Steam Table

LAB MANUAL
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
DEPARTMENT OF TECHNOLOGY 0
LAB MANUAL
LIST OF APPARATUSES
1) 4 Cylinder 4 Stroke Diesel Test Engine unit

2) 4 Cylinder 4 Stroke Petrol Test Engine units
3) Engine Test Bed
I. Single Cylinder 4 Stroke Petrol Engine
II. Single Cylinder 4 Stroke Diesel; Engine
4) Combustion Laboratory Unit
LAB MANUAL
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1) To determine Air Fuel Ratio of the diesel engine

2) To determine Brake Power ( BP ) of the diesel engine
3) To determine Indicated Power ( IP ) and friction power loss of the diesel engine
4) To determine heat dissipation by cooling water in the diesel engine
5) To determine heat rejected through exhaust gas of the engine
6) To draw heat balance sheet of the given diesel engine
7) To determine the engine performance at full throttled condition and to prepare the
engine performance curve
8) To determine the engine performance at partial throttled as well as partial load
condition
9) To determine the engine performance at full throttled condition and to prepare the
10) To determine the engine performance at partial throttled as well as partial load
condition
LAB MANUAL
4 STROKE 4 CYLINDER WATER COOLED COMPRESSION IGNITION

ENGINE TEST BENCH
STANDARD CHECKUP PROCEDURE

Each time before starting the engine and before starting an experiment, perform the
following standard checkups:
1. Check engine lubricating oil level.
2. Check electrolyte level in battery.
3. Check coolant level in radiator.
4. Check that brake test lever and the output shaft are free.
5. Check that throttle lever is at normal position.
6. Check that all the four cylinder cut-off valves are in CLOSE position.
7. Check that all indicator lights turn ON at pre-start initial ON position of ignition
switch.
8. Check that all gauges and electrical connections are in order.
9. Check that all items required during the experiment are at hand.
10. Check that each member of the group expected to perform experiment is properly
briefed about the entire procedure and has the observation sheet and pen with him.
NORMAL OPERATION
The 4 cylinder 4 stroke diesel test engine unit is setup for normal operation when:
1. No cylinder is cut-off, all cut-off valves are in their normal position and,
2. Brake Test Lever is free of hanger and weights, output shaft if free to rotate and,
3. The radiator is not by-passed, all hand valves are in normal position and,
4. The engine air intake and exhaust are normal and,
5. All electrical connections and instruments are in normal position and,
6. Fuel, radiator coolant, engine lubricant and battery electrolyte levels are in normal
range and,
7. Radiator fan is operating normally and,
8. Engine sound and vibration levels give normal feel during and after warm up.
LAB MANUAL
RADIATOR BYPASS OPERATION

1. Cut off the radiator by turning the hand valves V3 and V4 Close
2. Open up the radiator bypass passage by turning the hand valves V1 and V2
Open, so that fresh water source is connected to water inlet path of engine and the
engine water outlet path is connected to a drain.
3. Ensure that sufficient fresh water is available for engine operation.
4. Restore the settings immediately after the experiment to Radiator
CAUTION
Always keep the engine in Radiator Mode normal operation settings, except for the
short duration of relevant experiment
LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 1
OBJECTIVE
To determine Air Fuel Ratio of the diesel engine
APPARATUS
4 Cylinder 4 Stroke Diesel Test Engine unit, Stopwatch, Tachometer
THEORY
Air Fuel Ratio: Air–fuel ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to fuel present in an internal
combustion engine. The AFR can also refer to the volume ratio for combustion. If
exactly enough air is provided to completely burn all of the fuel, the ratio is known as
the stoichiometric mixture. The AFR is an important measure for anti-pollution and
performance-tuning reasons. The lower the AFR, the "richer" the mixture.
AIR–FUEL RATIO (AFR)

The air–fuel ratio is the most common reference term used for mixtures in internal
combustion engines. The term is also used to define mixtures used for industrial furnace
heated by combustion. The AFR in mass units is employed in fuel oil combustion, while
volume units are used for natural gas combustion.
LAB MANUAL
It is the ratio between the mass of air and the mass of fuel in the fuel–air mix at any given
moment.
In naturally aspirated engines powered by octane, maximum power is frequently reached
at AFRs ranging from 12.5 to 13.3:1
FUEL–AIR RATIO (FAR)

Fuel–air ratio is commonly used in gas turbine combustion and refers to the ratio of fuel
to the air
AIR-FUEL EQUIVALENCE RATIO

Air-Fuel equivalence ratio, λ (lambda), is the ratio of actual AFR to stoichiometry for a
given mixture. λ= 1.0 is at stoichiometry, rich mixtures λ < 1.0, and lean mixtures λ > 1.0.
There is a direct relationship between λ and AFR. To calculate AFR from a given λ,
multiply the measured λ by the stoichiometric AFR for that fuel. Alternatively, to recover
λ from an AFR, divide AFR by the stoichiometric AFR for that fuel. This equation is
often used as the definition of λ:
FUEL-AIR EQUIVALENCE RATIO

The fuel-air equivalence ratio of a system is defined as the ratio of the fuel-to-oxidizer
ratio to the stoichiometric fuel-to-oxidizer ratio. Mathematically,
Where
m represents the mass, n represents number of moles, suffix st stands for stoichiometric
conditions.
The advantage of using equivalence ratio over fuel–oxidizer ratio is that it takes into
account both mass and molar values for the fuel and the oxidizer.
The normal operating range of Air-Fuel ratio for a conventional CI engine using diesel
fuel is between 12 and 18.
LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
1. Perform Standard Checkup Procedureas described above in the laboratory
manual.
2. Setup engine for Normal Operation as described above in the laboratory manual.
3. Observe the uniform fluid level in the limbs of U-tube manometer.
4. Start engine with the help of ignition switch and allow it to warm up for 5
minutes. Ensure that engine is operating normally.
5. Increase engine speed to some extent and set the throttle lever to a suitable
position.
6. With the help of tachometer, measure the speed N1 inrpm and record.
7. Observe the fuel level on the scale provided on the side of fuel tank, and, when the
fuel level is exactly on a prominent scale mark start the stop watch. When the fuel
level drops to next prominent scale mark, stop the stopwatch. Record the time
elapsed ∆t from the stopwatch.
8. Observe and record the pressure head drop ∆h in the U-tube manometer.
9. Change the speed and repeat steps 7 and 8.
10. Stop engine by turning the ignition switch OFF.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Density of fuel = 850 Kg/m3
Calorific Value of fuel = 45000 KJ/Kg
Mass of fuel between two consecutive prominent marks on fuel scale = mscale= 0.137 Kg.
Orifice dia = d = 0.0 42 m
Density of working fluid in U-tube manometer = ρwf= 1000 Kg/m3
Density of Air = ρa = 1.29 Kg/m3
Coefficient of discharge of orifice = Cd = 0.6
Cross section area of orifice = A = πd2/4 = 0.00139m2
LAB MANUAL
Engine Time Mass flow Head Head loss of air Mass flow rate of air Air
speed ∆t rate of fuel loss in ∆ha Kg/s Fuel
N Sec Kg/s U-tube = ∆h. ρwf/100. ρa ma Ratio
rpm mf =mscale/∆t ∆h = ρa. Cd. A.(2g.∆ha)½
cm ma/ m f
1650 60
2250 60
2805 60
Mean=
COMMENTS
ADVANTAGES
1) The advantage of proper AFR is that it helps smooth combustion of air-fuel
mixture inside a cylinder.
2) Proper AFR calibration is critical to performance and durability of the engine and
its components. The AFR defines the ratio of the amount of air consumed by the
engine compared to the amount of fuel.
APPLICATIONS
1) The mass or volume AFR is employed in Internal Combustion Engines for lean or
rich burning of air-fuel mixture.
2) An air-fuel ratio meter may be used to measure the percent oxygen in the
combustion gas, from which the percent excess oxygen can be calculated from
stoichiometry and a mass balance for fuel combustion
LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 2
OBJECTIVE
To determine Brake Power ( BP ) of the diesel engine
APPARATUS
4 Cylinder 4 Stroke Diesel Test Engine unit, Hanger, Weights, Tachometer
THEORY
BrakePower
Brake power is the power output of the drive shaft of an engine without the power loss
caused by gears, transmission, friction, etc. It's called also pure power, useful power, true
power or wheel power as well as other terms.
Pb= 2πNT
This power is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load. The brake power
measurement involves the determination of the torque and the angular
Speed of the engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is called a dynamometer.
THERMAL POWER (FUEL POWER)

The fuel energy is the amount of heat that is released during the combustion of specified
amount of it. It's measured in units of energy per unit of fuel, usually mass, such as :kj/kg,
kj/kmole. The heat of combustion for fuels is expressed as HHV (higher heating value) or
LHV (lower heating value). The formula for calculating the fuel power is the amount of
fuel multiplied by heating value (thermal energy of fuel).
Fuel Power = mass flow rate of fuel (kg/s) * LHV (kj/kg) = (kj/s) or kW
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
the mechanical efficiency is how much of the power developed by the expanding of the
gases in the cylinders is actually delivered as useful power. This formula is written as:
η = BP / IP
PRONY BRAKE
The de Prony Brake is a simple device to measure the torque produced by an engine.
The term brake horsepower is one measurement of power derived from this method of
measuring torque. (Power is calculated by multiplying torque by rotational speed).
LAB MANUAL
Essentially the measurement is made by wrapping a cord or belt around the output shaft
of the engine and measuring the force transferred to the belt through friction. The friction
is increased by tightening the belt until the frequency of rotation of the shaft is reduced.
In practice more engine power can then be applied until the limit of the engine is reached.
Prony Brake Mechanism
PROCEDURE
1. Perform Standard Checkup Procedure as described above in the laboratory
manual.
position.
5. With the help of tachometer, measure the no load speed N0 inrpm and record.
6. Hang hanger at a known radial distance R in meters on the Brake Test Lever and
gradually apply suitable weight W in Newton so that the prony brake application
slows down the engine output shaft. With the help of tachometer measure and
record the speed N in rpm.
7. Remove hangers and weights and allow engine to operate normally for 2 minutes.
8. Repeat step 6 and 7 for different weights and record observations.
LAB MANUAL

No load speed N0 = rpm
Radial distance R = 0.6 meters
Obs. No Weight Speed Torque Brake Power
W N N-m KW
Newton rpm T= WxR BP= 2πNT/60000
1
2
3
Mean=
COMMENTS
ADVANTAGE
Brake Power of the engines tells us the practical value of the power an engine is
developing actually at the crankshaft after taking into account the frictional power losses.
APPLICATIONS
Brake power is developed both in SI and CI internal combustion engines.
LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
OBJECTIVE
To determine Indicated Power ( IP ) and friction power loss of the diesel engine
APPARATUS
4 Cylinder 4 Stroke Diesel Test Engine unit, Hanger, Weights, Tachometer
THEORY
Indicated Power:
Indicated power is the theoretical maximum output power of the engine. The indicated
power is the total power available from the expanding of the gases in the cylinders
negating any friction, heat loss or entropy within the system. The indicated power (IP) is
the power actually developed by the engine cylinder.
Indicated power = Break Power + Friction Power
100KpmLAn
I. P = KW
60
K= Number of cylinders
Pm= Actual mean effective pressure in bar (1 bar= 100 KPa)
L= Length of stroke in meters
A= Area of the piston
n= Number of working strokes per minute
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
The mechanical efficiency is how much of the power developed by the expanding of the
gases in the cylinders is actually delivered as useful power. This formula is written as:
η = BP / IP
LAB MANUAL
DIFFERENCE B/W BREAK POWER AND INDICATED POWER

Indicated or gross power is the theoretical capability of the engine and Brake or
crankshaft poweris the power delivered directly to and measured at the engine's
crankshaft.
PRONY BRAKE
The de Prony Brake is a simple device to measure the torque produced by an engine.
The term brake horsepower is one measurement of power derived from this method of
measuring torque. (Power is calculated by multiplying torque by rotational speed).
Essentially the measurement is made by wrapping a cord or belt around the output shaft
of the engine and measuring the force transferred to the belt through friction. The friction
is increased by tightening the belt until the frequency of rotation of the shaft is reduced.
In practice more engine power can then be applied until the limit of the engine is reached.
Prony Brake Mechanism
PROCEDURE
manual.
position.
5. With the help of tachometer, measure the no load speed N0 inrpm and record.
PART I
6. Hang hanger at a known radial distance R in meters on the Brake Test Lever and
gradually apply suitable weight W in Newton so that the prony brake application
slows down the engine output shaft. With the help of tachometer measure and
record the speed N in rpm.
7. Remove hanger and let engine operate normally.
LAB MANUAL
PART II
8. Cut-off 1st cylinder by turning its corresponding cylinder cut-off valve OPEN.
9. Bring the engine to original no load speed N0 and Repeat steps 6 and 7.
10. Turn the cylinder cut-off valve CLOSE and allow engine to operate normally.
PART III
11. Now cutt off 2nd cylinder and Repeat steps 9 and 10.
(Caution: Never cut off more than one cylinders simultaneously).
PART IV
12. Now cutt off 3rd cylinder and Repeat steps 9 and 10.
PART V
13. Now cutt off 4th cylinder and Repeat steps 9 and 10.
14. Remove hangers and weights and allow engine to operate normally for 2 minutes.

No load speed N0 = rpm
Radial distance R = 0.6 meters
Operating Weight Speed N Torque N-m Brake Power KW Indicated Power KW
condition W rpm T= WxR BP= 2πNT/60000 of nth cylinder
Newton
IPn
No cylinder BP(4-0) =
cut-off
1st cylinder BP(4-1) = IP1 = BP(4-0) - BP(4-1)

cut-off
2nd cylinder BP(4-2) = IP2 = BP(4-0) - BP(4-2)

cut-off
3rd cylinder BP(4-3) = IP3 = BP(4-0) - BP(4-3)

cut-off
4th cylinder BP(4-4) = IP4 = BP(4-0) - BP(4-4)

cut-off
LAB MANUAL
Indicated Power of engine IP = IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4 = KW

Friction power loss FP= IP - BP(4-0) =KW
COMMENTS
ADVANTAGE
Indicated power of the engine help to estimate the maximum power an engine can
developinside the cylinder.
APPLICATIONS
All CI and SI internal combustion engines are designed theoretically by taking into
account the indicated power of the engine.
LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 4
OBJECTIVE
To determine heat dissipation by cooling water in the diesel engine
APPARATUS
4 Cylinder 4 Stroke Diesel Test Engine unit, Stopwatch, Graduated Cylinder.
THEORY
Investigations were carried out to evaluate the performance of a high grade low heat
rejection (LHR) diesel engine.
RADIATOR
It is a heat exchanger used to transfer heat from one place to the other. The purpose of a
radiator is to transfer heat from the core fins to the air.
For many engines, the heat losses can be subdivided as.
Q loss  Q coolant  Q oil  Q ambient
General range of various energy losses is
As a cold engine heats up to steady-state temperature, thermal expansion occurs in all

components.
In conventional cooling systems the water pumped into the cylinder jacket undergoes a
rise in temperature as it absorbs heat while moving up the cylinder jacket.
LAB MANUAL
WATER CYCLE IN THE ENGINE SYSTEM
PROCEDURE
manual.
3. Setup engine for Radiator Bypass mode operation(mentioned above) by
adjusting the respective hand valves and connecting to the fresh water supply
and drain.
CAUTION
Make sure that sufficient fresh water is available, respective hand valves are properly
adjusted and water freely flows through the water jackets of the engine to the drain.
position.
6. Start the stopwatch, insert drain pipe in the graduated cylinder and record water
inlet and outlet temperatures on the respective temperature gauges at suitable
intervals of time. Also record water level in the graduated cylinder.
8. Setup engine for Radiator modeoperation by re-adjusting the respective hand
valves and disconnecting the fresh water supply and drain.

Density of water = 1000 Kg/m3
Specific Heat of water = c = 4.18 KJ/Kg-K
LAB MANUAL
Heat Dissipation rate by cooling water in KJ/min = m0. c.(Th – Tc )
Obs. Operation Inlet outlet Cooling water Mass flow Heat Dissipation
No Time water water consumed rate rate
min temp temp KG m0 KW
Tc Th cm3 Kg/min KJ/min
1
2
3
Average heat dissipation rate through cooling water =
COMMENTS
ADVANTAGE
A higher operating temperature, along with adequate heat dissipation, also helps in
achieving more efficient operation.
APPLICATION
1. Engine is cooled by radiator in which water is circulated for heat transfer from
engine components.
2. Most internal combustion engines are water cooled.
LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 5
OBJECTIVE
To determine heat rejected through exhaust gas of the diesel engine
APPARATUS
4 Cylinder 4 Stroke Diesel Test Engine units, stopwatch, Vernier Calipers, U-tube
manometer
THEORY
The heat balance of reciprocating engine includes useful work, exhaust heat, heat to
lubricating oil and cooling jackets, heat from charge air and radiation losses. Nearly half
(jacket water and exhaust gas) of moderately efficient, small capacity reciprocating
engine’s energy input can be recovered as useful thermal energy. Engines with higher
thermal efficiencies have lower mass flow and heat rejection. The heat rejected by
exhaust gas from the engine’s cylinder can be utilized for turbo-charging. The heat lost to
in-cylinder heat transfer in internal combustion engines makes up a significant amount
of the input fuel energy. Typically, around one-third of the input energy is converted into
mechanical work, around one-third is lost as heat in the exhaust gases, and around one-
third is lost as heat to the cooling system through mechanical friction and heat transfer
losses within the engine.
PROCEDURE
1. Perform Standard Checkup Procedure as described in the laboratory manual.
2. Setup engine for Normal Operation as described in the laboratory manual.
3. Measure the diameter of the air intake orifice.
4. Start engine with the help of ignition switch and allow it to warm up for 5 minutes.
Ensure that engine is operating normally.
5. Increase engine speed to some extent and set the throttle lever to a suitable position.
6. Record time ∆t for fuel level drop between two consecutive prominent scale marks.
7. With the help of U-tube manometer, measure the pressure head drop in the air intake
vessel.
LAB MANUAL
8. Record the temperatures of exhaust gases and the air intake from the respective
temperature gauges.

Air intake orifice diameter = d = 0.042 m
Area of the orifice A = π.d2/4 = 0.00139 m2
Coefficient of discharge of orifice = Cd = 0.6
Density of air = ρa= Pa/R.Ta = Kg/m3
Where
Pa = Atmospheric pressure N/m2,
Ta = Room temp in K
R= 0.287 KJ/Kg.K
Manometer fluid density = ρf = 1000 Kg/m3

Head loss of manometer fluid = ∆hf
Equivalent head loss of air = ∆ha= ρf .∆hf/ρa
Mass rate flow of air = mair= Cd. A. (2.g. ∆ha)1/2 = Kg/s
where
g=9.8 m/s2
Mass of fuel b/w two consecutive prominent marks on fuel scale = mscale= 0.137 Kg.
mfuel = 0.137/∆t = Kg/s
Mass rate flow of exhaust gases = mexhaust= mair + mfuel = Kg/s

Cexhaust =1.005 KJ/Kg.K
Heat taken away by exhaust gases = Qexhaust= mexhaust .Cexhaust . (Texhaust- Ta) = KJ/s
Obs Ta Pa ∆hf ∆ha mair Texhaust mfuel Qexhaust

No. K N/m2 m m Kg/s K Kg/s KJ/s
1
2
3
LAB MANUAL
COMMENTS
ADVANTAGE
Calibration of heat rejected from exhaust gases helps to draw energy balance and provide
base to utilize this recoverable energy for turbo-charging.
APPLICATIONS
Heat rejected can be utilized for turbo-charging
LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 6
OBJECTIVE
To draw heat balance sheet of the given diesel engine
APPARATUS
4 Cylinder 4 Stroke Diesel Test Engine unit with all accessories and instruments used in
experiments 1 to 5.
THEORY
The thermal energy produced by the combustion of the fuel in an engine is not completely
utilized for the production of mechanical power. The thermal efficiency of an I.C engine
is about 33%. Of the available heat energy in the fuel, about one third is lost through the
exhaust system and one third is absorbed and dissipated by the cooling system.
It is the purpose of the heat balance sheet to know the heat energy distribution that is how
and where the input energy from the fuel is distributed. The heat balance sheet of an I.C
engine includes the following heat distributions.
(i) Heat energy available from the fuel burnt.
(ii) Heat energy equivalent to output brake power.
(iii)Heat energy lost to engine cooling water.
(iv) Heat energy carried away by the exhaust gases.
(v) Unaccounted heat energy loss.
LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
Using results and data obtained from experiments 1 to 5 draw the heat balance sheet for
the engine by accounting for:
a. Heat energy available from the fuel burnt.
b. Heat energy equivalent to output brake power.
c. Heat energy lost to engine cooling water.
d. Heat energy carried away by the exhaust gases.
e. Unaccounted heat energy loss.

Choose values from the data and results of experiment#1 to 5 and use the following
formulae to calculate the heat components
(i) Heat energy available from the fuel brunt
Qs = mf x Cv x 3600 KJ/hrCv= 45000 KJ/Kg
(ii) Heat energy equivalent to output brake power,
QBP = BP x 3600 KJ/hr
(iii) Heat energy lost to engine cooling water,
QCW = mw x Cw (two – twi) x 3600 KJ/hrCw = 4.18 KJ/Kg-K
LAB MANUAL
(iv) Heat energy carried away by the exhaust gases,
QEG = mfg x Cfg (tfg – tair )x 3600 KJ/hr
Where,
mfg = ( mf + mair ) kg/s
Cfg= 1.005 KJ/Kg.K
(v) Unaccounted heat energy loss
Qunaccounted = Qs – {QBP + QCW + QEG} KJ/hr
A major component of unaccounted heat energy loss is used to overcome friction and can
be found by:
Qfriction = (IP –BP) x 3600 KJ/hr
COMMENTS
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ADVANTAGE
This is an important tool to study the heat energy balance for the engine. Heat balance
sheet is used to predict the thermodynamic behavior of the engine.
APPLICATIONS
Heat balance sheet is employed to know input-output energy relationships for an internal
combustion engine.
LAB MANUAL
ENGINE TEST BED
INTRODUCTION
TheEngine Test Bed is a self-contained compact unit designed for easy installation and
bench mounting. The test set is supplied with a diesel engine and a petrol engine which is
a single cylinder, four-stroke; spark ignited and air-cooled.
The engine and dynamometer are carried on a solid base plate resiliently mounted.
Included within the framework are the fuel system, which incorporates a fuel tanks and
valves, and the air induction system. The instrumentation and control panel are mounted
on the front frame.
The engines are supplied with proper adaptors for measuring of temperature at exhaust
and lubrication oil tank.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
1. Exhaust Pipe 5. Fuel Analyzer
2. Fuel Load Cell 6. Dynamometer
3. Fuel Tank 7. Petrol Engine/ Diesel Engine
4. Excitation Control 8. Resistive Load
LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENTAL CAPABILITIES
1. Engine performance curve at full and partial load

2. Engine efficiency and fuel consumption variation with speed and load
3. Determination of the following engine parameters at different speed:
 Engine torque
 Brake power
 Volumetric fuel consumption
 Specific fuel consumption
 Air flow rate
 Air-to-fuel ratio
 Volumetric efficiency
 Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP)
SPECIFICATIONS
THE ENGINES
There are two types of engine for this Engine Test Bed equipment, which may be easily
interchanged each other to enable the characteristics of different engine types to be
compared
LAB MANUAL
SINGLE CYLINDER FOUR-STROKE GASOLINE ENGINE
(SPARK IGNITED)
SINGLE CYLINDER FOUR-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
(COMPRESSION IGNITED)
LAB MANUAL
SUMMARY OF THEORY
THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
An internal combustion engine can be defined as an engine in which the chemical energy
of the fuel is released inside the engine and used directly for mechanical work, as opposed
to an external combustion engine, where a separate combustor is used to burn the fuel.
Internal combustion engines can deliver power in the range from 0.01 KW to 20 x 10 3
kW, depending on their displacement.
FOUR-STROKE CYCLE
As shown in a p-v diagram (Figure 2) and a four-stroke spark ignition cycle (Figure 3),
the individual strokes are given under the headings below:
INDUCTION STROKE (1-2)

The air-plus-fuel charge is induced into the cylinder as the piston moves from ‘top dead
center’ (tdc) to ‘bottom dead center’ (bdc). The pressure in the cylinder is reduced to a
value between the atmospheric pressure due to the movement of the piston and air flows
through the induction system because of this pressure difference. On its way to the
cylinder the air passes through the carburetor in which the metered amount of petrol is
added to the air. Nominally the inlet valve closes at point 2, but in fact, this does not
occur until the piston has moved part of the way along the return stroke.
COMPRESSION STROKE (2-3)

With both valves closed the charge is compressed by the piston. At the tdc position the
charge occupies the volume above the piston, which is called the clearance volume and
consists mainly of the volume of the combustion chamber. The spark occurs at a point
such as S, which is before tdc. The combustion process occurs mainly at almost constant
volume and there is a large increase in pressure and temperature of the charge during this
process.
POWER STROKE (3-4)

The hot high-pressure gas expands, resulting from combustion of the fuel-air mixture,
pushing the piston down the cylinder.
EXHAUST STROKE (4-1)

The returning piston clears the swept volume of exhaust gas and the pressure during this
stroke is slightly higher than the atmospheric pressure.
LAB MANUAL
S E
1 2
FIGURE 2: P-V DIAGRAM FOR A SPARK IGNITION ENGINE
Intake
Spark
plug
Cylinder
Piston
Crankshaft
Intake Compression
Intake Exhaust Exhaust

port port
Power Exhaust
FIGURE 3: A FOUR-STROKE SPARK IGNITION CYCLE
LAB MANUAL
DIESEL CYCLE
As shown in a four-stroke Diesel cycle (Figure 4), these four cycles has the following
sequence:
1. An intake stroke that draws inlet air past the intake valve into the cylinder.
2. A compression stroke that raises the air temperature above the auto-ignition
temperature of the fuel. Near the end of the compression stroke, the diesel fuel is
sprayed into the cylinder.
3. Evaporation, mixing, ignition and combustion at the diesel fuel during the later
stages of the compression stroke and the first part of the expansion stroke.
4. An Exhaust stroke that pushes out the burned gases post the exhaust valve.
Airflow
Piston
travel
Intake Compression
Squish
Full compression Combustion
FIGURE 4: DIESEL CYCLE INTAKE, COMPRESSION AND COMBUSTION

PROCESS
LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 7
OBJECTIVE
To determine the petrol engine performance at full throttled condition and to prepare the
PROCEDURE
1. Install the test engine on the engine test bed and run the engine.
2. Increase the engine throttle gradually; at the same time load the engine in step to
obtain a full throttle condition.
NOTE:
Increasing the load will slow down the engine speed.
3. Then, gradually increase the load to obtain the engine outputs at different speed.
4. Record the speed, power and torque for each load condition.
5. The experiment by using the other engine test set.
RESULTS
Speed Torque Power Brake Power
(RPM) (Nm) (kW) (kW)
LAB MANUAL
ANALYSIS
1. Calculate the followings for each load condition

 Electrical Power Output
 Brake Power Output
2. Plot the following graphs

 Engine Electrical Power against Engine Speed
 Engine Torque against Engine Speed
LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 8
OBJECTIVES
To determine the petrol engine performance at partial throttled as well as partial load
condition
PROCEDURES
2. Increase the engine throttle gradually to a speed of approximately 2800 – 3000
RPM at no load condition.
NOTE:
3. Then, gradually increase the load to obtain the engine parameters at different load
conditions.
4. Record the speed, power, torque, temperatures, air velocity at air intake and fuel
consumption for each operating condition.
5. The test may be repeated at various combination of operating conditions.
6. Please repeat the testing by using the other engine test set.
ANALYSIS
1. Calculate the followings for each operating condition

 Fuel Flow
 Air Intake Flow
 Specific Fuel Consumption
 Air to Fuel Ratio
 Volumetric Efficiency
 Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP)
2. Plot the following graphs:

 Engine Power against Engine Speed at Partial load
 Engine Torque against Engine Speed at partial load
LAB MANUAL
RESULTS
Air Air Exhaust Fuel Oil Initial

Final Fuel
Speed Power Torque Intake Temp, temp, Temp, Temp, Fuel Time
W
(kW) V TT1 TT2 TT3 TT 4 W
(RPM) (Nm) (s)
(g)
(m/s) (degC) (deg C) (degC) (degC) (g)
LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 9
OBJECTIVES
To determine the diesel engine performance at full throttled condition and to prepare the
PROCEDURES
2. Increase the engine throttle gradually; at the same time load the engine in step to
obtain a full throttle condition.
NOTE:
3. Then, gradually increase the load to obtain the engine outputs at different speed.
4. Record the speed, power and torque for each load condition.
5. Repeat the experiment by using the other engine test set.
RESULTS
LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 10
OBJECTIVES
To determine the engine performance at partial throttled as well as partial load condition
PROCEDURES
2. Increase the engine throttle gradually to a speed of approximately 2800 – 3000
RPM at no load condition. Note: Increasing the load will slow down the engine
speed.
3. Then, gradually increase the load to obtain the engine parameters at different load
conditions.
4. Record the speed, power, torque, temperatures, air velocity at air intake and fuel
consumption for each operating condition.
5. The test may be repeated at various combination of operating conditions.
6. Please repeat the testing by using the other engine test set.
ANALYSIS
1. Calculate the followings for each operating condition

 Fuel Flow
 Air Intake Flow
 Specific Fuel Consumption
 Air to Fuel Ratio
 Volumetric Efficiency
 Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP)
2. Plot the following graphs

 Engine Power against Engine Speed at Partial load
 Engine Torque against Engine Speed at partial load
LAB MANUAL
RESULTS
Oil
Air Air Exhaust Fuel Temp, Initial Final
Speed Power Torque Intake Temp, temp, Temp, TT 4 Time
Fuel W Fuel W
(kW) V TT1 TT2 TT3
(RPM) (Nm) (degC) (s)
(g) (g)
(m/s) (degC) (deg C) (degC)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL 38
ENGINEERING
LAB MANUAL
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
NOTE:
These are just reference values and not the exact values for the equipment supplied, so don’t
compare them with the values obtained with your equipment these are just for guidance
SAMPLE DATA
Engine: 4-strokes Petrol Engine
Displacement volume : 211.54 cc
Air intake Duct diameter : 1.115 in
Orifice outer diameter : 3 in
Orifice inner diameter : 1.5 in
Fuel Type : Petrol
Air Density : 1.225 kg/m3
Torque (Nm) 5.7
Speed (RPM) 1361
Air Intake (m/s) 1.2
Air Temp (degC) 37.1
Fuel Temp (degC) 35.3
Oil Temp (degC) 121.5
Exhaust Temp (degC) 71.7
Initial Fuel Weight, Wi (g) 2754.2
Final Fuel Weight, Wf (g) 2719.2
Time (s) 240
LAB MANUAL
BRAKE POWER
2    N T
=
60
2    1361 RPM  5.7 Nm

=
60 min/ s
= 812.4 Watt
= 0.812 kW
FUEL FLOW
Wi  Wf
=
Time
2754 .2  2719 .2g

=
240 s
= 0.146 g/s
= 0.000146 kg/s
AIR FLOW
= Air Intake velocity x Duct Cross section Area x air density
  0.0548 2
= 1.2 m/s x m2 x 1.225 kg/m3
4
= 0.00347 kg/s
LAB MANUAL
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
= Fuel Flow / Unit of power Generated
0.000146 kg / s s
=  3600
0.812kW hr
= 0.646 kg fuel/kW-hr
AIR TO FUEL RATIO
Air Flow
=
Fuel Flow
0.00347 kg / s
=
0.000146 kg / s
= 23.8
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
Actual Air Intake

=  100%
Theoretical Air Intake
Intake Velocity  Intake Duct Diameter

=  100%
Displacement Volume  Engine Re volution
1.2 m / s  0.00236 m 2
=  100%
1 m3 rev 1 min
169 cm 
3
 1361 
1 106 cm3 min 60s
= 73.8 %
LAB MANUAL
SAMPLE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
DETERMINATION OF PETROL ENGINE PERFORMANCE AT FULL

THROTTLED CONDITION
Engine: Single cylinder 4 strokes petrol engine
Air intake duct dia size: 1.115 in
Fuel type: petrol
Air density: 1.225 kg/m3
Electrical Brake
Speed Power Power Torque
(RPM) (kW) (kW) (Nm)
2925.8 1.390 1.532 5
LAB MANUAL
DETERMINATION OF PETROL ENGINE PERFORMANCES AT PARTIAL LOAD

CONDITION
Engine: 4 Strokes Petrol Engine
Air Intake Duct DiaSize: 1.115 In
Fuel Type: Petrol
Air Density: 1.225 kg/m3
Air
Air Fuel Oil Exhaust Initial Final
Power Torque Speed Intake Time
Temp Temp Temp Temp Fuel W Fuel W
V
(kW) (Nm) (RPM) (s)
(degC) (degC) (degC) (degC) (g) (g)
(m/s)
0.65 5.4 2461 0.9 33.0 32.4 62.3 85.0 1875.5 1837.5 280
0.70 6.9 2385 1 33.1 32.2 68.0 82.8 1918.8 1879.3 280
0.72 7.5 2091 1.4 32.7 31.9 64.8 79.3 1959.1 1922.4 240
0.71 4.2 1901 1.4 32.0 31.6 48.6 72.4 2001.6 1967.2 240
0.61 3.8 1630 1.3 31.8 31.4 45.7 61.6 2044.9 2012.0 250
0.40 5.6 1253 1.2 33.1 32.7 43.7 83.8 1797.8 1776.9 240
0.38 5.9 1104 1.1 33.1 32.6 46.3 85.9 1826.9 1806.5 240
LAB MANUAL
Specific Fuel
Engine Electrical Brake
Torque Fuel Flow Air Flow Consumption A/F Ratio BMEP
Speed Power Power
(Nm) (kg/s) (kg/s) (kg (kPa)
(RPM) (kW) (kW)
Fuel/kWh)
2461.0 0.587 1.392 5.4 1.36E-04 2.60E-03 0.351 19.2 346.22
2385.0 0.693 1.723 6.9 1.41E-04 2.89E-03 0.295 20.5 442.39
2091.0 0.718 1.642 7.5 1.53E-04 4.04E-03 0.335 26.5 480.86
1901.0 0.706 0.836 4.2 1.43E-04 4.04E-03 0.617 28.2 269.28
1630.0 0.610 0.649 3.8 1.32E-04 3.76E-03 0.730 28.5 243.63
1253.0 0.396 0.735 5.6 8.71E-05 3.47E-03 0.427 39.8 359.04
1104.0 0.377 0.682 5.9 8.50E-05 3.18E-03 0.449 37.4 378.27
LAB MANUAL
DETERMINATION OF DIESEL ENGINE PERFORMANCE AT FULL

THROTTLED CONDITION
Engine: 4 Stokes diesel Engine
Air Intake Duct Diameter 1.115 In
Fuel Type: diesel
Speed (rpm) Power (kW) Torque (Nm) Brake power Difference (%)
(kW)
2800 2.93 10.02 2.94 0.29
LAB MANUAL
DETERMINATION OF DIESEL ENGINE PERFORMANCES AT PARTIAL LOAD

CONDITION
Engine: 4 Stokes Diesel Engine
Air Intake Duct DiaSize: 1.115 In
Fuel Type: diesel
Speed Torque Power Air Air Exhaust Fuel Oil Initial Final Time
(rpm) (Nm) (kW) intake temp, temp, temp, temp, weight, weight, (s)
velocity, TT1 TT2 TT3 TT4 g g
V (m/s)
2800 9.67 2.88 2.6 36.0 425.7 34.0 98.6 3060.4 2903.4 240
2600 9.32 2.60 2.6 36.1 420.8 33.9 101.1 2838.0 2692.0 240
2400 9.29 2.34 2.5 36.2 408.4 34.0 101.3 2625.4 2493.3 240
2200 9.21 2.15 2.2 36.4 397.4 34.6 102.1 2428.4 2292.0 240
2000 8.74 1.84 1.9 36.1 374.0 33.0 101.3 2841.5 2725.4 240
1800 8.48 1.62 1.7 36.3 357.7 33.0 99.6 2691.1 2588.0 240
LAB MANUAL
Speed Brake Fuel Air Specific fuel Air Volumetric BMEP,

(rpm) power consumption, flow, consumption, to efficiency kPa/cycle
(kW) kg/s kg/s kg fuel/kW hr fuel (%)
ratio
2800 2.836 0.000654 0.00751 0.830 11.48 64.66 554
2600 2.538 0.000608 0.00751 0.863 12.35 64.66 534
2400 2.335 0.000550 0.00722 0.849 13.12 67.35 532
2200 2.122 0.000568 0.00636 0.964 11.19 64.66 527
2000 1.830 0.000484 0.00549 0.951 11.35 61.42 501
1800 1.598 0.000430 0.00491 0.967 11.43 61.06 486

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LAB MANUAL

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1) 4 Cylinder 4 Stroke Diesel Test Engine unit

1) To determine Air Fuel Ratio of the diesel engine

4 STROKE 4 CYLINDER WATER COOLED COMPRESSION IGNITION

STANDARD CHECKUP PROCEDURE

RADIATOR BYPASS OPERATION

AIR–FUEL RATIO (AFR)

FUEL–AIR RATIO (FAR)

AIR-FUEL EQUIVALENCE RATIO

FUEL-AIR EQUIVALENCE RATIO

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

THERMAL POWER (FUEL POWER)

Prony Brake Mechanism

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

DIFFERENCE B/W BREAK POWER AND INDICATED POWER

Prony Brake Mechanism

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

1st cylinder BP(4-1) = IP1 = BP(4-0) - BP(4-1)

2nd cylinder BP(4-2) = IP2 = BP(4-0) - BP(4-2)

3rd cylinder BP(4-3) = IP3 = BP(4-0) - BP(4-3)

4th cylinder BP(4-4) = IP4 = BP(4-0) - BP(4-4)

Indicated Power of engine IP = IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4 = KW

Q loss  Q coolant  Q oil  Q ambient

General range of various energy losses is

As a cold engine heats up to steady-state temperature, thermal expansion occurs in all

WATER CYCLE IN THE ENGINE SYSTEM

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Heat Dissipation rate by cooling water in KJ/min = m0. c.(Th – Tc )

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Manometer fluid density = ρf = 1000 Kg/m3

Mass rate flow of exhaust gases = mexhaust= mair + mfuel = Kg/s

Obs Ta Pa ∆hf ∆ha mair Texhaust mfuel Qexhaust

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

(i) Heat energy available from the fuel brunt

Qs = mf x Cv x 3600 KJ/hrCv= 45000 KJ/Kg

(ii) Heat energy equivalent to output brake power,

QBP = BP x 3600 KJ/hr

(iii) Heat energy lost to engine cooling water,

QCW = mw x Cw (two – twi) x 3600 KJ/hrCw = 4.18 KJ/Kg-K

(iv) Heat energy carried away by the exhaust gases,

QEG = mfg x Cfg (tfg – tair )x 3600 KJ/hr

(v) Unaccounted heat energy loss

Qunaccounted = Qs – {QBP + QCW + QEG} KJ/hr

ENGINE TEST BED

1. Exhaust Pipe 5. Fuel Analyzer

2. Fuel Load Cell 6. Dynamometer

3. Fuel Tank 7. Petrol Engine/ Diesel Engine

4. Excitation Control 8. Resistive Load

1. Engine performance curve at full and partial load

SINGLE CYLINDER FOUR-STROKE GASOLINE ENGINE

SINGLE CYLINDER FOUR-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

INDUCTION STROKE (1-2)

COMPRESSION STROKE (2-3)

POWER STROKE (3-4)

EXHAUST STROKE (4-1)

FIGURE 2: P-V DIAGRAM FOR A SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

Intake Exhaust Exhaust