries during the welding operation is the use of
a calibrated meter(s) to check welding current, arc voltages, travel speed
and perhaps, wire feed speed.
In addition, ensuring the welders are using the correct gas, the electrode
wires are of the correct composition and that the preheat temperature and
location have been correctly applied against the welding procedure
requirements.
In the case of Manual Metal Arc (MMA) and Submerged Arc Welding
(SAW), attention should be paid to any special drying requirements for
fluxes or covered electrodes and also the conditions they are kept in prior to
use. A written procedure for storage and handling of consumables is
recommended to be used and records of humidity and temperature may
required to be kept.
This activity is collectively known as in process monitoring.
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1.6 Workshop Exercise
1.6.1 Items to be checked during an audit on welding equipment
From the power supply check:
Mains input - connections

- insulation
- cable rating
Produce your own checklist of the remaining items.
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1.6.2 Welding records (In-process monitoring)

Welding records must include:
 Type of process (es).

 Identification of the materials and welding consumables.
 Identification of joint type(s) and fit-up.
 Welding procedures.
 Welder's identification and approval record.
 Inspection procedure and report identification.
 Defects found.
 Acceptance or rejection and to which acceptance levels.
Corrective action taken.
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FAA1
Questions: Quality Assurance and Quality Control
1 Describe how the functions of QA, QC and inspection would operate in a small
sub-contract fabrication company.
2 How would these differ from the functions in a company, which also designs and
manufactures the product?
3 Describe the contents of a quality plan. Use a simple component/fabrication of

your choice to illustrate your answer.
4 State the two types of audits that can be carried out.
5 List the personnel/departments that influence quality within a company.
6 What would be the function of a Welding Specialist in a fabrication organisation?
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1.7 Questions: validation and in-process monitoring
1 Briefly describe the different between calibration, validation and in-process

monitoring.
2 Which of the following welding equipment can be validated and/or calibrated?
a. MMA transport power source without meters.

b. TIG transformer-rectifier power source with meters.
c. MIG/MAG inverted power source.
d. Submerged-arc welding (mechanised).
e. Resistance spot welder.
3 What are the tolerances specified for voltage and current values?
4 How frequently should validation be carried out?
5 You are required to monitor a critical welding procedure approval which involves
the need for stringent heat input control. Briefly describe the equipment required
to successfully complete this operation and provide a brief checklist on the details
to ensure compliance.
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Quality
What is quality?
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY
CONTROL
TWI Training & Examinations Services

Quality = degree to which a set of inherent
Course in Welding characteristics fulfils explicit and implicit
(EWF/IIW Diploma) requirements
Quality - definitions Quality management activities

Coordinated activities to Part of quality management focused on
Management direct and control an Assurance providing confidence that quality
organisation requirements will be fulfilled
Why do we need QA?

Overall intentions and
direction of an organisation •prevent defective work
Quality Policy related to quality as formally
expressed by top •ensure programme commitments
Quality
management are achieved
•provide feedback to the
management
A system to direct and control
System an organisation with regard to Part of quality management focused on
quality Control fulfilling quality requirements
Quality assurance principle Quality assurance documents

Say what you’ - document stating
you’re going to do (by Specification requirements (related to
writing procedures)
activities or products)
Quality - document specifying the quality
management system of an
manual organisation
Do it - in compliance with
your own procedures Quality
- document specifying which
assurance Quality procedures and resources shall be
documents plan applied by whom and when, to a
Demonstrate that you’
you’ve specific project
done it - specified way to carry out
Procedure an activity
By keeping By doing check Code of - a set of rules for

manufacturing a specific
proper records audits practice product or activity
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Specification vs. procedure Quality in welding fabrication
Specification content: Procedure content: Organisations that are involved in welding must
• Scope • Scope document their activities to show who is involved
• Applicable domain in welding decisions.
• Applicable domain Those activities include but are not limited to:
• Terms and definitions • Related documents • Design
• Responsibilities (standards, normative
• Material selection
• Design requirements reference, procedures,
• Material and/or process etc) • Procedure development and qualification
requirements • Terms and definitions • Storage and issue of consumables
• Inspection requirements • Responsibilities • Weld inspection
(including acceptance
standards!) • Procedure description • PWHT and other special process survey
• Records • Records • Planning for welding
Standards related to quality ISO 9000 features

ISO 9000 Quality • Provides a documented management
system
system for quality assurance
EN 3834
Quality requirements for welding • Identifies welding as a special process (a
process where the conformity of the
resulting product cannot be readily verified)
EN 719/ISO 14731 EN 287 Approval EN ISO 15607
Welding coordination testing of welders Specification and
qualification of welding • Does not specify any welding requirements
procedures
EN 25817 (ISO EN 473 ISO 6520 • Does not guarantee the welded product
5817) Quality Qualification of NDT Classification of quality
levels personal imperfections
Quality requirements for welding EN 729/ISO 3834 requirements

Part 2 Part 3 Part 4
EN 3834-
3834-1 Contract and design review M M NR
Guidelines Sub contractor control M M NR
EN 729-
729-2 EN 729-
729-4 Welder and procedure approval BOTH BOTH WELDER
Comprehensive EN 729-
729-3 Elementary quality Inspection personnel M M M
quality Standard quality requirements Welding co-ordination (EN719) M M NR
requirements requirements Equipment (includes PPE) M R NR
Production planning M M NR
For use when: For use when: For use when:
Consumable control M M M
•You are accredited to •Your materials, •There are only very
Parent metal storage M M NR
ISO 9000 products, processes and simple technical
•Your products, procedures do not options Post weld heat treatment M M NR
materials, processes or change frequently •Welding is an Weld inspection M M NR
procedures change BUT incidental joining Non-conformance & corrective action M M M
frequently •Welding is an important process Calibration M NR NR
AND process and weld quality •Weld quality is not Identification and traceability M M NR
•Welding quality is is important crucial to product Quality records M M NR
critical quality M = mandatory R = recommended NR = not required
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Welding coordinator Competence in welding
All welding related tasks must be allocated to an A welding coordinator MUST demonstrate technical
AUTHORISED WELDING COORDINATOR competence i.e. he MUST be academically
His duties are stated in BS EN 14731 “Welding qualified in welding technology
coordination; task and responsibilities”.
Welding coordinator: Knowledge can be demonstrated at 3 levels:
• must be designated by employer • comprehensive technical knowledge ie EWE
• is appointed by the company to issue/approve the • specific technical knowledge ie EWT
necessary welding documents
• basic technical knowledge ie EWS
• must have demonstrated competence and
knowledge Level depends on complexity of product and is
• must have “special technical knowledge” usually determined by employer
• the extent of knowledge is defined by employer But the client can specify the level in
• job specification only if required by contract contract specification!
Welding coordinator activities Quality plan

• contract review Is a check list that specifies which procedures and
• design review associated resources shall be applied, by whom and when
• parent metal weldability, identification, handling, storage and to a specific project, product, process or contract. It
traceability contains:
• consumables compatibility, identification, storage and handling •a list with the main operations following manufacturing sequence
• subcontractor suitability •stop/hold points with specific requirements (e.g. document check,
check,
NDT witnessed by customer representative, stamp check,
• production planning
independent body supervision, procedures used, acceptance
• choosing the appropriate welding process, equipment standards, etc)
suitability, health and safety issues
•type and number of documents issued (NDT report, WPAR, welder
• approval of welders/welding procedures qualification, dimension check list, etc)
• welding operation supervision •name and signature of welding coordinator in charge with each
• inspection/testing operation (if required)
• issuing documentation •date of completion for each step
Quality plan American standards related to quality

Process Process ISO 9000 Quality
Responsible Approval
description reference system
person /remarks
activity document
ASME I, III and VIII
H W
Quality requirements for welding
R A M
H - Hold point: work shall stop until representative are present to ASME IX Specification
EN 719/ISO 14731 ASME IX Approval
monitor/observe activity and approval of
Welding coordination testing of welders
W - Witness point: notifiable point; should representative fail to attend, welding procedures
work may proceed
R - Document review ASNT TC- TC-1A AWS A3.0

ASME I, VIII
A - Document approval Qualification of NDT Classification of
Quality levels
M - Monitor/periodic control of activity personal imperfections
3
ASME B&PV code Welding map
Product related requirements L1 N2 C3 L3 N3
Welding qualification N1
•Boilers - Section I & welder approval
Section IX C5 N4
•Nuclear - Section III
•Pressure vessels - Section VIII
C2 L4
Material related NDE requirements
requirements (standard method) C6
Section V C1
Section II S1 L2 L5 S2
C4
Information's to be supplied:
•weld type and position •welder’
welder’s stamp number
Ferrous material Non-
Non-ferrous material Filler material
requirements requirements requirements •WPS and PQR number •type of PWHT
Section IIA Section IIB Section IIC •type and extent of NDE
Quality pack Quality pack content

a.k.a. doc pack, history docket Documents supplied before Documents supplied after
manufacture manufacture
Quality pack • certificate of conformance with • material test certificates (list!)
content different codes/standards • welding production tests (if
• design calculations (optional) required)
• manufacturing drawings • PWHT record (if required)
• WPS with supporting WPQR • NDT test reports: dimensional,
(copies) pressure test and coating
• welder qualifications thickness are included
Documents supplied Documents supplied • qualification of NDT personnel • quality plan and weld map
before commencement on completion of • NDT procedures • as-built drawings
of manufacture construction • PWHT oven calibration record • non-conformity reports (SDR)
(optional) • operating/mounting instructions
Auditing Traceability
• Definition: Ability to trace the history, application or
• Definition: systematic, independent and location of that which is under consideration
documented process for obtaining evidence
Traceability
and evaluating it objectively to determine the can relate to:
extent to which criteria are fulfilled
Is quite shallow; examines the system
a system
to confirm that it follows the quality The origin of The The distribution and
manual and procedures are in place materials and processing location of the product
parts history after delivery
Audit Traceability - HOW?
• hard stamping
It goes in-
in-depth; examines the compliance
• painting/etching
WHEN? Immediately after
a compliance with procedures and quality manual • labelling the operation!
4
Conformity Conformity evaluation
Conformity • determination of one or more

Release characteristics according to a
Test
procedure
fulfilment • can be non-destructive or
destructive
Repair Scrap Concession
Requirement
Conformity
evaluation
non- • evaluation by observation and
non-fulfilment
judgement
Inspection • can be accompanied by
Nonconformity Corrective measurement, testing or
Nonconformity action
report gauging
Inspection - terminology
Discontinuity • detectable change in the
material
Detection
Indication • signal from a discontinuity

typical to the testing
Evaluation method used
Acceptance • prescribed limit below which

level a component is accepted
Recordable
indication DEFECT
5
Measuring in welding
The purposes
of measuring
MEASUREMENT, CONTROL AND

Demonstration of Welding
RECORDING IN WELDING conformance to process
specified requirements control
TWI Training & Examination Parameters to be measured:
Services • welding current • preheat/interpass
EWF/IIW Diploma Course • arc voltage temperature
• travel speed • force/pressure
• shielding gas flow rate • humidity
Welding current measurement The tongue tester

•used for AC current
Definition: the current delivered by a
•special types can be used also for DC
welding power source during welding
•no need to insert the meter into the
• measured with an ammeter
circuit
• measured in A
• the ammeter may be connected at any point in the
circuit
• indirect measurement: tachogenerator and
tongue tester
Arc voltage measurement Travel speed measurement

Definition: the rate of weld progression
Definition: the potential difference across • measured in case of mechanised and
the welding arc automatic welding processes
• varies with the arc length
• in case of MMA can be determined using
• measured with a voltmeter
ROL and arc time
• measured in V
• the voltmeter may be connected only across the
circuit (to the workpiece and as close as possible
to the electrode!)
• if the voltmeter is connected at the welding power
source, a higher voltage will be recorded (due to
potential drops across cables)
1
Gas flow rate measurement Welding temperatures-definitions
Definition: the rate at which gas is caused to flow Preheat • is the temperature of the workpiece in the
temperature weld zone immediately before any welding
• set with a gas operation (including tack welding!)
regulator • normally expressed as a minimum
• can be checked
with a flowmeter Interpass • is the temperature in a multirun weld and
temperature adjacent parent metal immediately prior to the
application of the next run
• normally expressed as a maximum
Minimum interpass temperature = Preheat temperature
Preheat • is the minimum temperature in the weld zone

maintenance which shall be maintained if welding is
interrupted
temperature
• shall be monitored during interruption
Welding temperatures-WHERE? Welding temperatures-WHERE?

Point of measurement - see Point of measurement - see
BS EN ISO 13916 BS EN ISO 13916
• if t > 50 mm  A = min. 75 mm
• if t  50 mm  A = 4 x t but • where practicable, the
max. 50 mm temperature shall be
• the temperature shall be measured on the face opposite
measured on the surface of to that being heated
the workpiece facing the • allow 2 min per every 25 mm
welder of parent metal thickness for
temperature equalisation
• interpass temperature shall be
measured on the weld metal or
immediately adjacent parent
metal
Welding temperatures-HOW? Temperature test equipment

Temperature sensitive
Test equipment materials:
•crayons, paints and pills
Thermocouple
•cheap
Temperature •convenient, easy to use
sensitive Thermistor
•doesn’t measure the actual
materials
temperature!
Optical/electrical
devices for
Contact contactless
thermometer measurement
2
Temperature test equipment Temperature test equipment
Contact thermometer
•use bimetallic strips Thermocouple
•accurate
•accurate method
•easy to use
•measures over a wide range of temperatures
•gives the actual temperature •gives the actual temperature
•need calibration •need calibration
•suitable for moderate
temperatures
Temperature test equipment Temperature test equipment

Thermistors Devices for contactless
•are temperature-sensitive measurement
resistors whose resistance •IR radiation and optical
varies inversely with pyrometer
temperature •measure the radiant
energy emitted by the hot
•used when high sensitivity is body
required •contactless method 
•gives the actual temperature can be used for remote
measurements
•need calibration
•very complex
•can be used up to 320°C •for measuring high
temperatures
PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System) PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System)
What does a PAMS measure?
The purposes
of a PAMS Welding Gas flow
current (Hall rate
For measuring For calibrating effect (heating
and recording and validating device) element
the welding the welding sensor)
parameters equipment
Arc voltage Wire feed

(connection Temperature speed
leads) (thermocouple) (tachometer)
3
Calibration, validation and monitoring Calibration and validation
Definitions:
• Measurement = set of operations for determining a value of a When it is required?
quantity
• Repeatability = closeness between successive measuring
• once a year unless otherwise specified
results of the same instrument carried out under the same • whenever there are indications that the
conditions instrument does not register properly
• Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that are • whenever the equipment has been damaged,
intended to keep the errors within specified limits
misused or subject to severe stress
• Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or measuring device
• whenever the equipment has been rebuild or
• Validation = checking the control knobs and switches provide
the same level of accuracy when returned to a pre-determined
repaired
point
See BS EN ISO 17662 for details!
• Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and other items)
are in accordance with the procedure or specification
Calibration and validation Calibration and validation
When it is NOT required? When it is NOT required?

• when verification of the process is not required • in case of mass production when all the following
• in case of small series and single piece production conditions are fulfilled:
when all the following conditions are fulfilled: - production is controlled by pre-production
- procedures are approved by procedure testing testing, followed by testing of samples from
production at regular intervals
- production is carried out by the same welding
- a statistical quality control system is used
machine used during procedure testing
- the process is stable between testing of samples
- pre-production testing and sampling are
performed separately for each production line
(robotic cells)
Welding parameter calibration/validation Example 1 - MMA elementary monitoring
Which parameters need IN THEORY any M.M.A. operation could require

calibration/validation? monitoring of:
• depends on the welding process
• welding current
• see BS EN ISO 17662 and BS 7570 for details
• arc voltage
How accurate? • R.O.L.
• depends on the application
• welding current - ±2,5% • preheat/interpass temperature
• arc voltage - ±5% • electrode treatment and storage
• wire feed speed - ±2,5% IN PRACTICE (depending on the application) only
• gas flow rate - ±20% (±25% for backing gas flow the welding current could require monitoring with
rate) a tongue test ammeter
• temperature (thermocouple) - ±5%
4
Example 2 - High integrity MMA operation Example 3 - MIG/MAG welding with a robot
• IN THEORY, this might require monitoring of all IN THEORY, the following would require monitoring:
the activities previously mentioned.
• the equipment thus required would be: • wire feed speed
• ammeter • amperage
• voltmeter • voltage
• stop watch • a PAMS • travel speed
OR
• tape measure • gas flow rate
• thermometer • repeatability of the controls
• calculator
IN PRACTICE, a data logger would be preferred to
• all of the above equipment would require monitor all the parameters; also a PAMS would be
calibration; any meters fitted to the power source required to check the repeatability of the control
or electrode ovens would also require calibration. knobs.
Summary Typical examination question 1

• “The measurement of welding parameters is common in
• a welding power source can only be calibrated
arc welding practice. Comment on the parameters that
if it has meters fitted can be measured and recorded,including the different
• the inspector should check for calibration types of equipment that maybe used.”
stickers, dates etc.
• a welding power source without meters can This question by definition is related to monitoring
only be validated that the control knobs • Introduction: would include monitoring is dependent on the
integrity of the product.
provide repeatability
• Welding parameters: need to be identified. (with
• the main role is to carryout “in process comments!)
monitoring” to ensure that the welding • Equipment details: can be established from the welding
requirements are met during production parameters identified.
• Conclusion: should incorporate calibration/validation and
the need for checking temperatures (interpass/preheat).
Typical examination question 2
• “Describe how you would ensure that the welding

parameters listed in a WPS are being adhered to during
production welding. Give the advantages and limitations of
the methods used.”
This question is related more to the whole fabrication process:

e.g.
• QA/QC requirements
• Training, experience and qualification of welders and
inspectors
• Inspection procedures (during welding)
• Auditing to ensure that the above is taking place
• Calibration/validation and in process monitoring
5
Section 2
Approval testing, codes of practice
and application standards
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2 Approval Testing
BS EN ISO 15607:2003
General rules.
BS EN ISO 15609-1:2004
Specification and approval of welding procedure specification for arc
welding. This standard lists all the information that is required to be recorded
to describe the welding process. Part 1 deals with arc welding but other
parts exist that deal with laser and electron beam welding for example.
BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004+A1:2008
Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials,
Welding procedure test, Part 1: Arc and gas welding of steels and arc
welding of nickel and nickel alloys. This standard covers the conditions for
the execution of welding procedure tests and the range of qualification for
welding procedures for all practical welding operations within a defined
range of variables.
Although standards tests are defined, it is recognised that other application

standards may also require additional testing. Where the production/joint
geometry requirements do not represent the standardised test pieces as
shown in this standard, the use of EN ISO 15613 shall be required (see
below).
Standard test pieces covered by this standard include:
 Butt joints in plate

 Butt joints in pipe
 T joint
 Branch connection
A test made to meet the requirement of this standard shall be witnessed by

an examiner or an examining body and once qualified does not expire with
time.
Because this standard confers a range of approval based on material

thickness, material type and certain process variables, etc, individual
welding procedure specifications detailing parameters to be used prepared
in accordance with BS EN ISO 15609 can be used to give specific
instruction to welders on the shop floor.
Part 1 specifically refers to steel and nickel alloys as defined by metallic

groupings in PD CEN ISO/TR 15608:2005. This standard also exists in
many other parts that relate to other material groupings such as aluminium
alloys (part 2), cast irons (part 3) copper alloys (part 6), other processes
such as laser welding (part 13) and other situations such as overlay welding
(part 7).
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BS EN ISO 15610:2003: Qualification based on tested consumables

Approval by use of an approved welding consumable has been used for
many years by some branches of industry. Approval of the welding
consumables is carried out according to national schemes pending the
establishment of European certification schemes.
BS EN ISO 15611:2003: Previous experience

Approval by reference to previous welding experience has a number of
applications. Only welding procedures known from experience to be reliable
should be used in such cases.
BS EN ISO 15612:2004: Standard weld procedure

Approval by reference to a standard welding procedure is presently used to
a rather limited extent, but it is covered by a few national rules. This type of
approval is attractive because it has the potential of lowering the costs
related to approval testing for the individual manufacturer.
BS EN ISO 15613:2004: Pre-production weld tests

Approval by pre-production welding test is rarely mentioned in national
standards. It is however, needed for special welding procedures and
perhaps for specific applications, not covered by EN 15614-
1:2004+A1:2008/15614-2:2005
Approval by a pre-production test is the only reliable method of approval for

some welding procedures, of which the resulting properties of the weld
strongly depend on certain conditions such as component, special restraint
conditions, heat sinks etc, which cannot be reproduced by standardised test
pieces.
General details regarding testing etc in this standard are covered specifically
by the requirements of BS EN ISO 15614 where appropriate.
2.1 Welder approvals - BS EN 287

BS EN ISO 287-1:2004
Approval testing of welders, Fusion welding: steels.
This standard gives the requirements for qualification testing of welders for
steels. Like BS EN ISO 15614, in order to avoid all variants of welding
procedures used on the shop floor to be tested, the standard confers a
range of approval based on necessary skills to produce a weld. The range
of approval can be limited by material type, thickness, number of passes,
joint type and welding position, etc. The extent of testing is less than for
procedure qualification as it is assumed that the company will already have
hold a valid procedure qualification test. The other main difference between
procedure and welder qualification is that the qualification will expire with
time. Prolongation can occur in six monthly intervals after which the welder
shall require specific evidence that his work has been tested or shall re-test.
Although not mentioned in the standard, where a large number of are

required to be qualified with differing ranges of approval and differing expiry
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dates, this probably best managed by holding a register of qualified welders

showing ranges of qualification or renewal dates, etc. Nowadays this can
also be managed by proprietary software packages.
The standard also gives guidance on the recommended job knowledge that
a welder should be assessed against in order to carry out his duties. This is
not mandatory at the present time.
It should be noted that the standard only covers manual or partly

mechanised processes. For qualification of automatic welding systems, BS
EN 1418 should be used.
It should also be noted that some standards such as BS EN ISO 15614 -1

do not refer to this standard but to ISO 9606-1. This is the standard that will
replace BS EN 287, but as yet has not been formally issued.
BS EN ISO 9606-2:2004
Approval testing of welders - Fusion welding: aluminium and its alloys.
This standard gives guidance on welder qualification in aluminium alloys
and is part of a family of standards that cover other material groupings such
as copper (part 3) and titanium (part 5)
BS EN 1418:1998
Welding personnel, approval testing of welding operators for fusion welding
and resistance weld setters for fully mechanized and automatic welding of
metallic materials.
It is often assumed that robotic welding is a push button operation and does
not require qualification. This standard requires that the operator carries out
a witnessed test and that their functional knowledge shall be assessed
against requirements contained in an annex. In this case range of approval
is only limited by the welding unit and process. The approval period is
similar to BS EN 287.
Currently under review are:
BS 4872 Part 1: Steels

Approval testing of welders when procedure approval is not required.
BS 4872 Part 2
Approval testing of welders when procedure approval is not required. Part 2:
MIG and TIG welding of aluminium and its alloys.
Note:
BS 4872 may be withdrawn in the future when other EN equivalent
standards are implemented.
2.2 Training
There must be a system for identifying training needs and approval
requirements for all welding operations.
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Documentation must include a record of each welder's training programme

together with details of approvals gained or due for renewal. There should
also be data on a welder's performance so that trends win defect occurrence
can be noted and corrective training provided.
2.3 Definitions
BS EN ISO 15607:2003 gives the definitions of all terms used in the
completion of welding procedures and welder approval. Amongst these are:
Welding procedure
Specified course of action to be followed in making a weld, including the
welding process(es), reference to materials, welding consumables,
preparation, preheating (if necessary), method and control of welding and
postweld heat treatment (if relevant), and necessary equipment to be used.
Welding process
For the welding processes, the nomenclature and definitions given in ISO
857-1 are followed in this standard. The numbering system for welding
processes in EN ISO 4063 is also followed.
Preliminary welding procedure specification (pWPS)

A document containing the required variables of the welding procedure
which has to be qualified has to be qualified sing one of the methods
described.
Welding procedure specification (WPS)

A document that has been qualified by one of the methods described in
clause 6 and provides the required variables of the welding procedure to
ensure repeatability during production welding.
Work instruction
Simplified specification of the welding procedure, suitable for direct
application in the workshop.
Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR)

Record comprising all necessary data needed for qualification of a
preliminary welding procedure specification.
Welding procedure test

Making and testing of a standardized test piece, as indicated in the pWPS,
in order to qualify a welding procedure.
Pre-production welding test

Welding test having the same function as a welding procedure test, but
based on a non-standard test piece, representative of the production
conditions.
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Standard welding procedure specification

Welding procedure specification which has been qualified by a welding
procedure test not related to the manufacturer and qualified by an examiner
or examining body
Note: A standard welding procedure may then be made available to any

manufacturer.
Previous welding experience

When it can be shown by authenticated test data that the manufacturer's
established production welding procedures have been capable of
consistently producing welds of acceptable quality over a period of time.
Tested welding consumable

Welding consumable or consumable combination tested according to
appropriate standards for testing of welding consumables.
Welding consumable
Materials consumed in the making of a weld, including filler metals and
auxiliary materials.
Essential variable
Welding condition that requires qualification.
Non essential variable

Welding condition addressed in the WPS but not requiring qualification.
Range of qualification
Extent of qualification for an essential welding variable.
Homogeneous joint
Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have no significant
differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition.
Note: A welded joint made of similar parent materials without filler metal is
considered homogeneous.
Heterogeneous joint
Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have significant
differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition.
Dissimilar material joint

Welded joint in which the parent materials have significant differences in
mechanical properties and/or chemical composition.
Welding co-ordination personnel

Personnel who have responsibilities in the manufacturing operation for
welding and welding related activities whose competence and knowledge
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has been demonstrated by eg training, education and/or relevant

manufacturing experience.
2.4 Codes of Practice and Application Standards

A welding approval test standard contains the minimum qualification
requirements. For any particular product or application a code of practice or
application standard may impose additional requirements or limitations, eg
an all weld tensile test(s) is additionally required in PD 5500 which is not
specified by BS EN 15607-15614 (formerly 288).
The standards do not necessarily constitute good engineering practice and

when using the approval standards this must be borne in mind.
2.5 Other welding approval standards:

ASME IX
An American standard welding used throughout the world, particularly in the
petrochemical industries for pressure vessel, piping and storage tanks but
also nuclear applications.
AWS D1.1
Another American Standard specifically aimed at structural applications in
carbon manganese and high strength steels. This standard allows the use of
pre-qualified welding procedures, which is not common in the UK.
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2.6 Questions on approval testing and quality control
1 Sketch the following:
Butt weld in the PA position

Butt weld in the PF position
Fillet weld in the PC position
2 Name the abbreviations for:
Overhead butt weld in plate

Overhead fillet weld in plate
3 Which weld position(s) would be required to give all-position approval in pipe?
4 To ensure that approval documentation meets the requirements of a standard,

there are a number of areas which must be assessed.
Provide a checklist of the key areas that require such an assessment.
5 A welded test piece has been visually inspected and defects outside of the
acceptance levels have been reported. What would be the most likely course of
action you would take?
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2.7 Practical on Procedure and Welder Qualification Testing

Case study 1
It is a requirement to approve both procedures and welders for the following:
Production requirements
Materials Low carbon and 316 stainless steel (not dissimilar

joints)
Thickness range: 5-30mm
Joint types Butt weld with/without backing plate
Welding positions All positions except vertical down
Process 111
Consumables Basic electrodes
Decide on appropriate tests to fulfil the above requirement:
a To BS EN 15607-15614 and 287

b What are the implications with reference to range of approval?
Case study 2: practical exercise

Write up the pWPS, WPS, WPAR and WQR documentation requirements
for the previous test piece which has been identified from Case Study 1.
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2.8 Questions on welding procedure and welder approvals
1 Describe what is meant by a welding procedure specification. How does this

differ from, but relate to, a welding procedure approval record?
2 A number of components are to be cut from a plate over a period of time for
approval testing. How would you ensure that traceability of the materials is
maintained?
3 A pipe welded welder approval test piece has been found to be non-identifiable.
What steps must be taken before the weld may be allowed into production
welding?
4 List all the essential variables that would be found on a WPS.
5 Give typical examples of the range of approval for the essential variables
specified in 4 using the abbreviations specified in BS EN 15607-15614 and 287.
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2.9 Practical exercise on codes of practice and application

standards
By now you should have a fair understanding of the requirements for

procedure/welding approval. So see how well you can complete the following
exercises:
Exercise:
A welder successfully completed the following test weld to BS EN 287 Part 1. Fill in
the welder approval certificate (including the appropriate test results).
Manufacturer’s name: JBEL
Welder's name and identification: Joe Bloggs No. 007
Material specification: Low carbon steel
Material form: Pipe
Material dimension: 80mm diameter, 8mm wall thickness
Joint type: Single vee but welded from one side
Welding process: Manual metal arc welding
Consumables: 3.2mm diameter. Basic coated electrodes

to BS EN 499 - E5152NiB
Welding parameters: 100-200 amps. 22-24 arc volts.
Test position: HLO45
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FAA1
Questions: BS EN 287
By using EN 287 Part 1 complete the following:
1 If a client requires 'all position' approval in pipe, what test position is necessary?
2 With reference to range of approval, what does 'thickness' refer to on:
a) A butt joint b) A fillet weld
3 If a butt welded test piece is completed in 6.0mm, what is the approval range?
4 If a welder completes a test in pipe is he covered to weld plate?
5 List the mechanical tests required for a butt weld in pipe.
6 Give three (3) reasons for re-approval of a welder.
7 What are the requirements for retesting of welders?
8 What is the extent of approval, with reference to joint types, if the test piece is a
single vee butt welded from one side?
9 In MMA welding what other types of electrodes are approved if a basic is used on
the test?
10 What is the period of validity of initial welder approval tests?
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WELDING PROCEDURES
What is a “Procedure”
Procedure”?
• A specified way to carry out an activity or a
WELDING PROCEDURE process (see BS EN ISO 9000)
QUALIFICATION
What is a “Welding procedure”

procedure” ?
TWI Training & Examinations Services
• Specified course of action to be followed in making a weld,
Course in Welding including the welding process(es), reference to materials, welding
consumables, preparation, preheating, method and control of
(EWF/IIW Diploma) welding and PWHT and necessary equipment to be used (see BS
EN ISO 15607)
Procedure qualification-YES
qualification-YES or NO
qualification- What is a welding procedure
Do all welding procedures need to be written? A Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) is a
Most production welding procedure are formatted on written document that has been qualified and provides
documents or computer spreadsheets, but they need not to be the required variables of the welding procedure to
written and may be a product of experience
ensure repeatability during production welding
Do all welding procedures need to be qualified? (recommended form - see ASME Code, Section
•Most procedures are qualified, but not all?
IX, QW-
QW-482 and BS EN ISO 15609)
•A qualified welding procedure is one that has been tested to ensure
ensure
that the procedure is carried out to produce a weld that satisfies
satisfies a To evaluate a Provisional Welding Procedure
minimum level of quality for the mechanical, physical or chemical
chemical Specification (pWPS) we need to check if all the
properties desired.
parameters set will work together to produce the
•If these are not required, then “procedure qualification is
unnecessary”
unnecessary”
desired results
WPS Purpose of a WPS

It is the main document used in welding • to give information to the welder, inspector
activities
It contains information about: • to achieve specific properties: mechanical
strength, corrosion resistance, etc
•welding process • to ensure freedom from defects
•parent/filler material(s)
•joint preparation
• to enforce quality assurance procedures
•welding position • to standardize on methods and costs
•preheat/interpass temperature • to control production schedules
•PWHT
•welding parameters
• to form a record
•supplementary informations • to ease the application of a standard or contract
requirement  give confidence to a product
1
Types of WPS Welding procedure qualification terms
BS EN ISO 15609 Definitions (see BS EN ISO 15607):
•Essential variable - welding condition that requires qualification

•Supplementary essential variable - variable which influences the toughness
of the weld joint (only in ASME Code, Section IX - see QW-401.3!)
•Non essential variable - welding condition addressed in the WPS but NOT
requiring qualification
Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Part 5
•Range of qualification - extent of qualification for an essential variable
Arc Gas Electron LASER Resistance
•Examining body - organisation who verifies compliance with the applicable
welding welding beam beam welding standard
welding welding
Range of qualification Range of qualification

Examples of “Range of qualification”
qualification” include:
• Is the extent of qualification for an a) Material thickness and pipe diameter (depending on the
essential welding variable type of joint!)
• Also known as extent of approval, range b) Welding process
of approval or scope of approval c) Welding position, amperage range, current type or number
• Provides a working range for each welding of runs
procedure approval or welder approval d) Parent material groups
e) Filler material type and size
f) Preheat/interpass temperature
g) PWHT type and parameters
Outside the range of qualification re-
re-
qualification is MANDATORY! h) Heat input range (kJ/mm)
Welding process designation Parent material grouping system

Designation acc. EN ISO 4063:
ISO 15608
• 111 - MMA
• 114 - FCAW - no gas shield
• 121 - SAW single wire
• 122 - SAW - strip
• 131 - MIG Cu and Cast
• 135 - MAG Cu
Steels Ti and irons
• 136 - FCAW - active gas alloys
• 137 - FCAW - inert gas Ti
• 141 - TIG Ni and alloys
• 15 - Plasma arc
Al and Zr and
Al Ni Zr
• 311 - Oxy-acetylene welding
alloys alloys alloys
2
Grouping system for steels Welding position designation
• Group 1 – C-Mn steels Butt welds in plate (see ISO 6947)
• Group 2 – Fine grain/TMCP steels
• Group 3 – QT steels (except stainless)
• Group 4 – Low Vanadium Cr-Mo steels
Flat - PA Overhead - PE
• Group 5 – Vanadium free Cr-Mo steels
• Group 6 – High Vanadium Cr-Mo steels
Vertical
• Group 7 – Ferritic, martensitic and stainless steels up - PF
• Group 8 – Austenitic stainless steels
• Group 9 – Ni alloy steels
• Group 10 – Duplex stainless steels
Vertical Horizontal - PC
• Group 11 – HSLA steels down - PG
Welding position designation Welding position designation

Butt welds in pipe (see ISO 6947) Fillet welds on plate (see ISO 6947)
Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

Flat - PA axis: horizontal axis: horizontal pipe:
axis: horizontal pipe: fixed fixed
pipe: rotated Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD
H-L045 J-L045 Horizontal - PC

axis: inclined at 45° axis: inclined at 45° axis: vertical pipe:
pipe: fixed pipe: fixed fixed Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG
Welding position designation Welding position ranges-ISO 6947

Fillet welds on pipe (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA axis: Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD

inclined at 45° pipe: axis: vertical pipe: axis: vertical
rotated fixed pipe: fixed
Horizontal - PB Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

axis: horizontal axis: horizontal axis: horizontal
pipe: rotated pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
3
WPQR
WPQR WPQR form (see also ASME IX, QW-483)
It is the document that supports WPS
It contain all the information needed to qualify a pWPS:
•welding process
•parent and filler material(s)
•welder identification
•joint preparation for test piece
•welding position
•preheat/interpass temperature
•PWHT
•welding parameters
•NDE and mechanical tests results
•range of approval
Welding procedure qualification Methods of qualification

Standards used for procedure qualification: BS EN ISO 15610
Tested welding consumable
BS EN ISO 15611
•BS EN ISO 15607 - Specification and qualification of
welding procedures for metallic materials - General rules Previous welding experience
BS EN ISO BS EN ISO 15612
•A.S.M.E. Boiler and pressure vessel code Section IX - 15607 Standard welding procedure
Qualification standard for welding and brazing procedures,
welders, brazers and welding and brazing operators BS EN ISO 15613
Pre-production welding test
BS EN ISO 15614
Welding procedure test
BS EN ISO 15614 content BS EN ISO 15614 content

BS EN ISO 15614 “Specification and qualification of BS EN ISO 15614 “Specification and qualification of
welding procedures for metallic materials – welding procedures for metallic materials – Welding
Welding procedure test”; material related parts: procedure test”; application related parts:
•Part 1: Arc and gas welding of steels/arc welding of Ni and •Part 7: Overlay welding
Ni alloys •Part 8: Welding of tubes to tube-plate joints
•Part 2: Arc welding of Al and Al alloys •Part 9: Underwater hyperbaric wet welding
•Part 10: Hyperbaric dry welding
•Part 3: Arc welding of cast irons
•Part 11: Electron and LASER beam welding
•Part 4: Finishing welding of Al castings •Part 12: Spot, seam and projection welding
•Part 5: Arc welding of Ti, Zr and their alloys •Part 13: Resistance butt and flash welding
•Part 6: Welding of Cu and Cu alloys BS EN 288 Part 9 Pipeline welding (on land & offshore)
4
BS EN ISO 15614-1 provisions BS EN ISO 15614-1 provisions
Type of test pieces
Required tests (butt joint)
Butt joint NDT Destructive tests

Butt joint
in pipe
in plate •visual (EN 970) •transverse tensile (EN 895) - 2
•radiographic (EN 1435) or specimens
ultrasonic (EN 1714 - not to be used •transverse bend (EN 910) - 4
for t < 8mm!) specimens
•dye penetrant (EN 571-
571-1) or •impact (EN 875) - 2 sets
magnetic particle (EN 1290) •macroscopic (EN 1321) - 1
specimen
T joint (fillet or bevel) Branch connection
•hardness (EN 1043-
1043-1)
Required tests (fillet joint) Acceptance standards
NDT Destructive tests NDT + Macro Destructive tests

•visual (EN 970) •macroscopic (EN 1321) - 2 •tensile test  min. UTS of parent
•BS EN 25817 level B metal
•dye penetrant (EN 571-1) or specimens
•BS EN 25817 level C for excess •bend test  no flaw > 3 mm in any
magnetic particle (EN 1290) •hardness (EN 1043-1)
weld metal, excess convexity, direction
•radiographic (EN 1435) or •if mechanical properties are excess throat thickness and
ultrasonic (EN 1714) for full relevant to the application, an •impact test  avg. value per set =
excessive penetration min. for parent metal at test
penetration T and branch welds additional butt weld qualification is
only! required! temperature
•hardness test - see Table 2 (non HT
vs. PWHT!)

Re-test
Range of qualification for manufacturer:
•validity restricted to workshops and sites “under the
Failed NDT Failed tests same technical and quality control”
•“same technical and quality control” = manufacturer
Test 2 new specimens who perform the procedure test retains complete
Weld one new
for any failed test responsibility for welding
test piece
specimen
Range of qualification for parent material:
Failed NDT on Failed new tests
new test piece •material grouping according ISO 15608
•range of qualification - see Tables 3 and 4
REJECT
5
Thickness definitions: Range of qualification for thickness - butt
•butt – parent metal thickness welds (for fillet welds see Table 6):
•fillet - THICKER material at joint Range of qualification (mm)
Thickness of the test
•T-butt - PREPARED plate thickness
piece “t” (mm) Single run Multi run
•set-on branch - BRANCH pipe thickness
•set-in/through branch - MAIN pipe thickness t3 0,7t-
0,7t-1,3t 0,7t-
0,7t-2t
3  t  12 0,5t-
0,5t-1,3t(min.3 mm)* 3 mm-
mm-2t*
Branch Main 12  t  100 0,5t-
0,5t-1,1t 0,5t-
0,5t-2t
pipe t  100 N/A 50 mm-
mm-2t
*If impact requirements are specified:
•no impact test performed  upper limit of qualification is 12 mm
•impact test performed  upper limit of qualification is 1,3t or 2t
respectively

Diameter definitions: Range of qualification for welding process:
•butt – outside diameter of the pipe
•approval valid only for process used
•branch - outside diameter of the BRANCH pipe
•multi-process procedures - ” valid for order used…during
Range of qualification for outside pipe diameter approval test”
Outside diameter of the Range of qualification •multi-processes procedures “processes may be qualified
test piece “D” (mm) (mm) separately or in combination….”
D  25 0,5D-
0,5D-2D •each degree of mechanization (manual, mechanized or
automatic) need to be qualified separately
D  25  0,5D (min. 25 mm)
•for 121 (automatic, mechanized, etc) each variant need
•qualification on plates covers fixed pipes with OD > 500 mm separate qualification
•qualification on plates covers rotated pipes in PA or PC •for 135 qualification using dip transfer qualifies only dip
position with OD > 150 mm transfer
Range of qualification for welding Range of qualification for type of

positions: joint/weld:
•welding in any position qualifies for all positions except PG and •butt welds qualify full/partial penetration butt welds and fillet
J-L045 which requires a separate test. welds
•butt welds on pipe qualify also branch connections with angle
•in case of impact/hardness requirements, impact tests shall be over 60°
taken from highest heat input position (i.e. PF) and hardness •T joints only qualify T joints and fillet
tests from the lowest heat input position (i.e. PC or PE) in order •fillet welds qualify only fillet welds (recommended if they are
to qualify all positions the predominant form of production welding!)
•cannot change multi-run to single run or vice versa
6
Range of qualification for type of Range of qualification for filler material:

weld/joint: •the filler used during qualification covers other fillers with
•single side welds made without backing qualify double side equivalent mechanical properties, same type of
welds and single side welds using backing covering/flux, same composition and same or lower
•single side welds made using backing qualify double side hydrogen content
welds •if impact test is required, for processes 111, 114, 121, 136
•for 141 process, welds without backing gas qualify welds and 137, qualification is valid ONLY to the specific make
with backing gas used during the test
•double side welds made without gouging qualify for double •other makes can be used ONLY after supplementary
side welds made with gouging impact test on weld metal
•changes in size of the filler are allowed if heat input
conditions are satisfied
Range of qualification for filler material: Other ranges of qualification:

•for 141 and 311 processes, welding with filler doesn’t •qualification is valid only for the type/ polarity of
qualify autogenuos welds and vice versa current used in the test
•for 111 process, if impact test is NOT required, AC
•qualification given to the shielding gas is restricted to also qualifies for DC
the to the symbol of the gas (see BS EN 439) •if impact test is required, the upper heat input qualified
is 25% greater than that used during the welding of
test piece
•if hardness test is required, the lower heat input
qualified is 25% lower than that used during the
welding of test piece
BS EN ISO 15614-1 provisions Other qualification methods

Other ranges of qualification: BS EN ISO 15610 - Tested welding consumable
•qualification is valid for preheat temperatures equal or greater to
the value used during the test FOR USE where:
•qualification is valid for interpass temperatures equal or lower to •to welding procedures using consumables
the value used during the test •to materials which do not deteriorate significantly in the HAZ
•welds with PWHT does not qualify as welded joints and vice versa •testing of the consumables shall cover the parent metal used in
•the range for PWHT holding temperatures is the value used during the production
the test ± 20°C
•post heating for hydrogen release shall not be omitted but may be •hardness/impacts required
added NOT FOR USE where: •preheat/PWHT required
•lower limit for temperature/duration of post heating for hydrogen •heat input/interpass control required
release is the value used during test
7
Other qualification methods Other qualification methods
BS EN ISO 15611 Previous welding experience BS EN ISO 15612 Standard welding procedure
For procedures “known from experience to be Approval of procedures by “an examiner or

reliable”
reliable” examining body”
body”
Requires:
Requires:
Experience: •agreement of contracting parties
•documented NDE or other tests
•user to comply with EN 729 and EN 719
AND
•satisfactory manufacture - 1 year •testing in accordance with the relevant part of BS EN
ISO 15614
OR
•satisfactory service - 5 years •ranges of approval in accordance with the relevant part
of BS EN ISO 15614
Other qualification methods Stages of qualification

BS EN ISO 15613 Pre-production test
• approval on test pieces which simulate production

pieces
• limited to precise joint details that cannot be simulated
by standard test pieces
Requires:
•agreement of contracting parties
•test piece simulating production - heat sink, restraint, access
•testing and range of approval acc. to the relevant part of BS EN
ISO 15614 + specific standards
Class exercise
Decide on the minimum number of tests required to
qualify the procedures in accordance with BS EN ISO
15614-1
• Material - Low carbon steel; impact and hardness not

required
• Thickness range – 5-30mm
• Joint types - Butt welds with and without backing, fillet
welds, all on plate
• Welding positions - all except vertical down
• Welding process - 111
• Consumables - E 38 3 B to BS EN 499
8
Welder qualification – WHY?
Once the procedure has been qualified it is then
important to test each welder, to ensure that he has the
skill to reach the minimum level of quality in the weld, as
laid down in the application standard
WELDER QUALIFICATION
Purpose of welder qualification:
TWI Training & Examinations Services • to fulfil customer’s requirements

Course in Welding • to prove that the required skill level for the job
(EWF/IIW Diploma) is met
• to maintain a specific level of quality
Welder qualification - HOW? Welder qualification

BS EN 287 Qualification test of welders - Fusion
Standards for welder qualification:
welding - Part 1: Steels
• BS EN 287-1 for welder qualification on steel Covers:
• BS EN 9606 for other materials
•essential variables and range of qualification
• ASME Code Section IX
• API 1104 •test piece form and size
• AWS D1.1 •welding conditions
•NDE/mechanical testing
•acceptance requirements
•period of validity and prolongation of qualification
•retest requirements in case of fail
BS EN 287-1 definitions BS EN 287-1 abbreviations
Multi run weld Capping runs = runs visible Welding process reference numbers (see BS EN ISO 4063)
on the weld face after • 111 - MMA
case completion of welding
• 114 - FCAW - S (self shielded)
• 121 - SAW
• 125 - SAW with cored wire
Filling runs
• 131 - MIG
• 135 - MAG
• 136 - FCAW - G (active gas shielded)
• 141 - TIG
Weld metal Root run = the first layer • 15 - PAW
thickness deposited in the root
• 311 - OAW
1
BS EN 287-1 abbreviations BS EN 287-1 abbreviations
Regarding the test piece: Regarding consumables:
• nm - no filler metal
• BW - butt weld
• A - acid covering
• FW - fillet weld • B - basic covering
• P - plate • C - cellulosic covering
• T - pipe (also tube or hollow section) • R - rutile covering
• t - test piece material thickness • RA - rutile-acid covering
• D - outside pipe diameter • RB - rutile-basic covering
• s - weld metal thickness • RC - rutile-cellulosic covering
• a - throat thickness • RR - rutile thick covering
• z - leg length • M - metal cored wire
• S - solid wire/rod
BS EN 287-1 abbreviations BS EN 287-1 provisions

Regarding weld details:
Essential variables:
• welding process(es)
• bs - both sides welding
• product type: plate or pipe
• ss - single side welding
• type of weld: butt or fillet
• sl - single layer
• material group
• ml - multi layer • type of consumable
• mb - welding with backing • thickness and diameter of test piece
• nb - welding without backing • welding position
• lw - leftward welding • weld details (backing, single vs. both side
• rw - rightward welding welding, single vs. multi layer)
BS EN 287-1 provisions BS EN 287-1 provisions

Qualification for multiple welding process(es)
Range of qualification for welding
process(es) Separate process joints
Multi process joint
• a change in the welding process requires a new
Welding
qualification process 2 (mb) Welding process 2 (nb)
• EXCEPTION: change from solid wire (process OR
135) to metal core wire (process 136) or vice
versa
• qualification for 2 processes can be achieved Welding process 2 (mb)
welding 2 separate test pieces or welding a single PLUS
test piece (multi process joint) Welding
process 1 (nb)
Welding process 1 (nb)
2
Range of qualification for product type Range of qualification for type of weld
• welds in pipes with D > 25 mm cover also welds in • butt welds doesn't qualify branch connections
plates • generally, butt welds qualify fillet welds
• if majority of work is fillet welding, perform a fillet
• welds in plates cover welds in pipes: welding test
- of D  150 mm only for positions PA, PB and PC • butt welds in pipes without backing qualify branch
- of D  500 mm for all welding positions connections with an angle  60°
• for branch welds, the range of qualification is based
on the OD of the branch
Range of qualification for parent metal(s) Range of qualification for filler material(s)
• see BS EN 287-1, Table 2 for range of qualification
• welding of any one metal in a material group qualifies • qualification with filler metal qualifies for
for all other metals within the same group autogenuos welds but not vice versa
• dissimilar joints welded with an austenitic filler • qualification with solid wire covers also metal
material cover all combinations between an cored wire and vice versa
austenitic stainless steel and other material groups
• qualification with basic cored wire covers rutile
• a qualification test made on a wrought material cored wires but not vice versa
qualifies a cast material and a wrought/cast
combination

Range of qualification for material dimensions - Range of qualification for material thickness
thickness and diameter interpretation in case of • Butt welds
branch welds
Thickness of the test Range of qualification
piece “t” (mm) (mm)
Branch Main t3 t-2t (t-
(t-1,5t for 311 process)
pipe 3  t  12 3-2t (3-
(3-1,5t for 311 process)
t  12 5
• Fillet welds
Thickness of the test Range of qualification
• set on branch: thickness = thickness of the branch; pipe diameter = piece “t” (mm) (mm)
outside pipe diameter of the branch
t3 t÷3
• set in branch: thickness = thickness of the main pipe; pipe diameter
= outside pipe diameter of the branch t3 3
3
Range of qualification for outside pipe Range of qualification for different material
diameter thicknesses and outside pipe diameters
Gives the thickest
Gives the thinnest
material thickness
material thickness
Outside diameter of the test Range of qualification qualified
qualified
piece “D” (mm) (mm)
D  25 D÷2D
D  25  0,5D (min. 25 mm)
Gives the smallest Gives the largest

outside pipe outside pipe
diameter qualified diameter qualified

Butt welds in plate Butt welds in pipe
Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

Flat - PA Overhead - PE Flat - PA axis: horizontal axis: horizontal pipe:
axis: horizontal pipe: fixed fixed
pipe: rotated
Vertical
up - PF
H-L045 J-L045 Horizontal - PC

Vertical Horizontal - PC
down - PG axis: inclined at 45° axis: inclined at 45° axis: vertical pipe:
pipe: fixed pipe: fixed fixed

Fillet welds on plate Fillet welds on pipe
Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead -

axis: inclined at axis: vertical PD axis:
Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD 45° pipe: rotated pipe: fixed vertical pipe:
fixed
Horizontal - PB Vertical up - PF Vertical down -

axis: horizontal axis: horizontal PG axis: horizontal
Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG pipe: rotated pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
4
Range of qualification for welding position(s) Range of qualification for weld details
• see BS EN 287-1, Table 7 for range of qualification • for 311 process, a change from leftward to rightward
• welding positions J-L045 and H-L045 qualify for all welding requires a new qualification
pipe angles • multi layer fillet welds qualify for single layer fillet welds
• one pipe test piece welded in PF position + one pipe but not vice versa (if throat thickness is in the range 0,5
test piece welded in PC position = one pipe test piece t  a  0,7 t!)
welded in H-L045 position Range of qualification
• one pipe test piece welded in PG position + one pipe Details of the test ss nb ss mb bs
test piece welded in PC position = one pipe test piece single side weld/weld
welded in J-L045 position X X X
without backing (ss nb)
• pipes with OD  150 mm can be welded in 2 positions single side weld/weld with
- X X
using only one test piece (e.g. PF on 2/3 of backing (ss mb)
circumference + PC on 1/3 of circumference) both side weld (bs) - X X
EN 287-1 test piece types BS EN 287-1 tests

Required tests
t D t
0 0
3
125 125
125 125 Butt weld Fillet weld
Butt weld in plate Butt weld in pipe • visual (EN 970) • visual (EN 970)
t
D • radiographic (EN 1435) • fracture test (EN 1320)
12
• for processes 131, 135, 136 or 2 macroscopic

5
t 50
(metal core wires) and 311, examination (EN 1321)
12
5
t 2 additional bend (EN 910)

t
or fracture tests (EN 1321)
0 5
1
125 are required!

If any test fails, the welder shall have the
5
0
Fillet weld on plate Fillet weld on pipe opportunity to repeat the qualification test!
BS EN 287-1 tests BS EN 287-1 provisions
Acceptance Period of validity

requirements for
imperfections
Initial qualification Prolongation

BS EN 25817 BS EN 25817
level C • begins from the date of • every 2 years
level B
welding the test piece • see paragraph 9.3
• excess weld metal • all other • validity is 2 years for conditions for
• excessive convexity imperfections prolongation
• working status shall be
• excessive throat thickness confirmed every 6
• excessive penetration month by the welding
coordinator
5
Welder qualification certificate Welder qualification form
See recommended form in BS EN 287-
287-1 and
ASME Code Section IX QW-
QW-484
It contains informations about:
•welder identification data
•welding process
•parent and filler material(s)
•welding type and position
•PWHT (required only if bend tests are required!)
•other welding conditions (backing, technique, etc)
•range of qualification
•NDE and mechanical tests results
•validity and prolongation
BS EN 287-1 welder qualification designation

BS EN 287-1 welder qualification designation
- examples
Product type: Parent Weld • EN 287-1 136 P BW 1.3 B t15 PE ss nb

Test piece
plate (P) or metal dimensions details • EN 287-1 141 T BW 8 S t3.6 D60 PF ss nb
pipe (T) group
• EN 287-1 111 P BW 2 B t13 PA ss nb
EN 287-1 135 P FW 1.2 S t10 PB ml • EN 287-1 111 P FW 2 B t13 PB ml

• EN 287-1 141/135 T BW 1.2 S t20(5/15) D200 PA
ss nb
• EN 287-1 141 T BW 10 S t8 D100 H-L045 ss nb EN
287-1 141 T BW 10 S t1.2 D16 H-L045 ss nb
Type of weld:
Welding Type of Welding • EN 287-1 141 T BW 5 S t5 D60 PF ss nb EN
process(es) butt (BW) or
process(es) consumable position
287-1 141 T BW 5 S t5 D60 PC ss nb
fillet (FW)
Welder qualification steps Welder qualification steps

When supervising a welder test the
When supervising a welder test the welding
welding supervisor should:
supervisor should:
5) Check welding consumables specification, diameter
1) Check the welding process, condition of equipment and treatment with WPS.
and test area for suitability.
6) Check the welder’s name and stamp details are
2) Check that extraction systems, goggles and all safety correct.
equipment are available.
7) Check that the joint has been correctly prepared and
3) Check grinders, chipping hammers, wire brush and all tacked, or jigged.
hand tools are available.
8) Check that the joint and seam is in the correct
4) Check materials to be welded are correct and position for the test.
stamped correctly for the test.
9) Explain the nature of the test and check that the
welder understands the WPS.
6
Welder qualification steps Welding operator qualification
When supervising a welder test the welding EN 1418
supervisor should: Approval testing of personnel for fully mechanised and
10) Check that the welder carries out the root run, fill and automatic welding of metallic materials
cap as per the WPS.
11) Ensure welders identity and stop start location are Methods - as part of BS EN ISO 15613 qualification:
clearly marked (including 12 o’clock position for fixed pipe
welds); also the test piece is marked with the examiner’s •by pre-production testing
identification. •by sampling production
12) Prior any testing check that all slag and spatters are •by “function” test
removed.
13) Supervise or carry out the required tests and submit An operator MUST demonstrate
results to Q/C department. “functional knowledge”
knowledge”
Welding operator approval Welding operator approval
EN 1418 scope of approval EN 1418

“Function” Test - written or oral test
•Automatic welding: all operations automatic, no manual
adjustment Comprises:
•Fully Mechanised: all main operations automatic,
•relationship between parameters and results
manual adjustment of welding variables
•demonstration of parameter control
•Robotic welding: automatic welding using pre- •testing of equipment
programmed manipulator •reporting of malfunctions
Welding operator approval Welder qualification for specific materials
EN 1418 Annex B Functional knowledge test

BS EN ISO 9606
(MANDATORY!)
Approval testing of welders-Fusion welding
Testing on:
•application of WPS
•defect identification and remedies
Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Part 5
•parameter adjustment and their effects
Al and Al Cu and Cu Ni and Ni Ti and Ti alloys, Zr
•health/safety/emergency procedures
alloys alloys alloys and Zr alloys
THIS TEST MUST BE DOCUMENTED!

Same principles as EN 287-
287-1!
7
Stages of qualification
8
Rev 3 August 2010
Development of Residual Stress and Distortion
Section 3
Residual Stress and Distortion
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3 Development of Residual Stress and Distortion

Heating and cooling of engineering materials produce expansion and
contraction of the material depending upon the temperature rise and the co-
efficient of thermal expansion of the material.
If the heating/cooling is uniform and the material is not constrained, no

distortion or residual stress is produced.
If there is any constraint or non-uniform heating then distortion and residual

stresses will occur.
Sometimes this effect can be used to advantage such as in flame

straightening operations. The effect of heating and cooling in unrestrained
conditions is illustrated on the next page.
If we consider a simple butt weld the molten metal is deposited in the joint
and plate edge on either side of the joint are heated to high temperature.
Further away from the joint the plate remains cool. The result is the heated
zone tries to expand along the joint but is restrained by the remainder of the
plate. As such the area around the joint expands but also plastically deforms
due to its reduced yield strength at higher temperature. The expansion
tends to bow the plate during welding. On cooling the area that has
plastically deformed would contract to a reduced length if it was
unrestrained, this cannot happen as the welded zone remains in tension and
acts to pull the surrounding material causing high residual stresses or if the
component welded is not sufficiently stiff, it pulls out of shape or distorts.
The distributions of the residual stresses are illustrated on the next page.
Note that the longitudinal tensile stress extends beyond the weld and HAZ
into the parent plate. The higher the heat input the wider the tensile zone.
The longer the weld the higher the tensile stress until the yield stress is
reached.
It should be noted that these residual stresses are situated around the weld
but additional stresses due to general shrinkage and restraint will be present
in many structures. The magnitude of this additional stress may be
controlled by attention to the method of jigging, tacking and welding
sequence, etc.
3-1
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3-2
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3.1 Factors affecting residual stresses and distortion
3.1.1 Material properties
Coefficient of expansion
The greater the value the greater the local expansion due to welding and the
resultant residual stress.
Yield strength
Where yielding has occurred then the residual stresses are determined by
the yield stress of the material.
Modulus of elasticity
The greater the E the higher level of stresses but also as the stiffness
increases the tendency to buckle is reduced.
Transformation temperature
If the material undergoes phase changes internal expansion and contraction
of the material structures takes place. The lower the transformation
temperature, the lower the residual stresses.
Thermal conductivity
The higher the thermal conductivity, more heat is conducted away from the
weld zone and the lower the residual stresses.
3.1.2 Design
These are covered in the Design and Construction module(s).
3.1.3 Procedural
Thickness
As restraint usually increases with thickness, so do the stresses.
Number of passes
Every pass adds to the total contraction. However, as each weld pass
partially stress relieves the previous passes; the effect is not totally
cumulative.
Preheat
Whilst this may be necessary to combat H2 cracking, in many cases it may
also increase the level of stresses.
Travel speed during welding

The faster the welding speed the lower the heat input and the less the
stress.
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Misalignment
Misalignment may reduce the stresses in some cases.
Root gap
An increase in root gap increases shrinkage.
Heat input
The higher the total heat input the greater the shrinkage.
Balance weld
About neutral axis of weld.
Weld sequence
On seam.
Stitch welding
On structure.
Back step and skip back welding
Peening
Stress relief
3.1.4 Mechanical
Assembly method
Tack welding, strongbacks, jigging.
Pre-setting
Components set out of line to compensate for movement resulting from
welding.
Back-to-back assembly
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3.2 Typical material properties (Note: Values change with alloy

content)
Modulus of Yield Coefficient of Thermal

Material elasticity, strength, thermal expansion, conductivity,
N/mm2 N/mm2 m/m/oCx106 cal/cm2/cm/oC/sec
Carbon 20.8 270 12.6 0.12
steel
Stainless 20 310 18 0.04
steel
Aluminium 7.1 138 23 0.50
alloys
Copper 10.5 68 17 0.90
alloys
3.3 Characteristics of materials which determine the amount of

distortion and residual stresses: relative values
3.3.1 Co-efficient of thermal expansion

High value - greater local expansion and yielding – higher level of stress on
cooling
Carbon steel - 1
Stainless steel - 1.4
Aluminium - 1.7
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3.3.2 Thermal conductivity

Low value – higher heat retained in welded zone – higher level of stress on
cooling
Carbon steel - 1
Aluminium - 4.2
3.3.3 Yield strength

Therefore higher yield - higher residual stress
Carbon steel - 1
Aluminium - 0.5
3.3.4 Modes of elasticity

Measure of stiffness, greater stiffness resists distortion.
Carbon steel - 1
Aluminium - 0.3
3.3.5 Effect of preheat

Preheating advantageous against hydrogen cracking, but can cause
problems.
Consider the case of a butt weld under high restraint. Preheat closes the
gap, so the weld deposited is smaller in volume. On cooling, shrinkage of
both plates due to cooling and the normal weld transverse shrinkage
stresses.
3.4 Correcting distortion

3.4.1 Flame Straightening
Any heating and cooling of metals in a restrained environment imposes
some residual stress and subsequent distortion. This effect can be used to
modify the shape of a component by localised heating and subsequent
cooling.
Typical examples of flame straightening are:
 Beams - removing or increasing camber.

 Straightening flanges.
 Patch plates - removal of buckles and bulges.
Heating must be done quickly using a localised intense heat source. Oxy-
acetylene torches are therefore recommended, but not cutting torches. The
temperature rise needs to be sufficient to produce plastic deformation in the
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material, but too high a temperature may be detrimental to the material

properties as well as having a little extra effect on the amount of deformation
obtained. For C and C-Mn steels that have developed higher strengths
through a quenching and tempering or controlled rolling production
technique, temperatures should not exceed approximately 650oC. Steels
that are supplied in the normalised condition are not likely to be damaged by
higher heating but without specialist knowledge it is probably safest to avoid
higher heating temperatures
Heating to full or to only part thickness has a significant effect on the type of
distortion achieved. Full thickness heating procedures promote longitudinal
distortion, whilst part thickness heating will produce more angular
movement.
By preventing expansion using external restraints the effectiveness of the

operation is increased. Simple clamping arrangements or using the
materials self-weight may be sufficient.
For removing bulges in thinner plate the expansion which occurs on heating,
must be removed by hammering, as upsetting the material must occur.
The effect of the operation cannot be fully assessed until the component has
cooled completely. Care must also be taken to ensure cold air is not flowing
across the component, as differential cooling will take place which will cause
distortion.
The use of oxy acetylene flame straightening must be controlled by

procedures to ensure that:
 Correct heating torches are used.

 Temperatures are monitored to avoid overheating. The use of thermal
crayons or other devices should be issued.
 Areas to be heated should be clearly defined before heating takes place.
3.4.2 Stress Relieving Weldments

Stress relieving operations are carried out on welded components for many
reasons, to reduce the level of residual stress, reduce the risk of brittle
fracture and aid machining stability, etc. Note that the residual stresses
cannot be removed completely, only reduced to an acceptable level.
The most common method of stress relief is a thermal treatment which

involves the heating and cooling of the component in a controlled manner.
This heats the material to a temperature where the yield strength reduces
and high residual stresses cause plastic deformation to relieve these
stresses. On cooling, the residual stresses in the weldment are significantly
reduced.
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3.4.3 Vibratory stress relief

Involves mechanically inducing vibrations into the component.
3.4.4 Explosive stress relief

Involves causing shock waves from an explosive charge to counteract the
residual tensile stresses.
3.4.5 Mechanical Peening

Mechanical deformation of individual runs by mechanical methods. This can
be as crude as hammer peening and may be effective but difficult to control
effectively.
These methods vary in their effectiveness and not all are covered by
international codes or practices.
Thermal stress relief may be carried out in a furnace into where the whole
component will be stress relieved. This is the usual situation for pressure
vessels and boilers, etc, but local stress relief may also be considered, eg
on pipework, usually only the joints are stress relieved. This is carried out
using local heating bands.
Where stress relief is specified by an application standard, the minimum

requirements for the thermal cycle will be laid down. Such details and
requirements are a good guide to be used where no application standard is
specified.
A written procedure should be in place and rigorously worked to, to ensure

the operation is performed correctly. Such a procedure should include:
 Method - furnace or local?

 Method of heating - gas, electrical?
 Number of thermocouples - sufficient plus spares.
 Position of thermocouples - must be as specified.
 Method of attachment of thermocouples - spark discharge or brick.
 Calibration of thermocouples - valid and within date?
 Calibration of recording equipment - valid?
 Speed of chart - correct for paperwork?
 Component supports - must be adequate to avoid collapse.
 Identification on chart - job no, date, time, signature.
 Heating rate - maximum.
 Soaking temperature - range allowed.
 Soaking time - minimum.
 Cooling rate - maximum allowed.
 Withdrawal temperature - into cold air.
For local stress relief we would need to also consider:
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 Heated band width.

 Insulated band width.
 Proximity of fittings such as nozzles and attachments.
Most codes of practice prohibit any welding on components after stress

relieving operation and the stress relieving operation is usually an essential
variable of the welding process as weldment properties can be affected by
the stress relieving cycle. Where metals have gained their properties
through microstructural modification due to the heating and cooling cycle in
their production, care must be taken that these properties are not
detrimentally affected by the stress relieving process.
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3.5 Questions on residual stress and distortion
1 In which directions do residual stresses form a weld?
2 To which level of a material's yield point do residual stresses reach?
3 Which types of distortion result from residual stresses?
4 How can residual stresses be controlled?
5 List the ways in which distortion may be controlled.
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3.6 Questions: stress relieving weldments
1 Specify the ways in which stress relief may be applied.
2 Produce a checklist of the controls required to ensure that the stress relieving
conforms to a specification.
3 State the objectives of PWHT.
4 Name the different information sources where guidance on stress relieving can
be found.
5 Which factors require consideration in relation to the use of furnaces or local

stress relief?
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Residual stress
In case of a heated bar,

RESIDUAL STRESS AND the resistance of the
DISTORTION surrounding material to
the expansion and
contraction leads to
TWI Training & Examinations Services formation of residual
Course in Welding stress
(EWF/IIW diploma)
Residual stress Nature of residual stress
Origins of residual stress in welded joints
Heating and cooling

Cold weld unfused
leads to expansions
and contractions
Hot weld
Cold weld fused
Types of residual stress Types of residual stress
Transverse residual stress after welding Longitudinal residual stress after welding
Maximum stress = YS at
room temperature Compression Tension
Tension
YS at room
temperature
Compression
The longer the weld, the higher the tensile stress! The higher the heat input the wider the tensile zone!
1
Types of residual stress Residual stress
Residual stress after PWHT Residual stresses are undesirable because:
Compression Tension •they lead to distortions
•they affect dimensional stability of the welded
assembly
•they enhance the risk of brittle fracture
•they can facilitate certain types of corrosion
Factors affecting residual stresses:
•parent material properties
•amount of restrain
YS at PWHT YS at room
•joint design
temperature temperature
After PWHT, peak residual stress is less than a quarter of •fit-up
its initial level! •welding sequence
Factors affecting residual stress Factors affecting residual stress

Parent material properties: Joint design:
•thermal expansion coefficient - the greater the value, the •weld metal volume
greater the residual stress •type of joint - butt vs. fillet, single vs. double side
•yield strength - the greater the value, the greater the
Amount of restrain:
residual stress
•thickness - as thickness increase, so do the stresses
•Young’s modulus - the greater the value (increase in
stiffness), the greater the residual stress •high level of restrain lead to high stresses
•thermal conductivity - the higher the value, the lower the •preheat may increase the level of stresses (pipe welding!)
residual stress
Fit-up:
•transformation temperature - during phase transformation,
expansion/contraction takes place. The lower the •misalignment may reduce stresses in some cases
transformation temperature, the lower the residual stress •root gap - increase in root gap increases shrinkage
Factors affecting residual stress Distortions

Welding sequence: Origins of distortions in welded joints:
•number of passes - every pass adds to the total contraction
•heat input - the higher the heat input, the greater the
shrinkage
•travel speed - the faster the welding speed, the less the
stress
•build-up sequence
2
Types of distortion Types of distortion
Longitudinal shrinkage Bowing and dishing
Types of distortion Types of distortion
Transverse shrinkage
Angular distortion
Distortions prevention Distortions prevention

Distortions prevention by design Distortions prevention
•consider elimination of welding by design
•consider weld placement
•reduce weld metal volume

and/or number of runs
a) by forming the plate
b) by use of rolled or extruded sections
3
Distortions prevention by design Distortions prevention by design
•use of balanced welding
Allowances to cover shrinkage
- Transverse Shrinkage
•Fillet Welds 0.8mm per weld where the leg length does
not exceed 3/4 plate thickness
•Butt weld 1.5 to 3mm per weld for 60° V joint,
depending on number of runs
- Longitudinal Shrinkage
•Fillet Welds 0.8mm per 3m of weld
•Butt Welds 3mm per 3m of weld

Distortions prevention by pre-setting Distortions prevention by pre-bending
using strongbacks and wedges
a) pre-setting of fillet joint to
prevent angular distortion
b) pre-setting of butt joint to
prevent angular distortion
c) tapered gap to prevent
closure

Distortions prevention by restraint techniques Distortions prevention by restraint techniques
c) use of strongbacks with

a) use of welding jigs wedges
d) use of fully welded

b) use of flexible clamps strongbacks
4
Distortions prevention by fabrication Distortions prevention by fabrication
techniques techniques
•tack welding •back to back assembly
a) tack weld straight through
to end of joint a) assemblies tacked together
b) tack weld one end, then use before welding
back-step technique for b) use of wedges for
tacking the rest of the joint components that distort on
c) tack weld the centre, then separation after welding
complete the tack welding by
the back-step technique

Distortions prevention by fabrication Distortions prevention by fabrication
techniques techniques
•use of stiffeners
•reduce the number of runs
required to make a weld (e.g.
angular distortion as a function
of number of runs for a 10 mm
leg length weld)
control welding process by:

- deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible
- use the least number of runs to fill the joint

Distortions prevention by fabrication Distortions prevention by fabrication techniques
techniques
•control welding techniques by use balanced welding

about the neutral axis
•control welding techniques by keeping the time
between runs to a minimum
control welding techniques by

a) Back-step welding
b) Skip welding
5
Distortions prevention Distortions corrective techniques
Distortions - Best practice for fabrication Distortions - mechanical corrective
corrective techniques techniques
•using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap
•identical components welded back to back so welding can be balanced

about the neutral axis
•attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in

butt welds of thin plate structures
•where there is choice of welding procedure, process and technique

should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible; MIG in
preference to MMA or gas welding and mechanised rather than manual
welding
•in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one direction; •use of press to correct bowing in T butt joint
back-step or skip welding techniques should be used
Distortions corrective techniques Distortions corrective techniques

Distortions - Best practice for mechanical Distortions - thermal corrective techniques
corrective techniques
•use packing pieces which will over correct the distortion so that spring-
back will return the component to the correct shape
•localised heating to correct
•check that the component is adequately supported during pressing to
distortion
prevent buckling
•use a former (or rolling) to achieve a straight component or produce a
curvature
•as unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the following
safe practice must be adopted:
- bolt the packing pieces to the platen •spot heating for correcting
- place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the buckling
'missile'
- clear personnel from the hazard area
Distortions corrective techniques Distortions corrective techniques

Distortions - thermal corrective techniques Distortions - thermal corrective techniques
•wedge shaped heating to correct distortion
•Line heating to correct angular
distortion in a fillet weld
a) standard b) buckled edge of c) box fabrication

rolled steel plate
•Use of wedge shaped heating to section
straighten plate General guidelines:
•Length of wedge = two-thirds of the plate width
•Width of wedge (base) = one sixth of its length (base to apex)
6
Distortions corrective techniques
Distortions - thermal corrective techniques
•use spot heating to remove buckling in thin sheet structures
•other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped

heating technique
•use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate
•restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrinking the component
•limit the temperature to 650°C (dull red heat) in steels to prevent

metallurgical damage
•in wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of the wedge,
penetrate evenly through the plate thickness and maintain an even
temperature
7
Section 4
Plant Facilities and Equipment
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Copyright © 2010 TWI Ltd
4 Plant Facilities and Equipment

4.1 Factory layout
Introduction
The organisation of a factory for optimum production depends on a large
number of factors, which are listed below, some of which may be in
competition with each other. It is the responsibility of the production
engineer, in conjunction with other members of the multi disciplinary team to
reach the best compromise.
The factors to be considered include:
 Type of product(s).
 Quality of items produced and the unit time.
 Required quality of product.
With welded fabrications several stages in the manufacturing cycle can be

listed:
 Receipt and receipt inspection.

 Storage and maintenance in store.
 Issue to fabrication.
 Transport between areas.
 Parent material preparation.
 Shop floor storage and identification.
 Assembly, erection and welding.
 Heat treatment.
 Inspection and test.
 Finishing treatment.
 For most companies, a documented Quality Assurance system is also
necessary.
Site welding
Where welding is to be carried out on site, an assessment of the likely
environmental conditions must be done. Factors which will determine the
welding operation and protection requirements include:
 Weather, wind, rain, snow and humidity.

 Elevation, ground level, in trench, at high level.
 Local environment, fire, explosion, radiation risks.
4.2 Joint fit-up and jigging

Parts to be joined need to be held together in the correct relationship to one
another by some mechanical means. The method must be simple, allow
access for welding, allow or restrict movement as required, may have to
incorporate backing systems, be non-detrimental to the structural integrity
and ensure safety.
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Tack welding
Tack welds involve depositing short runs of weld in the joint, to hold the
parts in place; long welds may require several tacks - this usually results in
contraction of the root gap so initial set-up may require larger root gaps.
 Should be of adequate size to prevent cracking.

 Must be ground to a feather at each end if they are to be incorporated
into the weld, or must be removed as the weld progresses.
 Must be deposited by adequately trained/qualified personnel.
Strongbacks
Bridging pieces, pieces of box, plate or rod positioned across the joint fillet
welded to the base materials. Factors to be considered:
 Compatibility of materials.
 Provision for adjustment.
 Size and position of attachment welds.
 Placement of bar relative to front or reverse of weld joint.
 Number and position.
 Method of removal.
Jigging
This is the preferred option when multiple components are to be
manufactured. The complexity of the jigging usually will depend upon the
through put required, ranging from simple clamping arrangements to
purpose built hydraulic/pneumatic set-ups.
To be effective jigs must be simple to use, prevent misplacement of parts

and allow access for welding, particularly important in robot applications,
possess adequate rigidity.
Can the workpiece be made self-jigging?
4.3 Positioning equipment

For most welding processes, the higher deposition rate is achieved when
welding in the PA or PB positions. Typical positioning equipment includes;
Rotators
Powered rollers for turning cylindrical components such as pressure vessel
shells, pipework, wind turbine towers etc.
Headstock positioners
Lathe like equipment particularly suitable for small non-uniform tubular
items.
Table positioners/manipulation
Hand or powered tilting rotating tables.
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Linear traverse systems

For longitudinal seams usually incorporate clamping and backing systems.
All these positioning devices must be rigid, have smooth variable speed
drives without backlash and incorporate a welding current return bush
system.
Special purpose welding equipment

May be required when the quantity of work or the complexity of the
components warrant it. Such equipment may be obtained from specialist
manufacturers but may be designed in-house using standard parts.
Work movement
May be by forklift truck, local crane eg wall or stand-alone, or overhead
crane systems. Conveyor systems (powered or gravity) may be required in
high volume production.
Many modern structural steel fabricators and shipyards now make a moving
pallet system, where tub assemblies are moved through the production
system on a large wheeled pallet, avoiding the use of cranes.
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4.4 Questions: Joint fit up and jigging
1 Specify the requirements for tack welding on a critical application.
2 When tack welded bridging pieces are used to ensure fit-up requirements, how
should they be removed?
3 List the types of positioning equipment that can be used in welding.
4 List the main factors that should be considered when planning to move from
manual to mechanised welding set-up.
5 You have been notified that MMA electrodes, stripped of their covering, are being
used to maintain root gaps in pipe butt joints. Briefly describe your course of
action.
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Workshop layout
• depends on type of fabrication (mass
production or single product, type of product)
and required quality
PLANT FACILITIES, WELDING JIGS AND • consider safety requirements (e.g. do NOT
FIXTURES paint near cutting area)
• consider location of work (workshop vs. site
weld)
TWI Training & Examination • depends on materials being processed (do
Services NOT mix tools used for aluminium to those
Course in Welding used for carbon steel)
(EWF/IIW Diploma) • allow for free movement of items between
workstations (use overhead cranes)
Types of supply systems Jigs and fixtures
•First in-first out Definition: facilitate a positional relationship

between the workpieces themselves or
•Last in-first out between the workpiece and the tool during
•Just in time welding
Supply system depends on: Types of jigs and fixtures:

•Type of fabrication • Tacking
•Materials involved (parent or filler) • Welding
•Manufacturing facilities (manual vs. robots) • Holding
Requirements for jigs and fixtures Clamps

• hold the workpiece in the proper orientation and location Clamps
• weld joints must be accessible
Manual Hydraulic
• the fixture must be more rigid than the assembly Pneumatic
• protect holddowns, clamps and threads against spatter
• clamping pressure should act on the workpiece without
distortion
•work on the basis
• loading/unloading should be quick and easy of toggle action •very quick action
• provide large long handles for easy manual operation mechanism •create high •slow action
•quick action clamping forces
• good electrical conductivity should be provided •create very high
•create high
• consider heat dissipation •suitable for clamping forces
clamping forces
complex items and •oil leak is the main
• assure safe operation using minimal
mass production problem
manual forces
1
Toggle action mechanism principle Type of manual clamps
2 toggle action mechanism Vertical clamp
•handle is vertical in clamp position
-before centre position
•holding force up to 34 KN
•can be fitted with release lever
-centre position •opening angle can be increased to suit

application
-over centre (clamping)

position
Type of manual clamps Type of manual clamps

Horizontal clamp
Straight line action clamp
•very low type design

•swivel motion of the handle
•handle is horizontal in the
creates axial motion in the push
clamping position  minimum
rods
overall height
•can be used as tension or
compression clamp, locking in
the two end positions
Type of manual clamps Type of manual clamps
Plier clamp Latch clamp
•convenient one hand

•flexible clamping and fixing operation due to the lifter
design
•very compact
2
Advantages of jigs and fixtures Travel devices
• good fit-up tolerances ie consistently high quality Welding carriages
weldments (e.g. tractors)
Supports and
• minimise decision making and measurements moves the Welding head
required with respect to location and orientation welding head manipulators (e.g.
of weldment columns and booms)
• identify out of tolerance items Travel
devices Specialised welding
• fewer product errors machines
types
• high productivity
• less distortions Supports and Welding positioners
• low production costs moves the
weldment Roller beads
Travel devices The welding tractor

Welding heads can be mounted on a: •provides travel along straight or
gently curved joints
•can ride on tracks set up along
the joint (with grooved wheels) or
on the workpiece itself
Courtesy of ESAB AB
•can use guide wheels as tracking

device
•due to their portability, are used
in field welding or where the piece
Courtesy of ESAB AB Courtesy of ESAB AB
Tractor type carriage Column/beam carriage cannot be moved Courtesy of ESAB AB
Welding tractor operation Welding carriages

Storage tank SAW of circular welds
Pilot lamp Guide wheel Radius from Inside welding

bogie 1500mm from 1150 mm
Simultaneous Guide rail with Support-

Support-roller Idling-
Idling-rollers
welding magnets for fillet weld Courtesy of ESAB AB
3
Welding carriages Welding carriages
Track types
Stiff Flexible
Welding carriages Welding carriages

Stiff track application - orbital rings Flexible track applications
Courtesy of ESAB AB
Courtesy of ESAB AB Courtesy of ESAB AB Courtesy of ESAB AB
Welding carriages Welding head manipulators

Special features of welding carriages
Column/beam carriage
•provides linear travel only

(rotation is only for
positioning!)
•are capable of linear motion
in 3 axes
•because workpiece must be
brought to the weld station,
Courtesy of ESAB AB they are use mostly in the
Tilt unit together with angle workshop
Courtesy of ESAB AB attachment for weaving in fillet joints
Horizontal weaving Courtesy of ESAB AB
4
Specialised welding machines Specialised welding machines
Girder/beam fabrication Pipeline fabrication
Courtesy of ESAB AB
Types of positioners Types of positioners
a) tilting
positioner
b) headstock
and tailstock
positioner
c) indexing Drop-
Drop-center positioner Turntable positioner
positioner • welding in down-hand position is quicker and easy 
increased productivity and improved quality  reduced cost
(no/less repairing and finishing work)
• accurately, safely and ergonomically
Torque problems Instability (tilting) problems

X
Offset
G
No tilting Tilting moment = G x X
•Consider sliding ie apply attachments!

Centre of gravity coincides Centre of gravity offset
with axis of rotation from axis of rotation •Increase height ie increase tilting moment!
5
Roller beads Roller beads features
• provide only one-motion positioning
• simple to design  low initial cost, low
Manual adjusting roller maintenance and repair costs
beads • range of capacity: 200 kg to 1140 tons
• can rotate cylindrical shaped parts
Courtesy of ESAB AB
• flat position welding  higher
productivity, better quality
• noncylindrical parts can be rotated using
special round fixtures
Self aligning roller beads • in case of multi-run welds, work lead
connection can be problem
Courtesy of ESAB AB
Roller beads specific problems Roller beads specific problems

• stability problem occurs when the centre of gravity lies
outside the tyre contact area  workpiece is rolling off
rolls •creep axial movement appear due to alignment
inconsistencies or workpiece imperfections
G
•typical causes: mismatch of the power and idler rolls
centreline, worn tyres, turning rolls out of perpendicular,
slight taper in the diameter of the workpiece
•can be limited by using a head stock positioner or
G grooved rolls
Roller beads specific problems Roller beads specific problems

excessive pressure on the rolls  use self aligning roller
beads to redistribute the load, increase rolls width,
increase the number of roller beads
10 ton 10 ton 10 ton
6
Section 05
Safety in the Welding Shop
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Copyright©2010 TWI Ltd
5 Safety in the Welding Shop

5.1 Arcs
All arcs emit visible and ultraviolet light. This can cause burns on the skin
similar to, but much worse than sunburn and severe irritation of the eye.
This is termed arc eye. Do not try to look directly at an arc. Use a shield with
an appropriate filter, this will also protect your face from spatter.
 Do not let the light from the arc fall on your bare hands, arms or neck.
 Warn those around you before striking an arc.
 Work within safety screens if possible.
 If you see an unexpected unshielded arc, look away or hold your hand
up to shield your eyes.
 Do not operate an arc near a degreasing bath, ultraviolet light

decomposes the vapour to form phosgene, a poisonous gas.
5.2 Hot metal

This is inevitable with welding.
 Assume that all pieces of metal are hot until you are sure they are not.
 Do not pick up or lean on any metal until you are sure it is cold. If you
have to leave hot metal other than on a welding bench, ensure that it is
marked.
 Keep well away from processes which may splash small drops of molten
metal (spatter) unless you and your clothing are protected, for example,
by gloves, overall and spats.
5.3 Fire
Do not leave rags or inflammable liquids near welding activities.
Make sure you know where the extinguishers are kept and the direction of
emergency exits.
If working near or on a tank which contains or has contained any liquid,

check that the liquid, vapour and residue are known to be non-explosive or
seek expert advice on safety precautions before starting work.
5.4 Noise
Welding and its ancillary metal working operations can generate a
considerable amount of noise. Even where the welding operation itself is
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fairly quiet, noise will be generated from cooling and extraction fans, electric
motors, compressors, air tools, carnage and materials handling, etc. High
noise levels or long term exposure to lower levels can seriously damage
hearing.
Noise is usually measured in decibels (dBs) with a weighting system to take

account of the response of the human hear, dBA.
The dB scale is logarithmic and so an increase in sound level of 3dB leads

to a doubling of the sound energy.
Noise levels less than 80dB are usually considered safe without ear
protection, with levels above 115dB being prohibited.
Noise should be reduced at source if possible. Alternative working methods,

acoustic barriers, arranging the workplace into different noise level areas
should be looked at. Where noise protection is required then ear plugs or
ear defenders must be worn to comply with HSE regulations.
Quiet home 45db

Ordinary conversation 60dB
MMA welding 60-80dB
Busy street 80dB
Plasma arc welding 80-90dB
Deslagging 80-90dB
Carbon arc gouging 100dB
Jet aircraft take off 120dB
Pain threshold 130-140dB
5.5 Cables
Cable size must be chosen for the maximum current likely to be transmitted,
undersize cabling will cause excessive voltage drops, overheating or melting
of insulation and possible fire.
Cable size also must be chosen on cable length and anticipated duty cycle.
The longer the cable, the higher the duty cycle, the larger the cable size to
be used. Recommended sizes are given in appropriate standards.
Cables should not be coiled up when in use. All connections must be clean,
tight and dry.
5.6 Mechanical hazards

Before striking an arc, check for safety, any working platforms, overhead
jigs, etc.
Keep clear of a welder while he is welding - he cannot see you.
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Keep clear of work above floor level which is held together by tack welds or
untested welds.
Keep gas hoses and electric cables clear of working areas as far as
possible.
Always use the appropriate eye protection (goggles or face shield) when
grinding, chipping slag or welding by the usual processes.
5.7 Filter glasses

Standards specify filters that will, in addition to cutting down visible light,
reduce the invisible but harmful infrared (heat) and ultraviolet rays (infrared
damages the eye without instant symptoms and ultraviolet rays cause arc
eye). The standard includes a complete list of recommended filters which
are intended mainly to give an idea which to try first, but are sometimes
quoted as those which must be used.
5.8 Electrical
Most welding equipment works at a relatively low voltage and so has been
made safe to work with, provided the following precautions are adopted:
 Do not interfere with the connections on the primary (input) mains supply
cable; wiring up the primary cable is a task for a qualified electrician only.
 Check that the casing of the set is earthed. If possible, earth the work by
a separate earth cable to avoid hazards from use of portable tools or
equipment faults.
 Do not use portable electric tools which have been damaged; visually
check plugs and cable before plugging in.
 Check electrode holders, torches and guns regularly to ensure the
insulation is satisfactory.
 If working more than a few metres or yards from the main switch, provide
a local means of disconnection.
 If working in damp or sweaty conditions check open circuit voltage of
MMA sets and ensure that it is no higher than necessary or the
electrodes in use.
 Take extra care or use open circuit voltage reduction relay. Keep
clothes, gloves and shoes dry; they will then provide extra insulation.
5.9 Gas cylinders

5.9.1 General
These contain gas at high pressure. Make sure you have the right cylinder.
Always use regulators of the correct fitting and type for gas.
Make sure threads are clean before connecting regulators.
Do not use oil or grease on gas connections; they must be assembled dry.
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Use correct cylinder stands or other satisfactory means of securing cylinder

upright. Avoid any heating of a cylinder by flame or arc.
Allow adequate ventilation to avoid any risk or asphyxiation, particularly

when working in confined spaces; remember that propane and shielding
gases like CO2 and argon are heavier than air and will collect in the tanks,
pits, etc, even those with open tops.
5.9.2 Acetylene
If gas escaping from a cylinder or connector catches fire, shut the cylinder
valve if possible and check the cylinder for internal heating, repeating the
check every few minutes for 2-3 hours. If hot, alert fire fighting service and
evacuate the area around for at least 100m (100 yards). If the cylinder is
damaged or has been heated, follow procedure below.
If cylinder becomes hot from inside or outside, evacuate personnel as

above. The recommended procedure is:
 Shut valve.
 Detach regulator or fittings.
 Take cylinder into the open.
 Immerse in water or apply copiously.
 Open valve fully and keep cool with water.
 Inform suppliers.
But there is still a considerable risk of an explosion. Do not use copper

fittings (an explosive compound may be formed.)
5.9.3 Oxygen
Do not allow the oxygen to be used as a substitute for compressed air
(oxygen enrichment will cause cloth to burn explosively).
Ventilate enclosed areas when oxygen cutting.
5.10 Fumes and gases

Most welding gives off fumes, which pollute the surrounding air. These may
be divided into fumes and gases.
Fume is any solid particles, larger particles quickly settle out and small
particles may be filtered out.
Gases are the individual molecules of a chemical compound, which does

not aggregate into a liquid or solid.
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5.10.1 Measurement and occupation exposure limits (OELs)

There is no reliable link between the visibility, nuisance and harmfulness of
fume, except where it is of known composition and size distribution, which is
likely to be the case only where a closely defined process is involved.
Gases are generally invisible.
The amount of fume and gases released by welding may be estimated by

assuming that all the potentially hazardous compounds formed usually turns
out to be a gross over estimate. The only way of obtaining a reliable answer
is to measure the concentrations under known conditions for a range of
welding processes, consumables and applications and to estimate the
repeatability of measurements to facilitate predictions.
Measurements are usually made in the breathing zone of the welder -

masks and helmets often shield him from fume. Fume is measured by
drawing a known volume of air through a fine filter: By weighing the paper
before and after, the total amount of fume is calculated in milligrams per
cubic metre (mg/m3). Chemical analysis may be used to find the amount of
individual constituents, again expressed as mg/m3, usually of a particular
element or its principal oxide.
Gases are measured with a similar sampling technique, using a directly

indicating analyser giving almost instantaneous readings of a particular gas,
or storing a sample for subsequent conventional analysis. Results are
expressed as the concentration in parts per million (ppm).
For rapid indication, Draeger tubes may be used: Air is drawn through a
tube containing crystals which change colour in the presence of the gas to
which they are designed to respond. Because of the difficulties of obtaining
a satisfactory reading in the welder's breathing zone and because other
constituents may confuse the readings, such as welding fume straining the
crystals brown, the indications should not be regarded as final proof. The
appropriate tubes can provide a useful quick check on oxides of nitrogen,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and phosgene, and possibly on ozone,
where these are formed during welding operations.
5.10.2 Sources of fume

Fume and gases can come from one or more sources, such as:
 Welding consumables (electrodes, fluxes and gases).

 Parent metal.
 Surface coating of parent metal (plating, paint).
 Degreasing fluid can form phosgene.
 Air-ozone and oxides of nitrogen can be formed.
 Internal combustion engines.
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5.11 Parent metal

Low carbon steel
Usually little problem.
Manganese steel
Irritant manganese fumes have been reported when welding. High
manganese (12-14%) steels.
Stainless steel
Will contain nickel compounds and hexavalent chromium (Cr6), which may
be carcinogenic. Welders should be provided with air fed helmets.
Aluminium
Increased risk of ozone formation especially in MAG welding of aluminium.
Copper
Excess copper or zinc fumes give rise to metal fume fever. Symptoms
arising a few hours after exposure, may include muscle pains.
Zinc
Shivering, headaches, chest tightness and feverishness usually clear up
within a day or two; they are often mistaken for those of influenza.
Lead
Can be welded only with a low heat input welding process, such as oxy-gas
or pulse TIG welding so little fume will be generated in normal operation.
Alloys containing Lead

Not usually welded.
Cadmium
Is extremely poisonous. Expert advice should be sought before attempting
to weld them.
Beryllium
Is extremely poisonous. Expert advice should be sought before attempting
to weld them.
Magnesium and its alloys

Normally no fume problem but can be set alight by the heat of welding. This
is much more likely if swarf is present, so it should be safely disposed of.
Once alight magnesium burns fiercely; standard fire extinguishers are
ineffective and may be dangerous. An extinguisher for Class D fires should
be available.
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5.12 Surface coating

Platings
Zinc
Galvanising will often give enough fumes to cause metal fume fever.
Cadmium
Often used as anti-corrosion plating, particularly on light engineering
products such as office machinery and electronic connectors.
Even small amount of fume from plating can be fatal it causes metal fume
fever which does not clear up but progresses to pneumonia and death.
Lead
Risk of lead poisoning from prolonged exposure.
Nickel and copper

Not usually the sole plating, often used as an undercoat.
Paints
Industrial paints could contain metallic compounds of lead, mercury, zinc,
etc for specific protective purposes, also most paints have complex organic
binders which can decompose to form a wide range of fumes when heated.
Recommended procedure
Unless a particular coating is known to be harmless or safe to work on with
an established procedure, remove the coating from any part of the parent
metal which is liable to be heated (within 25-100mm of the weld, depending
on the process).
Degreasing fluid
Many traditional solvents that can be used to remove oil or grease from
metal parts are inflammable (for example, petrol, paraffin, white spirit,
benzene and alcohol). Many of this type of solvent have been outlawed by
regulations controlling such substances.
Non-inflammable solvents are still available, such as trichloroethylene,

either in a correctly designed tank or in well ventilated conditions. Where the
vapour is acted on by ultraviolet light or the liquid or vapour is heated it can
decompose to form phosgene and other poisonous gases.
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Recommended Procedure
Use separate degreasing and welding areas as far as possible. General
ventilation should take air from the welding bay, rather than the other way
round. If degreasing immediately before welding is required, use solvent
such as acetone, providing safe storage and dispensing facilities, a supply
of clear rags or tissues, a safe place for disposal of used material (not
pockets) and adequate fire extinguisher facilities. Ensure complete draining
and evaporation of residues from degreased components before they are
taken near the welding area.
5.13 Air
Ozone
The composition of normal air is approximately:
78% nitrogen
21% oxygen
1% argon
The ultraviolet light of the arc can cause oxygen to re-arrange itself into
ozone.
302 203
Ozone is chemically very active, as a considerable amount of energy is

stored in the triatomic molecule, therefore it is very irritant and harmful to the
lungs. The active ozone makes it difficult to measure accurately as contact
with most solids will cause it to revert to oxygen. This last property means
that ozone can be removed from air by a filter, unlike any other gas likely to
be encountered in welding.
Oxides of nitrogen
Under certain conditions, usually involving flames and restricted ventilation,
either in connection with oxy-gas welding or cutting, or preheating for any
process, nitrogen and oxygen from the air may combine to form various
oxides of nitrogen such as nitrous oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
These form nitric and other acids if they come into contact with moisture and
act as lung irritants. A few hours after exposure symptoms develop such as
a dry irritating cough, chesty tightness and frothing canary-coloured sputum,
followed by cyanosis (turning blue from lack of oxygen) and death. It is
difficult to measure the individual oxides, so they are usually quoted simply
as oxides of nitrogen, with the abbreviation NOx.
Internal combustion engines

The exhaust from engine-driven welding sets is mainly inert gases, but with
an appreciable proportion of carbon monoxide, especially with petrol fuel.
Preferably the engine should be in the open air: where it must be inside a
building, a leak-tight extension pipe must ensure that no exhaust gas is
released indoors.
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5.14 Ventilation
Open air
When working in the open, fume and gases from welding will normally be
dissipated harmlessly in the air. To reduce the amounts breathed in, the
welder should position himself upwind of the weld if possible.
Local fume extraction

An external nozzle can be placed near the weld to extract all fume and
gases before they can become dispersed in the air in a workshop or in a
confined space. There are two major problems in implementing such a
system:
 Practical fan and hose sizes place severe limits on the air volume which
can be extracted. To obtain an air velocity into the duct of about 1m/sec,
a length of weld of only 150-300mm can be covered, and the nozzle
must frequently be repositioned in normal work.
 The extracted polluted air must either be discharged where it can be
dispersed, needing lengthy trunking to outside walls or the roof; or it can
be filtered before being returned to the workshop atmosphere, usually
requiring increased fan power and bulky filters, which will not in any case
remove gases except ozone.
Welder posture
If the welder can sit at a bench to work, his head will be clear of the plume of
fume which usually rises vertically from the weld.
General shop ventilation

Ideally, general ventilation in a welding shop should remove all fume and
gases which escape the local extraction system. There is a scarcity of data
which can be used to guide the ventilation engineer. The airflow should be
across the shop flowing away from the welds towards the work. A maximum
velocity of about 1m/sec will allow gas shielding to be retained but a lower
velocity may be needed for more critical work and is in any case rather more
practical. Extracted air will be replaced by air coming in from outside and
suitable arrangements will be required to allow fresh air heated as
necessary to flow in.
General ventilation can also help to avoid excessive temperature rise,

especially where extensive preheating is carried out.
General air supply

Fresh air can be supplied to a confined space where welding is to be carried
out with a fan and trunking similar to that used for local fume extraction. The
air must be drawn from an uncontaminated region and the outlet should be
placed so that the fresh air goes to the welder's breathing zone rather than
directly to any fume extractor.
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5.15 Other protective measures

Fume extractor gun
Special metal arc shielding guns are available which have an extra nozzle
outside the normal gas shielding nozzle. Air is attracted from the welding
zone into the additional nozzle, removing most of the contaminated air, but
still allowing adequate gas shielding. The extracted air is fed down a hose to
a fan and filter unit. The extra nozzle and hose make the gun difficult to use
in confined spaces.
Dust respirator (or half mask respirator)

The welder wears a simple mask which covers his mouth and nose. It is
fitted with a disposable filter cartridge. Equipment should be selected which
can be worn under a headshield where these are in use and a suitable filter
grade chosen to remove the appropriate dust particle size. Masks should be
individually fitted to ensure a comfortable leak-tight fit: beards may cause
leakage.
Air-fed welding helmet

A special welding helmet is fitted by the manufacturer with a distributor
nozzle which allows clean air delivered by a small hose to enter the welder's
breathing zone, displacing contaminated air. Air is supplied to the hose
either by a small fan or by an injector unit operating from compressed air but
drawing in fresh air. The hose is relatively small, not presenting much
encumbrance and the air supply helps to keep the welder cool.
Breathing apparatus
A compressed air cylinder feeds clean air to a sealed facemask or helmet.
The equipment is cumbersome, and imposes extra physical load on the
wearer, who should therefore be given a medical check before undertaking
this kind of work; he should also be trained in formal and emergency
procedures. Given these safety guards, work in irrespirable or even
poisonous atmospheres is possible, though welding in such conditions is
often considered unacceptably risky.
5.16 Recommendations for specific processes

Based on the TWI booklet 'The facts about fume' these recommendations
for fume control apply to normal work by a competent welder on low carbon
steel parent metal, except where otherwise stated.
Flame processes
The major hazard is oxides of nitrogen.
Open air Generally no hazard.

Normal work place General ventilation. Also local extraction for heavy
workloads.
Confined space Local extraction, also dust respirators in adverse
conditions.
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Flame brazing
Flux must be handled carefully and not placed in unlabelled containers. The
correct method of brazing is to flux the work and heat it to just above the
melting point of the filler metal. The fluxed filler rod is then applied to the
work and is melted by the work rather than by the flame, while protected by
the flux. Used in this way a negligible amount of filler is vaporised, but as the
unprotected filler is heated in the flame, a substantial quantity may be
vaporised. If the filler contains cadmium, harmful amounts of cadmium
vapour may be released. If safety from this vapour must be assured in spite
of misuse, a cadmium free filler material may be used, although it will be
more expensive as cadmium has to be replaced by silver. The cadmium free
material is made primarily for use in catering equipment which will come into
contact with food. Alternatively local extraction may provide an extra safety
margin.
Inert gases
Welding processes such as MIG, MAG, FCAW, TIG and PAW all make use
of inert gases to shield the weld pool.
The most commonly used gas is argon, with CO2* and helium also being
used.
All of these gases are asphixiant in high concentrations, and are especially
dangerous as they cannot be seen or smelt. In normal workshop conditions
this rarely presents a problem as the flow rates are low and normal air
movement prevents dangerous build up.
However, when working in confined spaces such as inside vessels or tanks,

in trenches, pits or ducts, prolonged use can lead to potentially lethal build
up. If it is necessary to work in these conditions, a thorough risk assessment
must be carried out and provision must be made for oxygen monitoring,
safety watch, fume/gas extraction and rescue. Remember, that if a welder
passes out through working in an asphixiant rich atmosphere, the rescuer
will also be at risk.
Remember also that argon is heavier than air and will gather at low points
and remain there; presenting a hazard long after welding has been
completed. In addition to usual confined space safety measures, check that
the argon supply to TIG/PAW torches is not leaking and that the gas supply
solenoid closes correctly.
*CO2 is not an inert gas but for the purposes of this section, it is regarded
as an asphixiant.
Manual metal arc welding (MMA)

Fume composition depends mainly on electrode covering type. The process
is often used in confined spaces which are difficult to access and so present
problems In the provision of effective fume extraction. The electrode
manufacturers will often indicate any unusual precautions on the packaging.
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Normal work place General ventilation, also local extraction for heavy
workloads or adverse conditions.
Confined space Local extraction, also dust respirators in adverse
conditions.
Metal arc gas shielded welding
(MIG/MAG/CO2)
a) Ferrous, solid electrode

Normal work place General ventilation, in small work places, or for
heavy workloads, also use local extraction or
fume extractor gun.
Confined space Local extraction or fume extractor gun, also dust
respirator in adverse conditions.
b) Ferrous, flux cored electrode

Normal work place General ventilation, also local extraction or fume
extractor gun.
Confined space Local extractor or fume extractor gun, also dust
respirator in adverse conditions.
c) Copper
Open air Dust respirator.

Normal work place *Local extraction and dust respirator.
Confined space *air fed helmet or breathing apparatus.
* Obtain further expert advice and/or check measurements if possible before

proceeding.
d) Aluminium and other non-ferrous
The MAG aluminium (and aluminium alloy) arc causes the formation of
much ozone.

Normal work place General ventilation, also local extraction in
adverse conditions.
For aluminium a dust respirator protects against
fume and ozone.
Confined space Local extraction. For aluminium, dust respirator.
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e) Arc air gouging

Normal work place Either general ventilation and dust respirator
or
Local extraction system to suit the process
Confined space Local extraction and/or dust respirator.
f) TIG welding
Correctly used, little fume is evolved when welding a wide range of alloys:
Normal work place General ventilation, if welding zinc or

copper-bearing alloy, local extraction.
Confined space Local extraction.
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5.17 Questions: Safety in the Welding Shop
1 List all the areas that relate to health and safety in a welding shop.
2 What are the risks and controls required when welding?
Carbon steel
Stainless steel
Copper
Zinc
Cadmium
Lead
3 In a welding workshop, how may welding fumes be controlled?
4 Briefly describe the safety requirements for oxy-fuel gas welding and cutting
equipment.
5 State the main hazards associated with.
MMA welding
TIG welding
MIG welding
Electron beam welding
Arc-air gouging
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Welding related risks
• Fire and explosion

HEALTH AND SAFETY • Fume and gases
• Electrical shock
• Eye injuries
TWI Training & Examinations • Skin burns
Services
• “Mechanical” hazards
Course in Welding (EWF/IIW
Diploma)
Fire and explosion Fire and explosion

Ensure weld area is clear of Gas cylinders must
flammable materials be correctly secured,
otherwise:
Secure gas cylinders in upright
1) may cause direct
position to avoid acetone leak
injury
Use flashback arrestors 2) may snatch hoses
and blowpipe
Protect the floor - layer of sand or fire
3) regulator may break
retardant sheets
off ie massive escape
of gas
When lighting the torch turn the 4) valve may break off ie massive escape of gas
acetylene on prior to the oxygen 5) valve may break off ie cylinder accelerating by rocket action
Fire and explosion Fire and explosion hazard on site
1
Checking gas cylinder for leaks Gas cylinder identification
• Air - grey
• Ar - blue
• Ar + O2 -blue with black band
• Ar + CO2 -blue with green band
•Soap test for leakage
• He - brown
•Fuel gases screws are • N2 - grey with black collar
left handed! • O2 - black
• H2 - red
• Propane - red, squat cylinder
• Acetylene - maroon, shorter wider cylinder
• CO2 -black narrow cylinder with white stripe
along its length
Welding fume and gases Welding fume

Effect of welding fume and gasses on health: Welding fume sources:
• Fume - particulate and toxic ie irritation of nose, throat, lungs,
• Parent material (Cr(VI)
asphyxiation. thought to be
• Ozone - irritation of nose, throat lungs; excess mucous carcinogenic!)
secretion, coughing. • Welding consumables
• Nitrous oxide, hydrogen chloride, phosgene - delayed (filler, flux, gas)
irritation and toxic effect on upper respiratory tract; excess • Action of heat/UV on
fluid in lungs air ie nitrous oxide
• Carbon monoxide - oxygen deficiency, drowsiness, headache, and ozone
nausea; fatal oxygen starvation • Surface treatments
• Carbon dioxide - oxygen deficiency, asphyxiation (paint, plating,
coatings)
• Argon, helium, nitrogen - asphyxiation
• Cleaning fluids
• Hydrogen, other fuel gases - explosion, fire, asphyxiation
Welding fume Welding fume

Control Of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)
Things to be addressed:
regulations set occupational exposure limits
• Composition of the fume 8hr TWA 10min TWA
• Concentration of the fume mg/m³ mg/m³
(daily average) (short term exposure)
• Duration of exposure Iron 5 10
Cr(VI) 0.5
Fume health effects: Ozone 0.2 0.6
Cadmium 0.05 0.05
Respiratory Metal Weld fume 5
Systemic Chronic
tract fume Aluminum 5
poisoning effects
irritation fever
TWA - Time Weighted Average
2
COSHH regulations requires fume measurement: How to avoid welding fume exposure:
a) in workshop • Keep head out of fume
b) in breathing zone • Work upwind of weld
• Use local fume extraction
c) regular monitoring
d) regular auditing
COSHH regulations also covers NOISE exposure;
factors that need to be taken into consideration:
a) noise level
b) exposure time
c) frequency band of the noise

Use of hoods for fume extraction How to avoid welding fume exposure:
• Use fresh air welding helmets
• Use respirators as second line of defence
Hood too far ie does NOT

effectively capture the fume Hood in correct position
Respiratory protective equipment (RPE) requirements Electrical shock

• Must be suitable for purpose Points to be considered:
• Must be approved by relevant organisations • O.C.V. : for AC - 80V; for DC - 70V
• Must be fully maintained
• Must be safely stored
• modern equipment: 50V
• Must be correctly fitted • plasma cutting: over 100V
• Selection, maintenance and fitting require trained
staff • TIG uses HF: round 20,000V
• Users must be trained in its use • check if the welding power source can
RPE can adversely affect: be used in areas of elevated electric risk
• Communication • Visibility (i.e. cramped conditions with electrically
• Work rate • Use of other PPE conducting walls or damp conditions) 
• Mobility • Tool use application class S
3
Electrical shock Electrical shock
Points to be considered: Enclosure class for
•Check enclosure class - gives the protection welding power sources
provided by the enclosure against electric shock in (see EN 60974-
60974-1)
normal service (direct contact)
•code example - IP 23
Indoor Outdoor
Degree of protection Degree of protection use only use
against penetration of against water
solid objects
IP 21S IP 23

Points to be considered: Points to be considered:
•Check class of insulation - gives information about • Choose appropriate cable size
transformer and inductor insulation material  maximum
temperature on the windings
Class of insulation Limit of temperature rise above
material ambient temperature in windings
A 60°
60°C
E 75°
75°C
B 80°
80°C
F 105°
105°C
H 125°
125°C
C 160°
160°C

Points to be considered:
• Check weld connections and cable insulation •Welding current flows
in crane hook, wire
rope and crane
bearings ie weakens
and damage them
•Possibly burning out

the crane electrics!
Bad! Good!
4
Electrical shock Eye injuries and skin burns
Electric arc produces ultra violet/infra red light
Give “arc eye” and skin burns!
•Welding return lead
Measures to be taken:
runs directly to the work
ie no damage • wear PPE
• choose shade of filter according to welding
process, current level and environment
•Earth lead divert current

from the crane ie
supplementary safeguard
Eye injuries and skin burns Eye injuries and skin burns
Welding filters and helmets Welding filters and helmets
• Filters to EN 169 • Arc welding filters
• Helmets to EN 175 MMA EW 10 to 13
• Gas welding filters GW 4 to 7 MIG/MAG/FCAW EW 11 to 14
TIG EW 12 to 14
• Surround welding area with protective curtains
Eye injuries and skin burns Skin burns

• Wear safety goggles during grinding Do NOT leave flame
• Wear ear defenders unattended!
Warning
notice
Fire extinguisher (if

any combustible
material nearby!)
Do not touch the pipe when preheated!
5
Work in confined spaces Work in confined areas
Definition: any place by virtue of its enclosed Secured ladder
“Buddy system”
nature, where there is a foreseeable risk of any (voice/visual contact)
specified occurrence Gas monitor
Example: chambers, tanks, silos, pits, pipes, etc.

Fire extinguisher
Specified occurrence: A permit to
• Fire or explosion work is
Ventilation needed!
• Loss of consciousness or asphyxiation due to system
gas, fumes, vapour or lack of oxygen
Recovery
• Drowning harness
• Asphyxiation due to free flowing solid
• Loss of consciousness due to high temperature
Work at height Summary

Secured • Be aware of health and safety regulations for each specific
ladder application!
• Are the cables the right size for your job?
Security • Are they spread out or run neatly to prevent overheating?
harness • Is the work lead connected securely?
Care is needed • Is there enough insulation between your body and the work
Toe when lifting piece?
board tack welded • Are all connections tight, including the earth ground?
work! • Are electrode holder and welding cable in good conditions?
Guard • Do not operate with power source covers removed!
rail • Disconnect input power before servicing!
• Do not touch electrically live parts or electrode with skin or
Sound wet clothing!
platform • Insulate yourself from work and ground!
6
Section 6
Economics of Welding
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6 Economics of Welding
The productivity of a welding process is determined by its deposition rate,
consumable efficiency and arc time duty cycle.
6.1 Deposition rate

This is usually expressed in kg/hr of weld metal deposited. Typical figures
for some common processes are given in Table 1, below.
Table 1
Process Kg/hr
MMA 0.9 – 2.5
MAG 2.0 - 3.5
SAW 4.0 - 10
FCAW 2.5 – 4.0
TIG 0.2 – 0.7
Note that these figures relate to C-Mn steels and are based on conventional
single wire processes. Addition of hot wire, twin wire, iron powder etc can
greatly increase these figures.
6.2 Consumable Efficiency

This refers to the weight of weld metal deposited compared to the weight of
consumable used. For example, the SAW process is highly efficient and
does not suffer from losses through spatter, electrode stub end etc, so 10kg
of wire purchased will deposit very nearly 10kg of weld.
For MMA, there is wastage in the form of spatter, slag and stub ends, so
10kg of wire purchased will result in only 6.5kg of deposited weld metal.
From this, the process efficiencies for SAW and MMA are 100% and 65%
respectively. Note that iron powder electrodes have a very thick flux coating
that contains a considerable percentage of iron powder which gets melted
into the weld deposit, increasing the efficiency.
For solid wire MAG and metal cored (MCAW) wires the figure is taken as
being 95%, while flux cored wires are 85%.
6.3 Arc time duty cycle

This is the percentage of time that an arc is being struck and is dependent
on process type and also on type of work, shop layout etc.
For processes such as MMA the arc time, and therefore the duty cycle, is
low. For example, assume it takes 70 seconds to burn off an electrode, 30
seconds to de-slag and wire brush the weld, and a further 30 seconds to
throw away the stub end, fit a new electrode into the holder and strike an
arc, then:
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• Non-arc time = 60 seconds.

• On arc time = 70 seconds.
60
Therefore: x 100 = 46
130
So the maximum possible arc time duty cycle is 46%, assuming the welder
does not pause at all, all day.
In practice, for shop work, an arc time duty cycle for MMA of 15 - 25% is
realistic, while for site work or large fabrications that involve the welder in
moving about, a duty cycle of 12 - 15% is not uncommon. The exception to
this is cross-county pipelining, where labourers are employed to remove
slag, pass new electrodes etc, enabling a higher arc time duty cycle to be
maintained.
For SAW the arc time duty cycle is typically 45-60%, although up to 90% is
possible, say for multi-pass welding of rotated cylinders which can be
welded continuously.
For wire processes, the use of large drums of wire, 200-3050kg in size, can
greatly reduce downtime by eliminating wire reel changes.
For MIG/MAG duty cycles of 20 - 35% can be expected.
6.4 Joint design

Productivity can be influenced by design in respect of size of weld, access
and position.
The optimum joint type is a fillet weld made in the flat position.
Some military vehicles, eg tanks, are designed so that all main joints are
fillet-lap, and the entire vehicle hull is put into a very large manipulator, so
that all joints are welded in flat position, allowing the use of large diameter
flux cored wires at high currents (the fillet-lap arrangement is also necessary
for ballistic performance).
6.5 Downtime
For a welder, this is the time when an arc is not burning. This can be
affected by component availability, waiting for cranes, working in confined
spaces/poor access, fatigue and general layout of workshop areas.
Some of the above are fundamental issues which need to be individually

addressed, but factors such as fatigue can be reduced by supplying the
welder with a light-reactive (self darkening) air fed welding helmet, heat
reflective strips on knuckle of gloves and clean, tidy work areas. Adequate
supplies of water, tea, coffee, clean and well-lit rest areas and clean overalls
can also influence the attitude of the workforce ie decent conditions are
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more likely to motivate people and get results than treating the workforce
with disrespect!
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6.6 Questions: Economics of Welding
1 Define what is meant by?
a Deposition rate.
b Arcing time.
c Duty cycle.
d Electrode efficiency.
2 In a workshop with all the main cutting and welding processes, is it more
beneficial to strive for a?
a 10% reduction in weld volume.

b 10% increase in deposition rate.
c 10% increase in duty cycle.
3 In MMA welding, list those factors that account for its low duty cycle. What steps
could you take to improve this situation?
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Structure of welding costs
Cw = Lw + La + Oh + Cc + Pm
where: • Cw = total cost of welding operation
• Lw = cost for direct welding labour
ECONOMICS OF WELDING • La = cost for associated labour
• Oh = overhead charges
TWI Training & Examination • Cc = cost of consumables
Services • Pm = plant and maintenance cost
Course in Welding Usually Cw is expressed in price/kg of weld
deposit ie allow comparison between different
(EWF/IIW Diploma)
welding process
Cost for direct welding labour Factors affecting arc time

Factors taken into consideration for direct • Deposition rate (i.e. weight of metal deposited in
welding labour: a unit of time)
• ARC TIME • Weld preparation volume
• Weld joint configuration (straight vs. intricate,
• Time to receive instructions long vs. short runs)
• Time to set welding conditions • Amount of rework
• Deslagging time • Process duty cycle
• Electrode changing and handling Duty cycle 
Time the arc is on
• Waiting time (wait for work piece to be Total time(i.e. arc time  handling  deslagging  set  up  ...)
delivered, moving from one station to

another, etc) 15-
15-30% 15-
15-25% 30-
30-40% for 60-
60-98%
• Relaxation/idle time for MMA for TIG MIG/MAG for SAW
Deposition rate Deposition rate
Process Deposition rate (kg/hr)

TIG 0.25-0.75
MMA 1.5-2.5
MIG/MAG 3.0-5.0
FCAW 3.5-6.0
SAW - single wire 5.0-10.0
SAW - tandem arc 10.0-20.0
Electroslag 8.5-28.0
MMA welding GMAW & FCAW welding
1
Weld preparation volume effect Weld preparation volume effect
Calculating weld volume Cost for associated labour

• Calculating the area of excess weld metal Factors taken into consideration for
t associated labour:
d • Welder assistant cost
t (mm) • Fitter cost
d (mm) 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.3
6.3 52.8 • Machining/cutting cost
9.5 80.0 160.0 • PWHT cost
12.7 107.2 214.4 321.6
15.8 134.4 267.3 401.6
19.0 167.6 320.0 480.0 640.0
22.2 187.2 374.5 561.6 740.0
25.4 214.4 425.8 631.2 854.6
Overhead charges Cost of consumables

Factors taken into consideration for Factors taken into consideration for cost of
overhead charges: consumables:
• Central and line management salaries • Weld metal volume required ie joint
• QC/QA cost geometry
• Design cost • Recovery rates (spatter, stub ends, etc)
• Marketing cost • Welding flux
• Stores, purchasing and sales cost • Non-consumable electrodes
• Shielding/fuel gas
• General administration cost Arc time
• Electricity
Overhead charges=(150-600%)(Direct and
• Consumable/wear parts (contact tips,
associated labour costs)
liners, drive rolls, gas nozzles, etc)
2
Electrode consumption calculation Deposition efficiency calculation
Weld volume  Density
Weight of electrodes required 
Deposition efficiency Weight of deposited weld metal
Deposition efficiency 
Material Density Weight of filler metal used
Al 2.7 gr/cm3
Al-Mg-Cu-Si 2.8 gr/cm3
Cu 8.94 gr/cm3 Process Deposition efficiency
Brass 8.5 gr/cm3 MMA 0.65
Cu-Ni 8.94 gr/cm3 FCAW Innershield 0.82
Ni 8.89 gr/cm3 MIG/MAG 0.92
Inconel 8.43 gr/cm3 TIG 0.98
C steel 7.86 gr/cm3 SAW 0.98
18Cr8Ni steel 8.94 gr/cm3
12Cr12Ni steel 8.94 gr/cm3
Plant and maintenance cost

Factors taken into consideration for plant
and maintenance cost:
• Capital cost of the welding plant
Process Comparative cost of equipment
MMA 1.0
TIG 3.5
MIG/MAG 2.5
SAW 12.0
• Maintenance/repair cost (estimate!)
• Depreciation cost (usually 5-15% of
capital cost!)
3
Section 7
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
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7 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

Non-destructive testing employs physical testing methods to detect
discontinuities in a material, component or structure without harming that
material, component or structure.
Other advantages of NDT over destructive testing are that every item can be
examined with no adverse consequences, materials can be examined for
conditions internally and at the surface and most importantly parts can be
examined whilst in service making a good balance between cost
effectiveness and quality control. NDT is used in almost every industry with
the majority of applications coming from the aerospace, power generation,
automotive, rail, petrochemical and pipeline markets, safety being the main
priority of these industries. When properly applied, NDT saves money, time,
materials and lives. NDT as it is known today has been developing since
around the 1920s with the methods used today taking shape later with vast
technological advancements being made during the Second World War.
The boundaries of NDT as a technology are difficult to define. Visual

inspection plays a very important part in any non-destructive test, but is not
an NDT method. Yet penetrant testing and magnetic particle inspection, the
two more common NDT methods are really only to improve visual inspection
by increasing the visibility of surface defects. Logically, condition monitoring
and even the testing of electronic circuits could be included in NDT. To most
engineers, NDT is employed as an alternative to destructive testing and is
associated in the metal working industries with testing of castings, forgings,
weld and structures. The principal methods used are magnetic particle
inspection, radiography, penetrants and ultrasonics.
An NDT test will detect not only defects that are detrimental to the material
or affect the service life of the component but also other discontinuities
which are not significant. Moreover, it may reveal spurious indications which
are a result of the test itself, film marks on radiographs for example. The
distinction between defects, insignificant discontinuities and spurious
indications is a fine one.
The five principal methods, other than visual inspection, are:
 Penetrant testing.
 Magnetic Particle Inspection.
 Eddy current testing.
 Ultrasonic testing.
 Radiography.
In all NDT methods interpretation of results is critical. Much depends on the

skill and experience of the technician, although properly formulated test
techniques and procedures will improve accuracy and consistency.
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History of NDT methods
7.1 Visual testing (VT)

With sufficient light and access, visual techniques provide simple, rapid
methods of testing whilst also being the least expensive. Visual testing
begins with the eye, but the first boroscopes used a hollow tube and a mirror
with a small lamp at the end to investigate the bores of rifles and cannon for
problems and discontinuities. In the 1950s the lamps were replaced by glass
fibre bundles which were used to transmit the light. These became known
as fibrescopes which were also less rigid, increasing the capabilities of
testing. With usage expanding, many users began to suffer from eye fatigue
which led to the development of video technology. This was first used in the
1970s and relies on electronics to transmit the images rather than
fibreoptics.
Further enhancements to video technology include pan, tilt and zoom

lenses, mounting cameras to platforms and wheels, all allowing more parts
to be tested and better images for improved inspection. Video devices also
allow recording of inspections to be taken meaning permanent records can
be kept. This has a number of advantages such as enabling other
inspectors to observe the test as it was performed and allowing further
review and evaluation.
7.2 Penetrant testing (PT)

A very early surface inspection technique involved the rubbing of carbon
black on glazed pottery, whereby the carbon black would settle in surface
cracks rendering them visible. Later, it became the practice in railway
workshops to examine iron and steel components by the oil and whiting
method. In this method, heavy oil, commonly available in railway workshops,
was diluted with kerosene in large tanks so that locomotive parts such as
wheels could be submerged. After removal and careful cleaning, the surface
was then coated with a fine suspension of chalk in alcohol so that a white
surface layer was formed once the alcohol had evaporated. The object was
then vibrated by being struck with a hammer, causing the residual oil in any
surface cracks to seep out and stain the white coating. This method was in
use from the latter part of the 19th century to approximately 1940, when the
magnetic particle method was introduced and found to be more sensitive for
ferromagnetic iron and steels.
A different (though related) method was introduced in the 1940s. The

surface under examination was coated with a lacquer and after drying, the
sample was caused to vibrate by the tap of a hammer. The vibration causes
the brittle lacquer layer to crack generally around surface defects. The brittle
lacquer (stress coat) has been used primarily to show the distribution of
stresses in a part and not for finding defects.
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Many of these early developments were carried out by Magnaflux in

Chicago USA in association with Switzer Brothers in Cleveland. More
effective penetrating oils containing highly visible (usually red) dyes were
developed by Magnaflux to enhance flaw detection capability. This method
known as the visible or colour contrast dye penetrant method is still used
quite extensively today. In the 1940s, Magnaflux introduced the Zyglo
system of penetrant inspection where fluorescent dyes were added to the
liquid penetrant. These dyes would then fluoresce when exposed to
ultraviolet light (sometimes referred to as black light) rendering indications
from cracks and other surface flaws more readily visible to inspectors. UV
lights have become increasingly portable with hand held UV torches now
readily available.
7.3 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)

The origins of MPI can be traced to the 1860s when cannon barrels were
tested for defects by first magnetising the barrel and then running a
compass down the length of the barrel. By monitoring the needle of the
compass, defects within the barrel could be detected.
This form of NDT became much more common after the First World War, in
the 1920s, when William Hoke discovered that flaws in magnetised
materials created distortions in the magnetic field. When a fine
ferromagnetic powder was applied to the parts, it was observed that they
built up around the defects providing a visible indication.
Magnetic particle inspection superseded the oil and chalk method in the
1930s as it proved far more sensitive to surface breaking flaws. Today it is
still preferred to the penetrant method on ferromagnetic material and much
of the equipment being used then, is very similar to today, with the only
advances coming in the form of fluorescent coating to increase the visibility
of indications and more portable devices being used. In the early days
battery packs and direct current were the norm and it was some years
before alternating current proved acceptable.
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Magnetism
The phenomenon called magnetism is said to have been discovered in the
ancient Greek city of Magnesia, where naturally occurring magnets were
found to attract iron.
The use of magnets in navigation goes back to Viking times or maybe

earlier, where it was found that rods of magnetised material, when freely
suspended, would always point in a north-south direction. The end of the
rod which pointed towards the North Pole star became known as the North
Pole and consequently the other end became the South Pole.
Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) discovered the connection between

electricity and magnetism, to be followed by Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
whose experiments revealed that magnetic and electrical energy could be
interchanged.
7.4 Eddy current testing (ET)

The principles of eddy currents arose in 1831 with Faraday’s discovery of
electromagnetic induction, ET testing methods have their origins in a period
just after the first world war, when materials with a high magnetic
permeability were being developed for electrical power transformer cores
and motor armatures. ET are a considerable nuisance in electrical
engineering, they dissipate heat and efforts to reduce their effect led to a
discovery that they could be used to detect material changes and cracks in
magnetic materials. The first EC testing devices for NDT were by Hughes in
1879 who used the principles of ET to conduct metallurgical sorting tests
and the stray flux tube and bar tester.
It was left to Dr. Friedrich Förster in the late 1940s to develop the modern
day eddy current testing equipment and formulate the theories which govern
their use.
Since then ET methods have developed into a wide range of uses and are
recognised as being the forerunner of NDT techniques today. From the mid
1980s the microprocessor based ET testing instruments were developed
which had many advantages for inspectors. Modern electronics have made
instruments more user friendly, providing reduced noise levels which made
certain test applications very difficult, but also improving methods of signal
presentation and recording capabilities.
Microcomputer chips abound, from giving lift-off suppression in simple crack

detection to providing signal processing for immediate analysis of condenser
tube inspection. As with other testing methods, improvements to the
equipment have been made to increase its portability and computer-based
systems now allow easy data manipulation and signal processing.
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7.5 Ultrasonic testing (UT)

In Medieval times craftsmen casting bells for churches were aware that a
properly cast bell rang true when struck and that a bell with flaws would give
out a false note. This principle was used by wheel-tappers inspecting rolling
stock on the railways, they struck wheels with a hammer and listened to the
note given out. A loose tyre sounded wrong.
The origin of modern ultrasonic testing (UT) is the discovery by the Curie
brothers in 1880 that quartz crystals cut in a certain way produce an electric
potential when subjected to pressure, the piezo-electric effect, from the
Greek piedzein, to press or strike. In 1881 Lippman theorised that the effect
might work in reverse and that quartz crystals might change shape if an
electric current was applied to them. He found this was so and
experimented further. Crystals of quartz vibrate when alternating currents
are applied to them. Crystal microphones in a modern stereo rely on this
principle.
When the Titanic sank in 1912, the admiralty tried to find a way of locating
icebergs by sending out sound waves and listening for an echo. They
experimented further with sound to detect submarines during the First World
War. Between the wars, marine echo sounding was developed and in the
Second World War, Anti-Submarine Detection Investigation Committee
(ASDIC) was extensively used in the Battle of the Atlantic against the
U-boats.
In 1929 a Russian physicist, Sokolov, experimented with through

transmission techniques of passing vibrations through metals to find flaws;
this work was taken up by the Germans. In the 1930s the cathode ray tube
was developed and miniaturised in the Second World War to fit small
airborne radar sets into aircraft. It made the UT set as we know it possible.
Around 1931 Mulhauser obtained a patent for a system using two probes to
detect flaws in solids and following this Firestone (1940) and Simons (1945)
developed pulsed UT using a pulse-echo technique.
In the years after the Second World War researchers in Japan began to
experiment on the use of ultrasound for medical diagnostic purposes.
Working largely in isolation until the 1950s, the Japanese developed
techniques for the detection of gallstones, breast masses, and tumours.
Japan was also the first country to apply Doppler ultrasound, an application
of ultrasound that detects internal moving objects such as blood coursing
through the heart for cardiovascular investigation.
The first flaw detector was made by Sproule in 1942 while he was working
for the Scottish firm Kelvin & Hughes. Similar work was carried out by
Firestone in the USA and by German physicists. Sproule went on to develop
the shear-wave probe.
Over the next 20 years, improvements for focused on accurate detection

and sizing of the flaws. Limited success was produced until 1977 when Silk
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first discovered an accurate measurement and display of the top and bottom
edges of a discontinuity with the Time of Flight technique (TOFD). Computer
technology has expanded the use of TOFD as real time analyses of results
are now available.
It was also during the 1970s that industries focused on reducing the size
and weight of Ultrasonic flaw detectors and making them more portable.
This was achieved by using semi-conductor technology and during the
1990s microchips were introduced into the devices to allow calibration
parameters and signal traces to be stored. LCD display panels and digital
technology have also contributed to reducing the size and weight of
Ultrasonic flaw detectors. With the development of Ultrasonic Phased Array
and increased computing power, the future for Ultrasonic inspection is very
exciting.
7.6 Radiographic testing (RT)

X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923)
who was a Professor at Wϋrzburg University in Germany. Whilst doing some
experiments in which he passed an electric current through Crookes tubes,
an evacuated glass tube with an anode and a cathode. When a high voltage
was applied, the tube produced a fluorescent glow. Roentgen noticed that
some nearby photographic plates became fogged. This caused Roentgen to
conclude that a new type of ray was being emitted from the tube. He
believed that unknown rays were passing from the tube and through the
plates. He found that the new ray could pass through most substances
casting shadows of solid objects. Roentgen also discovered that the ray
could pass through the tissue of humans, but not bones and metal objects.
One of Roentgen's first experiments late in 1895 was a film of the hand of
his wife.
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Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another form of penetrating rays was
discovered. In 1896 French scientist Henri Becquerel discovered natural
radioactivity. Many scientists of the period were working with cathode rays
and other scientists were gathering evidence on the theory that the atom
could be subdivided. Some of the new research showed that certain types of
atoms disintegrate by themselves. It was Becquerel who discovered this
phenomenon while investigating the properties of fluorescent minerals.
One of the minerals Becquerel worked with was a uranium compound. On a

day when it was too cloudy to expose his samples to direct sunlight,
Becquerel stored some of the compound in a drawer with photographic
plates. Later when he developed these plates, he discovered that they were
fogged (exhibited exposure to light). Becquerel questioned what would have
caused this fogging. He knew he had wrapped the plates tightly before using
them, so the fogging was not due to stray light, he also noticed that only the
plates that were in the drawer with the uranium compound were fogged.
Becquerel concluded that the uranium compound gave off a type of
radiation that could penetrate heavy paper and expose photographic film.
Becquerel continued to test samples of uranium compounds and determined
that the source of radiation was the element uranium.
While working in France at the time of Becquerel's discovery, Polish

scientist Marie Curie became very interested in his work. She suspected
that a uranium ore known as pitch-blende contained other radioactive
elements. Marie and her husband, French scientist Pierre Curie, started
looking for these other elements. In 1898, the Curies discovered another
radio-active element in pitchblende, and named it polonium in honour of
Marie’s native homeland. Later that year, the Curies discovered another
radioactive element which they named radium, or shining element. Both
polonium and radium were more radioactive than uranium.
Since these discoveries, many other radioactive elements have been

discovered or produced. Radiography in the form of NDT took shape in the
early 1920s when Dr. H H Lester began testing on different materials.
Radium became the initial industrial gamma ray source. The material
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allowed castings up to 10 to 12 inches thick to be radiographed. During the

Second World War industrial radiography grew tremendously as part of the
Navy's shipbuilding programme. In 1946, man-made gamma ray sources
such as cobalt and iridium became available. These new sources were far
stronger than radium and much less expensive. The man-made sources
rapidly replaced radium, and use of gamma rays grew quickly in industrial
radiography.
William D Coolidge's name is inseparably linked with the X-ray tube

popularly called the Coolidge tube. This invention completely revolutionised
the generation of X-rays and remains the model upon which all X-ray tubes
for medical applications are patterned. He invented ductile tungsten, the
filament material still used in such lamps. He was awarded 83 patents.
Although the theories and practices have changed very little, radiographic
equipment has developed. These developments include better images
through higher quality films and also lighter, more portable equipment.
Digital radiography has recently emerged which allows an image to be
captured, enhanced and stored on a computer system. Digital radiography
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has the advantage of being able to be sent anywhere in the world via email
and also eradicates the problem of images being distorted by poor films and
the deterioration of images over time.
7.7 Visual inspection

Optical aids
Optical viewing devices are a progressive development from the use of a
hand torch and mirror, frequently with the addition of a magnifier and light
source.
In order to achieve accessibility, probe units are available down to a

diameter of the order of 4mm.
Collectively, such instruments are called industrial telescopes, desirable

properties of which are:
 Large field of vision.

 Freedom from distortion of image.
 Accurate preservation of colour values.
 Adequacy of illumination.
For many applications a mandatory requirement is that they are intrinsically

safe, that is ignition proofed against explosive atmospheres.
The light loss in transmission is considerable due to the lens system and
use of mirrors and prisms.
Type of viewing head

Standard viewing objectives are: direct (0), right angle (90), foroblique
(45) and retrospective (110), permitting the inspection of shoulders and
recesses, etc.
Industrial telescopes are available under many proprietary names. Typical

are boreoscopes, endoscopes and intrascopes. Frequently these are
custom build.
A recent device has a half inch diameter probe, sectionalised, permitting a

maximum of 12m extension with a 360o motorised scanning head (for
circumferential welds) and the facility to select a times six magnifier.
Flexible borescopes
One development is that of fibre optics or fibre bundles consisting of finely
extruded strands of glass which, if maintained in a coherent bundle (the
glass fibres are held in the same relative position at each end), have a high
light transmittance whilst the assembly or bundle remains flexible.
An objection to the use of these fibres for image transmission is the

fragmentation of the image due the intercies (gaps) between the fibre
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strands. To reduce this problem image bundles use finer glass strands,
typically 8m as opposed to the 30m used in fibre light guides used with
conventional viewing systems.
A development of the fibre light guide is the liquid light guide which replaces
the glass fibre bundle with a liquid filled polymer tube. Light output is
increased as the intercies are eliminated, however these can only be used
for light transmission.
Video scopes
The miniaturisation of CCD cameras has allowed considerable
developments to be made with flexible borescope systems. The coherent
light bundle has been replaced with a CCD camera, with increasingly high
resolution. The digitisation of the image transmission has allowed various
processes to be carried out on it, from simple capture on electronic media to
detailed measurement and video recording.
TV cameras
TV cameras are available for internal inspection but due to the capital
involvement of closed circuit TV it is usual to utilise a subcontracting service
when such an inspection is necessary.
7.8 NDT methods

This section deals with 5 principal methods in more detail under the
following headings.
Principles
A brief mention is made of the theory behind the method.
Equipment
The common types of equipment are considered.
Applications
A list of common applications for the method given.
Advantages and disadvantages

For effective use of NDT the relative merits of each method should be
compared.
7.8.1 Penetrant testing

Principles
Penetrants improve the sensitivity of visual inspection by increasing the
contrast of surface-breaking discontinuities with the background colour of
the test surface.
Penetrants are liquids of intense colour which flow into surface-breaking

cracks and cavities by capillary action. After a suitable contact time, typically
fifteen minutes, excess penetrant on the surface is carefully removed.
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Penetrant left within cracks and cavities bleeds onto the surface. A fine
coating of white developer powder is applied to the surface to increase
bleed-out and improve contrast.
Equipment
Equipment used for penetrant NDT can be as simple as aerosol cans or as
complex as a computer-controlled system with several processing stages.
Aerosol kits
For on site use the chemicals applied in a penetrant test come in three
aerosol cans:
The first contains the penetrant which is spayed liberally onto the surface of
the test piece and left for fifteen to thirty minutes.
The second contains the solvent cleaner which is sprayed onto a cleaning
cloth and wiped over the test surface, initially to remove any surface
contaminants prior to testing and secondly to remove excess penetrant. It is
never sprayed directly onto the surface, if it is, the solvent liquid quickly
dissolves away penetrant inside cracks and cavities, with the result that
indications are lost.
The third contains a non-aqueous wet developer in which a fine white

powder is suspended in a volatile solvent. After spraying a thin coating of
developed onto the test surface, the solvent quickly evaporates leaving the
powder to draw the penetrant out of cracks and cavities. Development
should be viewed over a period of thirty minutes.
Aerosol kits are used conveniently on site where there is no electric power
supply. Penetrants with an intense red colour were developer for this
purpose. Alternatively where a power supply is available for black-light,
fluorescent penetrants may be used, which have a higher contrast colour
than visible dyes.
Penetrant systems
For testing large batches of small components the stages in penetrant NDT
can be automated. Chemicals are applied by spraying or immersing the test
piece and additional stages are included in the process to improve test
sensitivity. Fluorescent or red penetrants are available that are water-
washable, post-emulsifiable or solvent- removable.
Applications
1 Turbine blades and other small aircraft components are tested in
batches on penetrant system.
2 Testing for surface cracks in austenitic welds and aluminium welds.
3 Inspecting castings and forgings made out of copper and aluminium
alloys.
4 For highlighting porosity caused by corrosion in aircraft structures.
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5 For determining whether cracks have penetrated the through-thickness

of a structure.
Advantages
1 Penetrants are simple to use.
2 Can be used on a wide variety of materials including metals, plastics and
glass.
3 Small objects of awkward shape can be tested.
4 Red penetrants can be used without the need for a power supply.
5 Small objects can be processed in batches.
6 The method is sensitive to the most important weld effects ie those
which break the surface.
Disadvantages
1 Defects must be open to the surface.
2 Pre-cleaning is essential.
3 Removal of excess penetrant from the test surface must be done
carefully.
4 Test procedures take up to one hour to complete.
5 Interpretation of indications can be difficult. There can be many spurious
indications.
6 On site, the method is restricted to dry test conditions at moderate
temperatures.
7 It is often difficult to get consistent results.
8 Penetrants can contaminate the test piece.
7.8.2 Magnetic particle inspection

Principles
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) is an NDT method which uses magnetic
particles to detect surface and under special circumstances, sub-surface,
discontinuities in a magnetised test piece.
The method can only be used on materials which are strongly

ferromagnetic. It relies on the contrast between magnetic particles caught in
the magnetic flux leakage around discontinuities and the background colour
of the test surface.
The amount of flux leakage and therefore the contrast of the indication is
dependent upon:
 A large difference in magnetic permeability between discontinuity and

parent material.
Magnetic permeability is the ratio of flux density (B) to applied magnetic field
(H). A crack in a magnetised steel plate is a (air) gap which breaks the
magnetic circuit. The permeability of air is unity. That of mild steel is eight
hundred. For a given value of H, the flux density in the air gap is 1/800th of
the flux density in the parent plate. The magnetic flux will therefore leak from
the surface, creating poles which will attract the magnetic particles.
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Flux leakage
N
N S Ferromagnetic
N
S particle
S
S S N
S N N
N S N S
S N
Magnetic Lines
of Flux Crack
Magnetic particle aggregation around a crack
 Orientation of planar discontinuities to the magnetic field. Maximum flux

leakage can be expected where the field is perpendicular to the plane of
the defect. Minimum flux leakage can be expected where the field is at
45o to the plane of the defect.
 The density of flux near the surface of the test piece. Flux density will be
high in strong magnetic fields and in materials of high magnetic
permeability. The use of alternating magnetic fields increases the density
of flux near the surface because of the skin effect.
Equipment
Magnetising apparatus
 Electro and permanent magnets, which produce longitudinal magnetic
fields. Permanent magnets have the advantage of not needing a power
supply but recent standards restrict their use to agreements between
contracting parties. Electromagnets on the other hand give improved
sensitivity by inducing alternating and pulsed magnetic fields
 Prods and flexible cables, which produce circular magnetic fields

although the cables can be looped to produce longitudinal fields. High
amperage currents are required and so heavy transformers are a
necessary part of the equipment.
 Prods are, electrodes which supply current directly to the test piece.
Care must be taken not to cause arcing or burning at the prod contacts,
and prods must never be used on aircraft structures.
 Flexible cables can be arranged in a variety of configurations to give a

magnetic field.
 Bench units, which can produce both circular and longitudinal fields in a
test piece. Large units can magnetise with currents up to 10,000A.
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Directing medium
Magnetic particles can be used as dry powders or as suspensions in
paraffin or water. The colours can be red, black or fluorescent.
Black particles are normally used after applying a thin coating of white
contrast paint to the test surface.
Fluorescent particles give high contrast without contrast paint. They are
preferred for inspecting forgings with a complex shape which are being
tested in a magnetising bench unit.
Ink concentrations should be carefully monitored and kept within limits

specification by testing standards. Magnetic particles have a high specific
gravity and agitation should be continual to keep them suspended in the
inks.
Powders are more popular in the USA than in Europe. They are always
used on hot surfaces where inks may cause contamination or create a fire
hazard.
Electronic methods have been developed for detecting flux leakage fields
around surface cracks and cavities and their use will probably become more
widespread in the future. At present they are confined to very special
applications, for testing hot bar and billet for example.
Accessories
 Flux indicators are used to indicate the strength and direction of the
applied magnetic field. They do not indicate the flux density inside the
test piece and therefore the strength of any flux leakage. Since they
ignore the nature of the test material they give misleading indications on
non-magnetic materials.
 Field indicators will detect any residual magnetic poles that are a
consequence of longitudinal magnetisation. But they do not detect
residual circular fields.
 Flux meters give an accurate measure of the applied magnetic field.
 Demagnetisers are often necessary to remove residual magnetic fields
during a magnetising sequence or before most MPI processes.
 Standard test blocks - specified by BS 6072 (now obsolete) are used to
assess the longitudinal and circular fields generated by a magnetising
bench unit.
 Sediment flasks are necessary for measuring ink concentrations.
 Black lights to be used with fluorescent inks, should be checked regularly
with a black light monitor in accordance with EN ISO 3059.
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Applications
1 Weld testing - in particular of fillet welds in T joints.
2 Underwater weld testing - of offshore structures and jetties.
3 Last castings - in the foundry using flexible cables and prods.
4 Small forged components.
Advantages
1 The method is simple to operate.
2 It is very sensitive to surface cracks.
3 Will detect some sub-surface defects.
4 Pre-cleaning not as critical as with PT.
5 It can be used on components with awkward shapes.
6 A rapid rate of inspection is attainable.
7 A permanent record can be made using lacquers instead of inks.
8 The method is suitable for difficult on site applications, for example
underwater
Disadvantages
1 Test materials must be ferromagnetic.
2 High magnetising currents may cause arcing or burning.
3 Magnetisation must be in at least two directions 90o to each other.
4 Spurious indications can make interpretation difficult.
5 Demagnetisation may be required
7.8.3 Eddy current inspection

ET inspection is based on inducing electrical currents in the material being
inspected and observing the interaction between those currents and the
material. ET are generated by coils in the test probe and monitored
simultaneously by measuring the coils electrical impedance. As it is an
electromagnetic induction process, direct electrical contact with the sample
is not required; but the material must be an electrical conductor.
Principles
Generation of ETs
ETs are electrical currents induced in metals by alternating magnetic fields.

They are closed loops of current which circulate in a plane perpendicular to
the magnetic flux except at the surface where they flow parallel with that
surface.
For ET testing, the magnetic fields are generated by a coil carrying high
frequency AC. When the coil is brought into close proximity with a metal, the
alternating magnetic field induces the eddy currents. The eddy currents are
encircled by their own magnetic fields which are in a direction to oppose the
field from the coil which is generating them. They therefore have a choking
effect on the coil current. The choking effect, which is reflected in the coil's
impedance, is monitored by the eddy current instrument.
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Probe – Primary
circuit
Φp
Induced eddy-currents Φs
flowing in the opposite
direction from the Sample –
primary current through Secondary
the coil. circuit
Test material - conductor
Fluctuations in the ET field due to variations in the metal's properties near

the surface, cause changes in the coil's impedance. These are the test
signals. It is difficult to understand the process without the conceptual
models of the physicist. These are enshrined in the classical laws of
Faraday and Lenz and in Maxwell's equations.
Factors effecting ET
The most important test variable is the frequency of the current sent through
the test coil. ET testing is carried out at frequencies from a few Hertz to
several megaHertz.
The most important effect of test frequency is upon the depth of penetration
of the ET field. As the frequency increases so the depth of penetration
decreases. This is known as skin effect and it can be defined by the formula:
660

f   
where:
 is the standard depth of penetration in mm

f is the frequency in Hertz
 is the conductivity in %IACS
 is the relative permeability.
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The standard depth of penetration is defined as the depth below the surface
1
at which the intensity of the ET field has been reduced to a value of of its
e
intensity at the surface. The function e is the base of natural logarithms.
The standard depth of penetration is also dependent upon the conductivity

and permeability of the material.
Conductivity is a measure of the ease with which electrons flow in a material

and will therefore determine the ET density. Permeability is the ease in
which the material is magnetised and also has a dominant effect on ET. The
noise created by permeability changes in ferrous welds makes the eddy
current technique a difficult method to apply to weld inspection.
Permeability is affected by:
 Thermal processing history.

 Working.
 Internal stresses.
 Temperature.
 Chemical composition.
Permeability has a very strong effect. Unless it can be removed from a

ferromagnetic by saturation, the ET are going to be contained to within a few
microns of the surface. Beyond saturation a ferromagnetic behaves as a
paramagnetic with a relative permeability of 1.
Conductivities and magnetic permeability
Materials IACS, % Max. rel 

Silver 105 1
Copper 100 1
Aluminium 61 1
7075-T6 32 1
Carbon 0.1%C steel 9.5 1950
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Standard depth of Figure 4.1b Skin of eddy currents

penetration. around a slot.
Edge Effect ( Figure 2)
Edge effect is the name given to the ET test noise caused by contours and
edges to the test surface. Signals from cracks emanating from an edge can
be difficult to detect unless the edge effect can first be zeroed out on the
meter.
Figure 2. Edge effect
Lift-off (Figure 3)
Lift-off is the term given to the ET test response to lifting a surface coil from
the test surface. As the coil moves away, the magnetic coupling to the ET
field weakens very rapidly..
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Figure 3. Lift-off
Discontinuities (Figure 4)
Only discontinuities which distort the ET field will give rise to ET test signals.
Laminations parallel with the test surface will not be detected.
The deflection on the meter of an ET instrument cannot be used to measure

the depth of a surface crack. The crack may give the same meter deflection
as a 1mm deep slot in a calibration bock but that does not mean that the
crack is 1mm deep. The angle of declination, surface roughness and width
of the crack will be different enough for the slot to make quantitative
comparisons misleading.
Figure 4. Discontinuities
Equipment
The instruments used in ET testing range from pocket-sized paint-thickness
gauges to computer-controlled automated test systems. We shall
concentrate on the meter reading and cathode ray tube display types.
Meter reading instruments

ET testing instruments that are meter reading are simple to use and the
meter can be calibrated to measure conductivity, crack severity, paint
thickness or many other test variables.
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Vector point display

Most modern ET test instruments use a CRT or LCD display which
simulates part of the impedance diagram.
Figure 5. Vector point display.
The equipment should be balanced with the probe down on the test surface.
Lifting the probe up will show the lift-off plane. This is usually rotated until it
moves off to the left of the screen. The probe can then be moved over slots
and towards the sides of a slotted test block to give the crack and edge
effect signals. The sensitivity control is used to alter the amplitudes of the
signals. The frequency control will alter the phase angle between the
signals.
Probes
Eddy current test probes come in many forms. When selecting a probe there
is the coil arrangement to consider and its effect on sensitivity. The coil size
is constrained by high inductive reactance at high frequencies. Surface
probes may need to be shaped to reach confined spaces. Encircling probes
and internal bobbin probes should fit the tube as closely as possible. Finally,
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the probe has to match the circuitry of the instrument. There is not the
interchangeability that is found in ultrasonic test equipment.
Often it is necessary to make special probes and a probe-making facility

becomes necessary where eddy current testing is used on a wide range of
component shapes.
Coil arrangements (Figure 6)

The coil arrangements can be classified into four types.
Single absolute coils have the same coil to drive the ET and receive signals
due to changes in the ET flow. The circuit is suitable for the simple high
frequency crack detectors where signals are confined to amplitude changes
and noise from the sub-surface ET field is negligible.
The double absolute coil arrangement has one coil to drive the ET and
another to receive the test signals. The voltage in the receiver coil is
induced by ET and the current in driver coil. It is much less than the voltage
in the driver coil alone and there is a higher signal-to-noise ratio.
Single differential coils do not respond to gradual changes that would

generate unacceptable levels of noise in absolute coils, they detect only the
ends of continuous uniform defects lying parallel with probe travel.
By having a separate driver coil from the differential receiver coil in a double
differential coil arrangement, noise levels are further reduced.
Figure .6 Coil arrangements.
Surface probes (Figure 7)

The simplest surface probes are pencil probes. These are used at high
frequencies to detect surface-breaking flaws. In shielded pencil probes the
coil is in a ferrite housing that pulls in the coil's external field to reduce edge
effects. Lower frequency probes have larger coil diameters and usually
double differential coil arrangements.
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Figure 7. Surface probes.
Encircling probes (Figure 8)

For tube, rod and wire testing, the coil is wrapped around the aperture of the
probe and as close to the surface as possible.
Figure 8. Encircling probe.
Internal bobbin probes (Figure 9)

To inspect condenser tubes in heat exchangers, the probe must be inserted
into the tube as there is no access to the outside.
Figure 9. Internal bobbin probe.
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Calibration blocks
Calibration blocks are a vital part of eddy current testing. The tests rely on
the appropriate design of calibration blocks and reference standards to an
extent greater than in any other NDT method. ET fields are too complex for
any quantitative assessments of signals. Signals can only be compared with
those from known discontinuities. Cracks must be compared with slots
thinning with stepped wedges, tube wall defects with through drilled holes
and conductivity measurements with IACS test blocks.
Slotted calibration blocks (Figure 10)

High frequency surface crack detectors are calibrated on blocks of the test
material which contain 0.5 and 1.0mm deep spark eroded slots. Aluminium,
mild steel and austenitic stainless steel blocks are readily supplied.
On no account should measurement of crack depth be based on

comparisons with the reference deflections. Crack morphology will differ
greatly from that of the slot.
In all cases, the calibration block sets the sensitivity level only. Lift-off and
zero have to be reset when the probe is moved to the test piece.
Figure 10. HF slotted calibration block.
Step wedges (Figure 11)

The meter deflection can be set to indicate wall thinning in a thin metal
plate. The frequency is set to give a standard depth of penetration just
beyond the plate thickness, but not so great as to be affected by deeper
metal substrates.
Figure 11. Step wedge.
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Tube standards (Figure 12)

Manufactured tube is usually tested for through defects that may cause
leaks. The through drilled hole therefore gives a suitable reference signal.
For condenser tube inspection, corrosion on the inner tube surface has to
be distinguished from corrosion on the outer tube surface. This is done by
setting up the instrument on tubes containing machined slots or flats.
Manufactured tube
Condenser tube
Figure 12. Tube standards.
Applications
1 Conductivity measurement.
2 Measurement of non-conductive coatings (paint).
3 Material sorting.
4 Weld inspection.
5 Aerospace inspection.
6 Tube inspection.
Advantages
1 Sensitive to surface defects.
2 Can detect through several layers.
3 Can detect through surface coatings.
4 Accurate conductivity measurements.
5 Can be automated.
6 Little pre-cleaning required.
7 Portability.
Disadvantages
1 Very susceptible to permeability changes.
2 Only on conductive materials.
3 Will not detect defects parallel to surface.
4 Not suitable for large areas and/or complex geometries.
5 Signal interpretation required.
6 No permanent record (unless automated).
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7.8.4 Ultrasonics
Principles
In the pulse echo method of testing, short pulses of high frequency
ultrasound are propagated along a narrow beam into the test piece. Where
the pulses strike the sides of the test piece or discontinuities within the test
piece, some of the ultrasound is reflected back along the incident beam.
These echoes are detected and their flight times measured electronically.
Sound propagates through a medium at a constant velocity which is a

characteristic of that material. Echo flight times can therefore be calibrated
directly for distance.
Ultrasound frequency is selected as a balance between penetrating and

resolving power. Generally frequencies between 6-10MHz give high
resolving power and low penetrating power and is used in aerospace
applications. Low frequencies between 0.5-2.5MHz give low resolving power
but high penetrating power are used to test castings. Between these two
ranges lies a frequency band suitable for weld testing. Besides
characteristic velocity and frequency a third feature of ultrasonics is wave
mode.
Compression or longitudinal waves are generated in a beam normal (ie 90°)

to the test surface and are used in plate testing, castings inspection and in
taking thickness measurements.
By using probes with the transducer placed on a wedge the compression

waves are converted to shear or transverse waves in the test piece. Shear
wave angle probes are used in weld testing or where the shape of the test
piece dictates the use of sound beams angled into critical test areas.
Equipment
Ultrasonic test equipment

The ultrasonic test equipment has two components, a probe containing the
piezoelectric transducer for transmitting and receiving pulses of ultrasound
and an electronic instrument for driving the probe transducer detecting
signals from the transducer and measuring pulse flight times and
amplitudes.
Conventional ultrasonic test equipment uses a cathode ray tube (CRT) or

LCD screen to display electronic signals from echoes picked up by the
probe. The screen displays an A-scan which is calibrated to give pulse
beam path distances.
In instruments for thickness gauging only, the screen is replaced by a digital

readout, this is calibrated for the material being tested. Again this leads to
direct measurements of thickness from measurements of the time of flight of
the ultrasound pulses. The backwall signal, displayed on an A-scan is not
visible and much useful information is lost. For corrosion surveys for
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example, where conical shaped pits are expected in the backwall, their
presence may not be evident in a survey using a digital ultrasonic thickness
gauge. Ultrasonic test equipment with an A-scan display is then essential to
detect their presence.
Portable ultrasonic flaw detection equipment used for weld inspection

usually contains the following:
Ultrasonic flaw detector with batteries and charger

Coaxial cables
Twin 0  probe 
45  probe 
60  probe  5 MHz and 2 . 5 MHz probes
70  probe 

Calibration block
Flaw location slide
Ultrasonic flaw detector
Controls
 Gain.
 On/off and mode.
 Range.
 Probe delay.
 A-scan display.
 Coaxial cable.
 Probe.
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Digital ultrasonic thickness gauge
Controls
 Zero.
 Calibration velocity.
 Digital display.
 Probe.
Applications
1 Weld inspection - particularly of butt welds in T joints and nozzle welds.
2 Plate testing.
3 Axle testing.
4 Residual wall thickness measurements.
5 Liquid level measurements.
6 Crack depth measurements.
7 Testing forgings using an immersion’ technique.
Advantages
1 Access is needed to one side only.
2 By testing with all available probe angles, it is very sensitive to planar
defects.
3 Defects located in 3-dimensions.
4 Rapid inspection speeds.
5 Provides real time information that can be processed electronically to
give audible/visual alarms, operate sorting gates or for storage on tapes
or discs.
6 Good penetrating power is given at low frequencies.
7 Portable equipment is inexpensive and can be operated in almost any
environment.
Disadvantages
1 No permanent record is directly available (unless automated).
2 Signal interpretation requires a high degree of skill.
3 Defect sizing not very accurate.
4 Difficult to measure large numbers of volumetric defects.
5 Ultrasound coupling with the test piece difficult on rough surfaces.
6 Unsuited to coarse grained materials.
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7.8.5 Radiography
Principles
Radiography monitors the varying transmission of ionising radiation through
a material with the aid of film or fluorescent screens to detect changes in
density and thickness. It will locate internal and surface breaking defects.
It uses X and gamma radiations to penetrate through the test piece and
leave an image on a photographic emulsion. Discontinuities in the test piece
affect the density of the photographic image. A cavity for example absorbs
less radiation than the parent material and its image appears black on the
developed film.
The radiographic image.
Equipment
X-radiography
X-rays are produced by bombarding a tungsten target with a stream of
electrons inside an evacuated container. The X-ray head consists of a
cathode with an incandescent filament that supplies the electrons and an
anode containing the tungsten target. A Benson Line focus ensures that a
narrow beam of X-rays passes through the beryllium window of the
evacuated container.
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The milliamperage supplied to the filament controls the quantity of radiation

produced. The kilovoltage between the electrodes controls the energy level
and therefore the penetrating power of the X-rays.
Target in
Benson Line
Filament focus
Anode Cooling fins
Cathode
The X-ray tube. Beryllium window
Gamma radiography
Gamma-rays are a result of decay of unstable radioactive isotopes. Not all
radioactive isotopes produce gamma-rays and of those which do, only a few
are suitable for industrial radiography. These are:
Half life Energy level

Iridium-192 74 days 300-600keV
Cobalt-60 5-26 years 1,170-1,330keV
Ytterbium-169 32 days 50-300keV
Source exposure
point Isotope
Wind-out
Portable gamma-ray equipment.
When not in use, the isotope is kept within a lead lined container. From here
it is pushed to the exposure point along a tube, while the operator maintains
a safe distance at the end of the wind-out cable.
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7.9 Comparison between X and gamma sources

Advantages of gamma sources
1 No electrical supplies are needed.
2 Generally the equipment used with gamma radiation sources is smaller
and more portable than an X-ray machine.
3 The equipment is simple, robust and ideal for use in the field.
4 Positions inaccessible to X-ray apparatus can be accessible to gamma
sources.
5 Greater penetrating power can be obtained than with conventional X-ray
machines.
6 Generally the use of a gamma-ray source will mean that there is less
scatter (higher energy and small concentrated source).
Disadvantages of gamma ray sources

1 They have a low rate of output compared with an X-ray tube and so
exposure times are much longer.
2 Due to the low output, the source to film distance is likely to be made as
short as possible. This will cause greater geometrical unsharpness for
the same size of source.
3 Contrast is lower than with X-rays and so the ability to detect flaws is
reduced.
4 At higher energies the graininess of the film is larger than at lower
energies. This is because a single quantum of radiation of high energy
causes more grains to become ionised than a single quantum of
radiation of lower energy because the path length of the electrons is
greater at higher energies. Single g radiation is generally of higher
energy than X-radiation, gamma-radiographs are usually grainier than X-
radiographs.
5 It is necessary to possess long handled tongs and other remote handling
gear for source manipulation.
6 Gamma sources must be replaced. The actual frequency depends on
the half life, but sources are commonly used for one or two half lives.
Image quality indicators (IQIs)

Step-hole and wire type IQIs are used to assess the contrast and definition
of the radiographic image. The recent duplex-wire type gives a measure of
definition only.
Before an exposure the IQI is placed on the source side of the test object in
a position from which it will throw an image with the greatest geometric
unsharpness. That is to say on the maximum thickness of the object near
the edge of the area of interest to be shown on the radiograph.
Wire type IQIs can be placed across the object while step-hole type IQIs
may have to be placed on shims if they are not to shadow areas of interest
on the radiograph.
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The dimensions of the IQI elements are given by the relevant standards.
The image contrast and definition are given by a measure of radiographic
sensitivity.
Diameter of smallest visible hole

Radiographic sensitivity  x100%
Thickness of test object
Diameter of smallest visible wire
or x 100%
Thickness of test object
In weld radiography a sensitivity of 2% or better is aimed for.
Step-hole type.
Wire type.
Duplex type.
Image quality indicators (IQIs).
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Applications for radiography

1 Pipeline weld inspections - internal - using X or gamma-ray crawlers.
2 Pipe weld inspections - external - using X and gamma-ray.
3 Welders' test pieces - permanent record.
4 Last castings - for void and segregation content.
5 Pipework corrosion surveys - using double-wall double-image shots with
gamma radiation.
6 Submarine or surface ship insert welds.
Advantages
1 A permanent record is produced.
2 Good for measuring volumetric defects (porosity, inclusions).
3 Can be used on a wide variety of materials.
4 The method makes it possible to inspect in accessible structures and
assemblies.
Disadvantages
1 Ionising radiation is a serious health hazard.
2 A time consuming process when film development is taken into account.
3 Expensive both in capital costs and in providing radiographic film.
4 Two sides of test piece have to be accessible.
5 Interpretation of radiographs requires skill.
6 Can be sensitive to defect orientation and so can miss planar flaws.
7.10 Radiological protection

X and gamma-rays are harmful to life and radiological protection is of vital
importance in radiographic practice.
Persons employed in using ionising radiations must study the laws and
codes of practice.
Here are a few important points:
 The effects of ionising radiation on the human body are cumulative.

People are allowed a maximum dose of radiation over a lifetime and this
is used to set the maximum permissible level (MPL) of exposure. If the
MPL is exceeded at any one time, then the worker must not be exposed
further to radiation until a time has lapsed for the dosage to fall below the
MPL.
Persons under 18 years of age must not be exposed to ionising radiation.
 The radiation doses received by people working with ionising radiations

are carefully monitored, which is a requirement of law. The doses
received are measured on a thermoluminescent dosemeter (TLD) that is
worn during working hours. The TLDs are sent periodically to DRPS
Alverstoke where the dosages are measured.
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 People not classified for work with ionising radiation must be kept from
entering exposure areas.
On-site exposure areas will be cordoned off with radiation notices and
audiovisual warnings. A radiation meter is used to demarcate the boundary
where the dose falls below the MPL for unclassified persons.
Where space is restricted, the exposure area will be enclosed in a lead lined
exposure bay. The bay will have interlocking safety devices to prevent
people from being trapped inside during exposures.
 Radioactive isotopes are kept in safe containers when not in use.

Several designs are available that safely expose and retract the isotope
from its container during use.
Exposures are kept as short as possible.
7.11 Choice of method

Before deciding on a particular NDT inspection method it is advantageous to
have certain information:
 Reason for inspection, to detect cracks, sort between materials, check

assembly, etc.
 Likely orientation of planar discontinuities if they are the answer to the
above question.
 Type of material.
 Likely position of discontinuities.
 Geometry and thickness of object to be tested.
 Accessibility.
This information can be derived from:
 Product knowledge.
 Previous failures.
Accuracy of critical sizing of indications varies from method to method.
7.11.1 Penetrant testing

Aka: liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) or dye penetrant inspection (DPI)
The length of a surface-breaking discontinuity can be determined readily,
but the depth dimensions can only be assessed subjectively by observing
the amount of bleed out.
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)/magnetic testing (MT)

The length of a discontinuity can be determined from the indication, but no
assessment of discontinuity depth can be made.
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Eddy current testing (ET)

The length of a discontinuity can be determined. The depth of a discontinuity
or material thinning can be determined by amplitude measurement, phase
measurement or both, but the techniques for critical sizing are somewhat
subjective.
Ultrasonic testing (UT)

The length and position of a discontinuity can be determined. Depth
measurements are more difficult but crack tip diffraction or time-of-flight
techniques can give good results.
Radiographic testing (RT)

The length and plan view position can be determined. Through-thickness
positioning requires additional angulated exposures to be taken. The
through-thickness dimension of discontinuities cannot readily be
determined.
7.12 NDT certification schemes

CSWIP – certification scheme for personnel
Managed by TWI Certification Ltd (TWICL), a TWI Group company formed

in 1993 to separate TWI’s activities in the field of personnel and company
certification thus ensuring continued compliance with international standards
for certification bodies and is accredited by UKAS to ISO 17024.
TWICL establishes and implements certification schemes, approves training

courses and authorises examination bodies and assessors in a large variety
of inspection fields, including; non-destructive testing (NDT), welding and
plant inspectors, welding supervisors, welding coordination, plastic welders,
underwater inspectors, integrity management, general inspection of offshore
facilities, cathodic protection and heat treatment.
TWI Certification Ltd

Granta Park,
Great Abington,
Cambridge CB21 6AL,
UK
Tel: +44 (0) 1223 899000
Fax: +44 (0) 1223 894219
Email: twicertification@twi.co.uk
Website: www.cswip.com
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7.13 PCN personal certification in NDT

Managed and marketed by the British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing
(BINDT) which owns and operates the PCN Certification Scheme, it offeres
a UKAS accreditied certification of competence for NDT and condition
monitoring in a variety of product sectors.
The British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing

1 Spencer Parade,
Northampton,
NN1 5AA,
UK
Tel: +44 (0)1604 259056
Fax: +44 (0)1604 823725
Email: pcn@bindt.org
Website: http://www.bindt.org/Certification/General_Information
Both schemes offer NDT certification conforming to both EN 473 and ISO
9712; Qualification and Certification of NDT personnel.
7.14 Standards and specifications

BS EN 1330-1, 2 Non-destructive testing – Terminology.
Penetrant testing
BS EN ISO 12706 Non-destructive testing – Terminology –
Penetrant Testing.
BS EN 571-1 Penetrant Testing – General Principles.
BS EN ISO 3452-2 Penetrant Testing – Testing of penetrant materials.
BS EN ISO 3452-3 Penetrant Testing – Reference test blocks.
BS EN ISO 3452-4 Penetrant Testing – Equipment.
BS EN ISO 23277 Penetrant Testing of welds – acceptance levels.
Magnetic particle inspection

BS EN ISO 1330-5 Non-destructive testing – Terminology – Magnetic
testing.
BS EN ISO 17638 Methods for magnetic particle testing of welds.
BS EN ISO 23278 Methods for magnetic particle testing of welds –
acceptance levels.
BS EN ISO 9934 Methods of magnetic particle flaw detection.
BS 6072 Method for magnetic particle flaw detection
(superseded but very useful as it contains info
removed from 9934).
7-35
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Eddy current testing

BS EN ISO 1330-5 Non-destructive testing – Terminology.
BS EN12084 Eddy Current testing – General Principles.
BS EN 13860-1,2,3 Eddy Current testing – Equipment characteristics.
Ultrasonic testing
BS EN ISO 1330-4 Non-destructive testing – Terminology – Ultrasonic
testing.
BS EN 583 Ultrasonic examination.
BS EN 12668 Characterization and verification of ultrasonic
examination equipment.
BS EN 1714 Ultrasonic Testing of welded joints.
BS EN 12223 Ultrasonic examination - Specification for calibration
block No.1.
BS EN 27963 Ultrasonic examination - Specification for calibration
block No. 2 for ultrasonic examination of welds.
BS 3923-2 Methods for ultrasonic examination of welds.
Radiographic testing
BS EN 444 General principles for radiographic examination of
metallic materials by X- and gamma-rays.
BS EN 462 Image quality of radiographs.
BS EN 584 Industrial radiographic film.
BS EN 1435 Radiographic testing of welded joints.
BS 499 (obs) Part 3. Terminology of and abbreviations for fusion

welded imperfections (see Table on following page)
[now withdrawn]
7-36
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BS 499 Part 3. Terminology of and abbreviations for fusion welded imperfections as revealed by
Method Surface flaws Sub-surface flaws Limiting factors Comments
Visual Efficiency depends on degree of Not applicable Lighting is very important. Low cost increasing
surface penetration An appropriate etch aids rapidly if high
flaw detection as does magnification is used,
magnification from about capital investment can be
x7 to about x30 high if sophisticated.
Aids such as television
are used.
Penetrants (dye Can be very sensitive, regardless Not detectable No geometrical influences Low cost, trained
and fluorescent) of the type of material other than the length and operators, low skill level.
width of the defect. Can be semi-automated.
Cleanliness and surface Magnetic particle method
condition. preferred where
applicable.
Magnetic particle Very sensitive in ferromagnetic Debatable. Special Direct orientation. Trained operators, low
inspection materials. technique advisable (eg Magnetisation in two skip level. Can be semi-
pulsed DC or rectified AC) directions preferred. automated, consumables
inexpensive, capital
dependent on system of
magnetisation.
Radiography (X or Low in sensitivity depending Easily detectable but Radiation is best directed High capital cost and high
gamma) upon depth of surface there are limitations on through maximum running costs
discontinuity. size and orientation of dimensions of defect (consumable). Trained
flaw and thickness of eg along the plane of a skipped operators. Health
material. crack. hazard. Permanent record
Beam angle to defect is
critical
Ultrasonics Surface waves find some Easily detectable but Generally beam of Capital cost low, highly
application limitation on size, ultrasound is best directed trained and skilled
orientation and/or at optimum angle for operators.
grouping. Sometimes also reflection. Readily automated.
on depth of flaw within Material surface condition.
material.
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7.15 Questions: Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
1 What are the advantages and limitations of the magnetic and penetrant
techniques as applied to weldments?
2 What are the advantages and limitations of X and  radiography?
3 Which NDT technique(s) would be most appropriate to detect lack of sidewall

fusion in a 1mm butt joint made by the MAG (dip transfer) process?
4 Which NDT techniques would be most appropriate to check the following?
a 150mm diameter x 8mm thick steel pipe on a remote site butt weld.
b 1mm thick aluminium butt weld.
c 25mm thick full penetration tee joint for a critical load bearing application in
carbon steel.
d 3mm thick cupro-nickel butt weld.
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What is NDT?
Non-Destructive Testing is the generic

General Introduction to title given to those methods of testing,
Non Destructive Testing Methods examination or inspection, which by
virtue of the methods used, do not
TWI Training & Examination Services render the material, component or
structure unfit for further use.
EWF/IIW Diploma
(FAA1)
Conventional NDT methods Advanced NDT methods
• Visual Testing • Time of Flight Diffraction

• Penetrant Testing • Phased Array Ultrasonics
• Magnetic Particle Inspection • Digital Radiography
• Eddy Current Testing • Alternating Current Field Measurement
• Ultrasonic Testing • Acoustic Emission
• Radiographic Testing • Laser Shearography
- including Radiographic Interpretation • Remote Field Eddy Current
• Magnetic Flux Leakage
Use of NDT methods – WHY? Certification Schemes
• Flaw Detection and Evaluation • EN 473 / ISO 9712 (3rd party certification)
• Dimensional Measurements – PCN
• Structure and Microstructure – CSWIP
Characterization • ASNT ACCP (ASNT Centralised Certification Programme)
• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical • Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A (In house
scheme)
Properties
• EN4179 / NAS410 (In house scheme for Aerospace sector)
• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition
Determination
1
Certification Schemes Product Technology
• Training • Nature & Origin of faults

• Examination • Stages in a product life cycle where defects
• Experience can occur…
• Recertification – Inherent
– Processing
– In Service
• Material Properties
– Tensile Testing, Charpy Testing
Inherent Defects Processing Defects
• Metal Winning • Heat Treatments

• Smelting – Annealing, Normalising, Stress Relieving, etc
• Casting • Grinding
– Sand, Die, Investment • Drilling
• Wrought • Milling
– Rolling, Forging, Extrusion • Turning (lathe)
• Welding
– MMA, MIG/MAG, TIG, SAW
In Service Defects
• Fatigue
• Creep
• Brittle Fracture
• Stress Corrosion Cracking
• Hydrogen Cracking
• Corrosion
• Overload
2
FAA1 – Penetrant Testing Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI) is often

referred to as:
Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI)
Liquid Penetrant Inspection OR
TWI Penetrant Flaw Detection (PFD)

OR
Penetrant Testing (PT)
Liquid Penetrant Inspection Liquid Penetrant Inspection

LPI is a time consuming method of
inspection, it involves 6 or 7 basic steps:
 LPI is a surface inspection method 1. Surface preparation (cleaning)
2. Penetrant application
3. Removal of excess penetrant
 LPI is applicable to all non-porous, 4. Drying (not universally required)
non-absorbing materials 5. Application of developer
6. Inspection
7. Post test cleaning and
protection
STEP 1 – Surface Preparation STEP 1 – Surface Preparation : Caution
Physical Methods: Chemical Methods: Grit blasting closed this

crack at the surface
 Scale  Oils & Grease
 Slag  Paints
 Corrosion products
• Vapour Degreasing
 Carbon • Hot Solvent Degreasing
• Cold solvent Degreasing
• Grit Blasting
• Solvent materials with emulsifiers
• PMS
• Acid / Alkaline Cleaning
• Mechanical Abrasion
• Steam cleaning
• Paint Removal
Smearing of the surface can close defects!!!
1
STEP 2 – Penetrant Application STEP 2 – Penetrant Application
Standard methods: Penetrating fluid applied to component

and drawn into defect by capillary action
 immersion
 dip & drain
 brushing Factors:
 spraying • Penetration / Dwell time

 flowing or pouring • Component Temperature
Special methods: • Surface cleanliness
 electrostatic spray
Generally be in the range from 5 to 60 minutes.
 thixotropic penetrants
THE PENETRANT MUST NEVER DRY OUT!!!
Principle – Capillary Action Penetrant properties
Sometimes called:
Penetrant effectiveness is
“CAPILLARITY” strongly affected by
Gravity has virtually no
contamination
effect on capillarity
Penetrant properties – Corrosion Penetrant properties – contrast ability
• Special care is needed when using penetrant

materials on: • For the penetrant test to work the indications
formed must be VISIBLE
 High nickel alloys • Certain colour combinations provide better
 Stainless steels contrast than others when viewed by the average
 Titanium alloys human eye
 Aluminium alloys • In good white light conditions Red on a white
background provides the best contrast
• These materials can be ‘sensitised’ – made • In darkened conditions the human eye is very
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking by small sensitive in the Yellow/Green part of the visible
amounts of halogen or sulphur. light spectrum
2
Penetrant types STEP 3 – Removal of excess penetrant
- Fluorescent • Penetrating fluid applied to component and

- Colour Contrast drawn into defect by capillary action
- Dual (available, but rarely used)
• Penetrating fluid removed from component
Fluorescent penetrants generally provide the best surface (but not from defect)
sensitivity.
In order of increasing sensitivity, the above may be

• Water Washable
• Post-emulsifiable
• Solvent Removable
STEP 3 – Removal of excess penetrant Insufficient Cleaning
• Excess penetrant removal is a critical step in penetrant

inspection
• If insufficient penetrant is removed then excessive

background coloration will reduce test sensitivity
• If the method of removal is too aggressive then penetrant

may be removed from shallow defects and test sensitivity
will suffer as a result
Excessive background /
Non-relevant indications
STEP 3 – Removal of excess penetrant STEP 3 – Removal of excess penetrant
Water washable Post Emulsifiable Solvent Removable

• Water washable Spray wash Hydrophilic Clean off the excess
• Solvent Removable Gentle mechanical powerful detergents, with a lint free cloth.
action used diluted with
• Post Emulsifiable water
Pressure as low as Wipe with a solvent
possible moistened rag
Temperature less
Lipophilic
Penetrants are formulated for removal by than 50ºC
NEVER spray the
Contact time with
one or sometimes more than one of the lipophilic emulsifier cleaner directly
is EXTREMELY onto the item
above. CRITICAL. under test!!!
3
STEP 4 – Drying STEP 5 – Developer Application
• Penetrating fluid applied to component and drawn

• Essential step where dry powder or solvent into defect by capillary action
suspended developer is used in conjunction
with a water washable or post emulsified • Excess penetrant removed
technique. • Component is dried if necessary
– Hot air recirculating oven • Developer is applied to the surface

– Forced warm air
– Dry clean compressed air
• Drying is not required (before developer

application) if a water suspended or water
soluble developer is to be used.
Developer – Action No Developer With Developer

• Penetrating fluid applied to component and drawn into
defect by capillary action
Colour
• Developer applied to surface
• Penetrant drawn back out of the defect by… Contrast
REVERSE CAPILLARY ACTION
Fluorescent
STEP 5 – Developer Application STEP 6 – Inspection
Aqueous Liquid Indications should viewed as soon as practicable after developer

Non-Aqueous Liquid
Dry Powder (Solution or application with final assessment taking place after a minimum
(Solvent Based)
Suspension) development time has elapsed (generally 10 – 30 minutes)
•Component must be •Component dried •Component must be
dry first after application dry first 30 seconds 1 minute 15 minutes
Applied by… Applied by… Applied by…

•Dipping •Immersion • Aerosol
•Blowing •Spraying
•Dust storm cabinet •Brushing
4
STEP 6 – Inspection STEP 6 – Inspection
Lighting levels are critical: Colour Contrast
• Sunlight is best
Colour Contrast
• Artificial light sources such as tungsten
• White light above 500 lux filament bulbs or fluorescent strip lighting are
OK
Fluorescent • Illumination 500 lux minimum, but avoid glare
• Background White light below 20 lux Do Not Use monochromatic light sources such
as sodium vapour lamps
• UV-A above 1000µW / cm2 (colours/contrast poorly distinguished under
monochromatic lighting)
Penetrant Indications STEP 7 – Post Test Cleaning
Colour Contrast Penetrant residues must be removed because:
• They may be harmful to the component

or
• They may impair subsequent processing
or use
Fluorescent
Advantages of DPI Disadvantages of DPI
• Applicable to all non-porous materials. • Will only detect defects open to the surface.
• Able to test large parts with a portable kit. • Careful surface preparation required.
• Batch testing. • Not applicable to porous materials.
• Applicable to small parts with complex • Temperature dependent.
geometry. • Cannot retest indefinitely.
• Simple,cheap, easy to interpret. • Compatibility of chemicals.
• Good sensitivity. • Time consuming.
• Training requirements typically less than for
other NDT methods.
5
Black Light Black Light – Cautions
• The black light sources use a MERCURY

VAPOUR ARC LAMP • UVB and UVC Radiation are
• In addition to UVA this emits visible light and extremely hazardous to health.
UVB / UVC • UVC radiation can cause skin cancer.
• With a properly fitted
WOODS FILTER [which
must be in good • UVA radiation is relatively safe to work with
condition] only UVA and
a low level of visible light • It may cause temporary health problems such
are emitted. as “EYEBALL FLUORESCENCE”
6
FAA1 – Magnetic Particle Inspection Magnetic Fields
The idea of a magnetic field is

based on the patterns made by
magnetic particles when they
are placed in a magnetic field.
Magnetic fields are thought to

consist of ‘LINES OF FLUX’. N S
Properties of Lines of flux Domain theory
• They flow from a North pole to a • A domain is a minute internal magnet

South pole outside a magnet
• They flow from a South pole to a
North pole inside a magnet
• They form CLOSED LOOPS
• They REPEL one another
• They NEVER cross
Domain theory Domain theory
1
Domain theory Domain theory
Definitions Relative Permeability (µr)
• Magnetic Field Diamagnetic: Permeability slightly below 1,

Region in which magnetic forces exist weakly repelled by magnets.
• Permeability (μ) – the relative ease with which a material
Examples: Gold, Copper, Water
may be magnetised
• Saturation – the point at which an increase in magnetising

Paramagnetic: Permeability slightly greater than 1,
force produces no significant gain in flux density weakly attracted by magnets.
• Residual Magnetism – magnetic field remaining after the
Examples: Aluminium, Tungsten
magnetising force has been reduced to zero
Ferromagnetic: Very high permeability (> 240),
• Flux Leakage – break or discontinuity in a magnetic
circuit strongly attracted by magnets.
Examples: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel
Ferromagnetic materials The Basics of MPI Testing

HARD ferromagnetic SOFT ferromagnetic The basic principle of MPI…
• the material under test is magnetised
Low Permeability High Permeability
• a magnetic ink or powder is applied to the
High Retentivity Low Retentivity
surface
• the resultant indications are evaluated.
Difficult to Magnetise Easily Magnetised The formation of the indications depends on the
different magnetic properties existing at the crack
Difficult to Demagnetise Easily Demagnetised location.
Basically the crack is non-magnetic and therefore it’s

Uses: Permanent magnet Uses: Solenoid core
magnetic properties differ to the surrounding area.
2
Principles of MPI : Flux Leakage Principles of MPI : Flux Leakage
NO DEFECT DEFECT
PRESENT PRESENT
LEAKAGE
FIELD
Magnetic Particles Attracted by Flux Leakage Principle of MPI : Flux Leakage

Surface Defect Sub-
Sub-surface Defect
Lines of flux follow the path of least resistance

The indication formed is larger than the defect
Permanent Magnet Type of Indications
Longitudinal flux field between poles Relevant Indications - Indications due to flux
leakage from discontinuities or flaws
Maximum sensitivity for defects orientated at 90º examples: cracks, lack of fusion, pores
to a line drawn between poles
Non-Relevant Indications - Indications due to
flux leakage from design features
examples: rivets, splines, threads
Spurious Indications - Indications not due to

flux leakage or from incorrect inspection
procedures
examples: hairs, lint, magnetic writing, scale
3
Magnetic Field Descriptions
Magnetic Field…
Longitudinal – along
Circular – around Magnetic Particle Inspection
Defects… Methods of Magnetisation

Transverse – across
Longitudinal – along
Radial – from centre
MPI Equipment Permanent Magnet & DC Yoke

Magnetic field between poles
Portable Fixed
Maximum sensitivity for defects orientated at 90º
• Permanent magnet • Current flow to a line drawn between poles
• Electromagnet • Magnetic flow
• Prods • Threader Bar
• Flexible coil • Rigid coil
• Induced current
• Flexible cable DC
• Clamps and leeches
N S N S
AC Yoke AC Yoke
Magnetic field induced in core by electric current passing through coil.
Disadvantages
Advantages
• Power supply required
• AC, DC or rectified
• Longitudinal field only
• Controllable field
Adjustable strength • Electrical hazard
Soft Iron legs & pole
• No harm to test piece • Poles attract particles
laminated pieces
core. • Can be used to • Legs must have area
demagnetise contact
• Easily removed
Maximum defect sensitivity at 90 degrees to the magnetic flux field
4
Prods Prods
Electrical current
passed between • Steel or aluminium tipped prods should be used
prods through • Copper or lead tipped prods are not permitted
component. • Galvanised prods are not permitted
Field produced is • Must NEVER be used on Aerospace components
taken as two • Flux density can be confirmed using a flux
‘deformed circles’ indicator
between prods. • Generally limited to the inspection of rough
Defects found at 90° castings - overheating at the contact points can
to magnetic field. cause cracking
Prods Flexible Cable
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
• AC,DC or rectified
• Arcing / damage to work Flexible Cable
piece
• Controllable field Flexible current carrying cable…
• Heavy transformer
strength
required
• No poles attract
• Current can be switched Adjacent cable (single / twin)
particles
on without creating field
• Excellent sensitivity Threading cable
• Good contact required
• Easy to use on Flexible coil
• Usually a 2 man
complex shapes
operation
Flexible Cable Methods of Magnetisation – Fixed
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simple to operate • Difficult to keep
• No danger of burning cables in place
• AC, DC or rectified • High currents
required
• Current adjustable Magnetic Bench Unit
• Suited to underwater • Transformer required
applications
5
Bench Unit Bench Unit – Magnetic Flow
Component
clamped between
headstock
solenoids.
Demagnetisation Solenoids Demagnetisation
energised to
produce strong
magnetic field
across component.
Defects found at
90° to magnetic
field.
Bench Unit – Axial Current Flow Bench Unit – Threader Bar

Component Threader bar
clamped between clamped between
headstocks. headstocks.
Electrical current Electrical current
passed through Demagnetisation passed through Demagnetisation
component threader bar
produces an produces an
encircling magnetic encircling magnetic
field. field.
Defects found at Defects found at 90°
90° to magnetic to magnetic field.
field.
Bench Unit – Rigid Coil Test Methods

Coil can either
replace the MPI may be performed using:
headstock or clamp
between. • Either a continuous or residual method
Electrical current Demagnetisation • Either fluorescent or visible detection media
passed through coil • Detection media which is either wet or dry
produces a • Not all combinations of the above are effective
longitudinal magnetic e.g. Dry detection media is not suitable for
field through coil. residual methods.
Defects found at 90°
to magnetic field.
6
Detection Media Application
Continuous Method
• Detecting media applied immediately prior
to & during magnetisation.
Residual Magnetic Particle Inspection
• Detecting media used after the applied
field has been removed. Detecting Media and
• Component must have high ‘retentivity’. Other Equipment
• Less sensitive than continuous method.
• Useful for components like ball bearings.
Dry detecting media Wet detecting media
• Colour contrast or fluorescent.

• Water or kerosene based.
• Dry particles are • Concentration important.
available in a wide • Good particle mobility.
variety of colours • Easier to use.
• More sensitive.
• Using the right
colour it is usually
possible to work
without contrast aid
paint
Flux Indicators - Common types Field Indicators
• Burmah Castrol strips

Type I (gen) and Type II (aero)
• ASME
• Berthold
Penetrameter
Used to check for adequate flux density and correct

orientation Used to check for residual magnetism
7
Equipment control check – Yokes
Lift Test
UV(A)DC Yoke
– 18kg steel weight
AC Yoke
– 4.5kg steel weight
8
FAA1 – Eddy Current Testing Production of Eddy Currents
Magnetic field produced by an electrical
current passing through a conductor
DC CURRENT
MAGNETIC FIELD
Production of Eddy Currents Production of Eddy Currents
North
+ ve
DC AC
Primary
- ve
Field
Magnetic Magnetic
field South field
of a coil of a coil
Magnetic Field of a Coil Effect of a Magnetic Field.
• Electrical current produces an encircling

magnetic field.
• Alternating electrical current produces an
alternating magnetic field.
• The alternating magnetic field in the coil is
called the Primary Field.
1
Effect of a Magnetic Field. Effect of a Magnetic Field.
Induced voltage • If a Conductor is subjected to a moving
Magnetic Field then a Current flow is
produced by Electromagnetic Induct.
• If an Alternating Current is passed
through a coil then the resultant Magnetic
Moving Field will also be Alternating.
magnetic
• If this field is brought into contact with a
field
conductor then an Alternating Current will
be produced.
Production of Eddy Currents… Production of Eddy Currents…
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Eddy Current Flaw Detectors Eddy Current Flaw Detection
• Impedance is the ‘total resistance’ of the

coil and is a sum of pure resistance and
the coils inductance.
• Eddy Current flaw detectors measure the

Impedance of the coil and this Impedance
is affected by the magnetic field generated
by the coil.
2
Factors Effecting Eddy Currents Conductivity
• Conductivity.
• Permeability. Electrical Conductivity of a Material is a measure of the ease with which
Electrons will flow within it.
• Frequency.
• Geometry. A Material with a High Conductivity (i.e. Copper) will permit Eddy
– Thickness. Currents to flow more easily than a Material having a Low Conductivity
– Edge.
such as Lead or Non-Metals.
– Mass.
Conductivity changes can be caused by variations in:
• Lift Off.
• Probe Handling. • Heat Treatment
• Chemical Composition
• Temperature
• Age hardening
Frequency
When a Conductor is carrying a Alternating Current, the
Current Density is greater at the surface this is known as
Skin Effect. The higher the Frequency the greater the Skin
Effect. Eddy Current Eddy Currents
Surface 37% of Surface Strength
In Eddy Current Testing there is also a tendency for the Strength 100%
Eddy Currents to concentrate at the surface of the material
closest to the coil.
Eddy Currents are designed to be effective down to a depth

of 37% of their surface strength, after this their strength is
too weak to give indications.
Standard Depth of Penetration. Eddy currents in material

Given by the equation…
Permeability has a strong
effect on depth
 = 660
f > Aluminum = 1
> Mild Steel = 1950
Where:
 = sdp This limits the depth of
f = probe frequency penetration in steels to a
 = conductivity (%IACS) few microns unless it can
 = relative permeability be overcome by
magnetic saturation. Eddy Currents
3
Edge effect Lift Off (Proximity)
Discontinuities Thickness Effect
Thickness effect can be used Mass effect
• For approximate thickness measurement.

• To detect blind side corrosion.
Material Loss/
Corrosion
4
Probe Handling Review Factors Effecting Eddy Currents
• Conductivity.
• Permeability. Can be used to detect.
• Frequency.
• Geometry. • Flaws and discontinuities.
– Thickness.
• Material thickness.
– Edge.
– Mass. • Thickness of non-
• Ferrous Effect. conductive coatings.
• Lift Off. • Material specification.
• Probe Handling.
Impedance plane diagram

Air
point
XL 0.9
Titanium If the eddy current circuit is balanced in air and then placed
0.8 on a piece of aluminum, the resistance component will
0.7 Zirconium increase and the inductive reactance of the coil decreases
0.6
Lead Lift Off If a crack is present in the material, fewer eddy currents will
0.5
Vector be able to form and the resistance will go back down and the
0.4 Aluminium inductive reactance will go back up.
0.3 Copper
0.2 Changes in conductivity will cause the eddy current signal to
0.1
change in a different way.
0 R
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Impedance display for NFe material (e.g.

Aluminium) Impedance plane diagram
Ferrite
2.0
Fault Crack in steel
1.8
Edge
XL 1.6
Increasing
1.4 Steel permeability
1.2
Magnetic
Air
point Non-Magnetic
Lift Off 0.8
Probe Handling Lift-off
0.6 Vector
0.4
0.2
0 R
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
5
Impedance display for Fe material (e.g. Steel)
When a probe is placed on a magnetic material such as steel,
something different happens. Just like with aluminum eddy
currents form, taking energy away from the coil, which shows Longitudinal Fault
up as an increase in the coils resistance.
The eddy currents generate their own magnetic field that
opposes the coils magnetic field.
However, reactance increases. This is because the magnetic
permeability of the steel concentrates the coil's magnetic
field.
This increase in the magnetic field strength completely
Transverse Fault
overshadows the magnetic field of the eddy currents. The
presence of a crack or a change in the conductivity will
produce a change in the eddy current signal similar to that
seen with aluminum.
Simple probe configurations Probe types

Absolute Differential
• Surface
– Unshielded or shielded
Single • Pancake
• Bolt Hole
• Internal rotating
• Encircling (tube inspection)
• Internal Bobbin (tube inspection)
Double • Weld scan
Advantages of ET Disadvantages of ET
• Sensitive to surface defects
• Can detect through several layers
• Very susceptible to permeability changes
• Can detect through surface coatings
• Only on conductive materials
• Accurate conductivity measurements
• Will not detect defects parallel to surface
• Can be automated
• Not suitable for large areas and/or
• Little pre-cleaning required complex geometry's
• Portability • Signal interpretation required
• No permanent record (unless automated)
6
FAA1 – Ultrasonic Testing What is Sound ?
• A mechanical vibration
• The vibrations create ‘Pressure Waves’
• Sound travels faster in more ‘elastic’
materials
• Number of pressure waves per second is
the ‘Frequency’
• Speed of travel is the ‘Sound velocity’
Acoustic frequency band Sound travelling through a material
Velocity varies according to the material
Compression waves Shear waves

• Steel 5960m/sec • Steel 3245m/sec
• Water 1490m/sec • Water NA
• Air 344m/sec • Air NA
• Copper 4700m/sec • Copper 2330m/sec
Principle waveforms used in UT inspections: Compressional (longitudinal) waves
• Vibration and propagation (wave

• Compression movement) in the same direction
• Travel in solids, liquids and gases
• Shear
• Surface
• Lamb Propagation
Particle vibration
1
Compressional (longitudinal) waves Shear (transverse) waves
• Vibration at right angles to direction of
propagation
• Travel in solids only
• Velocity  1/2 compression (in same material)
Particle vibration
Propagation
Shear (transverse) waves Surface (Rayleigh) waves
• Elliptical vibration
• Velocity 8% less than shear
• Penetrate up to one wavelength deep
DIRECTION OF PROPOGATION
Surface (Rayleigh) waves Lamb (Plate) waves
• Travel in thin plate materials where plate

thickness is equivalent wavelength
• Particle motion is a complex combination
of symmetrical and non-symmetrical
elliptical waves
• Velocity varies with plate thickness and
wavelength
2
Sound travelling through a material Scatter
Loses in sound intensity due

to… • The bigger the grain
size the worse the
problem
• Beam spread • Attenuation
• The higher the
Sound beam comparable to a Energy losses due to
frequency of the
torch beam material
probe the worse the
Reduction differs for small and Made up of absorption and problem
large reflectors scatter
Sound Generation Piezo-Electric Effect

• When exposed to an alternating current a
crystal expands and contracts
• Mechanical (e.g. wheel tapers)
• Electro-magnetic (e.g. speakers) • Converting electrical energy into mechanical
• Magneto-strictive transducers
• Piezo-electric transducers (e.g. UT
probes)
Piezo-Electric Effect Piezo-Electric Materials
• When exposed to a mechanical movement a

crystal is forced to expand and contract Natural crystals –
e.g. Quartz
• Converting mechanical energy into electrical
Synthetic crystals –
e.g. Lithium Sulphate
Polarized Ceramic crystals –

e.g. Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)
3
Compressional Probe (single crystal) Compressional Probe (twin crystal)
Co-axial Probe body
connector cable
Advantages:
Transmitter Receiver • Can be focused
• Measure thin plate
Damping • Near surface
resolution
Damping
Disadvantages:
medium • Difficult to use on
Insulation curved surfaces
Contact plate
Focusing • Sizing small defects
Crystal
Insulator lens • Signal amplitude/focal
Face plate spot length
Shear wave probe (angle beam) Shear wave probe – horn type
housing
connector
transducer
connector
damping material
Perspex
shoe
Perspex
index mark
block
Bubblers and Squirters Bubblers and Squirters
4
Ultrasonic Test Methods Pulse Echo Transmission
test block probe
• Pulse Echo
• Through Transmission
• Transmission with Reflection
Pulse Echo Transmission Pulse Echo Transmission

A-Scan display A-Scan display
probe
test block
Pulse Echo Transmission – Large Fault Pulse Echo Transmission – Small Fault
A-Scan display A-Scan display
fault
5
Pulse Echo Testing Defect Position
• Single probe sends and receives sound

• Gives an indication of defect depth and
dimensions B
• Not fail safe B
No indication from defect A (wrong orientation)
Through Transmission Testing Minor Defect Gross Defect
Transmission
T T
Transmitter signal
Transmission
R signal reduced R Transmission
signal
disappears
Receiver
Pulse Length Ideal Pulse Length

• The longer the pulse, the more penetrating the
sound
• The shorter the pulse the better the sensitivity
and resolution
Short pulse, 1 or 2 cycles Long pulse 12 cycles 5 cycles for weld testing
6
The Sound Beam The Sound Beam
• Dead Zone
• Near Zone (or Fresnel)
• Far Zone (or Fraunhofer)
Near Far
DZ
Sound Beam Sound at a material interface
Near Zone Far Zone • Sound will be either transmitted across

• Thickness • Thickness or reflected back.
measurement measurement Reflected
• Detection of defects • Defect detection
• Sizing of large defects • Sizing of all defects
only
Interface
Near zone length should be as small as possible

Transmitted
Snells Law of Reflection and Refraction. Snells Law of Reflection and Refraction.
incident
compressional incident sound wave
sound wave
material interface material interface
refracted sound wave
7
Snells Law. Snells Law. The First Critical Angle.
Incident 27.2º
Wave
Sine I Vel in material1
Angle 1 
Sine R Vel in material2
material 1 Perspex
material 2 Steel compressional
Angle 2
shear
33.3º
Snells Law. The Second Critical Angle. Summary

Incident
Wave
• Standard angle probes between 1st & 2nd
56.4º critical angles (45°,60°,70°)
• Stated angle is refracted angle in steel
Perspex • 1st critical angle; compression refracted at
Steel surface 90°
wave
• 2nd critical angle; shear refracted at 90°
• 2nd critical angle produces surface waves
Ultrasonic Displays Ultrasonic Displays

• A scan
• C scan Time or distance along X axis
Plan view Returned echo amplitude Y axis
• B scan
End view
• B scan • C scan
End view Plan view
• D scan
Side view • D scan
Side view
8
Ultrasonic Equipment Ultrasonic Equipment
• Analogue or Digital
equipment.
Ultrasonic Inspection
• Provides ability to process the

returning sound signal for
measurements, etc.
Analogue Signal Processing Maintenance Checks

To and In line with BS EN 12668 Part 3 Combined equipment
From Probe
• Physical state - Daily

• Index point of each angle probe - Minimum daily
Transmitter Receiving
Amplifier
Rectifier Low Pass
Filter or
Display
Screen • Angle of probes - Minimum daily
Smoother
• Linearity of flaw detector timebase - Weekly
• Linearity of equipment gain - Weekly
• Pulse duration - Weekly
• Sensitivity/signal to noise ratio - Weekly
Transmitter
Burst
Received
Signal
Amplified
Signal
Full-Wave
Rectified
Filtered or
Smoothed
Calibration of timebase
- every time the probe is changed
Maintenance Checks Scanning Procedure – Welds
Physical state and external aspects
Visually inspect the outside of the ultrasonic unit, • Parent material

probes, cables and calibration blocks for • Root inspection
physical damage or wear which could influence • Side wall
inspection
the reliability of the test . • Weld body
• Transverse scan
9
Scanning Procedure Scanning Procedure
• Parent Material
0 degree both sides
Parent plate inspection using 00 compression probe

• To maximum range for angle probes
• Full skip distance for 60 or 70 probes
• Weld Root Fixed root scan

Half skip from both sides
Weld Fusion Faces

• Weld Body
• Half to full skip from both sides Half skip to full skip from both sides
Full Skip 1/2 Skip
A probe which strikes fusion faces at 90 degrees
Probe angle = 90 - (1/2 Root angle)
10
• Transverse
70 degree
Fusion face and weld body inspection
Scanning Procedure Other configurations – Nozzle welds
Transverse scan
Other configurations – Tee butt welds
11
FAA1 – Radiographic Testing History of Radiography
• WC Roentgen 1895
Discovered X-rays whilst

passing an electrical current
across a tube containing a
anode and cathode. The tube
fluoresced and nearby
photographic plates fogged.
History of Radiography Radiographic Inspection
• X-rays are capable of passing straight through a

First radiograph solid object.
22 December 1895 • The amount of X-radiation that passes through an
Sent to Physicist Franz Exner in object depends on its density and thickness.
Vienna
Mrs. Roentgen's hand? • Transmitted X-radiation can be detected by
photographic film or fluorescent screens.
• This forms the basis of Radiographic Inspection, a
First x-ray tube powerful technique, which is applicable to virtually
belonging to all materials.
Roentgen in 1896.
Radiographic Inspection Advantages of Radiography
• Directly produces a permanent record.

• Capable of detecting internal flaws.
• Useful for the Non-Destructive Testing of
virtually all materials and product forms.
1
Disadvantages of Radiography What is radiation?
• Radiation hazard.
• Radio waves, light, X-rays, -rays and other
• Sensitivity is affected by defect orientation
forms of radiation take the form of:
> Limited ability to detect fine cracks and
other planar defects.
• Access to two sides is required. Electromagnetic Radiation
• Limited by material thickness. • Electromagnetic radiation has no mass and is
not affected by magnetic or electrical fields,
• Skilled interpretation is required.
or, to any great extent, by gravity.
• Relatively slow.
• High capital outlay and running costs.
Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation Properties – X & Gamma Rays
• Can penetrate most materials easily.

• Travels at the speed of light.
• Absorbed and scattered by matter.
• Travels through a vacuum.
• Travels in straight lines.
• Travels in a straight line.
• Will darken photographic film emulsion.
• No electrical charge or mass.
• Causes some materials to fluoresce in the
• Radiation intensity is ‘inversely visible or ultraviolet spectrum.
proportional to square of the distance’ • Causes ionisation, often referred to as
from the source. “IONISING RADIATION”.
e.g. double distance gives quarter • Cannot be detected by human senses.
intensity.
• EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS TO HEALTH.
Industrial Radiography X-Ray Production
Requirements:
Electron source
• A way of accelerating electrons to a high
velocity
• A way of quickly stopping the electrons
• X - Rays • Gamma Rays
Electrically Generated by the • Electrons travel for only short distances
generated decay of unstable through gasses
isotopes • Kinetic Energy converted into 97% heat
and 3% X-rays.
2
X-Ray Production X-Ray Production
• X-rays are produced by the deceleration of
high velocity electrons.
• Part or all of the kinetic energy of the electron
is converted into electromagnetic radiation (X-
rays).
• Electron velocity relates to the radiation
penetrating ability and is controlled by tube
voltage.
• Electron quantity relates to the radiation
intensity is controlled by tube current.
Gamma Ray – sealed sources Gamma Ray – equipment
Isotopes used in Industrial Radiography Advantages of Gamma rays compared to X rays
• No water or electrical supplies needed

Isotope Half-Life mm of Steel
• Equipment smaller and lighter-therefore
Iridium 192 74.4 days 10 – 80
more portable
Cobalt 60 5.26 years 25 – 200 • Easier to perform radiography in confined
or difficult to access areas
Ytterbium 169 32 days 3–8
• Equipment simpler and more robust
Selenium 75 119 days 5 – 20
• Less scatter (no low energy radiation)
Thulium 170 128 days 1–5 • Less initial cost
Caesium 137 30 years 20 – 80 • Greater penetrating power
3
Disadvantages of Gamma rays compared to X rays Radiographic Film
Supercoat
• Reduced radiographic contrast
• Exposure times generally longer
Subbing
• Sources need replacing - potentially greater in-
service costs Base
• Penetrating power cannot be adjusted
• Remote handling necessary Subbing
• RADIATION CANNOT BE SWITCHED OFF
Supercoat
Latent image formation Intensifying Screens
• Film emulsion contains crystals of

silver bromide.
• Sensitisation of a crystal can be caused
by just a single photon of x-ray energy.
• This forms a latent (or hidden) image.
• The developer process converts
sensitised crystals to black metallic
silver forming a visible image
Can be used to improve image quality
Film Processing Stages Radiographic Sensitivity

The ability of a radiograph to detect a
small change in section thickness.
• Developer - reducing agent –
Affected by :
ALKALINE
• Definition: the degree of sharpness of a
• Stop Bath - acetic acid radiographic image
• Fixer - dissolves silver halide – ACIDIC &
• Washing • Contrast: the degree to which two adjacent
• Drying areas of different film density can be
distinguished one from the other.
4
Factors influencing sensitivity Factors influencing sensitivity
Radiographic Quality
Image Quality
The ability to differentiate

areas of different film
Contrast density The sharpness of the dividing line
between different density fields
Definition There are two types of unsharpness:
Film or inherent unsharpness

&
Geometric unsharpness (penumbra)
Geometric Unsharpness Geometric Unsharpness
Long Film to Object Distance Short Film to Object Distance
5
Small Focus Large Focus
Short Object to Film Distance Long Object to Film Distance
Reducing Geometric Unsharpness Inherent Unsharpness

Inherent or film unsharpness is due to:
• Source size as small as possible

• The graininess of the film, fast films have
• Source to object distance as long as possible larger grain size than slow films.
• Object to film distance as short as possible • The type of intensifying screens, metallic foil
• In a good quality technique geometric screens are much better than fluorescent
unsharpness should be less than the inherent screens.
unsharpness of the film - screen combination • The radiation energy, film unsharpness is
in use increased at high radiation energy.
• Film processing, development time and
temperature affect grain size.
6
Inherent Unsharpness Scattered radiation
Scattered radiation can

seriously effect the quality of a
radiographic image and needs
to be considered with a view to
reducing its effect on the final
image quality
Scatter Determining the correct exposure
Knowing how to determine the correct

exposure to achieve the required
radiographic film density is essential for
those involved in radiographic testing.
Incorrect calculation can lead to lost
time caused by countless reshoots and
the subsequent increase in film costs
Image Quality
Film Density
The DEGREE OF DARKENING of a processed film is

called FILM DENSITY.
Film Density is a logarithmic unit of the ratio between

incident and transmitted light.
7
Calculations • Film A is coarse
grain & is faster than
Film B & C
Calculations are used to determine exposure • Film B is fine grain
when changing… and it’s speed is
intermediate between
Film A & C
• Source to Object Distance
• Film C is ultra-fine
• Tube voltage (Kv) or current (mA)
grain and is the
• Intensifying screens slowest of the three
• Film speed or type • A “fast” film requires
a shorter exposure
time than a “slow”
film
Image Quality Indicators Image Quality Indicators

Definitions
• Image Quality Indicators • SENSITIVITY: the sensitivity of any NDT method is its
ability to reveal the smallest flaw.
or • IQI SENSITIVITY: is not an exact measure of the true
sensitivity of a radiographic technique.
• Penetrameters are used to measure
IQIs are used in radiography to ensure that the
radiographic sensitivity and the quality general overall quality of a radiographic technique is
of the radiographic technique used adequate.
Image Quality Indicators Radiographic Techniques
• BS EN 462-1 Wire Type IQI’s

• Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
• Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
• Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
8
Radiographic Techniques Radiographic Techniques
9
Identification
• Unique identification
Identification Identification
• Unique identification • Unique identification
• Pitch markers • Pitch markers
(Location markers) • IQI’s
Radiographic Techniques Zones in Fusion Welds
• Parent Material or Base Metal

• Heat Affected Zone
In order to correctly interpret radiographs it
is essential that the interpreter has a good • Fusion Zone
knowledge of the product under examination
and the possible defects that may arise due
to various processes carried out on the test
piece.
10
Welding Defects – Cracks Interpretation of Radiographs
Welding defects identified by radiography…
Classified by shape Classified by position • Incomplete root • Inter-run incomplete

penetration groove
• Parent metal • Incomplete root fusion • Gas pores / Porosity
• Longitudinal
• HAZ • Root concavity • Slag inclusion
• Transverse • Fusion zone • Excess root penetration • Dense metal inclusion
• Branched • Centre line • Root undercut • Burn through
• Chevron • Crater • Cap undercut • Spatter
• Lack of fusion • Arc strikes
• Incompletely filled groove • Mechanical damage
Interpretation of Radiographs Interpretation of Radiographs

Radiographic Details
Source of 150 kV X-Ray Film Type Agfa D7

Radiation
Screens Pb 0.125 mm front & back FFD/SFD 450
Technique SWSI Development Standard
TWI Training & Examination Services
Radiographic Interpreter
Name: Joe Bloggs Date: 01/ 01/ 01

Reference No. 097-200 Material Carbon Steel
Film Density (a) Weld
1.4 (b) Parent
Material
2.7
Welding Details
IQI Type
None No. of wires or steps visible
N/ A
Root Gap 3 Root Face 1.5 Material 10
Process SMAW
Thickness Sensitivity calculation in full
N/ A
Joint Prep. Single Vee
Diameter N/A
The film density is less than 2.0. No IQI present. No
identification or location markers present. A reshoot is
required.
1. Crater crack, 85 from datum 3 long

2. Tool mark, 90 from datum.
3. Undercut, 125 from datum, 35 long (intermittent).
4. Wormholes & porosity, 145 from datum, 30 long.
11
Radiographic Details
Source of
Radiation
180 kV X-Ray Film Type Agfa D7
Screens Pb 0.125 mm front & back FFD/SFD 400
Technique DWSI Development Standard

TWI Training & Examination Services Film Density (a) Weld
1.2 (b) Parent
Material
1.7
Radiographic Interpreter
Name: Joe Bloggs Date: 01/ 01/ 01

IQI Type
10ISO16 No. of wires or steps visible
2
Reference No. 097-201 Material Carbon Steel
Sensitivity calculation in full
0.32/ 8 x 100 = 4%
Welding Details
Root Gap 3 Root Face 1.5 Material 8

The film density is less than 2.0. The sensitivity is greater than
Thickness 2%. No identification or location markers present. The IQI is
Process SMAW
cannot be properly identified. A reshoot is required.
Joint Prep. Single Vee
Diameter 324 mm
1. Suspected LORF, difficult to interpret due to thickness

change. 0 - 75 mm.
2. Porosity. Datum + 120, 45 mm long.
3. Lack of penetration, 2 sections 110-130
& 145-168mm
4. Undercut (cap), intermittent full length, both weld
toes.
1. Transverse crack (probably caused by Cu pick-

pick-up.
2. Scattered pores / wormholes & small slag 1. Linear porosity indicating lack of fusion.
inclusions.
3. Intermittent minor cap undercut.
12
1. Lack of fusion.
1. Tungsten Inclusion.
2. Cap undercut.
3. Dense metal inclusions.
1. Linear slag inclusions indicating lack of

fusion.
1. Crack, probably solidification crack.
2. Weld spatter.
Interpretation of Radiographs Film Artefacts
• During radiography and film processing

images can be formed which are not due
a defect or a change in component
1. Lack of root penetration.
thickness.
2. Burn through.
• Such images are referred to as
3. Undercut.
ARTEFACTS.
excessive,
4. Uneven penetration bordering excessive,
full length.
13
Film Artefacts Film Artefacts
• Crimp marks
• Dirty intensifying screens
Film crimped
• Scratched intensifying screens
• before exposure
• Static marks
• Reticulation
• Solarisation
• Chemical or water splashes
• Diffraction mottling
• Drying marks
• Streakiness
Film crimped Dirty intensifying

• after exposure screens
Scratched intensifying Static marks

screen • Caused by a release
• May appear as either of static electricity
light or dark images, due to poor film
often difficult to handling and dry
identify ambient conditions
14
Recticulation SOLARISATION
• Mottled effect • Solarisation is
caused by extreme image reversal due
temperature change to extreme over
during processing exposure or
exposure to light
during
development
Water / Developer Fixer / Stop bath

Splashes splashes
• before development • before development
Diffraction Mottling Streakiness

• Mottled effect • Caused by poor
sometimes seen in agitation during
x-radiography of development
large grained
materials
15
Section 8
Repair by Welding
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Repair by Welding
8 Repair by Welding
8.1 Introduction
The repair of defects that occur during welding ranges from simple welding
operations to improve weld profile to extensive metal removal and
subsequent welding to rectify extensive cracking.
Repair of fabrication defects is generally easier than repair of service

failures because the welding procedures used for fabrication may be
followed during repair.
The repair of service failures may be difficult because access may be

hazardous and the welding procedures used for the original fabrication may
be impossible to apply.
This section considers the procedures and underlying metallurgical

principles for the repair of carbon and alloy steels, wrought and cast iron
and some non-ferrous alloys.
8.2 Types of defects

Defects requiring repair by welding can be divided into two categories:
 Fabrication defects
 Service failures
Fabrication defects
The commonest defects that occur during the making of a weld include
porosity, slag inclusions and undercut consisting of a groove in the parent
metal at the edge of a weld, lack of fusion between the weld and the parent
metal or between runs of weld metal, incomplete penetration and
solidification cracking.
Defects that can be caused by welding but which may not occur until up to
48 hours or more after welding are hydrogen induced cracking of the weld
metal or the heat affected zone of the parent metal and lamellar tearing of
the parent metal.
Repair by welding involving removal of defective areas and replacement by

sound material can cost up to ten times as much as depositing similar
quantities of weld metal correctly in the first place. Therefore it is important
to avoid unacceptable defects and it can be an economic proposition in
many cases to carry out fairly large scale procedure tests before fabricating
critical components.
Having taken all possible precautions to meet acceptance standards,

defects inevitably occur, especially when welding is carried out manually
rather than by a mechanised method.
8-1
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Repair by Welding
To judge whether compliance with the requirements of a code of practice

have been met, it is necessary to be able to detect any defects by NDT and
also to determine their dimensions and orientation. Codes recognise that
flawless welds are almost always impossible to attain and various levels of
acceptance are laid down in respect of allowable porosity and inclusion, etc.
Planar defects such as cracks or lack of fusion may nearly always be

prohibited and the normal procedure is to repair the welds followed by
re-inspection.
The repair procedure may be very simple and merely require the deposition
of additional weld metal to rectify undercut but the repair of deep seated
defects such as lamellar tearing can entail extensive excavation and re-
welding. The welding procedure for the repair weld can often be very similar
to the original welding in respect to preheat, type of consumable and
welding conditions. If cracking is present the welding conditions may have to
be changed to avoid this defect in the repair weld. There are cases in which
fabrication defects are not discovered until final inspection and if a sub-
section originally welded in the flat position is incorporated into a large
structure it is possible that repairs may have to be carried out in less
favourable welding positions such as vertically or overhead.
In critical components the repair procedure may have to be qualified by

procedures tests particularly if fracture toughness requirements are
specified.
In cases where extensive rectification would be required to meet code

requirements, experience at TWI has shown that considerable savings in
both cost and time can be obtained if the significance of the defects present
is assessed on a fitness-for-purpose basis. This involves calculation of the
maximum growth of defects under service conditions and of the required
toughness levels of weld metal, parent plate and HAZ to avoid brittle
fracture during the peak loadings of the structure.
The application of fitness-for-purpose criteria has in some cases resulted in

inspection authorities accepting defects that exceed the limits of code
requirements.
Service failure
Service failure in the context of this section relates to cracks caused mainly
by fatigue, brittle fracture, stress corrosion or creep.
In some cases plant shut down may be necessary immediately a crack is

discovered, if for example it is found by leaking of a containment vessel, the
cracking having propagated from inside through the vessel wall.
In some rare cases a fatigue crack will relieve the stresses in a highly
stressed area and will run out of energy and can be left without repair. In
8-2
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Repair by Welding
other cases fatigue crack growth can be monitored by periodical inspection

until plant shut down for repair is convenient.
Brittle fracture is fortunately a relatively rare occurrence compared with

fatigue, but when it occurs it can be far more spectacular leading to
disasters such as the breaking in half of ships or the fragmentation of
pressure vessels.
Whether repair is feasible depends on the proportion of the structure

remaining intact and repair can range from removal of the cracked area and
welding to the pre-fabrication of new sub-sections which are welded into
place. The latter expedient is considered to be rebuilding rather than repair.
The repair of service cracks may be difficult for one or all of the following
reasons:
 Access may be restricted eg inside a power boiler.
 Pre and/or post-weld heat treatments may be difficult or even impossible

to apply eg because of risk of damage to machined surfaces, plastic
seals, electrical insulation, etc or presence of flammable materials.
 The component cannot generally be rotated into the most convenient

position for welding. Therefore positional welding may have to be used
eg circumferential seams of a pressure vessel may have to be repaired
in the overhead position by manual welding whereas the vessel was
originally fabricated by rotating it under a submerged arc welding
machine. The change in welding process and position could affect the
fracture toughness. So complex weld procedure tests may be required
for the repair of critical items of plant.
 The environment may be hazardous eg heat, nuclear radiation and

underground.
8.3 General techniques for typical repairs

Metal removal
The defect may be a single run fillet weld requiring only a small amount of
metal to be removed or it may be a large crack extending deep into parent
metal.
For removing metal rapidly the most convenient method is air-arc gouging in
which the metal melted by a carbon arc and is blown out of the cut by a
stream of compressed air which passes through holes in a specially
designed electrode holder.
Air-arc gouging can be used on both ferrous and non-ferrous metals but the
surface finish is generally not as good as obtained by oxyacetylene gouging
and the gouged surface finish allows the use of NDT testing by dye
8-3
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Repair by Welding
penetrant or magnetic particle inspection to check whether cracks or other

defects have been completely removed.
Less commonly used thermal methods of metal removal are oxygen-arc or

oxyacetylene gouging. Mechanical methods include pneumatic chisels, high
speed rotary tungsten carbide burrs and grinding wheels.
Thermal methods should only be used on PWHT structures or on Qt or

TMCP steels after careful assessment of the effect of the thermal cycle on
the steel.
8.4 Groove shape

The minimum amount of metal should be removed for economic reasons but
it is necessary to produce a groove wide enough for access and
manipulation of the welding electrode or filler wire.
Widths may have to be increased if a repair involves welding in the

overhead position or if the surface of the groove has to be buttered with a
layer of weld metal of one composition before filing the groove with weld
metal or a different composition to prevent weld metal cracking.
While it is more common to carry out a repair with weld metal of one
composition only, it may still be advantageous to use the buttering technique
particularly in large grooves to reduce the effect of shrinkage across the
joint. Each layer of weld metal has a larger free surface than it would if the
weld consisted of horizontal layers as in normal fabrication practice and this
allows contraction to take place freely with minimum strain on the parent
metal. This reduces the risk of cracking in the weld or the HAZ and also
reduces the tendency for distortion of the component.
8.5 Welding processes

The fusion welding processes commonly applied to repair welding are:
 Manual metal arc (MMA) welding with flux-coated electrodes.
 Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) with tubular electrodes, either gas or
self-shielded.
 Metal inert gas (MIG) welding with solid wire and inert shielding gas such
as argon or helium.
 Metal active gas (MAG) welding with solid wire and active shielding gas
such as CO2, argon-CO2 or argon-oxygen shielding gases.
 Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding with a non-consumable tungsten

electrode and separately fed filler wire.
 Oxyacetylene welding.
8-4
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Repair by Welding
Table 1 shows the general order of preference for repair welding processes
for common materials.
For most ferrous alloys MMA welding is the preferred repair method
because of its adaptability to difficult situations where access may be
restricted, the angle of inclination of the electrode to the workpiece not being
as critical as that of a welding gun in the semi-automatic MIG or MAG
processes.
Flux-cored arc welding is used extensively in steel foundries for repair of

castings which can be positioned so that welding can be carried out in the
flat position in which maximum welding current and deposition rates can be
used.
MIG welding is generally favoured for non-ferrous materials and is the first
choice for welding aluminium alloys because of its high productivity rates.
8.6 Summary
Before a welding repair is carried out the need for repair must be carefully
considered. If a component or structure contains defects of a known size,
whether these are fabrication or service defects, a fitness-for-purpose
evaluation may show them to be insignificant, so saving the cost of repair.
When repair is shown to be necessary, the factors to be considered include:
 Extent of repair and possible consequences such as distortion.
 Access for welding and welding position.
 Requirements for pre-heat and/or post-heat.
 Choice of welding consumables and welding procedure to avoid pre or

post-weld heat treatment.
 The mechanical properties required in the weld metal and HAZ and the
need for procedures.
 Having a suitable welding procedure and fulfilling the metallurgical

requirements are the first two vital factors for a successful repair.
The third factor is a high level of welder and supervisory skill because the
application of the first two factors under the difficult conditions some
complex repairs are carried out under depends on the expertise of these
personnel.
8-5
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Repair by Welding
8.7 Questions: Repair by Welding
1 State six (6) points of importance of repair welding.
2 Provide a check list for carrying out a repair weld.
3 State two (2) non-destructive test methods that may be applied to a repair.
4 At what stage would each NDT method generally be used?
5 State the documents which the specialist should refer to when carrying out
repairs.
8-6
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Weld repair decision tree
Has nature of NO NDE +

the defect been Destructive
determined? tests
REPAIR BY WELDING
YES
TWI Training & Examination NO

Is repair the Replace the
Services right decision? part
Course in Welding
(EWF/IIW Diploma) YES
Weld repair decision tree Weld repair decision tree

YES YES
Determine Choose the Determine Prepare the Perform
base metal welding the filler Inspection
defect area welding
weldability process material repair
Train the Qualify the Procedure
welder welder problem
Fix NO Has repair been
NO problem successful?
Welder
Establish Determine problem
Is welder YES
repair welding
qualified?
procedure standards
Protect and return
YES to service
Defect excavation Arc-air gouging features

Arc-air gouging
•Operate ONLY on reverse
polarity (DCEP)
•Can be used on carbon and
low alloy steels, austenitic
stainless steels and non-
ferrous materials
•Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply
•Provides fast rate of metal removal
•Can remove complex shape defects
•After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
•Gouging doesn’t require a qualified welder!
1
Weld repair related problems
• heat from welding may affect dimensional stability

and/or mechanical properties of repaired assembly
• due to heat from welding, YS goes down ie danger of
collapse
• filler materials used on dissimilar welds may lead to
galvanic corrosion
• local preheat may induce residual stresses
• cost of weld metal deposited during a weld joint
repair can reach up to 10 times the original weld
metal cost!
2
Section 9
Typical exam questions
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Typical Exam Practice Questions (Revisited)
9 Typical Exam Practice Questions (Revisited)
1 Define the scope of QA/QC and inspection.
2 Produce an outline quality plan of an application of your choice.
3 Review the requirements of carrying out weld procedure and welder

approval tests, starting before welding and concluding after welding.
4 Define calibration against validation and illustrate your answer with

practical applications.
5 Describe how residual stresses form in a weld and how distortion may be
controlled.
6 Define what it meant by jigs and fixtures and give practical examples of
their use.
7 List ten (10) areas of safety that must be observed in the work place.
8 Describe the parameters that would be measured when carrying out high
level approval tests and comment on the expected accuracy of the
measuring equipment.
9 Compare the different types of NDT methods in detecting the following:

i) Incomplete side wall fusion in double vee butt welds, carbon steel.
ii) As for i), but aluminium
iii) Double bevel tee butt when solidification cracking and lamellar
tearing is suspected.
10 Describe the general factors that influence costs in welding. Highlight

any methods of reducing cost whilst improving productivity.
11 Describe the methodology of selecting a welding process for a particular

application.
12 Describe the methodology of selecting an NDT method for a particular

application.
13 Name the different types of weld defects and categorise each type under
general headings. Comment on their significance.
14 Describe the general requirements of a manufacturing code of practice.
15 Comment on the tolerances you would expect to find on the variables

nominated on a welding procedure specification.
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Section 10
Additional information: Welding
Consumables - Storage and Handling
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Welding Consumables – Storage and Handling
10 Welding Consumables - Storage and Handling

Welding consumables are costly and some are very prone to deterioration in
storage. It is important that stock levels should be kept to a minimum but at
an adequate level to maintain productivity and that the storage and handling
conditions are correct.
10.1 Electrodes
These are required to be left in their packing in a warm, dry environment.
Poor handling and incorrect stacking will damage coatings rendering the
electrodes unusable.
Treatment and use of electrodes are:
Cellulosic
Use straight from the tins, must not be dried unless wet.
Rutile
Use straight from their packets may be stored at up to 120oC, must not be
baked.
Basic
For low hydrogen levels use either vacuum packing types (ensuring the
vacuum packing is still in tact) or bake typically at 350oC for 1-2 hours,
following baking, store in a holding oven at 150oC. Basic electrodes may be
re-baked once or possibly a number of times depending on the baking
temperature and the manufacturer's recommendations. The welders would
then use the electrodes from heated (75oC) quivers at the workstation.
Welders may take electrodes from the holding oven, so there should be an
issue and return policy, as it is common to find loss of consumable control
due to human intervention.
Control systems for electrode treatment would form part of the Quality
Manual.
Wires
Must be kept clean and free from oil and dust. Problems can arise through
losing their identity and allowing part-used reels to become tangled.
Fluxes
Require to be kept warm and dry. Handling and stacking requires care.
Fused fluxes are non hygroscopic and in theory are tolerant to poor control.
Agglomerated fluxes are very hygroscopic and prone to breakdown.

Rigorous handling procedures should be in place eg stored in controlled
environment, control over amounts issued and number of times to be
recycled.
10-1
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Gases
Are used for cutting, heating and welding and as a shielding and backing
gases during welding. For most applications gases are most conveniently
stored in cylinders. Where large quantities of gas are required, large volume
liquefied gas storage systems become more economical. Such systems
may incorporate gas mixers and ring main supply pipelines around the
welding shop.
Compressed gases are subject to regulations concerning the quantities and

positioning of the storage areas. Cylinders are colour coded to minimise
wrong use:
 Cylinders must not be refilled or decanted except by an approved

organisation.
 Cylinder outlets, seats and threads must not be damaged to avoid leaks.
 Cylinders must not be handled by their valves or regulators.
 Cylinders must not be dropped, used as rollers or otherwise abused.
 Cylinders must be stored upright and securely chained in position or to a
wall.
 Fuel gases and oxygen cylinders should be stored apart.
 Cylinders must be kept from heat sources, eg furnaces and boilers, etc.
Storage areas:
 Well ventilated.
 Kept clear of flammable materials.
 Naked flames, such as on portable heaters, must be prohibited.
10-2
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Rev 3 August 2010
10.2 Questions: Welding consumables - storage and handling
1 Provide a checklist of items that need to be assessed during an audit on a sub-

contractor’s consumable store.
2 List the control procedures for ensuring that MMA electrodes are low in hydrogen
content?
3 Provide details on how a compressed gas storage area should be set up.
4 Which factors should be considered to ensure submerged arc welding fluxes are
adequately controlled?
5 In relation to MIG/MAG wires, state the checks that should be made to ensure
compliance.
10-3
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Consumable types
welding TIG/PAW rods
fluxes
(SAW)
WELDING CONSUMABLES STORAGE cored wire
AND HANDLING
SAW strips
MIG/MAG
TWI Training & Examinations Services solid wire
Course in Welding SAW
(EWF/IIW diploma) solid wire covered
Courtesy of ESAB AB electrodes
•welding gases (MIG/MAG, FCAW, TIG)
Covered electrode packages Type of coverings

Cellulosic covering:
Plastic foil sealed cardboard box
•rutile electrodes •flour and wood pulp are common constituents
•general purpose basic electrodes •weld metal has a very high hydrogen content
•acid electrodes •resultant slag layer is thin
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
•coarse weld profile

Tin can •excellent penetration
•cellulosic electrodes
•can weld on vertical down position ie fast travel speed!
•does not require backing or drying (excessive heat will
Vacuum sealed pack damage electrode covering!)
•restricted to stove pipe welding!
•extra low hydrogen electrodes
Type of coverings Type of coverings

Rutile covering: Acid covering:
•are based on titanium oxide •contains large quantities of iron oxide - need deoxidants to
•easy to strike arc, less spatter, easy to remove slag, preserve mechanical properties of the weld deposit
excellent for positional welding (especially toughness!)
•produce finely rippled regular welds; also concave fillet •the slag cannot remove impurities from the weld pool ie
welds ie increase fatigue life! susceptible to solidification cracking!
•can be dried •high in hydrogen ie susceptible to cold cracking!
•produces flat and smooth welds, with deep penetration
•needs a reasonable proportion of combined water to
keep the covering intact ie if moisture is driven off, the •fast freezing/easy to detach slag ie used for positional
binding of the flux will suffer welding
•hydrogen content is 25-30 ml/100 g of weld metal •does not require backing or drying
•limited use due to poor mechanical properties!
1
Type of coverings Electrode efficiency
Basic covering:
•contain calcium compounds like calcium fluoride and calcium up to 180% for iron powder electrodes
carbonate ie a.k.a. “lime-coated”
•“basic” refers to the chemical behaviour of the flux
•can contain iron powder ie increased efficiency (but less slag ie
poor positional capabilities!)
mass of metal deposited
•have the lowest level of hydrogen (less than 5 ml/100 g of weld Electrode efficiency 
metal) mass of core wire melted
•needs backing to perform correctly (at approximately 350°C for
2,5 hours; see also manufacturer recommendations!)
•after baking, maintain at minimum 120°C to prevent moisture
pick-up
•cannot be rebaked indefinitely! 75-90% for usual electrodes
Covered electrode treatment Covered electrode treatment

Use straight from
Baking oven Cellulosic and acid
the box - No
electrodes
•need temperature baking/drying!
control
•requires calibration If necessary, dry up
Rutile electrodes to 120°
120°C- No
baking!
Heated quivers
Use straight from the
•only for maintaining of Vacuum packed pack within 4 hours -
electrodes after backing basic electrodes No rebaking!
Covered electrode treatment Covered electrode inspection

1: Electrode size (diameter and length)
Basic electrodes Baking in oven 2,5
hours at 350°
350°C!
2: Covering condition: adherence, cracks, chips and

concentricity
Limited number After baking, maintain in
of rebakes! oven at 150°
150°C
3: Electrode designation
EN 499-E 51 33 B
If not used within
Use from quivers Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!)
4 hours, return to Weld
at 75°
75°C
oven and rebake! See BS EN ISO 544 for further information
2
Other filler material treatment Other filler material treatment
Welding flux: Welding flux:
•might be fused, agglomerated or mixed •must be kept warm and dry
•supplied in bags/pails (approx. 25 kg) or bulk bags
(approx. 1200 kg) •handling and stacking requires care
•fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles can
hold surface moisture ie only drying
•agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded water ie
similar treatment as basic electrodes
•for high quality, agglomerated fluxes can be recycled with
new flux added
•if flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly ie cannot
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric be recycled indefinitely

Ceramic backing: Welding wires:
•used to support the •supplied on wire/plastic spools or coils
weld pool on root •random or line winding
runs
•usually fitted on an
aluminium self
adhesive tape
•allow increased welding current without danger of burn-
through ie increased productivity, consistent quality
•different profiles to suit different applications
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
•no backing/drying required
plastic spool wire spool coil

Welding wires: How to check the quality of welding wires:
•carbon and low alloy wires are copper coated
Cast Helix size - limited to 25
•stainless steel wires are not coated
diameter mm to avoid problems
with arc wandering!
Cast diameter improves the contact force and define

the contact point; usually 400÷
400÷1200 mm
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of ESAB AB
•wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust Contact point close to Contact point remote from
•flux cored wires does not require baking or drying contact tip end - GOOD! contact tip end - POOR!
3
Consumable inserts:
Welding rods:
•used for root runs on pipes
•supplied in cardboard/plastic tubes •used in conjunction with TIG welding
•available for carbon steel, Cr-Mo steel, austenitic
stainless steel, nickel and copper-nickel alloys
•different shapes to suit application
•must be kept clean and free from oil and dust

•might require degreasing
Radius
Other filler material treatment Gases

Application of consumable inserts •supplied in cylinders
•colour coded to minimise wrong use
•subject to regulations concerned
handling, quantities and positioning of
storage areas
•moisture content is limited to
avoid cold cracking  Dew point
(the temperature at which the
vapour begins to condense) must
be checked
•storage tanks for large quantities
Inspection of consumables
Quality assurance
•filler material must be stored in an area with controlled To assess whether the products are in
Why?
temperature and humidity compliance with the requirements of the
order or not  see BS EN 10204
•poor handling and incorrect stacking may damage
coatings, rendering the electrodes unusable How?
Non-
Non-specific inspection Specific inspection
•there should be an issue and return policy for welding
consumables (system procedure) •carried out by the •carried out before delivery in
manufacturer in accordance accordance to product
•control systems for electrode treatment must be specification
with its own procedures
checked and calibrated; those operations must be •inspection is performed on
•the products inspected are
recorded the products to be supplied or
NOT necessarily the
•filler material suppliers must be approved before products supplied! on test units of which the
purchasing any material products supplied are part
4
BS EN 10204-Type of documents BS EN 10204-Type of documents
Non-specific Specific
inspection inspection
documents documents
Type 2.1 Type 2.2 Type 3.1 Type 3.2
• Name: Declaration of • Name: Test report • Name: Inspection certificate 3.1 • Name: Inspection certificate 3.2
compliance with the order • Content: statement of • Content: statement of
» Content:
compliance with the order compliance with the order
• Content: statement of statement of
(include specific test results!) (include specific test results!)
compliance with
compliance with the order • Who validate it - the • Who validate it - the
the order (include
(doesn’t include test test results!) manufacturer inspection manufacturer inspection
results!) (independent of manufacturing (independent of manufacturing
• Who validate it - the department!) department!) +
• Who validate it - the manufacturer purchaser’s/official designated
manufacturer authorised inspector
5
Rev 3 August 2010
Preheat and Interpass Temperature – Equipment and Control
Section 11
Preheat and Interpass Temperature
Equipment and Control
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11 Preheat and Interpass Temperature - Equipment and

Control
11.1 Why Preheat
Preheat is the application of het to the area of a weld joint prior to welding.
It is often applied to carbon manganese and low alloy steels.
It is also applied to martensitic stainless steels but not to austenitic

stainlesses.
Its primary function is to retard the cooling rate of the weld, allowing
hydrogen to escape from the weld zone (diffusion of hydrogen) and thereby
avoiding the risk of H2 cracking in the HAZ.
By slowing the rate of cooling it will also reduce the hardness of the HAZ.
Other materials, eg copper and occasionally aluminium, can also be
preheated but for these materials, the purpose of preheat is to improve
fusion characteristics and reduce porosity; neither copper nor aluminium are
prone to H2 cracking.
11.2 Application of Preheat

Thee are two main methods of applying preheat, these being gas burner or
electric elements.
Preheating by gas
Propane or oxy-propane mix is used, and the flame is applied using a large
diameter burner, often known as a 'pepper pot'. This creates a broad, non-
focussed flame which can quickly bring a large area of material up to
temperature. Depending on the fabrication to be welded, it may be applied
manually or by ring burner. This is often applied to large diameter cross
county pipelines and consists of a metal pipe formed to the diameter of the
pipe, with several gas nozzles attached. In this way, it is possible to bring a
large pipe up to required temperature quickly and evenly.
Oxy acetylene is not generally used for preheating as the flame tip is too
focussed, and would result in small areas of material being excessively
heated while other areas remain below required temperature.
The small focussed area of the flame means that despite the hotter flame
temperature, preheating by acetylene would take longer than by propane.
Oxy acetylene cutting torches should never be used for preheating due to
the extremely fierce and focussed nature of the flame.
Electrical preheating
This is generally carried out using flexible ceramic mats which are heated by
resistance heating of the wiring inside the ceramics.
11-1
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They may be wrapped around pipes, girders or other assemblies and are
widely used for site fabrication due to their flexibility. Flexible mats may be
connected together to allow very large fabrications to be preheated.
Heating rates are not as fast as gas burners but electrical heating tends to
produce a more even distribution of heat and is more accurately controlled
than gas. For many large fabrications it is beneficial, both metallurgically
and commercially, to maintain preheat temperature overnight, and use of
electrical heating makes this possible. For small, high volume components,
induction heating is sometimes used. This results in rapid heating and
accurate control but equipment is more expensive and less versatile than
other methods.
11.3 Measurement of preheat

The two methods of measuring preheat are digital pyrometer and tempilstick
crayons. To get an accurate reading when using oxypropane the heat
source should be removed from the joint area and 30 seconds allowed to
elapse before measurement is made. The temperature should be checked
at about 75mm from the joint and, if possible, on the reverse side from that
to be welded. This confirms that the correct temperature has been achieved
throughout the weld zone.
If using tempilsticks then at least two temperature ranges should be used,

one at minimum preheat temperature and another at maximum interpass
temperature. For electrical preheat the temperature may be controlled by
thermocouples attached to the joint area, which automatically control
maximum temperature. Note: ensure the thermocouples are not directly
under the heating elements as this will result in the thermocouples reaching
temperature long before the joint.
Tempilsticks and digital ……. can be used to supplement thermocouples.
11.4 Interpass temperature

This is the maximum allowable temperature during a multi-pass weld, and
should be stated on the procedure regardless of the material being welded.
For steels it is usually 200-250ºC, aluminium about 125ºC depending on

grade, austenitic stainlesses 200ºC and duplex and super duplex 150 and
125ºC respectively. Remember that this is a maximum; it is not a
requirement of the procedure to reach this temperature.
Exceeding the maximum temperature may result in loss of toughness,

strength or corrosion resistance depending on the consumable.
11-2
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FAA1
Questions: Pre-heat and Interpass Control
1 Why is pre-heat applied?
2 Which methods can be used to measure the pre-heat temperature?
3 If a welding procedure specified pre-heat and interpass temperature control, how

much deviation would be allowed?
4 What factors are essential to know before selecting an appropriate temperature-

measuring device for checking pre-heat and interpass temperature?
5 Sketch the typical area of a butt weld that would require preheat.
11-3
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Destructive tests
Involve the destruction of a welded unit or
selected specimens cut out from the weld
DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
TWI Training & Examination

Services Destructive tests include:
•tensile test •hardness test
Course in Welding
•bend test •metallographic examination
(EWF/IIW Diploma)
•impact test •creep test, etc.
Tensile test Specimens for tensile test of welds
Objective:
•measuring the overall strength of the weld joint Weld on plate
Informations to be supplied on the test report:
•material type •UTS
•specimen type •location of final
•specimen size (see QW- rupture
462.1 or BS EN 895) Weld on pipe Multiple cross joint specimens
Bending test Bending test

Types of bend test for
welds (acc. BS EN 910):
“t” up to Root/face
12 mm bend
Objectives:
•check if lack of fusion type of defects are present Thickness of
•assessing ductility of the weld joint material - “t”
•material type •bend radius/angle
“t” over
•specimen type (see QW-462.2;3 •test result (pass/fail) Side bend
or BS EN 910) 12 mm
1
Bending test methods Charpy V-notch impact test
Objectives:
•measuring impact strength in different weld joint area
•assessing resistance toward brittle fracture
•material type •test temperature
•notch type •notch location
Guided bend test Wraparound bend test •specimen size •impact strength value
Charpy V-notch impact test specimen Charpy V-notch impact test

Specimen dimensions acc. ASTM E23 Charpy impact test
Specimen Pendulum
(striker)
Anvil
(support)
Charpy-V notch impact test Charpy V-notch impact test

Location of specimens - BS EN 875
h1
h2
2
Charpy V-notch impact test Hardness
To define the type of failure, we can also • Definition - is the resistance of a material
measure: against penetration
• lateral expansion • It is measured by indentation by a
• amount of crystalinity penetrator under a constant load
• Between UTS and hardness is a direct
correlation
Hardness tests:
• Brinell
• Vickers
• Rockwell
Hardness test Weld joint hardness test

Objectives: Vickers hardness tests:
•measuring hardness in different areas of a weld joint
•assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold • indentation body is a square based
cracking and corrosion sensitivity in H2S diamond pyramid (136º included angle)
Informations to be supplied on the test report: • load is applied for between 10 to 15 sec
•material type • the average diagonal (d) of the impression
•location of indentation (see BS EN 1043-1) is converted to a hardness number from a
•type of hardness test and load applied on the table
indenter • it is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025
•hardness value
Vickers hardness test machine Vickers hardness test
d1  d2
d
2
3
Vickers hardness test Microhardness test
Typical location of the indentations
Knoop hardness test
• determine the
hardness of a
very small area
(a few grains
Butt weld from one side only wide)
• longer axis is
converted to a
hardness
number
L = min. 0,7 mm for
HV5
Butt weld from both side L = min. 1 mm for HV10
Scleroscope hardness test Errors in hardness testing

• the flatness of tested surface - max. ±1° would be
acceptable
• surface finish - better than 300 grit finish
• friction in the loading system - regular maintenance and
calibration of the machine is essential
• specimen dimension - if test piece is too thin, the
hardness of the specimen table will affect the results 
specimen thickness should be twice the impression
• dynamic hardness test  very portable diagonal
• accuracy depends on the the condition of the • impression location - if too close to the specimen edge,
test/support surfaces and the support of the test low hardness values will be recorded  impression
piece during the test should be 4-5 times the impression diagonal from any
• for more details, see ASTM E448 free edge
Errors in hardness testing Metallographic examination

See BS EN 1321
• the shape of tested surface - on cylindrical
surfaces, the radius of curvature can lead to errors
• specimen table condition - burrs and raised edges
beneath the sample will give low readings
• speed at which the load is applied - impact loads
strain the equipment, damage the indentor and give
higher readings
Macro examination Micro examination
4
Metallographic examination Hydrostatic test
Objectives:
•detecting weld defects (macro) Is a test for leakage under pressure
•measuring grain size (micro)
•detecting brittle structures, precipitates, etc Vessel configuration:
•assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold • the test should be done after any stress relief
cracking and corrosion sensitivity
• components that will not stand the pressure
•material type •location of examined area
test (e.g. flexible pipes, diaphragms) must be
removed
•etching solution •weld imperfections (macro)
•magnification •phase, constituents,
• the ambient temperature MUST be above 0°C
precipitates (micro) (preferably 15÷20°C)
•grain size
Hydrostatic test procedure Hydrostatic test - what to look for
• blank off all openings with solid flanges

• leaks (check particularly around seams
• use correct nuts and bolts, NOT “G” clamps
and nozzle welds!)
• two pressure gauges on independent tapping points
should be used • dry off any condensation.
• for safety purposes bleed all the air out • watch the gauges for pressure drop
• pumping should be done slowly (no dynamic pressure • check for distortion of flange faces, etc
stresses)
• test pressure - see relevant standards (PD 5500, ASME
VIII).
• hold the pressure for minimum 30 minutes
5
Section 12
Additional information: Weld Defects /
Imperfections
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Weld Defects/Imperfections
12 Weld Defects/Imperfections
12.1 Defects which may be detected by surface inspection
Defects which may be detected by visual inspection can be grouped under
four headings.
1 Cracks
2 Surface irregularities
3 Contour defects
4 Root defects
12.2 Surface cracks

60 015* Crack
A linear discontinuity produced by
fracture.
Cracks may be longitudinal in the

weld metal, ie centreline.
Longitudinal, in the parent metal
Transverse
Crater (star cracking)
12-1
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12.3 Surface irregularities
60 006* Undercut
An irregular groove at a toe of a
run in the parent metal or in
previously deposited weld metal.
60 007* Overlap
An imperfection at the toe or root
of a weld caused by metal flowing
on to the surface of the parent
metal without fusing it.
60 038 Crater pipe

A depression due to shrinkage at
the end of a run where the source
of heat was removed.
10 031 Spatter
32 104 Stray flash

(Stray arcing)
12-2
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12.4 Contour defects

60 003 Incompletely filled groove
A continuous or intermittent
channel in the surface of a weld,
running along its length, due to
insufficient weld metal. The
channel may be along the centre
or along one or both edges of the
weld.
00 000* Bulbous contour

(not BS 499 term)
00 000* Unequal leg length

(not BS 499 term)
Variation of leg length on a fillet

weld.
NB Unequal leg lengths may be

specified as part of the design - in
which case they are not defects.
12-3
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12.5 Root defects

60 022* Incomplete root penetration
Failure of weld metal to extend into
the root of the joint.
60 020 Lack of root fusion

Lack of fusion at the root of a joint.
60 001* Excess penetration bead

Excess weld metal protruding
through the root of a fusion weld
made from one side only.
60 002* Root concavity

(*suck-back, underwashing)
A shallow groove which may occur
in the root of a butt weld.
60 004* Shrinkage groove

A shallow groove caused by
contraction in the metal along each
side of a penetration bead.
60 039 Burnthrough
(melt though)
A localised collapse of the molten
pool due to excessive penetration,
resulting in a hole in the weld run.
12-4
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12.6 Questions: Weld Defects/Imperfections
1 Name the types of planar defects found within a weld metal.
2 List the different groups of imperfections.
3 How would shape imperfections be assessed?
4 Give three (3) possible causes of weld imperfections.
12-5
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What are some of the welding defects discussed?

IIW/EWF Diploma -

Fabrication and Application (Foundation)

Training & Examination Services

Pre training briefing

1 Quality Assurance and Quality Control

3 Development of Residual Stress and Distortion

4 Plant Facilities and Equipment

5 Safety in the Welding Shop

7 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

9 Typical Exam Practice Question

10 Additional information: Welding consumables – storage and

11 Additional information: Preheat and interpass temperature

12 Additional information: weld defects/imperfections

1 Quality Assurance and Quality Control

Quality assurance is all those planned and systematic actions necessary to

Quality assurance is therefore the documented plans and systems by which

In order to satisfy this requirement a documented quality system is needed

1.1.1 Quality system

The organisation structures, responsibilities, procedures, processes and

The quality manual and support procedures document an organisation's

1.1.2 Quality manual

A document setting out the general quality policies, procedures and

The word general, is important in this definition. The quality manual is

A document that describes how an activity is to be performed and by whom.

 BS 7448: Part 1: ISO 8402: Quality Vocabulary Internal terms.

Note, that a procedure is not a detailed work instruction such as a welding

In these circumstances an appropriate quality system can be documented in

1.1.4 Quality plan

A document setting out the specific quality practices, resources and

A quality plan is the corporate quality system suitably modified to reflect

Project procedures may well include:

 Existing procedures appropriate to the contract.

Some contracts may well call for a combination of all three.

1.2 Quality system standards

Standards are normally used for the following purposes:

 As guidance to an organisation introducing quality assurance.

The standard common in the UK is ISO 9000.

1.2.1 Quality Records

Questions that need to be addressed include:

 Where are the records filed and by whom?

1.2.2 Typical quality record contents

a) Records of stage inspections in the form of check sheets or quality

b) Non-conformity reports and concession records.

c) Where appropriate, As built drawings.

f) Welding consumable records.

g) Weld history records.

i) Heat treatment records.

j) Hydraulic and/or other testing records.

k) Where appropriate, material test certificates.

l) Final acceptance certificates.

1.2.3 What areas of a business need to be covered by ISO 9000?

 Management responsibility - who is responsible for what?

Quality Programme Documentation

The Welding Inspector

Ensure compliance to Ensure workmanship Ensure welding criteria by