“Reading Literature Cross- Culturally”

# Draft untuk bahan makalah:

1. What is Literature?
Literature is fictional or realistic texts ( e.g, novels, poems, short stories, etc …) which convey
their message by paying considerable attention to language which is rich and multilayered.
Literature might reflect aspect of the milieu of its production.

2. What is Culture ?
Edward Tylor defines culture as “complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.

3. What is Cross Cultural ?

The term “multicultural literature” will be used frequently in this literature review. Two
definitions of multicultural literature prevail in contemporary academia. The first of these is
used by researchers who define multicultural literature as writings about people from diverse
cultural, socioeconomic, linguistic, and religious backgrounds and who have traditionally been
marginalized and/or are considered outside of mainstream society (Louie, 2006, p. 438). The
second definition is used by scholars who define multicultural literature as any work of literature
that “…describes a variety of ethnic backgrounds and racial characteristics that discuss themes
applicable across cultures… universal themes like survival, justice, conflict resolution, friendship
or betrayal provide these connections across cultures” (León, 2002, p. 49). For the purposes of
this investigation, multicultural literature will be defined as per the first definition. Similarly, the
term “multicultural children’s literature” will be defined as multicultural children’s texts,
multicultural children’s works, and multicultural (children’s) books, as per the description
developed by Ching (2005).
Likewise, the term “cross-cultural understanding” frequently appears in research in multicultural
education. Cross-cultural understanding has been defined by Finney & Orr as the interpersonal
understanding of the culture and experiences between people of different cultures (1995, p.
327). Cross-cultural understanding, in turn, can be separated into three major components:
critical understanding, empathetic understanding, and conceptual understanding of another
(Louie, 2006, p. 442). These three major categories of cross-cultural understanding are divided
into several subcategories. Cross-cultural understanding, then, can be seen as a complex process
involving several higher-order thinking skills. Table 2 (below) lists the three major components
of cross-cultural understanding, describes their subcategories and provides illustrative examples
for each subcategory

4. What is reading literature cross-literally?

Cross cultural understanding simply refers to the basic ability of people to recognize, interpret
and correctly react to people, incidences or situations that are open to misunderstanding due to cultural
differences. There are some guidelines to use language effectively and sensitively to facilitate
communication, namely be aware, choose words carefully, avoid idioms, slang, jargon, acronyms,
respect the basic rules of correct grammar and standard syntax, be polite and formal, avoid informality,
avoid jokes and humor, listen, and value silence.

In learning any languages, besides learning to master the four skills namely speaking skill,
listening skill, writing skill and reading skills, learners are also expected to master about cross cultural
understanding. They need to know properly the culture of the country and the people where the
language is from. Cross cultural understanding simply refers to the basic ability of people to recognize,
interpret and correctly react to people, incidences or situations that are open to misunderstanding due
to cultural differences. That’s why, the fundamental intention of cross cultural training is to equip the
learner(s) with the appropriate skills to attain cross cultural understanding.

It is widely recognized within the community of applied linguists that learning a language involves
more than just learning to use a set of linguistic structures. The components of language learning that go
beyond the acquisition of linguistic structures and the development of the abilities to use these linguistic
structures in real time are usually considered and discussed as cultural factors. For example, Brym and
Risager in a study of language teachers' knowledge of cultural issues propose that culture consists of
four basic categories:

A. culture understood as people's way of Ufe and traditions – how people live in concrete terms, their
activities, their ways of living together and so on;

B. culture understood as the objective of structures people live in, the social, political and economic
institutions for example;

C. culture understood as the norms or valúes characterizing people's lives - the ideas people have about
their Ufe, behavior, mentality, consciousness and so on;

D. culture understood as valued producís or artifacts: as artistic life and artistic producís of different
kinds, for example literature, music, art and so on." (p. 85).

A. Benefit #1: Multicultural Literature’s Role in Identity Formation

It is widely accepted that the use of multicultural literature in classrooms can assist in the
development of students’ identities (i.e., their sense of self) (Trites, 2003; Green & Oldendorf,
2005; Thirumurthy, 2011). The process of identity formation is seen as crucial because “An
individual without identity is like a plant devoid of nourishment. It withers and dies. Possessing
identity, we feel a sense of freedom from within” (Green & Oldendorf, 2005, p. 216). Similarly,
Pires (2011) suggests that schools display a homogenizing tendency and that as a consequence of
this, educators must raise questions and consult literature that “…go[es] beyond classroom
boundaries and that is inherent to children’s experiences in multicultural societies” (p. 253).
Pires further notes that literary representations may have a deep impact on the
construction of identity formation for students from minority cultures (p. 253-254). Moreover,
seeing one’s own culture reflected in literature is also viewed as assisting in the preservation of
the cultural identities of students from cultural minorities by fostering a sense of personal and
cultural pride (Green & Oldendorf, 2005, p. 210).

B. Benefit #2: Cultural Pluralism/Diversity of Viewpoints

The use of multicultural literature in the classroom is seen as benefitting not only students
from minority cultures but also students who are members of non-minority cultural groups as
well. Morrell & Morrell point out that “…the idea that multicultural literature is most appropriate
or only useful for children of historically marginalized groups is now outdated” (2012, p. 11).
Correspondingly, Gilton (2007) observes that the use of such literature is essential to students
from all backgrounds because it enables students from minority cultures to “…learn, know,
celebrate, and promote their own cultures” (p. 20) while simultaneously allowing students from
mainstream cultures to gain a better understanding of diverse peoples (p. 12). In similar fashion,
León (2002) suggests that adopting multicultural education in today’s classrooms is congruent
with a liberal and progressive philosophy of education that aims to show students the varied
world in which they live (p. 16).
Other scholars have suggested that the use of multicultural literature in schools equips
children for living in a world characterized by diversity. Yoon, Simpson & Haag (quoted in
Morrell & Morrell) advocate incorporating multicultural literature throughout curricula and see
this process as having the potential to foster cultural pluralism and challenge the uncritical
acceptance of dominant beliefs and canons of knowledge (2010, p. 14). Green & Oldendorf
(2005) observe that an awareness of and knowledge about diverse cultures should not be
considered only as a characteristic of an educated person, but as necessary attributes for all
people living in the diversity that characterizes the contemporary world (p. 210). Analogously,
Pires (2011) observes that using multicultural literature can result in viewing “…diversity as a
valuable force and not as a weakness which must be overcome” (p. 253).

C. Benefit #3: Global Citizenry

Some investigators have remarked on multicultural literature’s potential to offer lifelong
advantages to students. These researchers assert that the use of multicultural literature in
classrooms promotes critical thinking, an appreciation of complexity, and the development of
attitudes that will enable students to function as global citizens – benefits that they can use across
their lifespans. Akrofi et. al. (2008) points out that “…our young people need to acquire the
knowledge, attitudes, and skills to function in a diverse society” (p. 209). Consistent with this
perspective, Stewart suggests that the use of multicultural literature in schools has the potential
to expose children to broader and newer global visions, which are “…needed to prepare children
and youth to be informed, engaged, and critical citizens in the new millennium” (p. 96). Stewart
references Suarez-Orozco and Qin-Hillard (2008) who note that students who are aware of
cultural difference have an advantage in problem solving because the skills needed for analyzing
and solving complex problems “…require individuals who are cognitively flexible, culturally
sophisticated, and able to work collaboratively in groups made up of diverse individuals” (p.
103).
Some researchers have pursued a reciprocal line of inquiry. Rather than examining the
potential advantages of the use multicultural literature in schools, they have chosen to focus their
attention on the disadvantages that are seen as occurring when multicultural literature is not used
in schools. Green & Oldendorf (2005) state that if teachers do not use multicultural literature in
their classrooms they are doing a disservice to their students by creating the inaccurate
impression that the cultural life of humankind is unimportant or insignificant (p. 210). In similar
fashion, Pires (2011) contends that teachers have a moral obligation to use multicultural
literature in their classrooms; the failure to do so promotes stereotypical thinking: “[There is a]
…need to incorporate in the curricula minority cultures]… in books for children, where
frequently it is striking the discrimination and racial prejudice present in them. Silencing this
reflection is a form of perpetuating this situation or even promoting it” (p. 258).

D. Critiques Against the Use of Multicultural Literature

Although some investigators contend that the use of multicultural literature is beneficial for
schoolchildren, others disagree and assert that using multicultural literature in schools may be
detrimental for children if it is used incorrectly. Most of these researchers are not opposed to the
use of multicultural literature in schools per se; instead, they urge educators to use caution in
selecting the books they use and in the teaching contexts in which they use them.

E. Critique #1: Lack of Truly International Texts, and Stereotypical Texts

Thirumurthy (2011) notes that “… the body of multicultural literature is disappointing, and
it is disconcerting to note that more books are written about non-whites than are written by
nonwhites” (p. 446). Although the selection of multicultural children’s works has proliferated in
recent decades, the majority of Canadian books from other countries have been selected by
Canadian and American editors, translated from their original languages (if they were not
published in English), and republished in Canadian or American editions (Stewart, 2008, p. 97).
Stewart quotes Stan in observing that “…as a result… the international fare offered to…
[Canadian and American] children… is not reflective of the world’s literature for children. …
Instead… the majority of international books published in… [Canada and the US]… come from
just a few countries” (p. 98). As Stan points out, the lack of truly international children’s
literature results from economics and politics. Aside from North America, Australia, Germany,
Great Britain, Switzerland, Japan and Austria, most countries simply do not have the financial
resources to publish children’s literature. Editorial processes compound this situation in that
editors can change words to suit what they believe young children will understand (p. 99).
Therefore, when a book makes a border crossing, very often it is transformed into something
other than what it originally was (p. 99). Critiques of multicultural children’s literature suggest
that not only do Canadian readers have limited access to multicultural children’s books and even
less access to international fiction, but what is available has been edited. The product that results
is homogenous and reflects dominant Western worldviews (Stewart, 2006, p. 95).
Other researchers have urged circumspection regarding the choice of multicultural texts,
noting “… text selection is critical” (Locke & Harris, 2011, p. 17) and that the multicultural text
an educator selects to use in their classroom can do more harm than good if it is chosen
carelessly (Rasinski & Padak, 1990, p. 576). For example, some researchers have reported that
the superficial treatment of different cultures can potentially lead to the reinforcement of
misconceptions and stereotypes, including notions that ethnic cultures are not part of the
mainstream, dominant culture (Rasinski & Padak, 1990, p. 577). Other incautiously-selected
texts may reiterate insider/outsider or us/them binary thinking that encourages students to see
cultures from which they do not originate as “the other,” (Stewart, 2008, p. 100). In light of this,
educators are urged to be sensitive in choosing multicultural texts that accurately portray cultures
other than their own; ideally selecting texts that highlight similarities between various cultures
while simultaneously celebrating their differences (Koeller, 1996).
 F. Critique #2: Multicultural Children’s Literature, if Incorporated Into Curriculum
Without Care, Can Be Damaging
Some researchers have suggested that in today’s classrooms, “…[multicultural]
literature’suse… stops at presentation. That is, teachers and students read stories of or from
various cultures, but beyond brief post-reading discussions, little else comes of consideration of
cultural values and beliefs” (Morrell & Morrell, 2012, p. 11). These scholars also suggest that
when using multicultural literature, text selection is important but the way in which the book is
taught is crucial. From this perspective the most insightful text, if used incorrectly, can
undermine a teacher’s efforts to create a culturally inclusive classroom. Morrell & Morrell
suggest that if multicultural texts are taught in culturally alienating ways, educators will have
actually disadvantaged their students albeit without intending to do so (p. 12). They further assert
that although “… a text may lend itself to an analysis that centers upon race, gender, or
difference, it will ultimately be the teaching of that text that truly enables students to read the text
multiculturally” (p. 14). Common pitfalls include the “we’re so fortunate” syndrome (which is
symptomatic of a solipsistic attitude and skews the focus from other cultures to the culture of the
majority); ignoring diversity within a culture when reflecting on a multicultural text; and the
“we’re just like them” misconception, which ignores the differences and the uniqueness of other
cultures (Louie, 2006, p. 438). Finally, some research indicates that simply exposing children to
multicultural literature without appropriate pre-, during, and post-reading activities can lead to a
lack of understanding, indifference, and even resistance from students (Louie, 2006, p. 447).

# The Authenticity/Cultural Appropriation Debate

There is currently a debate in academic circles focusing on whether or not a text can be
considered “authentic” (and hence, appropriate for classroom use) if it was not written by an
author who is of the same culture as the people s/he is writing about. For example, if a Canadian
author is writing about a child’s life in Afghanistan (such as in the award-winning children’s
book Parvana’s Journey, by Deborah Ellis) can the text be considered an authentic
representation of Afghanistan? As previously noted, the lack of diversity in the publishing
industry results in many multicultural children’s books being published in Canada by authors
who do not share the cultural background of their characters.
Scholars continue to debate whatqualifications are necessary in order to write about
cultures that are not ones’ own. This discourse is an important one. Harris, quoted in Stewart, has
noted “Inauthenticity destroys all cultural understanding that the literature tries to accomplish
and distorts the humanity of theculture portrayed…Inauthenticity also spreads… dangerous lies”
(2008, p. 98). Harris claims that writers of multicultural literature, therefore, have a moral
responsibility to portray the cultures that they are writing about accurately. Their failure to do so
puts them at risk being identified as racist or ignorant by consumers (p. 99).
On one side of the debate are scholars who suggest that writers attempting to describe a
cultural impression outside of their own lived experience are committing an act of theft and have
termed this process “cultural appropriation” or “voice appropriation” (Stewart, 2006, p. 99).
However, other researchers disagree with this view and suggest that the conceptions of cultural
appropriation or voice appropriation rest on simplistic insider/outsider dichotomies (Ching, 2005,
p. 134). These scholars remind us that an author’s cultural origin is not a sufficient guarantee that
s/he will depict their native culture accurately. León (2002, p. 51) summarizes this view,
advising, “…questions can also arise about people describing their own cultures” Similarly,
Gilton, (2012, p. 44) notes that “… very simply, authenticity comes from having lived the
experience of that culture or having learned about it in depth”.

# Bank’s Hierarchy
An important framework in any discussion about multicultural literature is Bank’s seminal
curricular model for integrating ethnic/multicultural content into regular curricula. This
hierarchical framework is especially prized for its ability to foster cross-cultural understanding
has been referenced extensively in subsequent publications by other researchers (Rasinski &
Padak, 1990; Koeller, 1996; Landt, 2006).
# Draft untuk bahan slide:
1. What is Literature?
Fictional or realistic texts ( e.g, novels, poems, short stories, etc …) which convey their message
by paying considerable attention to language which is rich and multilayered. Literature might
reflect aspect of the milieu of its production.

2. What is Culture ?
Edward Tylor defines culture as “complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.

3. What is Cross Cultural ?

Two definitions of multicultural literature prevail in contemporary academia:
^The first of these is used by researchers who define multicultural literature as writings about
people from diverse cultural, socioeconomic, linguistic, and religious backgrounds and who have
traditionally been marginalized and/or are considered outside of mainstream society (Louie,
2006, p. 438).
^The second definition is used by scholars who define multicultural literature as any work of
literature that “…describes a variety of ethnic backgrounds and racial characteristics that discuss
themes applicable across cultures… universal themes like survival, justice, conflict resolution,
friendship or betrayal provide these connections across cultures” (León, 2002, p. 49).

4. What is reading literature cross-literally?

Cross cultural understanding simply refers to the basic ability of people to recognize, interpret
and correctly react to people, incidences or situations that are open to misunderstanding due to
cultural differences.

There are some guidelines to use language effectively and sensitively to facilitate
communication, namely be aware, choose words carefully, avoid idioms, slang, jargon,
acronyms, respect the basic rules of correct grammar and standard syntax, be polite and formal,
avoid informality, avoid jokes and humor, listen, and value silence.

 In learning any languages, besides learning to master the four skills namely speaking skill,
listening skill, writing skill and reading skills, learners are also expected to master about cross
cultural understanding. They need to know properly the culture of the country and the people
where the language is from.

 Cross cultural understanding simply refers to the basic ability of people to recognize,
interpret and correctly react to people, incidences or situations that are open to
misunderstanding due to cultural differences. That’s why, the fundamental intention of cross
cultural training is to equip the learner(s) with the appropriate skills to attain cross cultural
understanding.
  The components of language learning that go beyond the acquisition of linguistic structures
and the development of the abilities to use these linguistic structures in real time are usually
considered and discussed as cultural factors. For example, Brym and Risager in a study of
language teachers' knowledge of cultural issues propose that culture consists of four basic
categories:

1. Culture understood as people's way of Ufe and traditions – how people live in concrete terms, their
activities, their ways of living together and so on;

2. Culture understood as the objective of structures people live in, the social, political and economic
institutions for example;

3. Culture understood as the norms or valúes characterizing people's lives - the ideas people have about
their Ufe, behavior, mentality, consciousness and so on;

4. Culture understood as valued producís or artifacts: as artistic life and artistic producís of different
kinds, for example literature, music, art and so on." (p. 85).

THE BENEFITS:
A. Benefit #1: Multicultural Literature’s Role in Identity Formation
It is widely accepted that the use of multicultural literature in classrooms can assist in the
development of students’ identities

B. Benefit #2: Cultural Pluralism/Diversity of Viewpoints

The use of multicultural literature in the classroom is seen as benefitting not only students
from minority cultures but also students who are members of non-minority cultural groups as
well. Other scholars have suggested that the use of multicultural literature in schools equips
children for living in a world characterized by diversity.

C. Benefit #3: Global Citizenry

Some investigators have remarked on multicultural literature’s potential to offer lifelong
advantages to students. These researchers assert that the use of multicultural literature in
classrooms promotes critical thinking, an appreciation of complexity, and the development of
attitudes that will enable students to function as global citizens – benefits that they can use across
their lifespans

THE CRITIQUES:

A. Critiques Against the Use of Multicultural Literature

Although some investigators contend that the use of multicultural literature is beneficial for
schoolchildren, others disagree and assert that using multicultural literature in schools may be
detrimental for children if it is used incorrectly.
Critique #1: Lack of Truly International Texts, and Stereotypical Texts
Thirumurthy (2011) notes that “… the body of multicultural literature is disappointing, and
it is disconcerting to note that more books are written about non-whites than are written by
nonwhites” (p. 446

Critique #2: Multicultural Children’s Literature, if Incorporated Into Curriculum

Without Care, Can Be Damaging
Some researchers have suggested that in today’s classrooms, “…[multicultural]
literature’suse… stops at presentation. That is, teachers and students read stories of or from
various cultures, but beyond brief post-reading discussions, little else comes of consideration of
cultural values and beliefs” (Morrell & Morrell, 2012, p. 11).

# The Authenticity/Cultural Appropriation Debate

There is currently a debate in academic circles focusing on whether or not a text can be
considered “authentic” (and hence, appropriate for classroom use) if it was not written by an
author who is of the same culture as the people s/he is writing about.
For example, if a Canadian author is writing about a child’s life in Afghanistan (such as in the
award-winning children’sbook Parvana’s Journey, by Deborah Ellis) can the text be considered
an authentic representation of Afghanistan? As previously noted, the lack of diversity in the
publishing industry results in many multicultural children’s books being published in Canada by
authors who do not share the cultural background of their characters.

# Bank’s Hierarchy
An important framework in any discussion about multicultural literature is Bank’s seminal
curricular model for integrating ethnic/multicultural content into regular curricular. This
hierarchical framework is especially prized for its ability to foster cross-cultural understanding
has been referenced extensively in subsequent publications by other researchers (Rasinski &
Padak, 1990; Koeller, 1996; Landt, 2006).