Ch03-Zealey PRE - 4thpp PDF

P h y s i c s i n C o n t e x t : T h e Fo r c e s o f L i f e
3
ENCOUNTERS WITH ELECTRICITY:
ELECTRICAL ENERGY IN THE HOME
92 92
Encounter s with Electricity: Electrical Energy in the Home
3.1 Society and Electricity

Students learn to:
• discuss how the main sources of domestic energy have changed over time
• assess some of the impacts of changes in, and increased access to, sources of energy for a community
• discuss some of the ways in which electricity can be provided in remote locations.
Electricity has been of scientific interest since the Greeks first noted the electrostatic
properties of amber almost 1000 years BC. The invention of batteries and generators to
provide a continuous source of electricity in the early 1800s led to the use of direct
currents (DC) in communications, lighting and transport.
The electric telegraph was invented by Charles Wheatstone in 1836. It relied on
mechanical pointers driven by solenoids to transmit messages, and was superseded by
Samuel Morse’s code in 1844. By 1866 the first reliable transatlantic telegraph cable
capable of transmitting Morse code was in operation.
It was not until 1876, however, when Edison patented the telephone, that sound could
be transmitted by wire. The first telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Connecticut,
USA in 1878.
Heinrich Hertz demonstrated radio transmission in 1887, and by 1901 Marconi had
made the first transmission across the Atlantic. However, the first transatlantic
multichannel telephone cable was not laid until 1956.
By 1879 Edison and Swan had produced the first incandescent light bulb. Edison went
on to develop the first DC electrical distribution network—from dynamo generators to
household sockets.
In 1881, the first electric trolley ran in Berlin, a forerunner of trams and trolley buses.
Our electricity dependence

Today we take electricity for granted. We use electricity for so many things for which we
experience a loss when there is a blackout. Our dependence includes heaters, lighting,
refrigerators, computers, television, DVD players, kettles, toasters, washing machines
and so on.
Yet this has not been the case over a large part of history. Our ancestors collected
materials such as wood, coal or peat for fuel and frequently made their own candles for
night lights well into the nineteenth century.
Wind and running water have been utilised as energy sources since ancient times
(sail ships, mills). Descriptions of water-wheels used for grinding grain date back more
than 3000 years. Water that flows in rivers and streams is a valuable energy resource.
Throughout Europe in medieval times people learned to use the power of running water
to operate the small mills that were important to their communities. Gristmills ground
grain, sawmills cut timber, carding mills combed the wool sheared from sheep.
Waterpowered machines cut nails, turned wood and cut shingles.
In the early twentieth century these were no labour-saving devices in the home. The
washing of clothes, for example, was a major chore. Wood had to be split and a fire lit to
warm the water, which was commonly carried to the home. Clothing was hand washed
often using home-made soap before being wrung out, air dried, and ironed using hot
irons warmed on the fire.
The lack of refrigeration made food storage and preservation another time
consuming task. Today we enjoy our yoghurts, cheeses, jams, salami, pickled foods
without much thought as to why our forebears made them. In Australia the electric
refrigerator did not become a regular household appliance until the late 1950s. Prior to
that iceboxes and kerosene powered refrigerators were widely used.
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The availability of energy for domestic purposes had its roots in the Industrial
Revolution. The steam engine of Newcomen appeared about 1712, was improved
by Watt some 60 years later and used in many applications.
‘His (Newcomen’s) engine was soon applied and continued to be used with great
advantage in the coal-mines of the north of England, the tin and copper mines of
Cornwall, and the lead mines of Cumberland, &c. It was employed in cities for
supplying the inhabitants with water; in 1752 and afterwards it was used for raising
water to drive water-wheels for mills; it was used for blowing the air into the blast
furnaces for smelting iron-ore; and it was soon taken advantage of on the Continent
for similar purposes.’ HUGO RElD’s ‘Steam-engine’ (1840) pp. 112, 113.
Steam engines to power transport (ships, locomotives, trucks) were soon developed,
and have been used for this purpose well into the mid-twentieth century. Town gas
(made from the reaction of red hot coke with steam) provided fuel for lighting and
cooking in the nineteenth-century. The nineteenth-century discoveries in the field of
electromagnetism allowed power generated at a central site to be distributed over wide
areas. In Australia we still use coal as our main energy source to produce steam to drive
turbines and generators.
E x e r ci s e
3.1 a What fuel was used to boil the water to provide the steam for the
steam engines?
b What fuel is used by large tankers and cruise ships today?
A c tivit y
3.1 List the main uses of electricity in your life under the following categories
and consider the effects of a week long power cut on each:
• domestic (home)
• travel
• entertainment
• business and industry
• communications
• public safety and law and order.
What alternative sources of power could replace electricity in the event of a
major power outage?
B e p r e p ar e d
Start collecting electricity bills from your family and relatives for a future activity.
Domestic power sources

The earliest useful sources of electrical power were chemical batteries and cells. These
provided low voltage DC power for scientific research and for primitive electric telegraph
systems.
It was not until the first public electricity utility was opened by Thomas Alva Edison in
New York in 1882 that electricity became available for domestic and industrial use. This
power station consisted of six DC generators supplying a total power of 100 kilowatts to
an area of about 3 square kilometres.
Electrical power is transmitted most efficiently at high voltages (330 kV – 500 kV).
To be used safely in the home these high voltages must be reduced to 240 V. DC electricity
cannot be easily transformed in this way.
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Multiphase alternating current (AC), developed by Nikola Tesla in 1885, has largely
replaced DC for domestic and industrial uses. The development of the transformer by
George Westinghouse in 1887 allowed the voltage of AC power to be raised or lowered.
The transformer converts alternating current of one voltage to a higher or lower voltage.
Community power sources

A generator is an electro-mechanical device that converts rotary energy into electrical energy.
The first generator was built in 1831 by Michael Faraday, and was based on the
principle that an electric current is produced when a wire coil moves through a magnetic
field. Improvements made by Seimens, Gramme and Edison increased the efficiency of
generators for use in public power supplies.
The earliest generators were powered by steam piston engines. These were replaced by
the modern steam turbines. Modern power stations can be divided into various
categories, which are discussed below.
Fossil fuel
The steam that drives the generators may be generated in coal-fired or oil-fired boilers.
Only part of the energy in the steam is used to drive the generators. After passing through
the turbines the steam is cooled and condensed to water in giant cooling towers, then
discharged as hot water into the power station cooling ponds or to rivers and the sea.
NSW is rich in coal and generates 80% of its power from coal-fired stations. These are
to be found close to the major coal resources in the Hunter Valley (4400 MW, 2 stations),
Lake Macquarie (5600 MW, 3 stations) and Lithgow (22 400 MW, 2 stations). These power
stations provide part of the State’s power demands of nearly 100 000 MW.
The Bayswater Power Station, which operates in the Upper Hunter Valley, is a typical
coal-fired power station. Built between 1981 and 1986 this power station burns 6.5 million
Figure 3.1 tonnes of coal per year from local
A coal-fired power mines. The boiler structure is
station converts
smoke 80 metres high and produces high
chemical energy high pressure turbine
into heat energy steam
pressure steam at a temperature
and in turn of 540°C. The steam drives four
electrical energy. boiler turbines, which produce 2640 MW
Some heat energy of power from four turbo-
generator
is dumped back generators. Waste hot water is
fuel
into the local heat exchanger recycled through 132-metre high
environment.
pump cooling towers, for reuse in the
water
boilers. The overall efficiency of
this modern power station is
river or pond approximately 36%.
E x e r ci s e
3.2 How does the use of electricity in New South Wales impact on the greenhouse
effect? What impact does an increasing population have on the demand for
power and our greenhouse emissions?
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Nuclear power
The steam required to drive the turbines can also be produced by nuclear power plants.
In these, enriched uranium ore in fuel rods decays radioactively to produce high energy
neutrons. These energetic neutrons heat water or other coolant circulating through the
core of the reactor. This coolant, in turn, is used to heat water to steam, which then drives
turbines and generators.
As with all major construction projects, this kind of generating facility has high start
up costs, low fuel costs and a long lifetime. However, on the downside the environmental
impact related to the disposal of the highly radioactive material associated with the used
(or spent) fuel rods is of concern.
Hydroelectric
A further 12% of NSW’s power comes from the hydroelectric power generated in
the Snowy Mountains: Warragamba Dam (50 MW), Hume Dam (50 MW) and the
Shoalhaven scheme (240 MW).
Figure 3.2
dam surge chamber
Hydroelectric
power is produced
by converting
gravitational
potential energy
into electrical head
energy.
power hall
tail race
Hydroelectric power is generated by the conversion of the gravitational energy in a

falling stream of water into electrical power. The power generated by a hydroelectric
scheme depends on:
1 the height of the water above the turbine (this is known as the head, H);
2 the volume of water flowing through the turbines every second, V;
3 the efficiency of the turbine.
Power stations can be on mountain streams and have heads as large as 250 m, or be
on rivers with heads as low as 10 m. Clearly the lower the head the larger the volume
flow rate needed to generate a reasonable power.
E xample
Tres Marias, Brazil
head 55 m
discharge = 155 m3 s–1
power = 85 MW at 100% efficiency
actual power = 75 MW
Hydroelectric power has the advantages of being:

• clean and non-polluting
• self replenishing (i.e. depends only on height)
• highly efficient (turbines ~90%; total efficiency 80%)
• long lifetime > 40 years
• reliable (outages/shutdowns low)
• fast start up (~5 minutes).
Disadvantages lie in high investment costs, long construction times and impact on the
environment. Hydroelectric dams also fulfil other functions, which include irrigation,
flood control, recreation and fish farming.
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Hydroelectric schemes may also store energy when there is a low demand for power by
pumping water back into the upper reservoir. These systems are called pumped storage
systems.
Examples are to be found in the Snowy Mountains Scheme and the Shoalhaven Scheme.
Figure 3.3 Fitzroy Falls

The Kangaroo 10 000 ML
surge chamber
Valley–Shoalhaven
pumped storage
system.
483 m
head Bendeela Pond (1200 ML)
Bendeela Power Station

pump and
129 m generate
head power hall
Kangaroo River
Tidal power
Tidal energy is harnessed by building a barrier across the mouth of an estuary or inlet and
by installing turbines in the barrier that are turned by the inflow and outflow of water.
At more than 100 coastal locations around the world, the rise and fall of tides make the
generation of electricity by tidal force economically feasible.
The first modern tidal power station was installed in France on the Rance River in
1966. A tidal change of 13.5 m generates 240 MW through 24, adjustable-pitch turbine
generators. Power is generated on both the inflow and outflow of the tides.
The best sites in Australia are to be found in the northwest, where there is a large tidal
range and natural bays with narrow necks to the sea. As for hydroelectric power, the
capital costs are high, and there are possible environmental impacts.
Wind power
Wind turbines have been used for centuries to provide power for grinding flour, and
pumping water from the polders of the Netherlands. In Australia, the Southern Cross
windmills drove water pumps in the outback. Only recently have they been used to
produce a significant amount of electrical power. Wind-powered machines, most of which
have a capacity of 50–200 kW, have been installed in the United States, the Netherlands
and the UK. Most recently, trial wind farms have been built in the Crookwell region of
NSW and in the Atherton Tablelands above Cairns. The Atherton Tablelands project will
utilise 20 wind turbines to produce 12 MW of power which will be sold to Ergon, Energex
and Citipower.
Larger wind turbines can generate several thousand kilowatts, although their reliability
has generally not yet proven satisfactory. The generation of electricity from wind power
conserves fossil fuels and does not contribute to air pollution. Unfortunately, wind power
is intermittent in places where power is needed most, and the problems in building
turbines that can withstand strong winds and the high cost of wind power ensure that
wind power currently plays only a small role in power production.
The maximum efficiency of a wind turbine is about 60%.
The power generated clearly depends on the meteorological characteristic of the site,
such as:
• average wind velocity
• maximum wind velocity
• fluctuation in velocity
• wind direction.
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Table 3.1 The relationship between wind speed and power generated for wind turbines of different diameter
(2, 10 and 50 m)
Wind speed Power generated (kW)

(km/h) 2m 10 m 50 m
10 0.04 1.1 26.8
20 0.32 8.8 214
30 1.1 29.7 724
40 2.6 70 1715
50 5.0 137 3350
60 8.6 238 5789
Suitable sites should have almost constant wind direction with wind velocities in the
region of 30 km/h. The higher the site, the higher the wind speed.
A small village of 70 homes requires between 300 kW and 600 kW of power, which
could be supplied by a 3 bladed, 30 metre rotor. A larger town requiring 6 MW requires a
wind farm of 10–20 windmills covering an area of about 2 km2. Wind farms can therefore
cover large areas.
Their main environmental impacts lie in the visual impact, low frequency noise,
electromagnetic interference, reflection of TV or radio signals, and their impact on
bird life.
Solar power
About one kilowatt (1 kW) of solar power falls on every square metre of the Earth’s surface.
This power can either be converted directly into electrical power using photovoltaic cells,
or used to heat water and produce steam to drive generators.
Photovoltaic cells are less than 20% efficient in converting light into DC electrical power.
A small village requiring about 500 kW of power for cooking and other purposes could be
supplied by a total area of 2500 m2 of solar cells spread over a region 50 m by 50 m.
Arrays of solar panels are best sited facing to the north and angled at about 30° or more
to the horizontal to catch the Sun’s rays throughout the day.
Photovoltaic cells are still expensive to produce, however, although great effort is being
made to reduce their costs. Since they can produce power only in daytime, an efficient
storage battery is required to even out the power supplied. Unless only DC electrical
appliances are used, the conversion of DC voltages produced by the photovoltaic cells to
AC voltage is an extra expense.
Geothermal
The Earth produces internal heat from radioactive decays occurring deep within. This
heat flows towards the surface producing about 0.06 W/m2. At depths of 20 000 m,
temperatures of 300°C are common. Higher heat flows occur in the neighbourhood of
subduction zones (e.g. New Zealand), anomalous hot spots (e.g. Hawaii) and volcanic
regions (e.g. Philippines).
We can extract native steam from these hot rocks and use it to drive turbines and
electrical generators.
Geothermal steam has been used in Larderello, Italy, since 1904, and China, Indonesia,
Japan, Kenya, Mexico, New Zealand, the Philippines, and Russia have geothermal
generating capacity. Wairakei in New Zealand covers an area of 10 square kilometres and
generates 150 MW through steam extracted from 100 bore holes. The largest plant in the
world is in the United States, near Geyserville, California (north of San Francisco), where
steam has been used to produce power since 1960.
Geothermal steam and water may also be used directly for heating homes and greenhouses,
and for industrial purposes. In Iceland, 65% of homes depend on groundwater heat.
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The environmental impact of a geothermal power station is associated with:

1 heat discharge to the environment, which is several times that of a thermal power station
2 salts dissolved in steam, which corrode and solidify on equipment
3 excessive noise from the steam exhausting to the environment
4 sulfur gases released to the environment
5 local Earth tremors due to injection of water lubricating faults in the area.
Wave power
Waves are a form of solar energy: the heat from the Sun drives convection in the Earth’s
atmosphere and generates winds. These winds raise waves far out in the oceans. On
average, waves carry about 8.4 kW for every metre in length along the wave crest. This
energy can be harnessed using floats that bob up and down or pitch from side to side.
Figure 3.4
Pitching and
heaving
platforms can
both produce
usable wave
energy.
Heaving Pitching
Other wave energy generators use a vertical pipe with its bottom sunk below the
surface of the ocean while the top has a turbine mounted on it. The rise and fall of the
waves pumps air through the turbine, which drives a generator. Such systems have been
tested in Norway and Scotland.
A c tivitie s
3.2 Use your council library or contact your local electricity supply company and
get information on the location and type of the major power stations serving
your region.
3.3 Select one form of energy generation and compare its suitability for power
generation in your area with that of a typical coal-fired power station.
In your comparison include:
• access to coal
• effect on the environment
• demand from local industry and domestic use.
E x e r ci s e s
3.3 Consider the methods of generating power discussed above.

a Which are most suitable to supply a small village of 100 houses?
b Which are most suitable to supply a major city of 2 million houses?
Explain your choice.
3.4 The City of Wollongong wishes to generate 100 kW of power from wave energy
devices. If each wave carries an average power of 4 kW/m of length of wave
crest, how long must the device be?
3.5 How can electricity be provided to:
a a remote station in outback Australia?
b Australia’s Antarctic bases?
c an astronaut in space?
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A c tivitie s
3.4 What were the views of Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta about electricity?
How did their exchange of ideas lead to an increased understanding of the
nature of electricity?
3.5 Research how energy sources and access to them have changed over the past
2000 years, especially with reference to domestic power. Assess some of the
impacts and changes caused by increased access to sources of power for a
community.
3.2 Electric Circuits and Electric Charge

Students will learn to:
• describe the behaviour of electrostatic charges and the properties of the fields associated with them
• define the unit of electric charge as the coulomb
• define the electric field as a field of force with a field strength equal to the force per unit charge at
that point, E = F/q
• define electric current as the rate at which charge flows (coulombs/second or amperes) under the
influence of an electric field
• identify that current can be either direct with the net flow of charge carriers moving in one
direction, or alternating with the charge carriers moving backwards and forwards periodically
• describe electric potential difference (voltage) between two points as the change in potential energy
per unit charge moving from one point to the other (joules/coulomb or volts)
• discuss how potential difference changes at different points around a DC circuit
• identify the difference between conductors and insulators
• define resistance as the ratio of voltage to current for a particular conductor, R = V/I
• describe qualitatively how each of the following affects the movement of electricity through a
conductor
— length
— cross-sectional area
— temperature
— material.
Electric charge
In earlier years you will have discussed mass, one of the fundamental quantities in
physics. Mass is related to the amount of material a body contains. We can think of mass
as being related to the inertia of the body when acted on by a force. Although we know a
lot about mass, we really don’t have a feeling for the mechanism that produces the thing
we call mass! Mass is a fundamental something that all material possesses!
All matter can be thought of as possessing another fundamental quantity: electric
charge. We can observe a force between two objects that is associated with the charges on
the bodies. Like the gravitational force, this electrostatic force follows an inverse square
law. Like mass, charge is a difficult concept to grasp fully. We can’t explain, in a simple
way, what causes the charge on an atomic particle.
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Many different large-scale phenomena can be explained in terms of stationary charges

(electrostatics) and moving charges (electrodynamics). Electrical currents, which flow in
circuits, can be thought of as a stream of moving charges. Moving charges in atoms are
linked to magnetism, and currents are seen to produce magnetic effects on a larger scale.
The unit of charge: The coulomb

Although the unit of charge, the coulomb, is used as a measure of charge in electrostatics,
it is in fact defined by considering the size of the current measured in a wire through
which one coulomb of charge flows every second:
One coulomb is that charge passing a given point in 1 second when a current of 1 ampere
is flowing.
Or, more practically, the amount of charge flowing in a given time is the product of the
current and the time.
The charge on an electron is very small –1.6 × 10–19 coulombs. So when a current of 1 ampere
flows down a wire, about 6 × 1018 electrons pass by every second.
A historical view of static electricity

It has been known since the time of the Greeks that some materials behaved strangely
when rubbed. Thales (640–560 BC) noted that amber, a fossilised pine resin obtained
through trade from the Baltic, would attract light objects if rubbed with a cloth. Today
party tricks include picking up pieces of paper with a plastic comb which has been
rubbed vigorously on a woollen jumper.
You may have noted the effect of shuffling across a nylon carpet, reaching out for a
metal door handle and getting a shock or even seeing a spark leap from you to the handle.
Early researchers found that some materials were better at causing this effect than
others. Particularly effective were the combinations of :
• amber rods rubbed on cloth
• ebonite rods rubbed on flannel
• glass rods rubbed on silk
• Perspex rods rubbed on wool or fur
• polystyrene rods rubbed on hair or fur
• polythene rods rubbed on wool.
The effect of rubbing the rod on a fabric was said to charge the rod. Remember the verb
charge can be used in sentences like ‘charge your glasses’, ‘charge a cannon with gun
powder’ where it means to fill. Rubbing the rods was thought to fill them with something.
Nobody knew what the something was.
Figure 3.5 a b
a Ebonite and
ebonite
b glass rods can
be charged by
rubbing with a
cloth.
wool silk
glass
Further experiments showed that, when suspended on thread, a pair of identically

charged rods would repel each other. Rods of different materials might attract each other,
but in some cases are observed to repel each other. Benjamin Franklin ( 1706–1790) first
suggested that the repulsion and attraction were due to the rods acquiring either a
positive or a negative charge of an electric fluid.
101
Figure 3.6 a b
a Like charges
repel, b unlike
charges attract. repulsion
ss
gla ebonite
glass
glass –ve charge +ve charge
+ve charge +ve charge attraction
In rubbing a glass rod on silk, the silk gives up some of this electric fluid to the glass
rod. The rod gains an excess of the electric fluid, and becomes positively charged; the
cloth loses some fluid and becomes negatively charged. Franklin’s arbitrary choice of
glass as possessing the positive charge laid down the definition of positive charge that
has continued to the present day.
Forces bet ween charges

We have seen that when we bring a negatively charged rod close to a positively charged
rod, they attract each other. Two positively charged or two negatively charged rods repel
each other.
Like charges repel; unlike charges attract.
Forces bet ween a pair of charges: Coulomb’s law

Figure 3.7
q1 q2
A force exists
between a pair of
charges.
F F
Charles Coulomb (1736–1806), a French physicist, investigated the forces acting between
two charges and found that the force:
• acted along a line joining the centre of the two charges
• is proportional to the product of the two charges
• is inversely proportional to the (distance between the charges)2.
E x e r ci s e
3.6 Given the findings of Coulomb, if two charges q1 and q2 are separated by a
distance d what is the force acting between them?
The spreadsheet Circuit Simulations on the CD-ROM contains a worksheet Coulomb’s

Law with some typical calculations and exercises on Coulomb’s Law.
Extension—’A view of the atom and electric charge’ on CD-ROM.
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Electric fields
We have seen that any charged object will attract or repel other charged objects. We can
make simple maps in which we represent the size of this electrostatic force and its
direction at several positions near the charged object.
Suppose we have a 1 coulomb, positive test charge attached to a scale that measures
the force on the test charge. If we move around the charged object we can measure the
direction and size of the force acting on this test charge.
We can carry out these force measurements at many positions and draw force vectors
at each position to indicate the size and direction of the force on the test charge.
Figure 3.8
A test charge can +1C
be used to
determine the
direction and size
of the force acting F1 +1C
F2
in a given area.
F3
q
F4 F5
+1C
F6 F5
+1C
It is more convenient to draw continuous lines to indicate the direction of the force a
unit positive charge will feel when placed at a given position. This form of map is often
called an electric field map. Each line is a line of force. The strength of the force is
indicated by the separation of the lines. The closer the lines the stronger the force
experienced by a positive charge at that point.
Figure 3.9
The electric field
around a single
negative charge.
In the simple examples shown in Figure 3.9, the field lines are straight. In more
complex fields due to multiple charges the field lines are curved. The following rules apply
to the interpretation of field line maps:
1 Field lines begin at positive charges and end on negative charges.
2 Field lines never cross or split.
3 Field lines that are close together represent strong fields; field lines that are well
separated represent areas of weak field.
4 A charge placed in the field experiences a force in a direction along the field line.
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Figure 3.10 Electric field maps for differing positive and negative charges.
net force
attractive repulsive
a force force
b
test charge
+ — + +
two positive charges

positive and negative charges
Figure 3.11 Electric field maps for a opposite charges and b similar charges.
When we measure the field due to the positive and negative charges in Figure 3.11 with
our positive test charge, we get quite complicated field lines. At any point in the region the
test charge experiences a force of attraction due to the negative charge and a force of
repulsion due to the positive charge. The net force that acts on our test charge is the
vector sum of these two forces. The field lines represent the direction of the net force that
acts on our test charge.
When we consider real-life charge distributions, we need to introduce conductors.
What does the distribution of charge look like on a positively charged conductor?
It will help if we remember that like charges repel, that is, charges of similar sign will
attempt to get as far away from each other as possible. The positive charges will spread
out cross the conductor until the forces they experience from neighbouring charges
cancel each other out and the charges become stationary.
In their attempt to move as far apart as possible, the charges will move to the outside
surface of the conductor. If the conductor is a sphere, then the charge distributes itself
evenly across the outer surface.
What happens if we place our positive test charge inside the sphere? If we consider the
forces from just four of the positive charges A, B, C, D on the surface we find that the
repulsive forces from all of the charges on the sphere produces a net force of zero. The
field inside the sphere is therefore also zero. Remember that the repulsive forces decrease
with the square of the distance between each charge and our test charge.
This can be of use in industry and in laboratories where we need to carry out extremely
sensitive measurements that could be affected by electrical interference. By surrounding
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Figure 3.12 + A
a Charges + +
distribute on the + +
outer surface of a E
conductor, and + +
b the net force FA FC
inside a + FB
+ +ve test charge
conductor is B
always zero.
+ FE FD
+
D
+ +
C
+ +
+
our equipment completely with a conducting metal cage, a Faraday Cage, we can ensure
that the equipment is free of external electric fields. Sometimes the equipment might be
highly sensitive computer equipment. At other times it might be a mind reader, being
tested for extra-sensory-perception, who is shut up in the Faraday Cage.
E x e r ci s e s
3.7 Two oppositely charged parallel plates are shown below. Consider the direction
a test positive charge would move when centred between the plates. The
strongest repulsive force it will experience is from the positive charge directly
in line with it. The adjacent positive charges also repel the test charge. They
both tend to repel the charge slightly to the horizontal but in opposite directions.
Their net push is in the same direction as that from the central charge.
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
How will the negative charges interact with the test charge?
Sketch the pattern of field lines between the plates.
3.8 The following diagram shows the electric field lines for a system of two point
charges.
a What are the signs of the charges?
b The magnitude of the charge on the right-hand point charge is q. What is
the magnitude of the charge on the left-hand point charge?
3.9 Draw a diagram representing the electric field lines around two charges of
relative magnitude +10q and +2q.
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A c tivit y
3.6 Observe Experiment 3.2 ‘The Electric Field near a Van de Graaff generator’ to
observe the electric field between two parallel plates. The silver coated cachou
will move back and forward along the field lines between plates. Why?
Electric Field Strength, E

The idea of a field is useful to describe a region in space where a force acts at a distance.
Consider a 10 kg mass held by a rope as shown in Figure 3.13. It has a weight (Fw) of
98 N as recorded on a spring balance. It experiences the pull of the Earth’s gravitational
field. The gravitational field strength is the weight force per unit mass.
Figure 3.13
98 N
10 kg
weight
Gravity =
mass
In this case
Fw 98 N
g= = = 9.8 m s–2
m 10 kg
The region around a charge is surrounded by an electric field. A charge placed in
this field will experience a force. The electric field strength is defined as the force
experienced per unit charge. So that if a +1 C charge experienced a force of +10 N in
an electric field, then the field intensity would be 10 N C–1.
F 10 N
E = q = 1 C = 10 N C–1
The unit of electric field strength is N C–1 (newtons per coulomb).

If we know the electric field strength from a map of the electric field, we can find the
force acting on a charge q using:
F = qE
E x e r ci s e
3.10 The direction of the Earth’s gravitational field is in the same direction as
the force due to the weight of an object. Do electric fields always have the
same direction as the direction of the force?
Illustrate your answer by sketching the field round
a a positive charge and
b a negative charge and showing the direction of the force on a test
positive charge placed in the field.
106
Work and electric potential

In order to lift an object in the earth’s gravitational field we have to exert energy (do work).
We apply a force through the distance that we lift the object. Work is done on the object when
the force acts in the opposite direction to the field. (The object gains in potential energy.)
Work = force × displacement
When we bring a charged object close to a similarly charged body we need to exert a
force to overcome the repulsion between the two objects.
Suppose we move the charge from infinity to a distance d from the charged body, we
must perform work to bring the bodies together.
Work = force × displacement
Figure 3.14
The force
between two Force between charges
charges is
inversely
proportional to
the square of
their separation.
Distance between charges
The work done in moving a charge q1 from infinity to a distance d from the charge q2
is the area under the force–distance curve.
This work is given by
Work = Fd = q1Ed (since F = Eq)
This work is stored as potential energy, and can be released. When we take a hand
away, the force of repulsion between the charges will cause them to separate and q1 will
gain velocity. The stored electrostatic potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
Just as we discussed electric field strength in terms of the force acting on a unit
charge, we can also talk of the electrostatic potential energy of a charge at a given
position in an electric field. The potential, V, at any point is the work done per unit
charge in bringing the charge from infinity to that position.
work q1Ed
V= = q = Ed
q1 1
The potential difference between two points is the difference in potential between the
points. Voltage is measured in joules per coulomb (J C–1) or volts. It is also the work that must
to be done in moving the charge from the first to the second position:
Wab
Vab = Va – Vb = q
or
Wab = qVab
Figure 3.15 db
Work must be
da
done to move a
positive charge b a
from infinity to a +q2
from infinity
position near
another positive +q1
charge.
107
Potential difference and the flow of electrons

When two conductors are at different potentials, there is a potential difference between
them. If we connect them by a conducting wire, charge can flow from one to the other.
If the positive charges in the conductor were free to flow, they would move from the
higher potential to the lower potential, until the two materials had the same potential.
Potential energy would be converted into the kinetic energy of the positive charges.
At this stage there would be no net forces acting on charges in the system.
Figure 3.16
+ 1000 V + 500 V
Electrons flow
–ve charge flow
from low
potential to high
potential. +ve charge flow
+ 1000 V
elec
tron
s
+ 500 V
In the real world, the positive charges (the nuclei of the atoms) are massive and usually
not free to move in conductors. It is the negative charges that are able to move. The
electrons flow in the reverse direction, from the lower potential to the higher potential.
This flow of electrons is what we normally call a current.
The potential difference between the two conducting spheres in Figure 3.16 is given by:
Vab = 1000 V – 500 V
An electron moving from the lower potential 500 V to the 1000 V potential will do an
amount of work given by:
Wab = qVab= –1.6 × 10–19 C × 500 V
= –8 × 10–17 J
The negative sign indicates that work is done on the electron by the electric field. The
electron gains kinetic energy in moving from the lower to the higher potential.
E xample
P roble m
A potential difference of 2000 V is applied to two parallel metal plates as shown in the
diagram. The plates have a separation of 20 cm.
20 cm
Y
a Calculate the intensity of the electric field between the plates.

b A charge of –1 C is placed at point X. What is the magnitude of the force on it?
108
S olution
+ + + + + +
Consider the field diagram for a pair of charged
parallel plates:
The field lines extend from the positive charges
to the negative charges and are parallel. This means
that the field strength between two parallel charged
plates is constant and does not depend on distance
from either plate.
a The potential difference is 2000 V and V = Ed
therefore E = V/d = 2000 V/ 0.2 m = 10000 V m–1.
b A charge of –1 C placed anywhere in this field
— — — — — —
will experience a force given by:
F = qE = –1 C × E = –1 C × 10 000 V m–1
= –1 × 104 N toward the positively charged plate.
E x e r ci s e s
3.11 The units of electric field strength can be expresses as Vm–1 or N C–1. Show
that these units are equivalent.
3.12 Name two ways in which you could increase the force between a charged
particle and the electric field.
3.13 A charge of 2.0 C experiences a force of 6.0 N in an electric field. What is the
magnitude of the field?
3.14 What is the magnitude and direction of the force on an electron due to a field of
2.93 × 10–11 N C–1?
3.15 An electric field due to a proton has a magnitude of 8.0 × 10–20 N C–1 at point P.
What will be the magnitude and direction of the force of a negative charge of
3.2 × 10–19 C placed at point P?
+
P
3.16 A potential difference of 5000 V is applied to two parallel metal plates as shown
in the diagram. The plates have a separation of 10 cm.
10 cm
Y
a Calculate the intensity of the electric field between the plates.

b A + 2 C charge is placed at point X. What is the magnitude of the force on it?
Charge factories: Electrostatic generators

We can generate and store large quantities of charge using quite simple techniques. One
of the most common machines is the Van de Graaff generator.
109
Figure 3.17 metal dome

A Van de Graaff accumulates +ve charge
generator.
metal comb
sprays electrons
onto belt
insulating
rubber belt
insulating support
+50 000 V
metal comb takes
electrons off belt
The main features of this device are:

• a metal dome supported on an insulating column
• a rubber belt that can carry charges away from the dome
• a pointed comb attached to the inside of the dome, which allows charge to transfer to a
rubber belt
• a high voltage electrical system (50 000 V) in the base, which strips charge from the belt
through a pointed comb.
The continuous transfer of electrons from the dome to the base steadily increases the
positive charge on the dome. This charge resides on the outside of the dome.
This charge will leak away in damp weather, as water molecules attach themselves to
the dome, become charged and are repelled.
The potential difference between the dome and the Earth will build up to very high
values of up to 30 000 000 V. Van de Graaff generators are used extensively to provide the
high potential differences used to accelerate charged particles in atom smashers and in
medical accelerators.
The model Van de Graaff generator used in schools is very useful for demonstrating
electric fields. For example, the magnitude of the electric field around the dome versus
distance can be demonstrated by placing a line of electroscopes at varying distances
from the generator.
E x e r ci s e
3.17 A Van de Graaff generator loses its charge gradually when switched off. If a
drawing pin is placed upturned on the dome, the loss of charge is more rapid.
Explain why.
110
Electric currents, flowing charge

We have seen that electrons can flow along a conductor. When we connect an electro-
statically charged body which is at a high electric potential to another body at a lower
potential, via a conducting wire, some of the charge flows between the two bodies.
This movement of charge constitutes a current. To be more exact, the amount of
charge which flows past a point on the wire is a measure of the current.
If we attach a device to the wire which can measure the amount of charge, q, which
passes through it in a time, t seconds, we can measure this current.
charge flowing q
Current = I = =
elapsed time t
Charge is measured in coulombs, therefore current has units of coulombs per second.
The unit of current is called an ampere or amp.
A steady current of one ampere flows when one coulomb of charge passes any point in a
conductor each second.
Note: A current of 1 ampere is equivalent to a flow of 6 × 109 electrons per second. This is
a fairly large current. Smaller currents are often given in units of milliamperes and
microamperes.
1 milliampere or 1 mA = 1 × 10–3 A
1 microampere or 1 µA = 1 × 10–6 A
Typical currents encountered in everyday life are:
• current through a pocket calculator circuit = 0.005 A or 5 mA
• current through a torch bulb = 0.2 A or 200 mA
• current through a car headlight = 4 A
• current through a 1 kW electric heater = 4 A
• maximum current through a house lighting circuit = 13 A
We measure currents using an ammeter.
Direct current and alternating current

When a current flows in the same direction around an electric circuit the current is said to
be direct. Batteries supply a direct current (DC).
When the direction of an electric current changes with time, the current is said to be an
alternating current (AC). Alternating currents are produced by generators. Household
electricity supplies are AC. The following diagrams represent the current from a DC (left)
and an AC source (right).
Figure 3.18 a b
Typical a direct
2 2
current, and b
alternating 1 1
)A( tnerruC
)A( tnerruC
current
0 0
waveforms.
–1 –1
–2 –2
0. 1 0.2 0. 3 0. 4 0. 5. 0. 6 0. 1 0.2 0. 3 0. 4 0. 5 0. 6
Time (s) Time (s)
Current direction
Benjamin Franklin defined the electrostatic charge on a glass rod to be positive. This
definition is fundamental to many definitions which relate to electromagnetism.
111
Figure 3.19 The real situation

Electric current
is due to the flow
of electrons, but
the direction of –ve electron
current is more current direction
traditionally
defined as that of
The definition of current
a positive charge.
+ve charge
When the first continuous sources of current (batteries and generators) were developed
in the early 1800s, no one understood how charge flowed around circuits. It was assumed
that electric current represented the flow of positive charge as defined by Franklin.
+ –
Figure 3.20 electron flow
Electron flow
and current
direction in a current direction current direction
circuit.
electron flow
It was to be 100 years before it was realised that in fact only the electrons moved
through metal conductors. Even though we know that moving electrons are responsible
for the current, it is still common practice to think of the current as being in the direction
of flow of positive charges.
In all diagrams used in this section the current direction will be shown by arrows
drawn on the circuit, while the direction of electron flow will be indicated by arrows
outside the circuit.
Conduction in solids, liquids and gases

Generally metals are good conductors of an electric current. The non-metal graphite is
also a conductor and is used in batteries. Water solutions of salts and strong acids are also
conductors of electricity. These solutions are referred to as electrolyte solutions. They are
present in batteries and electrolytic capacitors.
Solids
In their normal state atoms are electrically neutral. Each atom contains an equal number
of electrons (–ve) and protons (+ve).The electrons occupy a series of shells around the
nucleus. In some situations neutral atoms can gain or lose electrons. If they lose electrons
they form positive ions. If they gain electrons they form negative ions.
In a metal some of the electrons in the outer shell become free of their atom. The atoms
become positively charged ions. The free electrons move between these positive ions. In a
metal the current depends on the motion of these mobile electrons through the solid
material.
112
Figure 2.21
A metal consists
of positive ions in
a sea of mobile
electrons.
positive ions ‘sea’of electons
Liquids
In an electrolyte solution, the flow of a current depends on the movement of positive and
negative ions. When an ionic salt dissolves in water, the positive and negative ions
become mobile in the solution. For example, a sodium chloride solution contains positive
sodium and negative chloride ions. When placed in a circuit between a positively charged
electrode and a negatively charged electrode, the positive ions migrate toward the
negative terminal, and the negative ions move toward the positive terminal.
Figure 3.22
In a solution of e–
electrolyte both
positive and
negative charges
carry current. – +
electrolyte
solution
Gases
Gases are normally insulators. They do not conduct electricity under normal conditions.
Atoms and molecules in a gas are usually neutral. When they are irradiated with high energy
ultraviolet light, or heated to a high temperature (e.g. above 3000ºC), the atoms are stripped
of some of their outer electrons and become positively charged ions (Figure 3.23). The
electrons will move freely in the gas, eventually recombining with positively charged ions.
Conduction through a gas is due mainly to the directed flow of the free electrons.
DC electrical circuits
Sources of current and electromotive force (EMF)
To study how current flows in wires we must have a reliable and steady source of
electrons. Charges may be freed from the surface of insulators mechanically by vigorous
rubbing. Until 1800, the production of static charges was the only way of producing
electric currents.
113
Figure 3.23 UV radiation

When irradiated
with ultraviolet
light, the atoms free electron
in gases form
positive ions and
electrons
enabling the gas
to conduct.
neutral oxygen atom ionised or positively
charged oxygen ion O+
In the 1780s, Galvani carried out many experiments on the effect of connecting static
electricity generating machines to muscles. He noted that a frog’s leg muscle would
contract and kick when connected to one of these generators. In the process of these
experiments, he noticed that he could get the same effect when he connected the muscle
to a brass hook, hanging from an iron ring, even without connecting an electrostatic
generator. Unfortunately, Galvani thought the effect was due to ‘animal electricity’
generated within the muscle.
Alessandro Volta repeated these experiments and came to the correct conclusion that
the muscle was only a sensitive detector, and that the electricity was developed in the
junction between the iron and brass hooks.
Electromotive force
In 1800 Volta built the first practical battery using the contact between two dissimilar
metals to provide a source of charge.
The best way to make a good contact between metals is through a conducting solution
of salt water, or acid. Volta’s early cells were made from a sandwich of zinc and silver
sheets separated by cloth or paper soaked in a salt solution.
Early scientists postulated a ‘force’ which pushed charge around a circuit. They called
this the electromotive force (EMF). In reality there is no force as such in these terms.
The idea however stuck and we still refer to EMF, measured in volts (V).
Bat teries and cells

A simple arrangement of two different metals separated by a conducting solution should,
strictly, be called a cell. When cells are connected together they form a battery. In
everyday usage we describe what are really cells as batteries. The common 1.5 V ‘batteries’
are actually cells. The car ‘battery’ is a battery of six cells of about 2 V each.
Contact potential
When two different metals are brought into close contact, electrons flow from one metal
to the other. The metal that loses electrons becomes positively charged; the metal that
gains the electrons becomes negatively charged. If we try to move a positive test charge
from the negatively charged metal to the positively charged metal, we have to do some
work. A voltage or potential difference exists between the two metals. Volta’s EMF is a
measure of this voltage or potential difference.
If we make several cells that have one electrode made of copper and different metals for
the second electrode, we will find some combinations of electrodes producing a greater
EMF than others. We can establish a list of metals in order of effectiveness in producing an
EMF. This list is known to chemists as the ‘electrochemical series’ (Table 3.2).
The further apart two metals are in the electrochemical series the greater the potential
difference they make in a cell. The elements lithium to sodium are not widely used in cells
because of their high reactivity. Gold is also not used. Why not?
114
Table 3.2 The electrochemical series of metals

lithium
potassium
caesium greatest
barium capacity
strontium to donate
calcium electrons
sodium
magnesium
aluminium
manganese
zinc
chromium
iron
cadmium
electron cobalt
flow nickel greatest
tin capacity
lead to accept
hydrogen electrons
copper
silver
gold
Figure 3.24 a no electron flow

aThere is no
electron flow
between the
same metals.
copper copper
b A voltage or
electron flow
potential b
difference exists current flow
between two
different metals.
copper becomes zinc becomes
negatively charged positively charged
potential difference or EMF
Figure 3.25
a A simple wet
cell can be made
from copper and a Cell
zinc plates.
bThe
conventional Cu Zn
symbol for a cell, salt-soaked paper
and c the less
reactive metal is
at the higher
potential. b Symbol + –
10 V
c Potential
diagram
0V
Position
115
E x e r ci s e s
3.18 a What is the direction of conventional current in an electric circuit?
b What is a conductor?
c What is an insulator?
3.19 Identify each of the following current waveforms as AC or DC.
a b c
Current (A)
Current (A)
Current (A)
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

d e
Current (A)
Current (A)
Time (s) Time (s)

3.20 What carries the electric current in
a a metal, b an electrolyte solution and c a gas at high temperatures?
3.21 a What is electromotive force?
b Is voltage required to produce a current, or is a current required to
produce a voltage?
3.22 What charge flows through an electric heater when it draws a current of 10 A
over a period of 3.0 hours?
3.23 What charge flows through an electric clock over a year if it draws a current
of 1.0 mA?
EMF and voltage

Connecting two metals together will not produce a continuous flow of current from one to
the other. After an initial flow of charge the current will cease. The force between the
electrons on the metal plate will repel further electrons. To produce a continuous flow we
need to tap electrons from the metal by placing the metal plates in a continuous circuit
Conventional current carriers are thought of as flowing from the battery’s positive
terminal and returning through its negative terminal. The current carriers do work and
lose energy in the outside circuit.
The battery can be thought of as an energy pump. The current carriers are raised to a
higher potential inside the battery.
We can define the potential difference across electrical components in terms of the
energy gained or lost when the charge passes through that component. A battery
increases the electric potential energy of the charge.
There is a potential difference of 1 volt across a battery if each coulomb of charge is given
one joule of potential energy
116
The current of a battery flows from the positive terminal around the circuit to the
negative terminal. Once outside the battery the current flows from a high electric
potential to a lower electric potential. You could say it flows downhill, only the hill is a hill
of electric potential energy, not gravitational potential energy. The electric potential
energy is converted to other forms of energy, mainly heat.
There is a potential difference of 1 volt between two points in a circuit if 1 joule of
potential energy is changed into other forms when 1 coulomb of charge passes between
the two points.
Voltage is measured using a voltmeter.
Consider a simple circuit containing a switch and a light globe. When the switch is
closed a current flows. The power supply adds energy to the electron current. The amount
of this added energy per unit charge is the power supply voltage measured in joules per
coulomb (J C–1) or volts. In the globe the energy carried by the current is converted to
light (and heat). This drop in potential energy by the moving charges is commonly called
a voltage drop. This is what the voltmeter displays.
c b
d e f a
12
10
8
Potential
0
a b c d e f a
Position in circuit
Figure 3.26 Electric potential energy drops around an electric circuit. The high point is the positive terminal and the low point the
negative terminal. Most electric potential is lost in the resistors. There is very little energy loss in the connecting wires. The term
‘voltage drop’ refers to the decrease in electric potential energy in a resistor.
12 volt 1 amp 6 ohm 4 ohm 1 amp

0V 6V 10 V
A3 R1 R2 A2
V1 V2
1 amp A1 6 volt 4 volt
2 ohm
12 V 10 V
R3
V3
2 volt
Figure 3.27 In this circuit the voltage drops around the circuit from 12 V at the positive terminal of the battery to 0 V at the negative
terminal. There is a 2 V voltage drop as indicated by a voltmeter across R3 so that the potential drops from 12 V to 10 V. Similarly
there is a 4 V voltage drop across R2 and a 6 V voltage drop across R1. The total voltage drop is 2 + 4 + 6 = 12 V. This is equal to the
potential rise of the battery.
117
Circuit components
We have already seen that we represent the battery by a symbol. Figure 3.28 gives the
meaning of other symbols used in drawing circuits. Simple circuits consist of:
• a source of electric current or EMF, which raises the electrical potential energy of
the electrons
• conducting wires to carry the current without loss of energy
• resistors which convert some of the electrical potential energy of the electrons into heat
• ammeters to measure the current passing a point on a conductor
• voltmeters to measure the electric potential difference between two points on a conductor.
Batteries
Figure 3.28
Symbols for electric + – + –
V
circuit components.
E = 10 V several cells voltmeter

single cell
Resistors
3Ω
A
or A
fixed variable ammeter
switch bulb capacitor
Resistance and Ohm’s law

Suppose we build a circuit in which we can vary the current through a piece of wire
conductor. If we measure the current through the wire and the potential difference or
voltage across the ends of that wire we find that the ratio of current to voltage is constant
for a given conductor (Table 3.3).
Figure 3.29
Electric circuit V
with a variable
resistor.
variable resistor
+ —
Table 3.3 Constant ratio of current to voltage across a resistor

Voltage (V) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Current (A) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
118
The main characteristics of the graph in Figure 3.30 are:

• the graph of current (I) against (V) is a straight line passing through the origin
• the ratio of voltage to current is constant and always has the same value. In this
example, the resistance is the slope or gradient of the line, which is approximately 10
units.
This finding is summarised by Ohm’s law:
The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across the ends of the conductor (provided the temperature and other physical
conditions remain constant).
V∝I
Figure 3.30
Graph of current
versus voltage 0.6
for a resistor.
0.5
Current (A)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
2 4 6 8
Voltage (V)
For a constant current, the potential difference across the ends of the conductor depends
on the amount of electric potential energy that is lost by the electrons in the conductor. The
conductor is said to resist the flow of the current. The resistance, R, of the conductor is
related to the potential difference across the conductor for a given current by
V = IR or R = V/I
Although this is often referred to by the name Ohm’s law, it is really more of a definition
of resistance. The units of resistance are ohms. The symbol for ohm is the Greek letter
omega (Ω).
A conductor has a resistance of 1 ohm if a current of 1 amp produces a potential difference
of 1 volt across its ends.
If we replace the wire with a wire of different dimensions or of a different material, the
current is still found to be proportional to the voltage across the wire, but now the constant
R relating the two is different.
Measuring resistance
We can measure resistances using a simple circuit shown in Figure 3.31.
Figure 3.31
Measuring V
resistance. voltmeter
+ –
A
R
ammeter
119
If we can rely on the accuracy of the ammeter and the voltmeter, then the
measurement of the voltage across the resistor and the current through the resistor
allows us to apply Ohm’s law and to calculate the resistance from
R = V/I
If we aren’t sure our meters are accurate (perhaps they have been dropped, or treated
harshly), then other methods that allow the comparison of the unknown resistance
with a standard resistance must be used.
The cause of resistance

Why should a current of electrons lose energy when passing through a conductor?
Consider the view an electron has as it moves between the fixed nuclei of the conductor.
The electron has to negotiate the rapidly vibrating nuclei or positive ions in the
conductor. Every time the electron collides with one of these ions it loses some of its
energy. This energy goes into increasing the vibrational energy of the solid conductor.
The temperature of the conductor rises as a result.
The likelihood of a collision will decrease if we make the cross-sectional area of the
conductor large. We observe that the resistance of the conductor decreases as we
increase the area of the cross-section.
Figure 3.32
Electrons have
to pass through
vibrating metal
vibrating
ions in the
nucleii path of electron
conductor.
The number of collisions suffered by an electron will also increase as we increase the
length of the conductor. Therefore the resistance also increases with length.
The number of collisions will also depend on the type of material. If the atoms and
ions are closely packed, there will be more frequent collisions, and a high resistance
will result.
The amount of energy lost by the electron in a single collision will also depend on
the type of material in the conductor. The more massive the atoms and ions, the more
energy lost by the electron in the collision.
We can see that the resistance R of a conductor depends on:
• the material’s resistivity ρ
• the cross-sectional area of the conducting wire A
• the length of the wire L.
L
R=ρ
A
The units of resistance, length and area are Ω, m and m2, respectively, therefore the
resistivity of a material is stated in units of Ω m.
120
The effect of temperature on resistance

As a conducting wire is heated, the resistance of that conductor will increase. The atoms
and ions in the material will vibrate further from their mean positions, and the chances of
an electron losing energy in a collision increase.
The change in resistance is proportional to the change in temperature:
∆R = αR∆T
or R – Ro = αR o (T – To)
where Ro is the resistance at temperature To, R is the new resistance at temperature T, and
α is the temperature coefficient of the material.
The table below gives resistivity and temperature coefficients for some common
materials.
Table 3.4 Resistivity values and temperature coefficients for some materials
Material Resistivity (Ω m at 20ºC) Temperature coefficient (Cº)–1

Carbon (3–60) × 10–5 –0.0005
Copper 1.7 × 10–8 0.007
Insulators (paper, glass etc) 10+8 to 10+18
Iron 9.7 × 10–8 0.007
Mercury 98 × 10–8 0.0009
Platinum 11 × 10–8 0.004
Silicon 640 –0.075
Silver 1.6 × 10–8 0.0038
The resistivity of conductors, insulators and semiconductors

Materials with a low resistivity are termed conductors. Conductors generally have
resistivities in the range 10–7 to 10–8 Ω m.
Insulators have a high resistivity in the range 108 to 1018 Ω m and will not conduct a
current. Between these two classes of material are semiconductors. Semiconductors
have resistivities which lie between those of the insulators and conductors, and include
materials such as silicon, and germanium. Semiconductors are important in transistor
circuitry.
It is interesting to note that although the resistance of metals increases with
increasing temperature, the resistance of some materials actually decreases as
temperature increases. Carbon is one such material (hence its negative temperature
coefficient in Table 3.4).
Practical resistors
Resistors are commonly used to control the electric current in a circuit. They are found
as electronic devices in the circuitry of most household electronic appliances—
televisions, radio, CD players etc. The resistors are coded using colour bands to indicate
their resistance value. Details of this coding are included in Appendix F .
Figure 3.33
Colour codes on a
resistor indicate
their resistance
value. colour bands
Other appliances use resistance wire (usually nichrome alloy). The filament of a light
globe, the resistance wire in toasters, electric blankets and clothes dryers are simple
resistors designed to produce heat. Other examples include the heating elements of hot
plates, electric kettles and the electric oven.
121
A c tivitie s
3.7 Perform Experiment 3.3 AC/DC.
3.8 Plan and perform an investigation to determine the relationship between
voltage and current in a simple circuit.
a Which are the ‘dependent’ and ‘independent’ variables in the different
parts of your investigation?
b What equipment will you use? Draw a circuit diagram in your report.
c Identify safe work practices when using electricity.
d Record accurate results and present them in two forms.
3.9 Plan, choose equipment for and perform an investigation to show the variation
in potential difference between different points around a circuit.
a How will you collect your data? Try to use a different technology from the
previous investigation. Which variables will you keep constant and how
will you do this?
b Use your results to formulate a conclusion.
E x e r ci s e s
3.24 A student set up the electrical circuit with a resistor of unknown value as shown
in the following diagram. The student recorded the readings on the ammeter and
voltmeter using a variable voltage source. The results are set out below.
V
Current (A) 0.000 0.079 0.162 0.242 0.318 0.399 0.482

Voltage (V) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
a Plot voltage versus current and use your graph to determine the value of
the unknown resistor.
b The experiment was repeated with another resistor and the following
results obtained. Plot voltage versus current and use your graph to
determine the value of this unknown resistor.
Current (A) 0.000 1 2 3 4 5 6

Voltage (V) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
3.25 The current through a torch bulb is measured at different voltages and the
results are plotted in the accompanying graph.
14.00
12.00
Potential difference (V)
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40

Current (A)
122
a What is the resistance of the globe when the potential difference across it
is 2.0 V?
b What is the resistance of the globe when the potential difference across it
is 14.0 V?
c Suggest a possible explanation for this experimental result.
3.26 A student set up an electrical circuit with a 10 Ω resistor as shown in the
following diagram.
10 Ω
A
12 V
a What is the reading on the voltmeter?

b What is the reading on the ammeter?
following diagram.
50 Ω
A
12 V

b What is the reading on the ammeter?
3.28 A student set up an electrical circuit with a resistor as shown in the following
diagram. The ammeter reads 2.0 A.
V
ammeter
reads 2.0 A
RΩ
A
12 V

b What is the resistance value of the resistor?

following diagram. The ammeter reads 100 mA.
ammeter
reads 100 mA
25 Ω
A
a What is the voltage drop across the resistor?

b How much voltage is required to produce a current of 100 mA through a
4.7 kΩ resistor?
123
3.3 Electrical Circuits

Students learn to:
• identify the difference between series and parallel circuits
• compare parallel and series circuits in terms of voltage across components and current through them
• identify uses of ammeters and voltmeters.
We can represent most electrical circuits schematically by specific components which

are connected by conductive wires. In circuits, the main changes in potential occur in
electrical components, rather than in the connecting wires.
For charge to flow and a current to exist in a circuit, the circuit must:
• contain a battery or other source of EMF
• be closed; that is, the terminals of the battery are linked via a conducting path. The
potential difference between the terminals of the battery causes a current to flow
around this conducting path. Cut the path and you stop the current!
Figure 3.34 aa b b
Current flows in
battery battery
a a closed circuit,
but not in b an open
closed
open circuit. switch switch
current no current
flows flows through
around a an open
resistor conducting resistor circuit
path
Current and voltage in circuits

Current around a simple circuit
In a simple circuit, as in Figure 3.35 (one in which there is only one path for the current
to follow), the current it is going to be the same wherever we measure it.
Figure 3.35
The current is the
same at all points V
in a simple circuit.
voltmeter
+ –
A
R
ammeter
If this were not the case, then electrons would pile up or leak away at some point in
the circuit. Electrons leave the negative terminal of the battery at the same rate as they
return to the positive terminal.
The current is the same at all points around a simple circuit.
124
Potential differences around a simple circuit

We can think of the electric circuit as a continuous pipe containing charges. The battery
acts as a pump cycling charges around the pipe. The pipe runs up and down hill. Figure
3.36 represents this idea.
Figure 3.36
loss in PE gain in PE
Electric potential
energy drops
around a simple
circuit.
Current carriers move around circuits slowly, at velocities of a few millimetres a

second. The electrostatic forces between carriers cause them to act like an incom-
pressible fluid, for example water.
When new carriers emerge from the terminal of the battery or EMF source, they force
the electrons already in the circuit to move forward.
Molecules in the wire that makes up the circuit exert forces on the current carriers,
rather like an electrical equivalent of friction. The current carriers lose energy travelling
around the circuit, just as water loses potential energy flowing downhill.
The current carriers are drawn around the circuit by the source of EMF, which acts
rather like a pump.
In a simple circuit, the sum of potential differences (or drops) around the circuit from
one terminal of the battery to the other has the same magnitude as the EMF of the
battery.
In the circuit shown in Figure 3.37, EMF – V1 – V2 = 0. If we follow the current path
we can draw a diagram of the potential at any point in the circuit. The potential drops
when going through a resistance (in the same direction as the current) and increases
when going through the battery from negative to positive terminal. This is one of
Kirchhoff’s rules and can be applied to any direct current circuit.
Figure 3.37 V1 V1
The sum of the
voltage drops EMF = 2 V
equals the
B + – A
battery potential
of EMF. R1 R2
2Ω 4Ω
EMF
R1 R2
2V
0V
B A
125
E x e r ci s e s
3.30 A circuit contains two resistors as shown in the accompanying diagram.

The resistors are connected to a 10 V battery. A voltmeter across R2 reads 6 V.
What would be the reading on the voltmeter across R1?
V V
R1 R2
10 V
3.31 A circuit contains two resistors as shown in the accompanying diagram. The
resistance of R2 is double that of R1. What are the readings on the voltmeters V1
and V2?
V1 V2
R1 R2
9V
Current in a complex circuit

Suppose we have a circuit which divides, providing two separate paths for the current.
The charges passing through the battery can either go through ammeter Ac and then
the upper branch of the circuit via A1, or through Ac and the lower branch of the circuit
and A2.
Figure 3.38 1
At a junction the
A1
total current C + –
leaving equals AC
the total current
entering.
A2
2
Since charges are neither created nor destroyed in the circuit, the number of charges
passing A1 each second plus the number passing A2 each second must equal the
number of charges passing Ac every second.
The number of charges per second passing A1 is the current I1 measured by that
ammeter. Therefore
I1 + I2 = Ic
This is Kirchhoff’s junction rule: At any junction, the sum of all currents entering
the junction must equal the sum of all currents leaving that junction.
126
Key Concept 3.1 Series and Parallel Circuits

There are two ways of connecting circuit components together. They may be connected in
series or in parallel.
Figure 3.39 parallel
Resistors in
series
a series and
b parallel.
Any components may be connected in this way. Resistors and batteries are common
examples. Arrangements of resistors in series and in parallel can be replaced simply by a
single equivalent resistor.
Resistors in series
As we have just seen, if two or more resistors are connected in series, the current through
both is the same. However, the voltage drops as it goes across the resistor, the larger
resistor using proportionally more energy. The components are interdependent. If one
goes out, they all go out.
Resistors in parallel
If we have two or more resistors in parallel, the current may flow through either branch of
the circuit. A larger current flows through the lower resistance arm of the circuit (well,
which one would you choose, the harder one of the two?), thus the current in the low
resistance arm will be the larger current.
thick wire, small resistance

Figure 3.40 large current
Equivalent
resistance. A B battery
thin wire, large resistance

small current
The sum of the current I1 and I2 flowing through the two branches of the circuit must
equal the current entering the circuit Ic.
I1 + I2 = Ic
The potential difference or voltage across the whole system is the same as the voltage
across each branch of the circuit.
V1 = V2 = Vc
This is because the resistors are connected between the same two points and the
potential difference between points A and B in Figure 3.40 must be the same no matter
what path the current takes. For example, if you wish to go from the ground floor of a
building to the first floor, you could take a stairway, a lift or climb a ladder. But no matter
how you ascend, you still gain the same height and therefore the same energy.
In Stage 5 Science, you connected light globes in series and noticed how they dimmed
because they were sharing the same voltage. However, the same lights connected in
parallel remained as bright. If you unscrewed one globe in a series circuit, all the globes
went out, while the globes in the parallel circuit work independently of one another.
127
E x e r ci s e s
3.32 Compare what happens to the total current in a circuit if you add more globes
in series with what happens if you add more globes in parallel?
3.33 Are household circuits wired in series or parallel? How do you know?
A c tivit y
3.10 Plan an investigation to compare measurements of current and voltage around
series and parallel circuits.
Circuit calculations
There are two ways of connecting circuit components together. They may be connected
in series (Figure 3.41a) or in parallel (Figure 3.41b). Any components may be connected
in this way. Resistors and batteries are common examples.
Figure 3.41
a Series and parallel
b parallel series
connections.
Arrangements of resistors in series and in parallel can simply be replaced by a single

equivalent resistor.
Resistors in series
When resistors are in series, as in Figure 3.42, electrons passing through the first resistor
R1 must also pass through R2. The current through both resistors must be identical.
Figure 3.42
V1 V2
The total
resistance of two I
series resistors R1 R2
equals the sum of
their resistance
values.
V 1,2
I
Rc
If we apply Ohm’s law to each resistor in turn, then:

V1 = IR1 and V2 = IR2
The potential difference across both R1 and R2 is the sum of the individual potential
differences:
V1,2 = V1 + V2 = IR1 + IR2 = I(R1 + R2)
This means that we can replace the series circuit with an equivalent resistance in
which we have a single resistor which has a resistance equal to the sum of the two
previous resistors:
Rc = R1 + R2
128
Resistors in parallel
If we have two or more resistors in parallel, the current may flow through either branch
of the circuit. A larger current flows through the lower resistance arm of the circuit.
Thus, the current in the low resistance arm will be the larger current.
V1
I1
R1
Ic
V2
I2
R2
V = V 1 = V2
Ic
Rc
Figure 3.43 Equivalent resistance.
The sum of the current flowing through the two branches of the circuit must equal
the current entering the circuit:
I1 + I2 = Ic
The potential difference or voltage across the whole system is the same as the voltage
across each branch of the circuit:
V1 = V2 = Vc
Using Ohm’s law we can write:
V1 V2 Vc
I1 = R and I2 = R and Ic = R
1 2 c
Since
I1 + I2 = Ic and V1 = V2 = Vc
Then
V1 V2 Vc
R1 + R2 = Rc
and
1 1 1
Rc = R1 + R2
That is, the parallel resistors can be replaced with an equivalent resistor Rc.
E x e r ci s e s
3.34 a A circuit contains two 100 Ω globes connected in series to a battery as

shown. What is the total circuit resistance?
100 Ω 100 Ω
129
100 Ω
100 Ω
b A circuit contains two 100 Ω globes connected in parallel to a battery

shown. What is the total circuit resistance?
3.35 What is the effective resistance of each of the followings combinations of

parallel resistors:
a 60 Ω and 40 Ω; d three 3 Ω resistors;
b 9 Ω and 72 Ω; e four 4 Ω resistors?
c 6 Ω and 30 Ω;
Circuits with a single source of EMF

We can establish a set of rules for calculating the currents and voltages across
components in a simple circuit containing a single battery. The procedure is as follows:
Step 1 Identify parallel branches. Replace resistances in series in a given branch by
their equivalent resistance Rc = R1 + R2
Step 2 Replace all of the parallel resistances by their equivalent resistance Rc
1 1 1
calculated from R = R + R
c 1 2
Step 3 Redraw the equivalent circuit using only series resistors.
Step 4 Replace the series resistances by a single equivalent resistance using
Rc = R1 + R2 + R3
Step 5 Redraw the circuit diagram using a single resistor.
EMF
Step 6 Calculate the circuit current using Ohm’s law, Ic = R
c
Step 7 Calculate the voltage across the relevant components using Ohm’s law.
The application of these rules are best introduced through worked examples.
E xample 1
P roble m
Refer to the simple series resistance circuit shown in Figure 3.44.
a What is the circuit current flowing in the circuit?
b What is the voltage across the 10 ohm resistor?
c What is the voltage across the 5 ohm resistor?
Figure 3.44 10 Ω 5Ω
Circuit diagram
with 10 Ω and 5 Ω
series resistors.
5V
130
S olution
Step 1 Replace the two series resistances by their equivalent resistance:
Rc = R1 + R2 = 10 Ω + 5 Ω = 15 Ω
Step 2 Draw the circuit diagram.
Step 3 The circuit current Ic is the current that flows through all components in the circuit.
It is the current that flows out of the battery’s positive terminal. Applying Ohm’s law to the
redrawn circuit gives:
EMF 5V
Ic = R = 15 Ω = 0.333 A
c
Step 4 The voltage across the 10 Ω resistor is obtained by applying Ohm’s law to the current
flowing through the resistance and the resistance:
V
I10 = R so V = I10R = 0.333 × 10 = 3.33 V
Similarly
V
I5 = R so V = I5R = 0.333 × 5 = 1.66 V
E xample 2
P roble m
Calculate the circuit current and the current through and voltage across each component in
the circuit shown in Figure 3.45.
S olution
Step 1 Replace the resistances in parallel by their equivalent resistance:
1 1 1 2+1 3
= + = = Ω
Rc 5 10 10 10
Rc = 3.33 Ω
Figure 3.45
Circuit diagram 5Ω
with series
5Ω
and parallel Ic Ic
resistors. 10 Ω
Ic
5V
Step 2 Redraw the equivalent circuit using only series resistors. This is shown in Figure 3.46a.
Step 3 Replace the series resistances by a single equivalent resistance:
Rc = R1 + R2 = 3.33 Ω + 5 Ω = 8.33 Ω
Step 4 Redraw the circuit diagram using a single resistor (Figure 3.46b).
3.3 Ω 5Ω 8.33 Ω
Ic Ic
Ic Ic
5V 5V
Figure 3.46 a Equivalent circuit using series resistors b Equivalent circuit using a single resistor.
131
Step 5 Calculate the circuit current:

5V
Ic = = 0.60 A
8.33 Ω
Step 6 Consider the single 5 Ω resistor. The current flowing through it is the circuit
current = 0.60 A. The voltage across it is given by Ohm’s law:
V = 0.60 A × 5 Ω = 3.0 V
Consider the 5 Ω and 10 Ω resistors in parallel (Figure 3.47).
Figure 3.47 I5
The current
divides between 5Ω
the parallel
resistors.
Ic
10 Ω
I10
The voltage V across each resistor is the same.

The circuit current is split between the two resistors. The larger current flows through the
smaller resistance. Applying Ohm’s law to the 5 Ω resistor gives:
V
I5 =
5Ω
Applying Ohm’s law to the 10 Ω resistor gives:
V
I10 =
10 Ω
Apply the junction rule to the currents entering and leaving the left-hand junction.
Thus:
sum of currents entering = sum of currents leaving
Ic = I5 + I10
Solving by replacing the currents in the junction rule gives:
V V
0.60 A = +
5Ω 10 Ω
Thus:
10
V = 0.60 × = 2.0 V
3
The current through each branch of the parallel resistors can now be calculated:
V 2.0
I5 = = A = 0.40 A
5Ω 5
V 2.0
I10 = = A = 0.20 A
10 Ω 5
As a final check, the two currents must add up to the circuit current:
Ic = I5 + I10
E xample 3
P roble m
A circuit is set up as shown in Figure 3.48a. Part of the circuit is hidden in a closed box.
Ammeter X reads 3 A, ammeter Y reads 2 A and ammeter Z reads 1 A. The battery has
an EMF of 15 V. Which of the arrangements of resistors shown in Figure 3.48b could be in
the box?
132
15 V
a b
i 10 Ω ii 5Ω
5Ω 10 Ω
Y
2A
A iii 12 Ω iv 6Ω
X
3A box
A A 1Ω 6Ω 1Ω 12 Ω
Z
1A
Figure 3.48 a A closed box problem b Possible arrangements of resistors.
S olution
Step 1 Identify the circuit current in Figure 3.48a. Ammeter X reads the current in the simple
circuit, Ic = 3 A. The potential across the box is the EMF of the battery; Vbox = 15 V.
Using Ohm’s law, the total resistance of the box is:
Vbox 15
Rc = = =5Ω
Ic 3
Step 2 Can any of the possible answers be eliminated at this stage because they don’t
have the correct equivalent resistance?
Circuits i and circuit ii have the same equivalent resistance given by:
1 1 1 1 1 3
= + = + =
Rc R1 R2 10 5 10
Therefore:
10
Rc = = 3.33 Ω
3
Thus circuits i and ii cannot be the unknown resistors.
Circuits iii and iv also have the same equivalent resistance. The resistors in parallel have
an equivalent resistance R′c (as shown in Figure 3.49):
1 1 1 1 1 3
= + = + =
Rc R1 R2 12 6 12
Therefore:
12
R′c = =4Ω
3
Figure 3.49
12 Ω
Circuits iii and
iv have the 1Ω R'c
same equivalent
1Ω 6Ω
resistance.
Rc
The final equivalent resistance of this 4 Ω resistor in series with the 1 Ω resistor is 5 Ω.
So circuits iii and iv are still possible answers.
133
Step 3 We need to look at the currents flowing through the two possible branches of the
circuits. The higher current will flow through the lower resistance. Ammeter Y reads 2 A,
ammeter Z reads 1 A. Thus, ammeter Y (showing the higher current) must be in series with
the lower resistance, 6 Ω, and ammeter Z (showing the lower current) must be in series with
the higher resistance, 12 Ω. Thus, circuit iv is correct.
E x e r ci s e s
3.36 A student set up an electrical circuit with two 10 Ω resistors as shown in the
diagram. The ammeter reads 100 mA.
10 Ω 10 Ω
10 V
a What is the total resistance of the circuit?

b What is the voltage drop across each resistor?
c What is the current leaving the battery?
3.37 A student set up an electrical circuit with two resistors as shown in the
diagram. One resistor has a value of 6 Ω and the value of the other is unknown.
The ammeter reads 1.0 A.
6Ω R
ammeter reads
10 V 1.0 A

b What is the resistance value of the unknown resistor?
c What is the voltage drop across the 6 Ω resistor?
d What is the voltage drop across the unknown resistor?
3.38 A student set up an electrical circuit with two 24 Ω resistors as shown in the
diagram. The battery is 8.0 V.
24 Ω
24 Ω
A
8V

b What is the current leaving the battery?
c What is the voltage drop across each of the 24 Ω resistors?
d What is the current through each of the 24 Ω resistors?
134
3.39 A student set up an electrical circuit with a 6 Ω resistor and a 12 Ω resistor as

shown in the diagram. A switch is connected in series with the 6 Ω resistor and
is initially open as shown. The battery is 12.0 V.
switch 6Ω
12 Ω
A
12 V

b What is the current through the 12 Ω resistor?
The switch is then closed.
c What is the total resistance of the circuit?
d What is the reading on the ammeter?
e What is the current through the 12 Ω resistor?
f What is the current through the 6 Ω resistor?
Electrical measurement and meters

When we measure any quantity we try to disturb the things we are measuring as little
as possible.
This is just as important when we measure currents and voltages. Ammeters and
voltmeters both rely on tapping current from the main circuit we are measuring. The
presence of the meter must be undetectable in its effect on the circuit currents and
voltages.
Both ammeters and voltmeters are a form of galvanometer. Galvanometers use the
current flowing through a coil placed in a magnetic field to generate a twisting force or
torque. This winds up a small spring until the torque is balanced by the spring force.
A needle attached to the coil registers the final deflection. The larger the current flowing
through the coil, the larger the deflection.
The internal resistance of the galvanometer is about 50 Ω.
Ammeters and voltmeters differ in:
• the position in which they are placed in the circuit
• the size and position of an extra resistor included in the galvanometer circuitry.
Ammeter
The ammeter is used to measure the current through the main circuit. It is wired in
series into the main circuit. It must not contribute to the voltage changes around the
circuit, as this will change the circuit current. Since V = IR, the ammeter must have a
very low resistance.
We often need to measure currents ranging from a few microamperes to several
amperes. A single sensitive galvanometer capable of measuring microamperes will be
severely damaged if a current of several amperes is passed through it.
An ammeter therefore includes a low value shunt (or bypass) resistance that allows
most of the current to bypass the meter, as shown in Figure 3.50. Note that in the circuit
shown Rshunt < Rm.
135
Figure 3.50 internal resistance Rm

The ammeter.
ammeter
G is the
galvanometer m
G
with a
resistance
of Rm.
shunt
Rshunt
Potential difference
Voltmeter
A voltmeter is a galvanometer used in parallel to the component across which the voltage
is being measured. If the galvanometer with a low resistance is placed in parallel with a
high resistance component, then most of the current will flow around that component,
bypassing it through the meter.
This is avoided by using a large shunt resistance in series with the galvanometer, as
shown in Figure 3.51. Note that in this circuit Rshunt > Rm, and Rshunt + Rm > Rc.
Figure 3.51
The voltmeter. V drop in meter
V drop in shunt
V
V
Rshunt
G
internal resistance
Rm
main circuit component R2

b a
Vab
The voltmeter (galvanometer and its internal resistance) contains a large value shunt
resistor in series with the galvanometer. The voltmeter is then connected in parallel
across the component being studied. If the internal resistance of the voltmeter is large
compared with that of the component, the current flow through the circuit is barely
affected by the presence of the meter.
136
3.4 Electrical Energy and Power

Students learn to:
• explain why ammeters and voltmeters are connected differently in a circuit
• explain why there are different circuits for lighting, heating and other appliances in a house
• explain that power is the rate at which energy is transformed from one form to another
• identify the relationship between power, potential difference and current
• identify that the total amount of energy used depends on the length of time the current is flowing and
can be calculated using: energy = Vlt
• explain why the kilowatt-hour is used to measure electrical energy consumption rather than the joule.
Electrical energy trans formation

Electrical energy can easily be transformed into other forms of energy. When a current
passes through a resistance, power is dissipated as heat in the resistor. In an ordinary
light bulb the filament is a high resistance wire, closely coiled to fit into the evacuated
bulb. When current passes through the bulb, down the potential drop across its
terminals, electrical energy is transformed into heat and light.
Power and energy relationship

Power
Power is the amount of energy produced per second. Its units are J s–1 ( or watts, W). The
power of an electric appliance is a measure of the rate at which it transforms electrical
energy into other forms of energy. A light globe converts electrical energy into light and
heat energy.
When a charge q moves through a potential V the energy transformed is qV. If it takes
t seconds for this amount of charge to pass through a resistor, then the power produced
in the resistor is:
qV
P= J sec–1 or watts
t
q
But is a measure of the current passing through the resistor, thus the power produced
t
by a current I flowing through a potential V is given by:
Power = IV
By using Ohm’s law, alternative forms of this equation can be derived:
V2
Power = IV = I 2R = R
A resistor releases energy when a current flows through it—it heats up. The resistor
must be able to lose this heat energy to the surroundings without being damaged. The
amount of power that a resistor can handle is determined by its physical size and shape.
Generally the bigger the surface area of a resistor, the more power it can handle.
Energy
As we saw in earlier chapters, energy and power are closely related: power is the rate at
which work is done.
work energy
Power = =
elapsed time elapsed time
The energy produced is equal to the product of power and time
Energy = power × time
Energy = VIt
137
Since the basic unit of energy is the joule (J), a 60 watt light globe uses 60 J of energy
each second.
When we use domestic electricity we don’t pay for the power use but for the energy
use. Our account indicates the number of kilowatt hours used (kWh). This is an energy
term ( J s–1 s).
A typical electricity bill from a provider includes the following information, which is
the basis for the charge made:
Table 3.5 Meter information for period 21/09/00 to 23/11/00 63 days
Meter number This reading Previous reading Days Usage (kWh)

603456 74050 73227 63 823
DOMESTIC Total units used 823
603455 100175 99406 63 769
OFF PEAK 1 Total units used 769
E xample
P roble m
Calculate the resistance of a 40 W car headlamp, designed to run at a voltage
of 12 V.
S olution
The power liberated in the lamp’s resistance = 40 W
V2 122 144
Power = 40 W = R = R = R
144
Therefore R = 40 = 3.6 Ω
E x e r ci s e s
3.40 Calculate the power rating of a light globe operating on a 240 V supply and
drawing a current of 0.50 A.
3.41 Calculate the current drawn by a 5 kW air conditioning system operating on 240 V.
3.42 A 100 Ω resistor rated at 0.25 watt is to be used in the following circuit with a 9 V
battery. Is the power rating of the resistor sufficient or should a different power
rating be used?
100 Ω
9V
3.43 What is the resistance of each of the following 240 V domestic light globes?
a 40 watt b 60 watt c 100 watt
3.44 What is the current passing through a 3 kW, 240 V electric heater?
3.45 A domestic 100 watt light globe is much brighter than a 40 watt light globe.
Which household globe has the thicker wire filament, a 100 watt light globe or a
40 watt globe? Explain.
3.46 A light circuit in a house has a 10 A fuse. The fuse ‘blows’ when the current
flowing through it exceeds 10 A. How many 240 V, 60 W globes can be on in a
house with a single light fuse before the fuse blows?
138
A c tivitie s
3.11 Perform Experiment 3.10 Heating effect of a coil of resistance wire.

3.12 Plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform first-hand investigations
to gather data and use available evidence to compare measurements of
current and voltage in series and parallel circuits in computer simulations
or a hands-on experiment. See Experiments 3.6 to 3.9.
Household circuits
Ring mains
Electric power is brought into the house from the junction-box power pole on the street
to a distribution board at the side of your house.
This cable contains at least one live wire, which carries the alternating current, and a
neutral wire, which carries return current. The neutral wire is maintained at zero potential
since it has been earthed at the pole transformer. Most house supplies have up to three
live wires, each carrying a separate phase, and driving different circuits inside the home.
On occasion you may find that while one ring on your electric cooker will work, the oven
or grill will not since the fuse for that phase may have blown on the pole on the street.
Fuses and circuit protection

Fuses are designed to protect the wiring in your house. If for any reason an appliance ‘shorts
out’ so that current flows directly from the live wire to the neutral or earth, very high
currents can flow briefly. The current can be so high in the circuit that it produces sufficient
heat to melt insulation and start a fire or damage components in the electrical appliance.
The simplest fuse is a resistor designed to vaporise when sufficient current flows
through it and heats it above melting point. The circuit will then break and no more
current can flow. These fuses are mounted in a ceramic holder and are classified
according to the maximum current they can carry without fusing (e.g. 30 A, 15 A, 8 A).
Figure 3.52 Mains fuse Relay circuit breaker
A mains fuse
loaded with fuse
wire and an
electro- contact
mechanical
circuit breaker. solenoid
fuse wire spring
Fuses are now being replaced by electromagnetic circuit breakers, which can be reset
when the fault has been diagnosed and fixed. When carrying a normal current, the
conducting arm of the breaker is pulled against an electrical contact by a spring and the
circuit is closed. If a large enough current flows through the solenoid, the magnetic field
will attract the conducting arm and break the circuit, cutting the flow of current.
In the time it takes a fuse to overload or a circuit breaker to trip, it is possible to be
electrocuted. For this reason earth-leakage devices have recently become available. These
monitor the neutral and live wires in a circuit. If both are carrying the same current, all is
well and there is no leakage of current through a short. If the current in the neutral wire
drops below that in the live wire, then the unit immediately breaks the circuit like a
conventional circuit breaker. These devices operate much faster than conventional fuses
and circuit breakers and can prevent electrocutions.
139
The distribution box and ring mains

The live mains wire passes into the distribution box through a fuse, which will melt if
overloaded by a large current. This fuse can be replaced only by a qualified electrician.
The live wire then enters a meter, which records the use of energy, measured in kWh.
The meter is electro-mechanical and relies on current flowing from the centre to the outer
edge of a conducting disk, mounted between the poles of a magnet, to drive a sequence of
gears and dials.
The live cable then splits into several different branches, each supplying a separate
circuit or ring main. Each branch has a separate fuse, chosen for the maximum current
expected in the circuit. Lighting circuits normally carry a lower current than a circuit to
which a cooker or washer is connected.
Each individual circuit is known as a ring main. Each ring main is composed of a cable
that begins and ends in the distribution box, with live, neutral and earth wires forming a
loop or ring around the house. Electrical sockets are connected to the live, neutral and
earth wires in the ring main as shown in Figure 3.53.
The neutral mains wire bypasses the fuses and is incorporated into the ring main, along
with an earth wire that is grounded via the mains water pipes or a metal stake embedded
in damp ground.
In many households, the earth and neutral cables are connected at the distribution
box, providing a multiple earth–neutral system. Appliances with metal casings must have
their casings directly attached to the earth pin of the plug. Should an electrical breakdown
occur within the appliance, the current will flow through the route of least resistance,
e.g. the earth connection, and not the user.
Many new appliances are sold connected by two core cable to a two pin plug (live and
neutral). These appliances are double insulated. These have metal internal parts that
are contained inside an insulating plastic housing, which cannot become live in the event
of a fault.
All modern wall sockets are provided with an earth pin as well as live and neutral pins.
All three-pin plugs must be wired to an internationally accepted colour code. In this
code the insulation of each wire is a different colour:
• active (live) brown
• neutral (passive) blue
• earth (ground) green and yellow.
Figure 3.53 meter mains switch

A domestic
household ring
main circuit.
8 30 30 15 15
fuses A A A A A
neutral main fuse
live
live wires
to different ring mains
earth
neutral
live
Ring main
live neutral
Earth stake
earth
Three pin sockets
140
This scheme replaces an older code in which the live wire was red, the neutral wire
black and the earth wire green, because of problems for red–green colour blind
electricians.
Blowing a fuse
Fuses are designed to ‘blow’ when a stated current is exceeded, so protecting the wiring
and circuits in the house. A lighting circuit will be protected by an 8 ampere fuse. This
allows a maximum current of 8 amperes to flow at a voltage of 240 V. The total power that
can be provided by this circuit, without blowing the fuse, is given by
P = IV = 8 A × 240 V = 1920 W
This would be sufficient to power nineteen 100 W electric light bulbs without blowing
the fuse.
However, if a 1 kW electric blanket and ten lights were on this circuit, the current drawn
by the circuit would be much larger than for which it was designed.
P = 10 × 100 W + 1000 W = 2000 W
I = P/V = 2000/240 = 8.3 A
The fuse would blow to protect the circuit.
Normally electric lighting circuits are separate ring mains from power circuits used for
televisions, electric heaters etc. The circuits into which major appliances are plugged are
also separately fused.
A c tivitie s
3.13 The structure of household circuits is different for different purposes. Gather,
process and analyse information in order to identify the differences and
provide a plausible explanation.
3.14 Plan and construct a model household circuit using electrical components.
Carry out a risk assessment of your model and identify and eliminate potential
hazards.
E x e r ci s e s
3.47 There are different circuits for lighting, heating and other appliances. What
reason for this is given in the chapter?
3.48 Lights have a much lower resistance than other appliances. What would occur if
the same parallel circuit was used for all electrical equipment?
3.49 Propose a reason why the kilowatt hour is used to measure domestic energy
consumption rather than the joule?
3.5 Electrical Safety

Students learn to:
• discuss the dangers of an electric shock on the muscles of the body, from appliances from both a
240 volt AC mains supply and various DC voltages
• describe the functions of circuit breakers, fuses, earthing, double insulation and other safety devices
in the home.
141
Electricity is extremely useful, but also dangerous. Many house fires are caused by faulty
wiring or appliances. It is possible to give yourself painful or deadly electric shocks
from working with mains electricity. In Australia it is illegal to do your own electrical
installations or repairs, and you should use a qualified electrician for all work involving
mains circuit wiring.
The following simple rules should be followed at all times.
• Do not overload double plugs and extension boards.
• Ensure that all plugs are fully inserted in their sockets.
• Always unplug electrical appliances before servicing them.
• Do not work with electrical items in damp and wet surroundings, e.g. wet floors.
• Do not use electrical appliances with worn and abraded mains cords.
The biological effects of electrical shock

Electrical current will take the path of least resistance in flowing to earth. When a live
wire is connected directly to earth, high currents flow. In a properly maintained circuit a
fuse will blow or a circuit breaker ‘break’. If, however, the short circuit is caused by a
person touching the live wire, then the current will flow through the person’s body,
resulting in fatal burns and damage to heart muscle.
Good contact with the ground might occur if the person was touching a grounded
metal water pipe or standing in water.
The severity of the electrical shock depends on:
• the current
• the duration of the shock
• the path taken by the current
• frequency of current
• area of contact.
Both DC and AC power supplies can be dangerous.
The major biological damage is caused by the effect of high currents flowing within
the body. The current, in turn, depends on the applied voltage and the resistance of the
body. The body’s resistance varies from 10 000 to a million ohms, between opposite
sides of the body in dry conditions, to 1000 ohms if the skin is wet and conducting
across the body’s surface. The body’s average resistance depends on the applied voltage.
For voltages of up to about 50 V, surface conduction is the major form of current flow.
At higher voltages, the body’s internal resistance plays a major role in the flow through
the body.
AC voltages of 240 V are commonly encountered. At this voltage the average body
resistance is about 2000 ohms, leading to a current of about 120 mA.
We can detect an AC (240 V, 50 Hz) current as small as 1 mA as a tingling sensation.
Above 10 mA, muscles respond by clenching, and we become unable to release the
current-carrying conductor.
The onset of severe electrical shock accompanied by burns and ventricular fibrillation
occurs at 50 mA. At above 150 mA breathing becomes difficult. Exposure for half a
second to a current of above 200 mA leads to death. A current of 120 mA, depending on
the time in contact, is likely to be fatal. The most dangerous path for such a current is
from one arm or leg, across the chest, to the other arm or leg. This will bring about rapid
and uncontrolled pulsation of the heart known as cardiac fibrillation, causing
permanent heart muscle damage and possible death.
142
A c tivitie s
3.15 Gather, process, and analyse additional secondary information from a range
of resources to assess the effect of different voltages, including 240 volt AC
and various DC voltages, on the muscles of the body. Discuss whether the
length of time of contact with the current increases the effect.
Assess the reliability of your information.
Use cause and effect relationships in your discussion.
3.16 Summarise, process and analyse information from a range of secondary

sources, and use the evidence to explain the functions of circuit breakers,
fuses, earthing, double insulation and other safety devices in the home.
E x e r ci s e s
3.50 Determine the number of joules in 1.0 kWh.
3.51 Show that the heat energy produced in a wire of resistance R carrying a current
I for a time t is given by:
Energy = I 2 × R × t
3.52 How much heat is produced when a current of 5.0 A flows through a wire of
resistance 10 Ω for 1.0 hour?
3.53 How much electrical energy is used by a 100 W light globe in 1.0 hour?
3.54 An electric iron has a power rating of 2 kW. How much energy is used if an
ironing job takes 1.0 h?
3.55 A water heater is rated at 7.5 kW for 240 V. It holds 250 kg of water.
a What is its resistance?
b What current flows through the heater when it is on?
3.56 4.2 kJ of energy is needed to raise the temperature of 1.0 kg of water by

1 degree.
a How much energy in kWh is required to heat 250 kg of water from 20°C
to 70°C?
b If electricity costs 10 cents per kWh, what is the cost of the
energy used?
3.57 In an experiment, a coil is made from 50 cm wire, which has a resistance of 5 Ω

per metre. The coil is placed in 1000 g of water and connected to a 9 V battery.
The initial water temperature is 20°C.
a What is the resistance of the coil?
b What current flows through the coil?
c What power is dissipated by the coil?
d What energy is absorbed by the water if the experiment runs for
20 minutes?
e By how much will the water temperature rise? (4.2 kJ of energy
is needed to raise the temperature of 1.0 kg of water by 1 degree.)
143
3.6 Magnetism and Magnetic Fields

Students learn to:
• describe the behaviour of the magnetic poles of bar magnets when they are brought close together
• define the direction of the magnetic field at a point as the direction of force on a very small north
magnetic pole when placed at that point
• describe the magnetic field around pairs of magnetic poles.
Magnets and magnetic poles

In historical times it was recorded that some rocks from a region known as Magnesia (in
what is now Turkey) were attracted to each other. These rocks were called ‘magnets’.
The Chinese used ‘lodestones’ cast in the form of spoons for divination, and texts from
the Han Dynasty mention ‘a south-pointing spoon’. Indeed, in 113 BC details were given
on how chessmen could be made to fight automatically using a magnet or lodestone.
The term lode appears related to usage in lodes’man, a pilot, and lode’star, the star that
guides, and refers to the use to which the stone was put in navigation and divination.
Today we recognise such magic as being due to magnetism. Not until the nineteenth
century did it become clear that magnetism and electricity are closely related.
Magnetism
One of the main characteristics of magnets is their ability to attract objects, chiefly those
made of iron. Several minerals are magnetic in their natural state. A material which is able
to keep its magnetism for a long time is termed a permanent magnet.
Not all materials are attracted to magnets. Certain materials are strongly affected by
magnetism. The simplest way to identify such materials is to test them with permanent
magnets and observe which are attracted and which remain unaffected.
Magnetic poles
Magnets will also exert attractive and repulsive forces on each other. If we shape our
magnetic material into a bar we can investigate these forces. When we dip one of these bar
magnets into iron filings, the filings cluster near the ends of the bar and avoid the middle.
Figure 3.54
Iron filings
cluster around
the ends of a bar
magnet.
magnetic poles
magnetic axis
The force pulling the filings to the magnet appears to be centred in two regions of the
magnet. These points are called the magnetic poles of the magnet. A straight line drawn
through these poles is known as the magnetic axis of the magnet.
If we hang a bar magnet from its centre on light thread, balance it on a pivot, or float it
on a cork raft so that it is free to rotate, it will always turn so that the magnetic axis lies
north–south and the same pole always points in a northerly direction.
This is used to distinguish between the two types of pole on a magnet.
• The pole pointing north is known as the north-seeking pole.
• The pole pointing south is known as the south-seeking pole.
144
Figure 3.55
A bar magnet
will always turn
so that its
magnetic axis S-seeking pole N-seeking pole
lies north–south
with the same
pole pointing
towards north.
S N
We normally mark the ends of the bar magnet using N to indicate N-seeking and S to
indicate S-seeking. We can use a freely rotating magnet to make a simple compass that
will always tell us where north lies. We can also use such a magnet to detect other
permanent magnets and to investigate the forces between magnets.
Magnetic forces
When we bring two bar magnets together, we find that each exerts a force on the other.
If we suspend one bar magnet so that it can rotate freely and bring the other magnet close
we find that:
1 if the N pole of the fixed magnet is brought near the N pole of the free magnet the force
is repulsive
2 if the S pole of the fixed magnet is brought near the S pole of the free magnet the force
is repulsive
3 if the N pole of the fixed magnet is brought near the S pole of the free magnet the force
is attractive
4 if the S pole of the fixed magnet is brought near the N pole of the free magnet the force
is attractive.
Figure 3.56
a Like poles repel a
and b opposite
poles attract.
S
S N
S
N S
These results can be summarised as follows

Like poles repel
Opposite poles attract
We can now use a single bar magnet on which the N and S poles are marked to test the
polarity of other magnets. If an identified pole is repelled by the N pole of the test magnet
then it must be a N pole also, if it is attracted, then it is a S pole.
145
E x e r ci s e
3.58 Where is the north pole of the Earth’s magnetic field?
Magnetic interactions
Forces and fields
We have yet to find a single isolated magnetic north pole. It is therefore difficult to talk
about magnetic forces in the way in which we discussed electrostatic forces. Instead we
are forced to perform experiments using bar magnets.
Figure 3.57
Magnetic forces
between adjacent
S N
bar magnets.
repulsion attraction repulsion
S N
If we look at the forces acting between two bar magnets, we see that there is an
attractive force between the adjacent N and S poles, and a repulsion between the two N
and two S poles. The resultant force is therefore quite complex.
If we use extremely long magnets we can make sure that the repulsive forces are small
and overshadowed by the attractive forces between the N and S pole.
Figure 3.58
Magnetic forces 1m
between very long
magnets. S N
very weak repulsion
very weak repulsion strong attraction
S N
We can study the way the force on the ball end of such a magnet varies as we change
the distance between the adjacent N and S poles. Like many other fundamental forces,
the magnetic force is an inverse square force. The force can be shown to act along a line
joining the poles.
Field strength and direction

We can represent the size of the force and its direction in the same way that we did for
electrostatic forces, but we use a magnetic field diagram.
The following rules apply to the interpretation of magnetic field line maps.
1 Field lines begin at N poles and end on S poles.
2 Field lines never cross or split.
3 Field lines that are close together represent strong fields; field lines that are well
separated represent areas of weak field.
4 A N pole placed in the field experiences a force in a direction tangential to the field line
at that point.
Like electric fields, magnetic fields have direction. The direction of the field is taken
by convention as the direction of the force on the north pole of a test magnet placed in
the field.
146
Mapping fields
If we place a sheet of paper over a magnet and sprinkle fine iron filings on the paper we
can gain a rough image of the magnetic field. The filings will be attracted to the poles and
in turn attract each other. Strings of filings will form with the magnetic axis of each filing
becoming aligned with the magnetic field. This is a fairly imprecise way of studying
magnetic fields, but it offers a very good overview of the field.
We can perform the same experiment on a slightly larger scale, using the alignment of a
small plotting compass instead of the alignment of iron filings with the field. The N pole
of the compass will be attracted by the S pole of a bar magnet and repelled by the magnet’s
N pole. The S pole of the compass will be repelled by the magnet’s S pole and attracted by
its N pole. The effect is to align the compass needle with the magnetic field line.
If we now place the magnet on a sheet of paper and position the compass near it, we
can mark the ends of the needle with two dots. By repositioning the compass so that its
N pole lies over the dot marking the previous position of its S pole we can repeat the
procedure until the magnetic field line is completed.
Figure 3.59
4
Plotting 3
magnetic fields
with a small 2
compass.
1
N S
Fields around a bar magnet

Figure 3.60 shows the magnetic field pattern around a bar magnet. Remember this is only
the representation of the force on a single N magnetic pole. The direction is given by the
arrows on the diagram. The field is strongest where the lines are closest together.
Figure 3.60
The magnetic
field around a
bar magnet.
N S
Field bet ween t wo bar magnets

N p ole to N p ole
If we place two bar magnets so that the N poles are next to each other, we find that the
magnets try to move apart. The field lines are shown in Figure 3.61.
Note how the field lines between the magnets move away from the line joining the
N poles, leaving a ‘gap’ in the field. The field of one magnet cancels that of the other.
A N magnetic pole placed at the centre of this gap would feel no net force. It would be
repelled with equal force by the N pole of the left-hand magnet and the N pole of the
right-hand magnet.
147
This point is called a neutral point in the field.

Figure 3.61
The magnetic
field between
two bar magnets
placed north pole
to north pole.
S N N S
N p ole to S p ole
If we place the same magnets so that the S pole of one opposes the N pole of the other,
they will attract each other. The field lines between the magnets run from the N pole
of the right-hand magnet to the S pole of the left-hand magnet. The magnets are drawn
together.
Figure 3.62
The magnetic
field between
two bar magnets
placed north pole N S N S
to south pole.
E x e r ci s e
3.59 Draw the field lines between two bar magnets lying end to end whose south
poles are opposed.
3.7 Currents and Magnetic Fields

Students learn to:
• describe the production of a magnetic field by an electric current in a straight current-carrying
conductor and describe how the right-hand-grip rule can determine the direction of current and
field lines
• compare the nature and generation of magnetic fields by solenoids and a bar magnet.
Electric currents produce magnetism

Many scientists thought that there should be a connection between charge and
magnetism, even though stationary charges are not affected by magnetic fields.
In 1820, Oersted showed that a compass needle could be deflected when placed near
a wire carrying a current. The current in the wire was responsible for a magnetic field.
This discovery has led to the development of electrical motors.
148
Field due to current in a straight wire

If we pass a current of about 10 A down a wire as shown in Figure 3.63, we find that we can map
the magnetic field lines using a compass. The main characteristics of the magnetic field are:
• the field lines are circular and are centred on the wire
• the strength of the magnetic field decreases as we move away from the wire
• the direction of the magnetic field reverses if we reverse the direction of the current
• the strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the magnitude of the current.
Figure 3.63
The magnetic field
due to a straight
wire carrying a
current.
Key Concept 3.2 Right-hand Rule

The magnetic field direction can be remembered by using a right-hand rule. This rule is
sometimes known as Maxwell’s screw rule.
Figure 3.64 I I
The right-hand
rule for magnetic
field direction.
field direction
field direction
With your right hand, point your thumb along the direction of the current and then
curl your fingers. The direction in which your fingers curl represents the direction of the
magnetic field. This is shown in Figure 3.64.
This is known as a right-hand screw rule because, if you take a right-hand screw, you
must turn it in the direction of the magnetic field to make it bore into wood along the
direction of the current.
149
Magnetic fields
The strength of the magnetic field near a current-carrying wire is proportional to the
current and inversely proportional to distance from the wire. So to detect the magnetic
field in a school laboratory you need to have as high a current as possible and to have
the test probe close to the wire.
The following conventions are used in diagrams to indicate the direction of magnetic
fields and currents:
• magnetic field or current is out of the page
X magnetic field or current is into the page.
Field due to a current in a single loop coil

We can now make simple deductions about the shape of the magnetic field in more
complicated arrangements of wires. Any shape of wire can be broken up into small
straight segments. The magnetic field at any point near the wire can be found by adding
the field due to each straight line segment using vector addition.
Figure 3.65
The field due to
a current
flowing in a
single loop coil.
magnetic field
direction in
coil centre
current flow
The field due to a current flowing around a circular coil is the sum of the fields due to
each segment of the coil. The result is a magnetic field which threads the coil in the
direction shown. Once again the field direction is given by the right-hand rule.
Field due to a current in a many turn coil or solenoid

The magnetic field strength in a coil can be increased by placing several coils in series,
with the same current passing through each in turn. This sort of multi-coil arrangement is
called a solenoid.
The individual fields add together forming a magnetic field with field lines identical to
those of a bar magnet.
Electromagnets
We can further increase the magnetic field strength at the centre of a solenoid, by filling
the solenoid with a ferromagnetic material. This iron core is magnetised by the field due
to the current in the coil and the resultant field is up to a thousand times stronger than
that in a coil without an iron core.
These types of solenoids are known as electromagnets—the magnetic field is present
only as long as the current is flowing.
150
Applications
Electromagnets can be produced in many shapes and sizes, from the giant ones used in
scrap metal yards for lifting old cars to small ones used in tape recorder heads. A few of
the applications are discussed below.
R elay s
Computers and electronic circuits are low voltage, low power systems. It is often necessary
for computers or other electronic circuits to control high currents or voltages. To connect
them directly is impossible. Instead they control mechanical mechanisms that operate
switches in the other circuit.
These switches are known as relays. In a relay a switch is opened or closed by an
electromagnet controlled by the computer. In the example in Figure 3.66, the closing of
the switch on the low current circuit turns on the electromagnet. The magnetic field
attracts the arm of the switch on the high current circuit. This switch opens and cuts the
current flowing in that circuit.
Figure 3.66
high current
An circuit
electromagnetic
circuit breaker. electromagnet
relay
low current
circuit
switch
B ell s
In an electric bell the bell clapper is part of the circuit.
Normally the clapper rests against an electrical contact. When the button is pressed
current flows through the circuit and the solenoid is energised. The magnetic field
produced pulls the clapper towards the pole of the solenoid and the clapper strikes the
Figure 3.67
An electric bell.
contact
circuit broken solenoid
solenoid attracts magnet
current flows
contact springs back,

when electromagnet is energised electromagnet is energised
bell is struck and circuit is broken and attracts contact
151
bell. This movement also immediately breaks the circuit and current ceases to flow
through the solenoid. The clapper springs away from the bell and touches the electrical
contact again, remaking the circuit; this cycle is repeated as long as the bell push is
pressed.
Tele p hon e s
The early telephones relied on the way in which the resistance of carbon granules changes
when the granules are compressed. Sound waves compress the carbon granules in the
mouthpiece, the resistance in the granules drops and the current in the circuit rises.
The increased current flowing through the electromagnets in the earpiece attracts the
loudspeaker diaphragm and creates a pressure pulse.
Modern telephones no longer use carbon granules in the mouthpiece, but the earpiece
is largely unchanged.
A c tivitie s
3.17 Undertake Experiment 3.11 Plotting magnetic fields A.

3.18 Undertake Experiment 3.12 Plotting magnetic fields B.
3.19 In your group design and construct an electromagnet that will lift the most
weight.
3.20 Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information to explain one
application of magnetic fields in households (e.g. pest control, stereo speakers,
magnetic tapes or others) and assess the impact of its use. In your explanation
show how different scientific ideas are combined in the device.
E x e r ci s e s
3.60 Draw the magnetic field due to a solenoid.

3.61 Compare the nature and generation of magnetic fields due to a solenoid with a
bar magnet.
EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 3.1 Electrostatics

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to observe the effects of charged objects on other
charged and neutral objects.
M at e rial s
Each group of students will need:
• electroscope
• large watchglass with guides as shown in diagram
• two ebonite rods and flannel cloth
• two Perspex rods and silk cloth
• small pieces of light aluminium foil, paper, fabrics and other light materials
guides of
playdough or watchglass
similar
perspex rod
152
M e t hod
1 Charge a Perspex rod by rubbing it with silk. Test its effect on a fine stream of water,
light aluminium foil, paper, fabric, hair, etc.
2 Charge an ebonite rod by rubbing it with flannel. Test its effect on a fine stream of
water, light aluminium foil, paper, fabric, hair, etc.
3 Test the effect of the charged rods on an electroscope by bringing each rod near, but
not touching, the electroscope and then removing the rod.
4 Charge a Perspex rod by rubbing it with silk. Rest it on the watchglass and observe the
effect of bringing another charged Perspex rod near to the charged end.
5 Repeat Step 4, this time bringing a charged ebonite rod near to the charged end of the
Perspex rod.
6 Charge an ebonite rod by rubbing it with flannel. Rest it on the watchglass and observe
the effect of bringing another charged ebonite rod near to the charged end.
7 Repeat Step 6, this time bringing a charged Perspex rod near to the charged end of the
ebonite rod.
R e s ult s
1 What is the effect of a charged rod on uncharged objects?
2 What are the effects of charged rods of the same material on each other?
3 What are the effects of charged rods of different material on each other?
C on clu s ion
What are the effects of charged objects on neutral and other charged objects?
Experiment 3.2 The electric field near a Van de

Graa ff generator
This experiment is best done as a teacher demonstration.
A im
The purpose of this experiment is to observe the electric fields created by a Van de Graaff
generator.
M at e rial s
• 2 × 2 m lengths of conducting wire
• 2 metal stands about 20 cm × 3 cm
• 4 polystyrene cups
• 10–20 electroscopes
• electric hair drier
• metal ring, diameter 5 cm with 2 cm wide gap
• packet of silver-coated cachou lollies
• Perspex or glass plate about 40 cm × 40 cm
• two metal rings, diameters 20 cm, 5 cm
• Van de Graaff generator
20 cm
metal rings
metal stands
split ring
153
M e t hod
1 Assemble the electroscopes at varying distances around the Van de Graaff generator.
Switch on the generator and observe. Note the relative intensity of the field with distance.
2 Support the Perspex or glass plate on four polystyrene cups. Thoroughly dry using a
hair drier. Repeat with the belt of the Van de Graaff generator if necessary.
3 Place the metal stands parallel and about 10 cm apart on the plate. Connect one to the
dome of the Van de Graaff generator and the other to the earth of the generator.
4 Switch on the Van de Graaff generator and place 15–20 silver-coated cachous between
the metal strips. Observe.
5 Replace the straight metal stands with the two metal rings. Connect the inner ring to
the dome and the outer to the earth of the generator and place 15–20 silver-coated
cachous between the metal rings. Observe.
6 Replace the inner ring with the ring containing a gap and repeat Step 5.
R e s ult s
Record your observations of steps 1, 4, 5 and 6.
C on clu s ion
What do your observations indicate about the electric field:
a around a charged object
b between two parallel plates
c in the area inside a metal ring?
Experiment 3.3 AC/DC

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to compare the current through and the voltage across
alternating current and direct current circuits.
M at e rial s
• 5 leads
• AC/DC transformer unit
• light globe
• 1000 Ω resistor
• 1.5 volt dry cell
• DC milliammeter or galvanometer (zero centred if possible)
• DC voltmeter (zero centred if possible)
• AC milliammeter
• AC voltmeter or multimeter
• cathode ray oscilloscope, or a datalogger with relevant probes and sensors
M e t hod
1 Set up the circuit below. Set the transformer on DC 12 V and use the DC meters. Attach
+ve to +ve and –ve to –ve on the meters. Use a globe as the resistance.
V
voltmeter
+ –
A
R
ammeter
2 Read and record the meters.

3 Reverse the polarity of the circuit only and record your observation of the behaviour of
the meters.
154
4 Attach the circuit to the AC terminals and record the readings of the two DC meters and
any observations.
5 Replace the DC meters with AC meters and record the readings.
6 Set the cathode ray oscilloscope at 1.0 volt per cm, and the time per cm knob at
1 millisecond per division. Turn on.
7 Use the vertical and horizontal shift knobs to centre the trace, and the focus knob to
get a sharp line.
8 Use a 1.5 V dry cell and set up the circuit below, connecting the positive terminal of the
dry cell to the DC terminal of the CRO and the negative terminal to the common
terminal of the CRO. Record the screen of the CRO.
1.5 V 1000 Ω CRO
9 Reverse the terminals and repeat the procedure.

10 Reset the CRO to 5 V cm–1 and 10 ms cm–1.
11 Replace the DC power in the circuit with the AC side of the transformer. Attach the
circuit to the AC and common terminals of the CRO.
12 Observe and record the trace for various voltage levels.
R e s ult s
Record the results in a clear and accessible form.
C on clu s ion
1 How do you explain the readings on the DC ammeter and voltmeter when connected to AC?
2 What does the CRO indicate about the difference between AC and DC voltages?
Experiment 3.4 Potential drop along a wire

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to see how the potential difference varies along a wire.
M at e rial s
• 1.0 m of resistance wire
• 4 leads with banana plugs or alligator clips
• a 12 V variable DC power supply
• DC voltmeter (0–2.0 V)
• metre rule
• tapping switch
M e t hod
1 Assemble the circuit as shown in the diagram.
DC power supply
switch
red black
metre rule
resistance wire
red black
155
2 Set the power supply to the lowest DC setting (2 V).

3 Clip the lead of the voltmeter to the wire at the 1 metre point. Depress the switch and
record the voltmeter reading.
4 Repeat at 20 cm intervals along the wire.
R e s ult s
Complete the table.
Length of resistance wire (m) Potential difference (V)
1.0
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
C alc ulation s
Plot potential difference against length of wire.
C on clu s ion
How does the potential difference vary along a wire?
Experiment 3.5 The conductivity of a light globe

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to determine whether a light globe is a linear
conductor.
M at e rial s
• 12 V variable DC power supply
• 12 V, 20 W globe in stand (other smaller 12 V globes)
• DC ammeter
• DC voltmeter (0–12 V)
• tapping switch
M e t hod
0–12 V DC
switch
+
globe
red black
ammeter
red black
voltmeter
2 Start with the power supply at it highest setting. Hold down the tapping switch and
carefully observe the ammeter needle. Allow the meters to stabilise and record the
meter readings. Release the switch.
3 Repeat at each setting of the power supply.
156
R e s ult s
Complete the table.
Current (A) Voltage (V)
C alc ulation s
Plot voltage (y-axis) versus current (x-axis).
C on clu s ion
1 Explain the behaviour of the ammeter at the start of the experiment.
2 Is a light globe a linear conductor?
E x t r a work
Repeat the experiment with a smaller wattage globe (but rated to 12 V). Start from the
lowest voltage settings.
Experiment 3.6 Resistors in series

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the relationship between the potential
difference across two series resistors and the current through them.
M at e rial s
• 7 leads with banana plugs (preferably) or alligator clips
• DC milliammeter
• tapping switch
• two 1000 Ω resistors (or two 100 Ω)
M e t hod
1 Assemble the circuit as shown in the diagram. Note that the positive (red) terminal of
both meters is connected in line with the positive terminal of the power supply.
0-12 V D.C.
switch +
1000 Ω 1000 Ω
red black
milliammeter
red black
voltmeter
2 Start with the power supply at its lowest setting. Hold down the tapping switch and
record both meter readings. Release the switch.
157
R e s ult s
Current (mA) Voltage (V)
C alc ulation s
1 Plot voltage (y-axis) versus current (x-axis).
2 Draw a straight line of best fit through the points and determine the slope. (Work in
amperes and volts.)
3 Compare your answer with the size of the resistor values.
C on clu s ion
What is the relation between the potential difference across series resistors and the
current through them?
E x t r a work
1 Repeat the experiment with different sized resistors.
2 Repeat the experiment using AC; you will need to use AC meters and smaller resistors
(100 Ω).
Experiment 3.7 Resistors in parallel

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the effective resistance of a pair of
parallel resistors.
M at e rial s
• DC milliammeter
• tapping switch
• two 1000 Ω resistors
M e t hod
1 Assemble the circuit as shown in the diagram. Note that the positive (red) terminal of
both meters is connected in line with the positive terminal of the power supply.
0-12 V D.C.
switch +
1000 Ω
1000 Ω
red black
milliammeter
red black
voltmeter
158
2 Start with the power supply at its lowest setting. Hold down the tapping switch and
record both meter readings. Release the switch.
R e s ult s
Current (mA) Voltage (V)
C alc ulation s
1 Plot voltage (y-axis) versus current (x-axis).
2 Draw a straight line of best fit through the points and determine the slope. (Work in
amperes and volts.)
3 Compare your answer with the size of the resistor values.
C on clu s ion
What is the effective resistance (R) of two parallel resistors (R1 and R2)?
E x t r a work
1 Repeat the experiment with different sized resistors, e.g. 500 Ω.
2 Repeat the experiment using AC, you will need to use AC meters and smaller resistors
(100 Ω).
Experiment 3.8 Kirchhoff’s current law

A im
The aim of this experiment is to compare the total current flowing through a circuit with
the currents flowing through parallel branches in that circuit.
M at e rial s
• one 500 Ω resistor
• tapping switch
• three DC milliammeters
• two 1000 Ω resistors
M e t hod
0-12 V D.C.
switch +
A1
A2 1000 Ω
A3 1000 Ω
2 Start with the power supply at it lowest setting. Hold down the tapping switch and
record each meter reading. Release the switch.
159
R e s ult s
Ammeter 1 (I1) Ammeter 2 (I2) Ammeter 3 (I3)
C alc ulation s
Compare the readings on the ammeters in the parallel circuit with that of A1.
C on clu s ion
What is the relation between the current flowing into a parallel branch (I1) and the
current in the parallel branches (I2 and I3)?
E x t r a work
Repeat the experiment changing one of the resistor values to 500 Ω.
Experiment 3.9 Kirchhoff’s voltage law

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to examine the voltage drop across series resistors.
M at e rial s
• tapping switch
• three DC voltmeters
• two 100 Ω resistors, other resistors of different values e.g. 50 Ω, 25 Ω.
M e t hod
1 Assemble the circuit as shown in the diagram. Initially use two 100 Ω resistors.
0-12 V D.C.
switch +
red black
voltmeter 3
R1 R2
red black red black
voltmeter 1 voltmeter 2
2 Use a constant voltage supply of about 6 V. Hold down the tapping switch and record
each meter reading. Release the switch.
3 Repeat, replacing one of the resistors successively with others of different values.
Record both resistor values and meter readings.
160
R e s ult s
R1 R2
R1 (Ω) R2 (Ω) × V3 V1 (volts) × V3 V2 (volts) V3 (volts)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
100 100
100
100
100
100
C alc ulation s
R1 R2
Determine the value of R + R × V3 and R + R × V3 for each set of results.
1 2 1 2
Compare each with V1 and V2 respectively.
How does the sum of V1 and V2 compare with V3?
C on clu s ion s
1 In general what is the voltage drop (VR1) across a resistor (R1) in series with a second
resistor (R2)? The supply voltage is V.
2 How does the sum of the voltage drops in a circuit compare with the source voltage?
Experiment 3.10 Heating effect of a coil of

resistance wire
A im
The aim of this experiment is to compare the electrical energy produced in an immersed
coil of resistance wire with the heat energy absorbed by the water.
M at e rial s
• a 12 V variable DC power supply
• 30 cm of resistance wire
• DC ammeter
• electronic balance
• measuring cylinder (200 mL)
• stopwatch
• styrofoam cup and lid
• tapping switch
• thermometer
M e t hod
1 Place the styrofoam cup on the balance, adjust to zero and add about 100 mL of water.
Record the mass of water added, measure and record its temperature.
2 Assemble the circuit as shown in the diagram. Make a coil from the resistance wire by
winding it round a pencil. Make sure the coil will fit inside the styrofoam cup without
touching the sides.
3 Switch on the power supply for a time interval of 100 s at the lowest setting (3 V).
Record the readings on the ammeter and voltmeter. Record the temperature of the water
after stirring gently with the thermometer.
R e s ult s
mass of water = _________ kg
initial temperature of water = _________ °C
final temperature of water = _________ °C
ammeter reading = _________ A
voltmeter reading = _________ V
time = _________ s
161
switch + 3V
red black
ammeter
red black voltmeter
C alc ulation s
1 Calculate the electrical work done from W = VIt
2 Calculate the energy gained by the water from ∆H = mc∆T (c = 4.18 × 103 J kg–1 K–1).
C on clu s ion
Compare your answers to 1 and 2 above. Can you account for any differences?
Experiment 3.11 Plot ting magnetic fields, Method A

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to examine the magnetic field patterns produced by
magnets.
M at e rial s
• 2 banana plug leads
• 2 bar magnets
• air core solenoid,
• soft iron rods
• Bunsen burner
• power supply
• reduced iron or iron filings
• several sheets of waxed paper (made from ordinary paper dipped into a tray of
molten wax)
• several small corks
M e t hod
1 Place a single magnet under a piece of waxed paper supported by several corks so that
it is level.
2 Gently sprinkle some reduced iron onto the waxed paper while tapping it lightly.
3 If the pattern is clear, a permanent record can be made by gently heating the surface
with a Bunsen flame. The flame must constantly be moved around and not held in one
position. Avoid the edges of the paper. The wax melts and resolidifies keeping the
reduced iron fixed.
4 Repeat steps 1–3 placing two magnets about 2–4 cm apart with their opposite poles
facing.
5 Repeat steps 1–3 placing two magnets about 2–4 cm apart with like poles facing.
6 Examine the pattern produced by the solenoid. An air core solenoid works well when
placed under the waxed sheet. Note the effect of placing a soft iron core inside the
solenoid before fixing the pattern with the flame.
162
R e s ult s a n d c on clu s ion

Make neat sketches of the magnetic field of:
i a single magnet
ii a pair of magnets with opposite poles facing
iii a pair of magnets with like poles facing
iv a solenoid.
Experiment 3.12 Plot ting magnetic fields, Method B

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to examine magnetic field directions produced by
magnets and electric currents.
M at e rial s
• 2 banana plug leads
• 2 bar magnets
• power supply
• reduced iron or iron filings
• magnetic compass
• 2 × 2 m piece of stiff cotton-covered wire
• 2 sheets of cardboard that is shiny on one side
• rheostat
• retort stand
• 2 bossheads and clamps
M e t hod
1 Place a small magnetic compass at various points around a bar magnet and draw a
sketch of the position of the needle, placing an arrow head at the north pole.
2 Repeat Step 1 with the pair of magnets with opposite poles facing.
3 Repeat Step 1 with the pair of magnets with north poles facing.
4 Put a hole in the centre of a small piece of cardboard and thread the piece of cotton-
covered wire through the hole several times so that the cardboard is halfway along the
coil. Support the top of the wire with a clamp and the cardboard, shiny side up, with
another clamp on the retort stand. Use leads to connect the bare ends of the wire in
series to a rheostat and DC power. Adjust the rheostat and the voltage so that
maximum current flows without tripping the circuit breaker.
5 Sprinkle iron filings around the wire until a pattern forms. Tapping the cardboard may
help. Record.
6 Use the right-hand rule to predict the direction of the field. Place a magnetic
compass around the wire and draw the pattern as before. Use the following code:
× for current into the page, and
• for current out of the page.
7 Reverse the polarity of the wire and draw the resultant field.
8 Place two parallel sets of holes along the length of the other piece of cardboard as
shown.
9 Thread the long wire through to make an open coil or solenoid.

10 Connect the bare ends of the coil to the rheostat circuit instead of the wire.
163
11 Use the magnetic compass to plot the field inside and outside the coil, using the
convention in Step 6.
12 Reverse the polarity and repeat the procedure.
R e s ult s
Draw the fields around the magnets, wire and solenoid using the arrows and the convention
for current direction.
C on clu s ion
Compare the field of a solenoid with that of a magnet.
Review Questions and Problems

In this section all wires are assumed to have negligible resistance and all meters and
batteries are considered ideal.
1 Two 5 Ω resistors are arranged as shown in the following diagram and

connected to a 12 V supply.
5Ω 5Ω
12 V
a What is the resistance of the circuit?
b What current leaves the battery?
2 Two 5 Ω resistors are arranged as shown in the following diagram and

connected to a 1.5 V supply. 5Ω
a What is the resistance of the circuit?
b What current leaves the battery?
c What current flows through each resistor?
3 The following graph shows that the potential 5Ω

difference varies with current for two resistors A
and B.
1.5 V
10
A
9
8
voltage (V)
7
6
5
B
4
3
2
1
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

current (A)
164
a What is the value of each resistor?

b The two resistors were connected in series as shown in the following
diagram.
A B
12 V
What is the voltage drop across each resistor?

c The two resistors were connected in parallel as shown in the following
diagram.
A
12 V
What is the current through each resistor?
4 A particle of mass 1.60 × 10–16 kg and charge 1.60 × 10–19 C enters a uniform electric
field of strength 2000 V C–1 at right angles with an initial speed of 120 m s–1.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force on the particle.

5 What is the magnitude of the electric field if a force of 3.0 × 10–6 N is felt by a
charged particle of 1.5 × 10–12 C?
6 The shaded area in the diagram represents an isolated, charged metal object.
The surrounding lines represent equipotentials, i.e. they connect points of equal
potential.
+100 V
+200 V
+300 V
+400 V
C
A
B
165
a Near which point is the electric field strongest?

b What is the potential difference between A and B?
c What is the potential difference between A and C?
d How much work is done in moving a charge of +4.0 × 10–9 C from C to A?
7 An electrical component was set up in a circuit as shown in the following
diagram. An ammeter and voltmeter were connected as shown. A variable DC
power supply was used for the experiment and the results are plotted on the
following graph.
20
18
Potential difference (V)

16
14
12
10
8
V 6
4
A 2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Current (mA)
Using the graph determine the resistance of the component.
8 A potential difference of 9 V produces a current of 23.1 mA in a resistor. What is

its resistance?
9 A 2.0 m length of wire of resistance 1.0 Ω is connected to a 1.5 V battery.
a What current ideally flows through the wire?
b Suggest why the measured current may not be the same as this.
10 The output of a signal generator as recorded from a cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO) is shown below.
4.0
Potential difference ( V )
2.0
0.0
–2
–4
0.0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (ms)
a What type of electrical output is shown? Explain how it differs from the
output of a battery.
b What is the frequency of the waveform shown?
11 A student set up the electrical circuit with a resistor of unknown value as
shown in the following diagram. The student recorded the readings on the
ammeter and voltmeter. The results are set out below.
V
166
Current (A) Voltage (V)

0.0 0.00
0.101 2.02
0.199 3.95
0.302 6.04
0.400 8.03
0.498 9.98
0.603 12.03
Plot voltage versus current and use your graph to determine the value of the
unknown resistor.
12 A student set up the electrical circuit with a 100 Ω resistor as shown in the
following diagram.
V
100 Ω
A
10 V
a What would be the readings on the ammeter and voltmeter?
b What should be the minimum power rating of the 100 Ω resistor?
13 Two nichrome wires AB and BC each 0.50 m long but of different diameters are
joined together. A potential difference of 6.0 volt is applied between A and C as
shown in the following diagram. The resistance of wire AB is 1.0 Ω and of wire
BC is 2.0 Ω.
A 1.0 Ω B 2.0 Ω C
6.0 V
a Draw graphs showing how the potential difference and electric field
strength vary with distance along the wires from A to C.
b Which wire has the greater diameter? Explain.
14 A 100 volt battery is rated at 2.5 amp-hours. A 1 amp-hour rating is a current of
1 ampere flowing for 1 hour. Calculate the electrical energy available from a
100 volt battery rated at 2.5 amp-hours.
15 A student sets up the following circuit to investigate the voltage–current
relation for a globe. The globe is rated 12 V, 20 Ω. The student notices that when
the switch is closed the ammeter needle rises to 2.0 A and then drops back to
1.67 A. The voltmeter simply rises to 12 V.
12 V
a Calculate the current flowing through the globe when the globe’s power
output is 20 W at a voltage of 12 V.
167
b Calculate the resistance of the globe when the globe’s power output is
20 W at a voltage of 12 V.
c Explain why the ammeter rises to 2.0 A and then drops to 1.67 A.
16 A household light globe is rated 60 watt at 240 volt.

a What is the resistance of this globe?
b What current does it draw from the power supply?
c How many 60 watt globes could be on in a household on a circuit protected
by a 10 A fuse.
d What is the purpose of the fuse in this circuit?
17 A 240 V hot-water service has two 3.6 kW heating units. It has a capacity of
250 L (250 kg) of water. The water is heated from 15°C to 70°C.
(The specific heat of water c is 4.18 kJ kg–1 °C–1: i.e. it takes 4.18 kJ to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C.)
a What current does the 240 V hot water service with two 3.6 kW heating
units draw from the power supply?
b What is the resistance of each 3.6 kW unit?
c Calculate the energy in joules required to heat 250 L (250 kg) of water from
15°C to 70°C.
d The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the common energy unit used for domestic
electricity supply. Convert your answer in c to kWh.
e If the cost of a kilowatt-hour (kWh) is 10 cents, what is the cost of heating
250 L (250 kg) of water from 15°C to 70°C?
f How long would it take the 240 V hot water service with two 3.6 kW heating
units to heat 250 L (250 kg) of water from 15°C to 70°C?
18 Why is it that a bird can perch on a high voltage electricity cable without harm,
while contact with a high voltage electricity cable by a person standing on the
ground could be lethal?
19 A current of 5.0 A flows through a 0.50 m length of wire connected to a 4.5 V

battery.
a What is the resistance of the wire?
b A 1.0 m length of the same wire is connected to the battery. What current
will flow through the wire?
20 The following power–time graphs show the use of a domestic electrical

appliance over two 300 s intervals. The appliance runs on a 240 V supply.
a b
4 4
3 3
Power (kW)
Power (kW)
2 2
1 1
0 0
50 100 150 200 250 300 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (s) Time (s)
a In the case shown in graph a, what is the amount of energy dissipated in

the appliance over the 300 s interval?
b In the case shown in graph b, what is the amount of energy dissipated in
the appliance over the 300 s interval?
c What is the resistance of the appliance when its power output is 3 kW?
168
21 How does the resistance of a 240 V, 100 W globe compare with that of a 240 V,
40 W globe? Which has the thicker filament?
22 A current of 50 mA across the human heart can be lethal. If the resistance of a

person from hand to hand is 1800 Ω what could be a lethal voltage?
23 a Why should the resistance of an ammeter be very small?

b Why should the resistance of a voltmeter be very large?
24 A uniform wire of length 1.0 m and resistance 10 Ω carries a current of 1.2 A. A

voltmeter is connected to the wire 15 cm from one end and 25 cm from the other.
What potential difference does it indicate?
25 For many materials the resistivity, and hence the resistance, of a given wire
varies linearly with temperature over a large temperature range. This variation
can be represented by the expression:
R = Ro (1 + αT )
where Ro is the resistance at a reference temperature, in this case 20°C.
The resistance of a 1.0 m length of thin (gauge 40) copper wire was measured
over a range of temperatures and the following results obtained.
Temperature (°C) Resistance (Ω)

–100 2.02
–50 2.69
0 3.38
2 3.44
50 3.98
100 4.70
150 5.37
200 6.00
Use this data to draw a graph of resistance against temperature.

Use the graph to obtain the gradient and then determine a value for α.
26 Three 2 Ω resistors are arranged as shown in the following diagram and

2Ω 2Ω 2Ω
12 V
a Calculate the total resistance of the circuit.
b Calculate the current leaving the battery.
c Calculate the voltage drop across one of the 2 Ω resistors.

5Ω 5Ω
5Ω
10 V
169

c Calculate the voltage drop across each of the two 5 Ω resistors in the top
of the circuit.
28 Two 5 Ω resistors and a 7.5 Ω resistor are arranged as shown in the following
diagram and connected to a 20 V supply.
5Ω
5Ω 7.5 Ω
20 V
c Calculate the current through each of the two 5 Ω resistors.
d Calculate the voltage drop across the 7.5 Ω resistor.
e Suppose a teacher setting up this circuit inadvertedly used a 20 Ω resistor
instead of one of the 5 Ω resistors. How would this change each of the
readings in parts a, b and d?

5Ω
5Ω
5Ω
10 V
c Calculate the voltage drop across each of the 5 Ω resistors.

V
5Ω 5Ω 5Ω
10 V
c Calculate the reading on the voltmeter.
170
31 Two 5 Ω resistors and a 15 Ω resistor are arranged as shown in the following

diagram and connected to a 12 V supply.
5Ω 15 Ω
A
5Ω
12 V
c Calculate the reading on the voltmeter.
d Calculate the reading on the ammeter.

V1
V2
5Ω
5Ω 5Ω
15 V
c Calculate the reading on the voltmeters V1 and V2.
33 Three resistors are arranged as shown in the following diagram and connected
to a 15 V supply. A switch is connected to the 10 Ω resistor.
6Ω 4 Ω
A1
A2
10 Ω
15 V
a With the switch open as shown in the diagram:
i calculate the total resistance of the circuit
ii calculate the current leaving the battery
iii calculate the reading on the voltmeter V and the ammeters A1 and A2.
b With the switch closed:
iii calculate the reading on the voltmeter V and the ammeters A1 and A2.
34 Three resistors are arranged as shown in the following diagram and connected
to a 10 V supply. A switch is connected to the 6 Ω resistor.
171
V
3Ω
6Ω 2Ω A
10 V
a With the switch open as shown in the diagram:
iii calculate the reading on the voltmeter V and the ammeter A.
b With the switch closed:
iii calculate the readings on the voltmeter V and the ammeters A.
35 Four identical 10 Ω resistors are arranged as shown in the following diagram

and connected to a 10 V supply.
10 Ω
A
10 Ω
10 Ω
10 Ω
10 V V

c Calculate the readings on the voltmeter V and the ammeter A.
36 Draw a diagram showing how four 3 Ω resistors can be connected to give a

resistance of 4 Ω.
37 A student set up the following circuit to investigate the voltage–current

relationship for a 10 Ω resistor.
V
switch
A
10 Ω
For the circuit as drawn:

a What will be the reading on the ammeter when the variable power supply
has a potential difference of 12 V?
b What will be the reading on the voltmeter when the variable power supply
has a potential difference of 12 V?
c Redraw the circuit so that the voltage–current relationship for the 10 Ω
resistor can be measured.
172
38 A circuit was set up as in the following diagram. Both voltmeter and ammeter
can be considered to operate as ideal meters (i.e. the voltmeter has a very high
internal resistance and the ammeter a very low internal resistance).
10 Ω
A
switch
20 V
a What would be the readings on the ammeter and voltmeter with the
switch open?
b What would be the readings on the ammeter and voltmeter with
the switch closed?
39 A student has two globes rated 20 W, 12 V, and connects them in series to a 12 V

power supply as shown.
12 V
a Calculate the resistance of a globe rated 20 W, 12 V.
b Calculate the current flowing in the series circuit shown.
c What is the actual power output of this series circuit?
d Draw a circuit where the two globes would have a power output of 20 W
each at 12 V.
40 The ammeter in the following circuit reads 1.5 A. R is a resistor of unknown value.
4Ω
A R
12 Ω
12 V
a What is the potential drop across the 4 Ω resistor?
b What is the potential drop across the 12 Ω resistor?
c What is the current through the 12 Ω resistor?
d What is the current through R?
A
e What is the potential drop across R?
f What is the resistance of R?
41 Three light globes all rated 10 V but of different B

wattage are connected in parallel as shown
in the following diagram.
C
10 V
173
Globe A is rated 10 W, globe B 20 W and globe C 40 W.

a Calculate the resistance of each globe in the circuit.
b Calculate the current through each globe.
c If globe C blows, what will be the current through globes A and B?
42 A current of 5.0 A flows through a 0.50 m length of wire connected to a 4.5 V

battery.
a What is the resistance of the wire?
b What is the electric field in the wire?
c A 1.0 m length of the same wire is connected to the battery. What current
will flow through the wire?
43 Three identical light globes A, B and C are arranged as shown in the following
diagram.
A B
C
switch
a When the switch is closed what will happen to the brightness of globe A?
b When the switch is closed what will happen to the brightness of globe C?
44 Two identical 1.5 V batteries are connected in parallel as shown in the following
diagram. A 6.0 Ω resistor is connected to the batteries.
1.5 V
1.5 V
6Ω
a What is the current flowing through the 6 Ω resistor?
b What is the current leaving each 1.5 V battery?
45 The following diagram shows an arrangement of 10 Ω resistors.
10 Ω 10 Ω
10 Ω
10 Ω 10 Ω
B
What is the equivalent resistance between points A and B?
46 a Why should the resistance of an ammeter be very small?

b Why should the resistance of a voltmeter be very large?
174
47 An ammeter of internal resistance 0.10 Ω is connected in a series circuit with a

10.0 Ω resistor to a 12.0 V battery.
a What is the actual current flow in the circuit?
b What would be the current flow in the absence from the circuit of the
ammeter?
48 A voltmeter can be considered as a galvanometer with a large series resistance.

A voltmeter with a 20 kΩ internal resistance is used to measure the potential
drop across one of two 500 Ω resistors as shown in the following diagram.
a In the absence of the voltmeter what is the voltage drop across each
500 Ω resistor?
b In the presence of the voltmeter what is the voltage drop across each
500 Ω resistor?
49 The resistance of a wire (R) is related to the resistivity of the metal (ρ) in the
wire, the length of wire (L) and the cross-sectional area of the wire (A).
ρL
R=
A
a Copper has a resistivity of 1.8 × 10–8 Ω m. Calculate the resistance of a
100 m length of copper wire of diameter 0.20 mm.
b A 1.0 m length of resistance wire has a resistance of 1.8 Ω. The wire has a
diameter of 0.85 mm; calculate its resistivity.
c Nichrome has a resistivity of 115 × 10–8 Ω m. Calculate the resistance of a
1.00 m length of 30 gauge nichrome wire of diameter 0.255 mm.
50 Four 5 Ω resistors are set up as indicated in the following diagram.
a What is the resistance of this circuit?

b A galvanometer (sensitive ammeter) is connected between points A and
B. What current would it indicate?
51 The circuit in the following diagram is set up. AB is a 1.0 m length of wire of
resistance 1.8 Ω.
When a galvanometer is connected between points A and B no current flows.

What is the value of R?
52 Three 12 V, 40 W globes are connected in parallel to a 12 V battery. Three 175
ammeters are included as shown in the following diagram.
a What is the power output of the circuit?

b What is the
40 watt
resistance of each globe?
c What is the reading
on each ammeter?
A1
40 watt 53 A torch globe rated at
3 V, 0.5 A is connected in
A2 series to a light globe
A3 40 watt rated at 240 V, 10 W across
a 240 V power supply.
a What will be observed
when the circuit is
switched on?
12 V b The same two globes
are connected in parallel. What will be observed when the circuit is
switched on this time?
176

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P h y s i c s i n C o n t e x t : T h e Fo r c e s o f L i f e

3.1 Society and Electricity

Our electricity dependence

Domestic power sources

Community power sources

Hydroelectric power is generated by the conversion of the gravitational energy in a

Hydroelectric power has the advantages of being:

Figure 3.3 Fitzroy Falls

Bendeela Power Station

Wind speed Power generated (kW)

The environmental impact of a geothermal power station is associated with:

3.3 Consider the methods of generating power discussed above.

3.2 Electric Circuits and Electric Charge

Many different large-scale phenomena can be explained in terms of stationary charges

The unit of charge: The coulomb

A historical view of static electricity

Further experiments showed that, when suspended on thread, a pair of identically

Forces bet ween charges

Forces bet ween a pair of charges: Coulomb’s law

The spreadsheet Circuit Simulations on the CD-ROM contains a worksheet Coulomb’s

Extension—’A view of the atom and electric charge’ on CD-ROM.

two positive charges

Electric Field Strength, E

The unit of electric field strength is N C–1 (newtons per coulomb).

Work and electric potential

Distance between charges

Potential difference and the flow of electrons

a Calculate the intensity of the electric field between the plates.

a Calculate the intensity of the electric field between the plates.

Charge factories: Electrostatic generators

Figure 3.17 metal dome

The main features of this device are:

Electric currents, flowing charge

Direct current and alternating current

Figure 3.19 The real situation

Conduction in solids, liquids and gases

positive ions ‘sea’of electons

Figure 3.23 UV radiation

Bat teries and cells

Table 3.2 The electrochemical series of metals

Figure 3.24 a no electron flow

Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

Time (s) Time (s)

EMF and voltage

12 volt 1 amp 6 ohm 4 ohm 1 amp

1 amp A1 6 volt 4 volt

E = 10 V several cells voltmeter

fixed variable ammeter

switch bulb capacitor

Resistance and Ohm’s law

Table 3.3 Constant ratio of current to voltage across a resistor

The main characteristics of the graph in Figure 3.30 are:

The cause of resistance

The effect of temperature on resistance

Material Resistivity (Ω m at 20ºC) Temperature coefficient (Cº)–1

The resistivity of conductors, insulators and semiconductors

Current (A) 0.000 0.079 0.162 0.242 0.318 0.399 0.482

Current (A) 0.000 1 2 3 4 5 6

0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40