Compendium

Best Practices on Water and

Agricultural Sustainability
 Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
Agricultural Sustainability
Centers for International Projects trust (CIPT)
The Centers for International Projects Trust (CIPT) is a non – profit organisation based in New Delhi and is India affiliate
of Columbia Water Center, New York. CIPT works on developing and piloting new models for effective water and energy
management across different regions in India. It works towards performing applied research in the areas of agriculture,
water, climate change, energy and related socio – economic perspectives and provide rigorous research based knowledge
as the foundation for various field based initiatives.
With its strong institutional mechanisms and innovative approach CIPT aims at holistically addressing the issues of water
and agriculture in the country through different low-cost precision technologies, nexus modeling and extension methods.

Published by : CIPT (May 2017)

Project Lead : Sandeep Dixit

Editor : Dr Indira Khurana
Co– editors : Dr Kamal Vatta, Parisha Budhiraja and Shweta Prajapati
Design by : Shweta Prajapati
Maps by : Swati Rawat
Photos by : Participant organisations represented in this compendium

Citation: Dixit, Sandeep, Indira Khurana, Kamal Vatta, Parisha Budhiraja and Shweta Prajapati eds. Compendium: Best
Practices on Water and Agricultural Sustainability. New Delhi: Centers for International Projects Trust, 2017.

DISCLAIMER
This compendium is an outcome of the information shared by various organisations pertaining to their work on water
and agricultural sustainability. While utmost care has been taken to present accurate information, CIPT makes no
representation towards the contents of the case studies profiled here. Also, this compendium is presented for informational
use only and is not intended to be a substitute for professional, legal or technical advice or reference. Maps represented in
this compendium are not to scale.

This product is made possible by the support of the American people through the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) under Cooperative Agreement AID-386-A-12-00001. The contents of this report are the sole
responsibility of CIPT and do not necessarily reflect views of USAID or the U.S. Government.

All Rights Reserved.

Any additional information can be obtained from:

Centers for International Projects Trust (CIPT)
910-911, Pragati Tower, Rajendra place, New Delhi-110008
Tel. + 91 11 40565989 | Website: www.cipt.in |Email: director@cipt.in

Printed by : Highlanders Communications Private Limited, New Delhi

ii
 Acknowledgements
The completion of this compendium could not have been possible without valuable
contributions of all the participating organisations which shared successful case studies
based on their pioneering ground work. Their enduring cooperation throughout the process of
publishing this document is sincerely appreciated and gratefully acknowledged.

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability iii
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Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability v
 MESSAGE

Agriculture continues to remain the predominant sector of Indian economy as still majority of the
workforce is dependent on it for their livelihood. In the recent past, climate change is creating
multidimensional effects on water, agriculture and livelihood nexus, which in itself is a complex
issue. Exploring sustainable options in the form of technologies and practices will help in ensuring
resilience and achieve long term sustainability of natural resources and agricultural growth.

Despite considerable gap between development of more effective solutions and the current needs,
sufficient amount of work has been undertaken for sustainability across various regions and agro
climatic zones in India. The present compendium of best practices is a step towards identifying,
compiling, and sharing evidence based best practices having been or being implemented in the
country. Lessons drawn from these practices will help in identifying and scaling up of sustainable interventions in the domains
of agriculture, water conservation, energy and extension. This document will benefit the policy makers, researchers, civil
society organizations, programme practitioners, cooperative societies and a large number of end-users.

Compendium of Best Practices covers 32 success stories from 19 states involving local NGOs, universities, corporate
foundations, donor agencies and research organisations. An important aspect of these case studies is the importance given
to engagement with community based organisations and farmers in knowledge building, sensitisations and adoption of
models and practices.

This compendium is expected to create multiple ripples of change. I am sure that readers of this compendium will find it
useful in promoting and adopting more suitable options for water, agriculture and livelihood sustainability

With best wishes,

Dr Kamal Vatta
Director, Centers for International Projects Trust
New Delhi

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability vii
 MESSAGE

Of all countries, India faces perhaps the most significant water crisis, given the state of its rivers
and groundwater. Since agriculture accounts for nearly 90% of consumptive water use, it is both
a contributor to the water stress faced by all other sectors, including urban drinking water, and the
most vulnerable sector of the economy to climate and water exigencies. For a population of 1.2
billion that is at risk, it is then imperative that water use and agricultural productivity be tackled
urgently.

While there are many stories of the risks faced, the human impacts, and the failure of infrastructure,
policies and institutions, the identification of actual or potential success stories is necessary to
pave the road to overcoming the diverse challenges. The fact that a diverse set of actors have been involved in generating
these success stories poses a challenge in distilling a strategy for the solution of the national and regional water crises.

In this regard, CIPT is to be congratulated for bringing together and organizing this group of efforts, as a first step towards
providing a synthesis of what could guide national investment and policy. The central and state governments in India do
appear to recognize the need to address water and food security, and this is evident in the aggregate spending on watershed
and agriculture programs. However, even within these government programs there is a need to identify what works and what
does not, looking beyond the programs of what a particular government program may have engaged in. I hope that this
compendium will be circulated broadly and have an impact on the directions taken by both the public and the private sector
to ultimately benefit the common man and the farmers who are most exposed to these risks.

Upmanu Lall
Director, Columbia Water Center
Columbia University

viii
 MESSAGE

India is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. Agriculture is one of the most important
sectors of the Indian economy, contributing 17% to the country’s GDP and employing more than
50% of the total workforce. India has witnessed impressive achievements in agriculture, post
– green revolution, which has helped in achieving self – sufficiency in food and economically
uplifting millions of rural families.

However, sustainability of the agriculture sector has become a major challenge due to a
growing population, over – exploitation of resources, extreme weather events, and an absence
of profitability. In order to maximize profits and maintain food security, emphasis has been on
enhancing agricultural productivity, leading to overexploitation of groundwater and increased
power consumption in the sector. Water, energy and agriculture are intricably linked and the pressure on any one sector puts
pressure on the others. This phenomenon strongly suggests a need to identify sustainable solutions to the water – food –
energy nexus of challenges. It is equally important to share these solutions throughout the community of policy, development
and technical practitioners for mutual learning.

I congratulate CIPT for documenting and compiling these successful accounts, “Compendium of Best Practices”, in the area
of water and agricultural sustainability, as experiences in different parts of India. An important aspect of the compendium
is the significance of the various ecosystems in the country, each with its unique set of challenges, demanding unique
solutions, but with many overlapping opportunities for learning and application.

Such a beneficial compilation will be highly beneficial as a learning tool for widespread adoption, will lay important groundwork
for all working in this very important sector, the water – food – energy nexus, so critical to a sustainable future in resource
management.

Michael Satin
Director, Clean Energy and Environment Office
USAID/India

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability ix
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Water, along with food and energy, forms a critical part of
the ‘development process’ and redefines the understanding
of sustainability as a basis for policy-response and long
term planning. Around the globe, climate change has
posed a serious threat to environmental sustainability
as well as human existence with constant rise in global
temperature thus influencing natural resources present
in different geographic regions. In India, still only 42% of
the is under assured irrigation with remaining area being WEST BENGAL

CHHATTISGARH
cultivated under the rainfed conditions. Uncertainties in
rainfall, increased frequency of floods and droughts and
rising demand in other sectors of the economy such as
industries and domestic use have further increased the
stress on already scarce water resources.

This emerging water shortage has adverse impact on food

production, resources management systems, health status
and livelihoods of people in the country. The nexus between
water, agriculture and livelihood is becoming even more
complex, given the fast emerging and fast changing inter-
linkages and interdependencies between them. To address
the issue of long term sustainability of the nexus, we require After receiving submissions from 80 organisations, CIPT
a multipronged approach and a joint effort. reviewed and shortlisted 32 stories which were found
answering to the following questions –
There is need to learn from individual success stories and
design a more effective, inclusive and comprehensive • What was the key objective of the intervention and how
action plan. However, documenting the successful models relevant it was for addressing the problem statement?
and extending them to larger user groups remains a huge
• Which were the key stakeholders involved and with
challenge given the absence of effective extension networks
what capacities?
and information gap at the grassroots level. To address this
need for sharing and learning, Centers for International • What was the implementation approach and strategy
Projects Trust (CIPT) has developed this compendium for of the intervention with optimum utilisation of local
water, agriculture and livelihood sustainability in India. resources?

This document has been prepared through a systematic • What impact/outcomes were evidently shown by the
procedure with due diligence to ensure its validity, intervention vis-à-vis its defined objectives?
applicability and reliability. Evidence based case studies
• What is the sustainability of the intervention in terms of
or ‘stories’ were invited from around 350 organisations
replication and scaling up?
including non-profit agencies, academic institutions,
humanitarian societies and corporate organisations in These attributes acted as the guidelines to finally articulate
the four categories, presently defined as four sections of 32 success stories from 19 states covering most of the
this compendium. These four categories were: innovative physio-geographic regions i.e. the Indo-Gangetic plain,
technologies, community based practices, supply and the Northern Mountains, the coastal regions and also the
demand side management models and water harvesting desert region.
structures to improve water access.

x
The stories in this compendium have been categorised agriculture as well as human requirements with a focus on
into four sections. indigenous constructions and designs like khadins, sub-
surface dykes, dobhas etc.
Section I Technological solutions for water
efficiency presents success stories on various Section IV Supply and demand side management
innovative technologies which have been useful in presents various approaches for ensuring adequate supply
reducing wastage of water, irrigation scheduling and of water without loss and also developing social mechanisms
improving access to water; such as tensiometer, for its judicious use in both rural and urban settings.
customised drip systems, treadle pumps etc.
We are sure that this compendium will facilitate many other
Section II Community based water management organisations in the research and development sector to
practices discusses incidences of community – led scale up such interventions to achieve water, agriculture
initiatives which have shown remarkable results and livelihood sustainability. This exercise will also facilitate
in improving water management on ground by higher level of interaction between various stakeholders in
communities themselves. different regions of India. All the stories in this compendium
have been suitably compiled in a common format on the
Section III Water harvesting structures includes
basis of the information and materials provided by the
stories on various water harvesting structures adopted
contributing organisations.
in diverse ecologies to improve access to water for

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability xi
 I Technological solutions for water and energy efficiency
Water and energy conservation through Tensiometer 4
Centers for International Projects Trust

Coping with weather uncertainties through agro-metrological advisories 8

Watershed Organisation Trust

Irrigation simplified through treadle pumps 12

International Development Enterprises (India)

Roof rainwater harvesting for increasing access to potable water 16

S M Sehgal Foundation

Increasing productivity of small farmers through micro-irrigation 20

International Development Enterprises (India)

Promoting Direct Seeding of Rice 24

PRADAN

Micro-sprinkler irrigation for efficient use of water 26

Kerala Agricultural University

Increasing efficient water and energy use in agriculture 28

Tetra Tech

Drip irrigation for enhanced water use efficiency 32

Monsanto India Ltd

Customized irrigation mitigates risks for farmers 34

Water and Livelihoods Foundation
CONTENTS

II Community based water management practices

Participatory framework for groundwater management in agriculture 40
ACWADAM and Arghyam

Community led resource efficient agriculture in Bundelkhand 42

Development Alternatives

Creative farmer games teach judicious use of water in agriculture 44

Foundation for Ecological Security

Collective farming for enhancing farmers’ income 48

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University

People’s barrage transforms village economy 50

University of Agricultural Sciences

Women step out for resolving water crisis in village 52

S M Sehgal Foundation

Bore-well pooling by farmers to address water security 54

Arghyam and WASSAN

‘Water management is our responsibility and our right’ 58

Parmarth Samaj Sevi Sansthan

Jal Sabhas of Thar defy climate change 60

Jal Bhagirathi Foundation
III Water harvesting structures
Site specific water conservation structures 64
Ambuja Cement Foundation

Augmenting groundwater resources through subsurface dyke 68

Kerala Agricultural University

Integrated natural resource management in Jharkhand 70

PRADAN

Transforming tribal villages of Jharkhand under the SAFAL program 72

Centers for International Projects Trust

Reviving traditional water structures 76

Welthungerhilfe

Low-costwater harvesting structures for groundwater recharge 80

Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology

IV Supply and demand side management

Reducing non-revenue water in Rajkot: A pilot study 84
Embassy of Denmark, India

Innovative approach for promoting drip irrigation in cotton 86

Aga Khan Rural Support Programme

Community watershed-based approach for increased agricultural productivity 90

Centre for Research and Development

Catalyzing behavior change amongst sugarcane farmers 94

for water demand management
International Finance Corporation

Integrated watershed development program: Partnerships for development 98

ITC Limited

Augmenting and managing resources in high altitude deserts 102

Pragya

Towards a water efficient agriculture 108

Ramkrishna Jaidayal Dalmia Seva Sansthan

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 1
2
 Section I
Technological solutions for
water and energy efficiency
The stories exhibited in this section highlight the critical role of technological interventions in addressing
issues of water security at the grassroots level. They can not only bring significant improvement in water use
efficiency but also enhance access to water in difficult geographies. The interventions discussed here have
been proven excellent in irrigation planning, reducing wastage of water and energy, and improving water use
efficiency.

In Punjab, for instance, a simple precision technology called Tensiometer helped farmers to know the accurate
soil moisture content, enabling them to plan their irrigation cycles efficiently, thus reducing water and energy
use in agriculture.Similarly, the use of real time data to develop crop advisories helped farmers in rain fed
agricultural zones of Maharashtra to be better prepared for weather uncertainties and manage their farm
operations accordingly, resulting in optimizing yields. The lessons from this approach can helpin addressing
challenges of monsoon uncertainties, more relevant now due to climate change.

There are several stories on farmer friendly low – cost technologies which have shown remarkable results
at farmers’ fields. For example, the Direct Seeding of Rice reduced monsoon dependency and improved
yields. The successful use of treadle pumps (a kind of water lifting devices) proved incredibly beneficial for
small and marginal farmers in improving access to water. Its widespread application in seven states indicates
the potential of this simple device in other regions as well. There are also stories on customisation in micro
irrigation technologies like sprinkler and drip – systems based on local contexts and needs. These were
designed to cater to different plot sizes prevalent mostly among small landholders. Use of pumps, coupled with
drip irrigation, has reduced water and energy footprint for agriculture in Karnataka.

For widespread application, it is important that the technology is appropriate, affordable, accessible and
equitable. Its application should be simple and sustainable, with minimum operation and maintenance
requirements. One useful insight provided by all these stories, is, along with the accuracy and usefulness of
the technology it is equally important to create appropriate social mechanisms for technology adoption in the
long term. This entails participation and ownership of the community as well as other stakeholders such as
technical agencies, agricultural institutions, civil society organizations and funding agencies.

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 3
Water and energy conservation through
Tensiometer device
A low-cost, farmer friendly device to measure soil moisture saving water and energy in
paddy irrigation in Punjab

Background
Indian Punjab is a leading agricultural state, with about 4.2 million hectares (mha) of net area sown and almost one million
operational land holdings. Introduction of high yielding varieties of rice and wheat coupled with assured irrigation and
use of modern inputs (fertilizers and agro chemicals), during the Green revolution era of late 1960s and early 1970s, has
led to substantial changes in the production and productivity of the state. Government has also supported and assured
farmers for procuring their produce at remunerative prices. However, intensive agriculture has led to over exploitation
of groundwater resources in the state, stimulated in part by a decrease in average rainfall, increasing rainfall variability
and growing over dependence on groundwater resources. Almost the entire cropped area in Punjab is under assured

Table 1: Trends in over-exploitation of groundwater resources in various blocks of Punjab

Category of exploitation Year/Number of blocks
1984 1989 1999 2004 2011
Dark (over-exploited) 53 62 73 103 110
Dark (critical) 7 7 11 5 4
Grey (semi-critical) 22 20 16 4 2
White (safe) 36 29 38 25 22
Total number of blocks 118 118 138 137 138
Note: The blocks have been classified as per the exploitation of the groundwater; over-exploited (above 100 per cent), critical (90-100 per cent), semi-critical (70-90 per cent), safe (below 70 per cent).

Source: Central Ground Water Board, Punjab

4
 International Development Research Centre (IDRC),
Canada: Provided support in 2012 under the project
‘Improving Food and Livelihood Security in Punjab through
Water-Energy-Agriculture Management under Climate
Change and Variability.’

United States Agency for International Development

(USAID): Provided support under the project ‘Water
Agriculture and Livelihood Security in India’ to scale up the
tensiometer technology.

Farmer community: Key stakeholders in this initiative as

they were the first hand users of tensiometers in their fields.

Agricultural Insurance Company of India Limited

(AIC): Supported promotion of tensiometers by providing
innovative insurance product to farmers.
irrigation, with three-fourth of it irrigated by groundwater
resources. This has led to a decline in the water table and
Approach and methodology
overexploitation of groundwater resources. The situation
has worsened over time as the number of dark blocks has In order to promote water conservation among the farmers
almost doubled since the early 1980s (Table 1). of Punjab, Tensiometer as a tool for scheduling irrigation in
rice was promoted. The idea behind the use of Tensiometer
The ever increasing demand-supply gap is visible from the
is that if the indicated soil moisture is below what the plant
declining availability of groundwater, from 0.30 million ha m
needs to grow, there is need to apply irrigation water,
in 1984 to 0.03 million ha m in 1999, turning negative to the
otherwise not. Such irrigation scheduling can reduce water
tune of 1.48 million ha m in 2011, as indicated in Figure 1.
use in a crop because often farmers over irrigate thecrop
irrespective of its requirement especially when water and

Figure 1: Net ground water availability in Punjab, 1984-2011

(Source: Central Groundwater Board, Punjab)

Given the increasing intensification of agriculture and

overexploitation of groundwater resources, it was
necessary to undertake a timely action to reverse
groundwater depletion in Punjab and promote the
sustainable use of groundwater resources. To end this
reckless and injudicious use of groundwater, irrigation
scheduling was explored.

Stakeholders
The Centers for International Projects Trust (CIPT) India,
Punjab Agricultural University (PAU), India and Columbia
Water Centre, Columbia University, USA partnered in
2009 to promote innovations for reversing groundwater
depletion in Punjab, as part of which the present project
was conducted.

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 5
power to pump out water is free of cost. A simple approach helped in reducing the power consumption by 101 kwh/
was undertaken to widen the adoption of this device. acre in 2012 and by 70 kwh/acre in 2013.Therefore
Identification of intervention areas followed by spreading tensiometers were promoted amongst farmers so as to
awareness at farmers’ cooperatives through training camps enhance efficiency of water use in cultivation of rice, one
along with identifying potential users. Farmers as well as of the most water-intensive crops. Within a span of 4 years,
field workers were recruited and trained on the use and 2010 to 2014, some 11,343 tensiometers were installed,
installation of tensiometer on the fields. Post installation, mainly in the central Punjab, where the groundwater level
regular monitoring and data collection was also ensured had depleted relatively faster from 4.5 metres in 1973 to 14
on timely basis. Hence, this collected information was then metres in 2005.
processed to estimate the impact of tensiometer on water
Innovative Insurance product
and energy use.
To promote and popularize the use of tensiometers, an
Brief description of tensiometer
innovative approach was used. An insurance product was
A tensiometer is a simple device which guides farmers in developed with the help of Agricultural Insurance Company
optimal use of water in irrigation by assisting in scheduling of India Limited (AIC), which provides insurance coverage
irrigation. It is designed to measure soil moisture. The to farmers for the loss of yield due to use of this low cost
structure of tensiometer consists of a porous ceramic technology.
cup, connected through a rigid, body tube to a vacuum
Insurance played an important role in boosting the
chamber. All the components are filled with water. The body
adoption rate of technology which was designed to benefit
tube is transparent so that water within the tensiometer
the farming community through conservation of natural
can be easily seen. The tensiometer is placed in the field
resources. In 2014, the rate of adoption of tensiometers for
with the ceramic cup in the soil in the plant root zone. The
the insured farmers was 70.2 %, as compared to 26.5 % by
ceramic cup is porous so that water can move through it to
non-insured farmers.
equilibrate with the soil water.
In addition, awareness and training camps were organized
Evidence suggested that irrigation scheduling through
for the farmers and the field staff, where they were trained
tensiometer on one acre of rice helped in reducing the
on the installation, use and maintenance of tensiometers.
water use by 5,38,179 litres in 2012 and by 3,72,042 litres
CIPT field workers regularly visited the site to ensure
in 2013, without any compromise on yield. The water
smooth functioning.
savings led to a reduction in power consumption as electric
motors were used for lesser hours. The use of tensiometer

6
Results and outcomes
An ex-ante impact assessment of the use of water-saving
technology such as the tensiometer in rice in Punjab
was conducted using the economic surplus approach.
It measures the economic returns to investment for the
period of 2010-2025.
Farm-level analysis revealed that irrigation scheduling
through the tensiometer saved water, power and labour –
savings that translate into a reduction in cost of cultivation
by 7 per cent. By 2025, the use of tensiometers for
irrigation scheduling on 30 percent of the rice area would
result in savings of 0.67 million hectare metres of water.
The associated potential economic benefit from this Water and energy saving by use of tensiometer
would be to the tune of USD 459 million.
funds which can be utilized towards productive
Table 2 presents how the average number of irrigations,
investments in agriculture to facilitate future growth in
quantity of irrigation water and use of electric power
agriculture in Punjab, which is the direct need of the state.
change when tensiometers were used in the fields.Fields
without tensiometers were termed as control plots and
Scaling up tensiometer adoption
belonged to the same farmers to avoid the influence of
other factors on water use and power savings. The tensiometer is a promising low-cost technology that
can be widely adopted by even small land holders. Some
On an average, 17 per cent reduction in the number of
recommendations on scaling up are suggested below.
irrigations was observed in tensiometer plots. A 13 per
cent reduction in the extent of irrigation water use was • For wider adoption and scaling up of the technology,
observed. There was a corresponding decline of 13 per subsidies and promotion to further reduce costs
cent in the electric power usage. There was, however, could prove beneficial.
no change in the crop yields. The comparison clearly • State extension agencies could consider promoting
establishes that the use of tensiometers in rice has the the technology through farmers’ cooperatives and
potential to save irrigation water and electric power farmers’ producer organizations (FPOs), which are
consumption without any yield penalty. promoted by the National Bank for Agriculture and
Rural Development (NABARD).
The benefits from the technology are significant.
• A strong capacity-building mechanism which
The use of tensiometers is estimated to bring water
introduces these technologies to end users and
savings of around 0.67 million ha m during this period
promotes their large-scale adoption is essential.
contributing significantly towards long-term sustainability
• Through field demonstrations, media, and social
of groundwater in Punjab. The estimates of the reduction
networks, awareness must be generated around the
in power subsidies point towards savings in government
long-term issues associated with sub-optimal use of
water in agriculture.

Table 2: Change in water and power consumption due to tensiometers

Particular Tensiometer plots Control plots % reduction over control plots
Number of irrigations (per ha) 15 18 17
Water usage (litres/ha) 7,930,325 9,109,663 13
Electric power usage (Kwh/ha) 1,853 2,120 13

By
Kamal Vatta, Garima Taneja
Centers for International Projects Trust

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 7
Coping with weather uncertainties through
agro-meteorological advisories
Real time weather information and crop advisory services prepares farmers for
responding to weather uncertainties in Maharashtra

Background
Farmers of Sangamner and Akole blocks of Ahmednagar district in Maharashtra are highly dependent on seasonal
rainfall. This reliance increases during extreme events such as drought, storms, cold and heat waves, affecting agricultural
production and farmers’ livelihood.

Climatic parameters play a vital role in influencing crop growth and yield as decisions related with sowing and irrigation
scheduling are based on these, as is the incidence of pests and diseases. Advanced weather information on likely
occurrence of these events can help farmers mitigate the exigencies and place contingency measures in place to avert the
losses. These also assist farmers in decision making process regarding crop planning and standing crop management.

The use of mobile SMS technology to provide advance weather information coupled with agro-advisories to the farmers
can help in building their capacity to cope with climate-induced stresses during adverse meteorological events.

This agro-meteorological advisory initiative, which was a part of a comprehensive large-scale pilot project on Climate
Change Adaptation (CCA), was implemented by WOTR between 2009 and 2015. The Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation (SDC) and the NABARD were the major contributors of the project. The Indian Meteorological Department
(IMD), the Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), and Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth (MPKV)
were the key technology and knowledge partners in this initiative.

8
 • Farmers: Data interpretation, usage and subsequent
feedback.

Approach and methodology

The Agro-SMS services were provided to 24 villages, 16 in
Sangamner and eight in Akole blocks. For this the following
three main steps were taken:

(i) Gathering data and its interpretation:

This included-
- Installation of Automated Weather Stations (AWS) in
the villages;
- Sending the data directly to the IMD;
- Development of 3-day weather forecast based on the

Stakeholders data; and,

- Training of villagers to read the meteorological data.
Partners played well-defined roles which were as follows:
(ii) Capturing data through Automated Weather Station:
• IMD: Provision of a 3-day weather forecast for the
region based on the local weather data received from WOTR installed 40 AWS in command areas of Sangamner
the Automated Weather Stations; and Akole blocks, forming a dense network grid ranging
from 3-5 km. Of these, 27 stations were directly linked to
• MPKV, CRIDA and WOTR: Development of agro-
WOTR’s servers which sent processed data directly to
advisories based on weather forecasts and crop
IMD on an hourly basis. IMD used to supply daily weather
calendars; and,
forecast to WOTR. Information regarding unexpected

Overview of agro-advisory system

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 9
Capturing data through Automated Weather Station and its Console (inset)

weather events such as unseasonal rain, frost or (iv) Dissemination of agro-advisories

temperature spikes was conveyed well in advance directly This process started with compilation of data that included
to the villages either through word-of-mouth, SMSs or the name, mobile number and the crops to be sown in
phone calls to key informants in the villages. The weather the next season. Initially the information was manually
information was displayed daily on the black boards on typed and sent to individual farmers, which was a time
prime locations in the villages with the help of village youth consuming affair. Subsequently, software to disseminate
trained to read the weather data. This helped in informing agro-advisories was developed by WOTR.
farmers on actual local weather conditions, alerting them to
problems likely to arise for their farms and livestock. Challenges faced by the project:
The advantage of having a local AWS was that it is able a) Multi-stakeholder partnerships are essential to develop
to more accurately warn about short term extreme events crop advisories based on the real time meteorological
which are nearly impossible to forecast in long term or on data as a single agency does not have all the
an aggregate basis. competencies.

(iii) Crafting of advisories b) The meteorological equipment must be calibrated

On the basis of weather forecast provided by IMD and the to acceptable standards and maintained regularly
previous week’s actual weather conditions received from to prevent failure, a challenge particularly severe in
the AWS, the agro-advisories were prepared twice a week. remote rural areas where connectivity is a problem
Agro-advisories included information on farmers’ crop and local conditions can disrupt reliable transmission
stage, present weather condition and forecast, irrigation of data.
management, pest and disease management, nutrient
c) Appropriate means of communication must be
management and cultural practices. This information was
developed for farmer conviction, or else the advisory
then conveyed in the local language in a way that is easy to
will either not be understood and used.
understand and interpret.

10
Results and outcomes
The use of latest information communication The reported benefits of the agro – advisories were
technology ensured techno-social networking outlined as identification of critical stages of crop
which was a two – way communication between the growth and reduction in the use of inorganic pesticides
project personnel and the farmers. This enabled real and fertilizers with a parallel increase in the use of
time decision making by farmers. This large scale inputs.
intervention ensured open access to the advisories
Ultimately, farmers were benefited with cost reduction
for all villagers. Interestingly, the women appeared to
and yield enhancement which is evident from the
be more proactive in implementation of advisories at
farmer responses given in the Figure 1.
the field level than the men farmers.

Figure 1: Percentage of farmers reporting improved

yields (2013-14)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Pearl millet Tomato Maize Groundnut Soybean Onion

Farmers particularly found the advisory information Sustainability and scale up

useful as it was customised to cover the crops grown
Some of the efforts to sustain and increase the
in their region. Konadaji Gangadhar Phatangare, a
outreach of this advisory service by WOTR include:
farmer from the village Warudi Pathar, reported a
• Development of software for generating location-
tomato yield of 8,000 kg, up from earlier yields of
specific advisories based on the weather
6,000-7,000 kg. “Following the SMS agro-advisories
information received from AWSs;
saved my tomato crop from being infested with blight
and leaf miner due to the increased humidity,” he • Development of weather based crop calendars;
informed. Another farmer, Ajit Laxman Bhangre from and,
Khadaki Bhadruk village stated that the agro-advisory • Exploring the option of partial payments by the
helped prevent losses and maximised his paddy farmers for using crop advisories
harvest by two quintals per acre.

By
Prithviraj Gaikwad, Nitin Kumbhar, Suchita Awasthi
Watershed Organisation Trust (WOTR)

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 11
Irrigation simplified through treadle pumps
An affordable and eco-friendly water lifting solution for marginal farmers in
seven states of India

Background
States falling under the Indo – Gangetic belt, such as Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Assam, Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya
Pradesh, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, have abundant water resources in the form of higher level of water table. However,
small holders face the challenge of lifting water from below the surface to irrigate their lands year-round. Use of traditional
devices such as the tenda or drawing water from the open well is laborious. While affluent farmers can afford commercially
available water lifting devices (WLD) such as diesel pumps, small holders have little option but to cultivate their land during
the monsoon. They are often forced to make ends meet by working as wage labourers for the rest of the year.

Within this context, IDEI initiated a project with the goal of enabling 172,000 smallholders in India to acquire and begin
using low-cost water-lifting technologies. The project was executed between November 2007 and January 2012.

Water Lifting Devices (WLDs) such as Treadle Pump (TP) and its variants were made available under the name KB
(Krishak Bandhu, meaning Farmer’s Friend) in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh,
Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh.

12
Stakeholders
The project involved the following stakeholders:

a) Farmers: Small farmers played a major role in this

programme.

b) Supply Chain Members: The IDEI team established a

network of supply chain comprising of manufacturers,
village level dealers, and village based mechanics
to support each step of the project. IDEI acted as a
facilitator without any investments or profits from the
process.

c) Academic and Research Institutions: IDEI has worked

closely with Indian Institute of Technology (Delhi), ITT
(US) for product development and with The Energy
Research Institute (TERI) for conducting research
studies. Agricultural universities- Orissa University of
Agriculture and Technology (OUAT) and Pant Nagar
University were the knowledge partners.

Approach and methodology

Making the water available at the surface for irrigating the
fields has been a major challenge faced by farmers. The
cost of hiring a diesel pump is about USD 2 per hour. In
addition to the high costs, since all farmers in a village
engaged in irrigation at the same time, everybody needed
the pump simultaneously. This resulted in delayed irrigation,

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 13
despite paying large amounts of money. To address this water, they take out only as much water as they require.
situation, IDEI adapted a foot operated irrigation device to Due to this, the yield is better both quantitatively and
develop the KB TP. qualitatively, as the field is never over-irrigated.

The KB TP is affordable equipment as its cost ranges from The project was implemented in the following manner:
USD13-40 (different variants). Being manually operated
(i) Identification of potential areas and creating
it does not require the purchase or use of any fossil fuel.
awareness about the affordable KB TP amongst
It is suited for one acre of land (typical land size of a
prospective farmers using innovative promotional
smallholder farmer) to cultivate high value crops such
activities and distribution ofleaflets.
as vegetables.Moreover, it gives the farmers freedom to
paddle out water as and when required. (ii) Establishment of a supply chain through identification,
training and establishment of local individual
The KB TP are particularly useful for small land sizes entrepreneurs for manufacturing, selling and installing
as they throw out water with lower force than diesel or the KB TPs.
electrical pumps and thus do not damage the top soil in
(iii) Ensuring monitoring of after-sales service through
its vicinity. KB TPs significantly reduce water wastage
regular fairs and farmers’ meetings for optimal use of
also. When compared with a diesel pump which require
the equipment and increased agricultural productivity.
two people to lift it, the KB TP is easily portable and can
be fixed in various locations. Further, with a KB TP, as the (iv) Research and Development to improvise existing
farmers have to manually paddle to bring out sub-surface technologies for partnership with ITT (US) was also
established.

14
Results and outcomes
IDEI has promoted its affordable WLDs amongst 10 lakh search of work, leading to massive social disruption
(approximately) smallholder farmers in India up till now. as often the young men and women of the family
leave the elderly and the very young behind, doing
The use of the KB TP has helped farmers irrigate lands
menial jobs at low wages. With the KB TP, the
and generate USD 400 as net additional annual income.
small holders had assured access to irrigation for
The six states deploying treadle pumps witnessed an
successful year-round cropping on their own farms.
increase, ranging from USD 491 and USD 822 (with a
median of USD 529), in their overall net income. (iii) Enhanced nutritional intake- With the TP
technologies, the health and nutrition levels of
Another independent evaluation conducted by IMRB the families improved. An external evaluation
covering 520 respondents in Maharashtra and Tamil study commissioned validated the impact of
Nadu each revealed the following results:

Table 1. Net crop income difference between users and non-users, by state.
INR USD PPP User: Non-User Ratio
Bihar (TP) 28,068 598 1,435 3:1
Orissa (TP) 43,508 927 2,224 4:9

Adoption of the KB TP led to 66.7 million litres of TP on the nutritional status of the children
diesel resulting in 0.2 million tonnesof carbon emission of user farmers (http://www.ideindia.org/
reduction. PublicationPDFForLoginUsers.aspx)

Social implications Sustainability and scale-up

The use of KB TPs led to several social implications For successful adoption of the KB TP, the following three
some of which are given below. requirements are important:

(i) Increased employment for small holder farm 1. The water table should be high as the pump lifts
families on their own land- In the absence of water at maximum depth of about 7 meters.
low-cost irrigation devices, small holder farm 2. It is important that the place be an agriculturally
families are either under-employed or are forced inclined one: About fifty percent of the people need
to work as wage labour on larger farms. With KB to be engaged in agriculture.
TP technologies, small holder farm families can
3. The installation and working of the TP requires
undertake multiple cropping on their small plots.
agricultural labour and therefore its presence is
(ii) Decrease in seasonal migration- Lack of access important.
to water for irrigation forces small holder families
to leave their fields fallow and migrate to cities in

By
Amitabha Sadangi
International Development Enterprises (India)

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 15
Roof rainwater harvesting for increasing access
to potable water
A community managed system for rainwater harvesting in saline region of Haryana

Background
Increased salinity is an important reason for deteriorating water quality. Salinity is caused by a relatively high
concentration of dissolved salts in the water. Increased demand for groundwater has led to overexploitation and depletion
of ground water tables. Depletion affects the flow (both direction and velocity) of groundwater, which may in turn cause
polluted water from surrounding areas to flow into the freshwater aquifer. In coastal areas, it causes intrusion of sea water
into the freshwater aquifer increasing groundwater salinity levels thus making it un-fit for drinking purposes.

Mewat district in Haryana, is one such area, badly affected by salinity. To address the intrusion of dissolved salts, this
project aimed to develop and demonstrate a technology-based solution to create a localised source of freshwater in
saline groundwater villages. The project duration was from August 2012 to August 2015.

Stakeholders
The project was funded by Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India. Beneficiaries of the
intervention included students, teachers and other staff members of government schools.

16
 rainwater. Though roof rainwater harvesting (RWH) is
widely acknowledged as an effective solution to address
water scarcity, the need was felt for a model more suitable
to saline groundwater areas. Unlike surface water sources
or storage of harvested rainwater, the rainwater is stored
in the aquifer under the ground. It is not subjected to loss
due to evaporation. It is also not limited by storage tank
capacity. This means that the harvested water can also
provide an essential basis of water security for potable
uses during low-rainfall years.

In the new model, depth of the recharge wells was

increased to make them lower than the groundwater table.
With it, a desired freshwater pocket is created by pushing
away and replacing the existing saline groundwater. The
harvested freshwater remain in a consolidated mass due
to the pressure exerted by surrounding saline groundwater.
The harvested water from this pocket can be extracted
Approach and methodology through a pump without the usual problem of mixing with
surrounding saline groundwater. This model was tested
The first phase of the project included an assessment
in a government school in Untka village and in three
of available water technologies and the development
government schools in Nagina and Nuh blocks of Mewat.
of a model of roof rainwater harvesting as a source of
The systems have been functional for over two years.
potable water. Based on the results of this assessment, an
innovative roof rainwater harvesting system was developed
and tested in the project area. Several factors specific to
the region and local constraints led to the need to innovate.
These included:
• High dependence on groundwater;
• Short rainy season of 31 days with a low average
annual rainfall of 594 mm;
• Shallow groundwater table with high levels of salinity;
• Non-availability of reliable grid electrical supply;
• Inability to afford alternatives such as reverse osmosis;
and,
• Difficulty in operation and maintenance of high-end
technology.

Tapping rain potential

Rainwater is one of the primary sources of freshwater.
Particularly in areas with saline groundwater it is the only
source of potable water also but its avaialbility is limited
due to seasonality of rains. Due to this fact, roof rainwater
harvesting emerged as the most preferred method during
the priliminary assessment done as part of the project.

Existing water harvesting models have limitations such as

high costs and spreading and mixing of fresh harvested

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 17
CASE STUDY: Provisioning for sweet water in schools
In Untka village, groundwater is highly saline, with total dissolved solids (TDS) at 5,980 mg/l. The government school
in this village catered to 297 students without any source of water. Its daily requirement of water for drinking and
midday meal cooking was estimated to be 750 liters and the total annual water demand is 150,000 liters for 200
working days per year.

In 2013, a roof rainwater harvesting system was put in place to recharge the aquifer with rain water using the model
described. The financial resources given by the DST, Government of India, enabled setting up a RWH unit to capture
rainwater over a roof area of 638 square meters. The average annual rainfall of 594 mm translated into an annual
harvest of 3.2 lakh liters of water, considering a run off factor of 0.85.

Since July 2013, the school has used recharged water that is made safe for drinking by filtering through a bio sand
filter so as to reduce the risk of biological contamination. The salinity of water pumped from the freshwater pool is
below 100 mg/l (the permissible levels of TDS), and is made available year-round. The present water harvesting
capacity surpassed the total water needs of the school.

18
Results and outcomes
The major component of the intervention was the energy and transportation costs, and their footprint on
design, test, and demonstration of a viable RWH the environment.
model for exploiting harvested rainwater. Some of the
Says Mohammad Musaraf, Untkaschool, Mewat.
key direct impacts observed included:
“Earlier, we were dependent on irregular and unclean
• Reduced girl school dropout rate tanker supply for drinking water. We used to go back
• Improved sanitation and hygiene conditions in home to drink water and not come back.” Informs
schools an excited Vajika Nazia, Malab school, Mewat,
• Regular cooking of midday meals “We learned about a new scientific concept and
water conservation model that works on our school
The model omits the need for construction premises.”
ofexpensive storage structures. The cost involved in
the construction, operation, and maintenance of this Sustainability and scale up
model is comparatively lesser than other methods of The experience at Untka school and demonstrations
water treatment, such as reverse osmosis. proved the model to be highly affordable for
replication. The model is appropriate for regions
By helping to make rainwater potable, this model
with saline groundwater, including semi-arid areas
reduces the demand for transported freshwater from
and coastal areas with seawater ingress.This model
the already overstressed sources lying outside this
can also be adapted for deeper saline aquifers and
saline area. It also saves the distribution losses,
seawater intrusion-affected areas.

By
Lalit Mohan Sharma
S M Sehgal Foundation

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 19
Increasing productivity of small farmers through
micro-irrigation
Flexible micro-irrigation kits enable judicious use of groundwater in eight Indian states

Background
Small farm holders comprise around 75 per cent of India’s farming group, who typically cultivate plots less than a hectare
in size and remain trapped in vicious cycle of hunger and poverty. Small holders by the virtue of dearth of resources
remain restricted to rain fed farming with conventional means of farming thus leading to poor food/income security.

Most development programmes exclude small holder farmers considering them as too poor to afford modern technologies,
and their demand as too fragmented to be served cost effectively. This indicates towards the need to address issues faced
by small holder farmers.

The Water Application Devices (WAD) were designed with an aim to make drip irrigation systems and sprinklers affordable
to the most vulnerable section of the farming society.The project extended its roots in the states of Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Rajasthan and Gujarat, all arid and semi-arid states
with erratic rain patterns. Krishak Bandhu, meaning “farmer’s friend”, was the primary programme under which IDEI
technologies were promoted.

20
 Approach and methodology
The following strategic approaches were adopted under the
programme:

1. Customising the product to match the needs of farmers

with different land sizes. The product was developed for
land sizes of 20 m2, 2000 m2, one acre and above.

2. Appropriate identification of potential locations

3. Adoption of innovative ‘Profit for Progress ’methodology:

To create and nurture private sector supply chains engaged
in the manufacture and distribution of the technologies
at fair prices while incorporating a profit margin for the
Telangana
manufacturers and distributors has been the major
objective. With assured access to irrigation, small holder
farmers were empowered to undertake the journey from
rain-fed subsistence farming to remunerative commercial
cultivation of marketable crops.

4. Innovative promotional activities: The product was

promoted by 1 – 1.5 hour long thematic movies based on
agriculture and small farmers.

Stakeholders
The programme involved bringing together of the
stakeholders from different segments:

a) Farmers: Small and marginal farmers have been the key

implementing partners in these activities on ground.

b) Supply chain members: This supply chain network

comprised manufacturers of KB Drip, dealers at village
level for selling and village based mechanics for installing
the drip. IDEI facilitated the entire process without any
investments or profit drawn by IDEI.

c) Academic and research institutions: IDEI has worked

closely with Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai, CIPET
(Central Institute for Plastic Engineering and Technology)
fortrial of technologies and market research. The Energy
Research Institute (TERI) has also been a part and
helped in conductingstudies. Apart from this, IDEI has also
collaborated with The Sirugamani Sugar Cane Research
Station in Tamil Nadu to assist in the programme.

d) Private organisations: These included EID Parrys (for

sugarcane), ITC, ICICI Bank and sugarcane factories in the
states of Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 21
5. Customised communication: While characteristics of KB typically do not have land for crop cultivation however
Drip were same wherever it is used, each state discovered they have a backyard. IDEI promoted these drip systems
couple of additional benefits than the usual list of benefits. amongst the landless farmers who were able to cultivate
For example, farmers in Tamil Nadu favoured KB Drip vegetables in their backyard and enjoy enhanced nutrition.
as itreduced labour costs while in Maharashtra it led to
Owing to limited financial resources the farmers started
uniformity of produce. Having identified these pivots IDEI
to buy KB Drip for the smallest unit ofland and then later
customised its communication to highlight these aspects.
purchased additional KB Drip units as their earnings
The programme was implemented in the following manner: increased. This way KB Drip broke the entry barrier of high
price for small farmers.
a) Awareness creation
By using KB Drip, water savings were estimated at about
b) Supply chain establishment
46 per cent and 77 per cent in sugarcane and banana
c) Ensuring after-sales services respectively.

d) Linking farmers with private partners In chilli and cotton cultivation the saving were 54 per cent
and 74 per cent respectively.
e) Conducting research and Development
The cost of using technologies developed by IDEI was
Since outreach of the technology is highly dependent on
just about 13.24 per cent of the total cost incurred through
its divisibility IDEI developed the smallest unit of 20 m2
government efforts and subsidies
to reach out to the landless farmers. Landless farmers

22
Results and outcomes
The KB Drip was bought by more than one lakh Adoption of micro-irrigation led to water savings of 1.18
farmers with the net income ranged between INR billion m3 and electricity savings of 157.4 million kWh in
45,000 to INR 80,000 with a median of 70, 000. energy. In addition, crop productivity also increased by
Another independent evaluation conducted by IMRB 30-50 per cent translating into 75 per cent in water-use
covering 520 respondents in Maharashtra and Tamil efficiency.
Nadu each revealed results as given in Table 1.

Table 1: Net income difference between users of drip irrigation and non-users
State INR USD User: Non-user ratio
Maharashtra 34, 915 744 1.5
Tamil Nadu 49, 527 2, 531 1.4

By
Amitabha Sadangi
International Development Enterprises (India)

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 23
Promoting Direct Seeding of Rice
A better alternative for sustainable rice production in water scarce regions of Jharkhand

Background
The East India Plateau (EIP), comprising major parts of Jharkhand and some parts of adjoining West Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa, is one of the poorest regions of India. It is characterised by high but unevenly distributed rainfall (1,100–1,600 mm,
80 per cent received from June to September), frequent and sometimes long dry spells within the monsoon, poor irrigation,
high runoff and soil erosion, less fertile soil, terraced mono-cropped paddy lands and subsistence agriculture. Low crop
yield results in food insecurity and endemic poverty. Rice is the staple food crop of this region and farmers traditionally
rely on erratic and seasonal rains for cultivating the crop. High dependency on a single crop makes the population highly
vulnerable. Given the challenging environment of the region, PRADAN, since 2012, has been facilitating the farmers to
cultivate paddy crop using better modern techniques like ‘Direct Seeding of Rice (DSR)’ in the West Singhbhum and
Bokaro districts of Jharkhand.

Stakeholders
For this line-sown DSR initiative, PRADAN was guided by scientists from the Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research (ACIAR), the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre (AVRDC) and the Advanced Centre for Water
Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM).

Approach and methodology

Several measures were undertaken to encourage the farmers to adopt the technology. For instance –
• Cluster-level field exposure visits-cum-interactions were held with DSR host farmers
• Community resource persons were trained to support farmers
• Orientation programmes were held for various stakeholders including the panchayati raj institution (PRI)
representatives and the Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) staff

24
 duration are hand sown in lines made with a ‘multi-teeth
marker’ before the onset of monsoon. A line-to-line
spacing of 10” and seed-to-seed spacing of about 6” to
9” is maintained in this process. DSR method eliminates
dependence on onset of monsoon for sowing. Within 15 –
20 days of sowing or germination, an immediate weeding
and thinning is required as the seeds start growing
after rains, followed by a second round of weeding after
around 25–30 days. DSR method involves reduced labour
requirements in transplantation and weeding. Also the crop
comparitively matures early (about 15-20 days earlier than
• Orientation programmes were held for various transplanted crops). The soil structure is also improved as
stakeholders including the panchayati raj institution no puddling is required. The seed rate gets reduced by 50
(PRI) representatives and the Agricultural Technology per cent.
Management Agency (ATMA) staff
Some challenges faced in DSR method are:
• Participation of tool fabricators/ suppliers/ vendors was
• Ensuring affordable quality implements for line-seeding
encouraged at the Cluster-level melas to increase the
and weeding tools;
outreach and to ensure availability of implements
• Risk of a wet harvest that can affect the mature rice
• Field-level guidance and support were sought from
crop in the fields or on the threshing floor;
experienced farmers and expert service providers for
SHG members in new areas • Damage from birds and rats, especially when only a
few farmers adopt DSR. The few maturing fields in
• Awareness was created through flex boards, leaflets,
the whole area could attract all the birds, rats, and
photographs and videos
squirrels in the area; and,
• Obtaining good-quality short and medium-duration
DSR method
(90-120 days) seeds in some areas.
Line-sown DSR is a modified method of paddy cultivation
in which sorted and treated seeds of short-to-medium

Results and outcomes

A small experiment done in 2012 with three farmers in 2013 and the yield was significant, performing at par with
Talaburu village, Tonto block, West Singhbhum showed the SRI crop in the neighboring field.
excellent results of using DSR method. During this Sustainability and scale up
experiment paddy was cultivated in four adjacent plots
The technology is suitable for replication in entire East
applying four different methods- traditional broadcasting,
India plateau. While this line -sown DSR method was
transplanting, DSR and SRI. The local variety of 140
developed for paddy crop, the principles of this method
days duration in the broadcasting method; for the
of cultivation are equally applicable to many other direct
other three methods high-yielding Abhishek variety of
seeded crops such as ground nut, chick pea, mustard,
120–125 days duration was used. The yield comparison
wheat, black gram and pigeon pea.
was significant, with DSR showing at par results with
SRI paddy. And because the crop was harvested early, The technology is being adopted in areas where
the same field was utilised for a second crop. Based on PRADAN is operating or supporting other NGOs and
these results 700 new farmers tried the DSR method in Central Government flagship programmes like National
Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM).

By
PRADAN

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 25
Micro-sprinkler irrigation for efficient use
of water
An affordable and farmer-friendly micro-irrigation system to conserve water in Kerala

Background Approach and methodology

Properly designed drip and sprinkler systems typically In a low-cost micro-sprinkler head, water is delivered
achieve highly efficient use of water. However, the large- through a network of main pipes, sub-mains and laterals,
scale adoption by farmers of a drip or sprinkler system and falls as a circular spray through these micro-sprinkler
is constrained by factors such as sophisticated design of heads. A simple, clog-free design ensures the complete
components, frequent clogging of emitters and high initial irrigation of the basin area of the crop.
costs. In the model developed at the Agronomic Research
In order to develop an affordable, dependable, simple Station, the rotating sprinkler head was made of a small
and farmer-friendly technology, a low-cost micro-sprinkler piece of 12 mm/8 mm diameter good quality LDPE pipe,
head was developed at the Kerala Agricultural University plugged at both ends. It was provided with 1 mm diameter
between April 2004 and March 2007. This was named as nozzles 5 mm away from both ends on opposite sides. A
the Kerala Agricultural University Micro-irrigation system 6mm diameter micro tube was attached to the sprinkler
(KAUMS). head unit at the centre through a pin connector. The other
end of the micro tube could then be attached to the lateral
Role of stakeholders through another pin connector. The micro-tube with the
sprinkler head unit was tied to a riser pipe, fixed near the
The project was executed under an ICAR, All India
plant to be irrigated. The moment of couple constituted by
Coordinated Research Project (Water Management) at the
the stream coming out of the nozzles caused the emitter to
Agronomic Research Station, Chalakudy of KAU.
rotate while in operation.
The stakeholders included officials, farmers, students, The performance of these sprinkler heads was also
research scholars, and others working in relevant fields. evaluated by observing variables such as the effective

26
 Figure 1: Parts of the KAU micro-sprinkler head.

wetting area, discharge rates, and water distribution • With proper maintenance, the system can be used for
patterns. 10-12 years.

Some of the benefits of the KAUMS are as below. • Does not include extremely complicated design
components, allowing farmers to fabricate the units
• Low-cost, clog-free, farmer-friendly system that
themselves.
can be fabricated with locally-available materials,
and installed and maintained by farmers • Ensures complete wetting of the basin area and

themselves. uniform distribution of water in the crop root zone.

• Low-energy precision applicator with relatively • Facilitates application of fertilizers and herbicides, and

low operating pressure, greater economy in labor cooling of greenhouses, poultry houses, cowsheds,

as compared to sprinkler irrigation, and more etc., with minimum initial investment, running, and

economic water use. maintenance costs.

Results and outcomes

The system has attracted small and marginal farmers, who have adopted the technology. Over 400 stakeholders
were trained on the fabrication and use of these units. Vocational training programs on the fabrication, use, and
installation of the system were conducted with more than 400 farmers participating. The system was introduced to
the women members of the Kudumbasree unit at Alavi Centre, Chalakudy, Kerala. In an experiment conducted in
collaboration with the CWRDM, Calicut, women were trained to use the KAUMS in jasmine cultivation for greater
water economy and productivity.

Sustainability and scale up

The KAU is in the process of formulating a Farmer Service Support Group in three districts - Thrissur,
Thiruvananthapuram, and Kasaragod, so as to aid farmers in the use of various irrigation systems under the Nodal
Water Technology Centre. It is proposed to include the KAUMS as a major item of training for the above group.

By
K. P. Visalakshi
Kerala Agricultural University

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 27
Increasing efficient water and energy use in
agriculture
Energy efficient pump systems to improve economies of farmers in Karnataka

Background
Efficient consumption of energy and water - both crucial resources for agriculture - can be improved by their co-
management by farmers, state governments, groundwater agencies and distribution companies (DISCOMs). Pilot studies
have observed that electricity can be conserved using efficient pumping system in place. But the commercial viability of
such plans, and their benefits to both farmers and DISCOMS, have not yet been demonstrated. This project, Water Energy
Nexus Activity II (WENEXA), was implemented under USAID and Ministry of Power, Government of India partnership. It
was implemented in 34 villages in the Doddaballapura area in Karnataka from 2008 to 2011.

Stakeholders
The roles of the partners and stakeholders were as follows:
• USAID and Ministry of Power, Government of India sponsored the project.
• Bangalore Electricity Supply Company (BESCOM): Upgradation and maintenance of electrical network, metering and
supporting energy service companies (ESCOs) in building a relationship with farmers and ensuringtimely payments to
ESCOs
• Energy-Saving Company (ESCO)– Enzen Global: Financing, planning, procurement, replacement, and maintenance
of pumps; water interventions; and obtaining farmers’ consent
• Tetra Tech: Implementation and technical consultant
• Bangla Natak: Capacity building of farmers
• Farmers: Usage of pumpsets, participation in capacity-building workshops and providing feedback

28
 • Irrigated crops;
• Number of borewells;
• Depth of borewells;
• Current groundwater level;
• Connected load of pump sets; and,
• Pump make and number of stages.

(iii) Request for proposal

A request for proposal (RFP) document was issued by
BESCOM in December 2008. It called for an ESCO to
participate in the program by replacing existing irrigation
pumps with new, energy-efficient pumps.

(iv) Bidding
Approach and methodology
The bidding process commenced with the issuance of RFP,
The aim underlying this project focused on widespread
and followed the procedures as set out by the government
implementation of energy and water efficient pump system.
of Karnataka. The bidding process included the following
New branded energy-efficient pumpsets (BEE 5 star rated)
steps:
with low operations and maintenance (O&M) costs were
provided to farmers on the condition that they replace the • Pre tender consultation with ESCOs

older, inefficient pumpsets. Farmers were also promised • Issuance of RFP document to the ESCOs
a reliable and quality supply of power suitable for energy
efficient pump sets.
The project included the following processes:

(i) Upgradation of electrical network

To ensure reliable and quality supply and verifiable
measurement of electricity, consumption networks were
upgraded through three processes (see Table 1). Among
other improvements, the changes allowed BESCOM to
monitor the status of transformers without the need to visit
the fields.

Table 1: Elements of upgradation of electrical network.

Electrical Network Elimination of LT lines
Upgradation Automated Meter Reading
Arial Bunch Cable Installation

(ii) Collection and processing of data

The services of an NGO were engaged to collect basic
information on pumpsets to aid in business decision-
making. The survey included the following details:
• Gram Panchayat/ Village/Farmer’s name;
• Irrigated area;
• Area under drip irrigation;
• Area under flood irrigation;

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 29
• Statement of qualification & financial proposal • Training and watershed development; and
submission • Experiential sharing workshops for pilot farmers.
• Evaluation of statement of qualifications In addition Bangla Natak was engaged to build capacity of
• Finalist orals for qualifying ESCOs the farmers through street plays.
• Evaluation of financial proposal
Implementation phases
• Bid evaluation and notification of top-ranked ESCOs
The implementation of a complex project such as this was
• Award of contract.
divided in three phases:

(v) Selection of ESCO (i) Pre-installation: Farmers mobilization meetings were

conducted, which included discussions on:
The technical evaluation involved selection of an ESCO
which could recognize the dual impact of groundwater • Program objectives;
extraction on both water and energy sectors. It was • Program benefits;
supposed to be a company with demonstrable and • Program structure;
sustainable capability in facing on-ground challenges, as
• Agriculture activities and irrigation methods; and,
well as one that promoted forward thinking and strategic
planning by bringing together water, energy, agriculture and • Underground water levels.
rural development and financial institutions. Other pre-installation activities included a baseline
The financial bid was opened for those ESCOs which were survey on farming, electricity consumption, and irrigation,
found to be technically viable. The ESCO which quoted identification and evaluation of high-quality pump suppliers,
highest multiplication value of electricity saving from pump and an energy audit of pump sets.
replacement and water side interventions and sharing of (ii) Installation: To enable selection of high-efficiency
saving with BESCOM, was given highest financial ranking. pumps, details of the energy audit and baseline energy
consumption were shared with pump manufacturers,
(vi) Execution of capacity building programme who were then asked to recommend suitable new
An NGO conducted a capacity-building programme for high-efficiency pumps. All necessary accessories were
farmers. The training workshop, which provided over 4,400 procured.
days of training, covered the following areas: (iii) Post-installation: This phase included disposal of old
• Training on drip irrigation and efficiency improvement; pumps, monitoring and verification, addressing of
complaints related to new pump sets, training and
• Sustainable, agriculture and best practices;
capacity-building and creating awareness.
• Exposure visits;
• Group discussions; Challenges
The project encountered several challenges at all the
stages. For instance, transmission of vast network and
tough terrain have come out as one the biggest obstacles
in upgradation of the electrical network; this is followed
by data-related issues included old records, illegal
connections, or lack of water-related data; and so on.
During capacity building, it was observed that employees
avoided working in, and learning from, rural areas. These
challenges were addressed partly or wholly through
sensitization, capacity-building, involvement of third parties
for baseline creation, a robust commercial model and
enlisting technology in recording electricity consumption
and maintaining a reliable power supply.

30
Results and outcomes
About 300 pump sets were replaced in some 34 demonstrated interventions on two fronts: electricity
villages in Doddaballapura, Karnataka. With the and water. The baseline study provided an additional
replacement of inefficient pump sets by new high support through quantifiable and empirical evidence of
energy pumps, BESCOM was able to achieve annual energy savings.
electricity savings of around 2.9 million units and Overall this project proved to be a blessing in
release of electricity network of around 2.2 MVA, reducing power consumption, improving efficiencies in
thereby constituting annual cost savings of INR 7.68 groundwater extraction and reducing subsidy burden
million. This project also reduced the emission of of the state without sacrificing its service obligation
around 2600 tons of CO2. to the sector. Subsequently all of this led to a positive
The feedback from farmers was largely positive. impact on the Karnataka state government also which
Najappa (farmer), Chandrapure village, now has to approve lesser subsidies to the agricultural
Doddaballapura, informed, “With the old pump set sector resulting in both better management of
water flow was scanty. Now because of the new pump electricity demands and arresting the fast increase in
set there is good water flow.” Krishnappa, another depth of ground water availability.
farmer inMachagondalli Village, Doddaballapura, also Apart from this, the community as a whole had
confirmed that the new pumpset consume lesser benefited by learning about reduced carbon
water. Previously they had to carry the water and lot emissions, a lesser impact on climate, and a lower
of it used to get wasted and thus required more water. pressure on energy resources. In particular, among
Now through use of pipes, fresh water is saved. marginalized populations, women farmers have
The project has a unique component attached to been primary beneficiaries of this project through the
it that it is based on market realities. Further, it capacity-building programs.

By
Rakesh Kumar Goyal
Tetra Tech

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 31
Drip irrigation for enhanced water use efficiency
Modern agricultural technologies for enhancing farmer incomes in four Indian states

Background
The conventional irrigation system used in agricultural sector in India, called the furrow system or the flow-through system
comprises supplying water in series from the top most basin to the bottom most basin and regulating the flow of water with
sand bunds or weirs. The water for irrigation is sourced through pumping water from open dug wells or bore wells (tube
wells). This method of irrigation is much less efficient than drip irrigation method as this entails several avenues of water
wastage such as surface run-offs, high rate of evaporation, supply to non-growth areas and low absorption as water is not
directly fed to the roots of the crop. There was a need to look for alternatives since water is a scarce public good which
dictates the cultivation of number of crops every year thereby directly impacting the farmers’ income.

Monsanto India Ltd worked with seed farmers in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Maharashtra with the aim to
improve the efficiency of water use in irrigation.The goal was to promote sustainable farming practices amongst farmers
at Monsanto contracted seed growing fields in alignment with Monsanto Sustainability vision of “Produce More - Conserve
More - Improve Lives”. Based on this goal, the Monsanto India Supply Chain set itself the following objectives:

1) To sensitise Monsanto contracted farmers about water saving methods in seed production

2) To install drip irrigation in Monsanto owned and contracted farms

3) To increase yields from per unit water used in seed production

Monsanto India worked with their contracted farmers engaged in seed production of cotton, corn and vegetables (over 10
crops) to increase their water efficiency in irrigation by initiating and facilitating a change from traditional irrigation to drip
irrigation methods. The project was initiated in 2010 and ended in 2014.

32
 Monsanto product research team along with support from
government agencies.

Approach and methodology

The Monsanto India team sensitized the contracted
farmers about the need to shift their irrigation methods by:
• Developing a few demonstration plots and organising
field visits for farmers to these plots.
• Inviting field experts to the production locations and,
• Creating awareness about government subsidy
schemes.
From planning, designing to execution stage, the Monsanto
Stakeholders India team:
Depending on the production pattern for the year, • Provided the farmers additional 2-3 crops each
Monsanto tied up withapproximately 30,000 seed growers year which would generate additional income and
to produce corn, cotton and vegetable seeds in West encourage the farmers to invest in drip irrigation
Godavari district (Andhra Pradesh) and Khammam systems;
(Telangana); Chittore district (Andhra Pradesh) and
• Introduced them to reliable and vetted vendors;
Chikballapur and Gadag districts (Karnataka); and
Davangere, Haveri and Koppal districts (Karnataka) and • Facilitated farmers to gain access to government
Jalna and Buldhana districts (Maharashtra) respectively. subsidy schemes

The project was implemented by the Monsanto supply • Provided financial support to the farmers to procure
chain team, Monsanto seed production team and mulch material which enhanced productivity.

Results and outcomes

Sustained efforts during 2010-2014 generated the pumps to be operated on an average 7 hours a
following results: day while drip irrigation was operated only one
• Over 1500 acres of corn seed production farms, hour a day. It brought a significant reduction in
795 acres of vegetable seed production farms. energy consumption and also made it easier
and 103 acres of cotton seed production farms to irrigate under limited and irregular electricity
owned by contracted farmers switched to drip supply.
irrigation. • Improved plant vigour as a result of delivering
• All the owned and leased lands of Monsanto water and nutrients directly to the plant roots;
Indiaat their breeding sites (field research) • High water application uniformity of over 90 per
installed drip irrigation systems. cent
• This resulted in reducing water consumption by • Increase in land utilisation efficiency by 10- 15 per
80 per cent, from approximately 5 million m3/day cent and seed yield up to 35 per cent.
to 0.9 million m3/day. All this resulted in more days of work and higher
Other positive results included: profitability in vegetable seed production which helped
• Energy conservation, as conventional furrow improve the lives of the farmers. The Company plans
irrigation system required energy intensive to upscale drip to other areas.

By
Mella Radha Madhav
Monsanto India Ltd

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 33
Customised irrigation mitigates risks for farmers
One–acre drip irrigation model for drought prone areas of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana

Background
Groundwater is irrefutably one of the vital sources of water to the human race. It accounts for over 60 per cent of the
irrigated area in the country and is critical to food security. It is estimated that over 70 per cent of India’s food grain
production materialises from irrigated agriculture, in which groundwater plays a dominant role. Groundwater is also the
main source of drinking water for approximately 90 per cent of the Indian rural population.
The lack of regulations and effective monitoring on extraction of groundwater for agriculture has led to competitive drilling
of deeper wells, failure of many open and shallow bore wells, crop failures, and water insecurity in rural areas. Especially
hit are the women and other vulnerable sections of the society.
The drought has severely affected the districts of Anantapur in Andhra Pradesh and Warangal in Telangana for several
years. Majority of drinking water sources have either gone dry or have registered reduction in yield. Most of the water
storage structures are inefficient, under repair, or defunct weakening the drinking water distribution system in the area.
Water sharing from group wells, jointly owned by farmers (open/bore), is a common practice in these regions. Yield
reduction from the bore wells has adversely affected the area and under irrigation, crop production. Several farmers have
adopted water-saving micro-irrigation equipment. But clogging of lateral pipes and drippers render these conventional drip
systems dysfunctional within 2-3 years of installation, particularly in the regions having saline groundwater.
Against the above backdrop, the Sustainable Ground Water Management (SuGWM) project was initiated by Centre for
World Solidarity (CWS) in four Gram Panchayats in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh and two Gram Panchayatsin
Warangal district of Telangana with the following objectives:

34
 The project was initiated in July 2011 and ended in
December 2016. In June 2016, the SuGWM project was
institutionalised as Water and Livelihoods Foundation
(WLF) to carry forward the path-breaking innovations and
action research momentum.

Stakeholders
Under the SuGWM project, CWS collaborated with three
local NGO partners: Rural Integrated Development Society
(RIDS), Jana Jaagriti and Centre for Rural Operation
Programmes Society (CROPS) for community mobilisation
and with the Indian Institute of Technology – Hyderabad
(IITH) for hydrogeological studies and mapping.
To mainstream the efforts, the project was linked with
government departments and authorities at the time
of commencement.These departments included: Rural
• To achieve equitable access to safe water for drinking, Water Supply Department, Rural Development, Irrigation
sanitation and domestic needs; Department, Groundwater Department, District Water

• To achieve fair and sustainable access to groundwater Management Authorities in Anantapur and Warangal

by all farmers through sharing of resources and districts, State Farms Corporation of India and Agriculture

efficient use; and and Marketing Departments.

• To institutionalise social regulations governing the The collaboration with the Agriculture Department helped in

allocation, use and management of water in the Gram accessing micro-irrigation equipment from Rashtriya Krishi

Panchayat. Vikas Yojana (RKVY), Integrated Scheme for Oilseeds,

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 35
Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize (ISOPOM), and Andhra
Pradesh Micro Irrigation Project (APMIP) valued at CASE STUDY: Second time lucky
INR 6 crores covering around 3125 acres.
Collaboration with other NGOs, such as Bala Yakasi Lakshmi Reddy, is a water sharing farmer in the
Vikasa and Lodi Multipurpose Social Service Kotanka GP of Anantapur district. He owns 9.5 acres of
Society in Warangal district, helped in the desilting land and has been sharing water with another farmer,
of percolation tanks and establishment of Reverse Vemala Reddy, for several years. In 2008, each of them
Osmosis (RO) plants for drinking water in the area. planted sweet orange in 5 acres of land. To save water,
both the farmers installed subsidised drip irrigation
Approach and methodology system under the Horticulture Department’s Micro
Irrigation Project. Severe drought in 2011 combined
The intervention comprised customisation of
with high pest infestation forced the farmers to uproot
the drip irrigation system using a simpler ‘button
sweet orange trees. While Lakshmi Reddy removed
dripper’ and promotion of re-use of old lateral pipes.
the drip system and stored it in his backyard,Vemala
This system was designed for one acre of land,
Reddy sold it at a lower price to local traders. As a
which required no maintenance and worked with
result the irrigated with each farmer was reduced to a
low-yield agriculture wells under low pressure. The
mere half acre where they started cultivating chillies.
project aimed at demonstrating the ‘one-acre drip’
model, capacity-building of local youth through Lakshmi Reddy installed new one-acre drip system
technical support and providing incentives for its by using the old lateral pipes under the guidance from
adoption. SuGWM project started in May 2012. His area under
The customied system costed 50-60 per cent less chilli cultivation expanded to one acre and he was able
as compared to conventional models and required to earn INR 13,000 in 2012–13. His total earnings after
less maintenance. Further, the customised system three years summed at INR 1,30,000. The problem of
performed better in low-yield wells and poor water weed infestation was also reduced substantially. There
quality. The customized unit worked well even at was almost no maintenance cost of the new one – acre
lower pressure (1.0 kg/cm2 as against 2.5 kg/cm2 drip system. The time for application of water under
under conventional unit) and discharge (5,000 the news system declined from 24 to 18 hours per
litres/hour as against 10, 000 litres/hour under week. Moreover, the 100% hike in irrigation area led to
conventional unit). significant increase in income.

Customised drip irrigation technology

36
Results and outcomes
This innovative technology reached 128 water-sharing of farmersin both Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. To
farmers in six Gram Panchayats covered under the scale up in other regions, the following steps were
project and successfully spread to 76 farmers outside taken:
the project area. The key results included: a) Training the youth on design and installation of
• Farmers’ net income increased by 300 per cent one-acre drip system.
• Expansion of cultivation areas without increasing b) Reaching large number of farmers through mass
the quantity of water used media and short videos shared on YouTube
• Improved quality and quantity in crop yield (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rVAi17alvS4)
and other social media.
• Training of 15 young people from the project
areas which enabled them to install drip systems c) Sharing of the innovation with district officials,
and offer their services to neighbouring villages. other NGOs and donor agencies to integrate this
technology in their initiatives.
Sustainability and scaling up
d) Sharing the technology and success stories
For sustainability and scaling up, WLF focused on with NABARD, convincing them to recognize
developing a cadre of local youth skilled with one-acre the potential of this innovation and upscale it
drip installation, generating awareness and increasing through farmers’ cooperatives and producers’
outreach of the new technology among large number organizations.

By
Venkata Ramamohan Ramachandrula
Water and Livelihoods Foundation

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 37
38
 Section II
Community based water management
practices
With decreasing availability and increasing consumption of water, it is imperative to develop effective
mechanisms to manage existing water resources. This emphasises the non – negotiable role of the community
in water management and conservation, and this becomes even more pertinent among the crop producers.
This section presentsrobust evidence of community groups spearheading super-efficient water management
systems in various parts of the country.

In Maharashtra, the village community was facilitated with knowledge on aquifer management for groundwater
mapping and water budgeting. This helped them to develop water security plans and sustainably manage
their local groundwater reserves. Similarly, farmers of Bundelkhand and Jal Sabhas of Rajasthan showed
their commendable efforts in developing village natural resource management plans and implementing
water efficient agricultural practices. The contribution by various stakeholders towards the construction of a
barrage or ‘people’s dam’ in Karnataka is another exemplary case that changed the economy of the region
dramatically. The innovative process of collective farming in Tamil Nadu resulted in revival of large fallow lands
and improved farmer incomes through sharing of resources. Similar collective action for bore well pooling by
farmers in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana not only helped them manage their present water requirements
but also led to an increase in the groundwater level due to decreased water usage. Stories from both Haryana
and Bundelkhand display explicit efforts of women groups in taking ownership of their water resources and
managing them optimally.

All these stories accentuate the role of local communities in implementing practical solutions on ground
for sustainable use of resources. The key lesson emerging from this section is that it is utmost important to
understand available resources, formulate processes for equitable use as well as responsibility and then lead
a localised action by the people themselves.

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 39
Participatory framework for groundwater
management in agriculture
Community-driven plans for groundwater sustainability in Maharashtra

Background
The western Indian state of Maharashtra has been plagued by a prolonged and decade-long agrarian crisis. Thousands
of farmers have committed suicides as hectares of crops are lost annually due to dearth of water. However, villages like
Randullabad in Satara district have managed to tide over this crisis. Local communities, using scientific principles along
with their traditional knowledge, have been able to take care of paucity of groundwater in an equitable, democratic and
sustainable manner.

Randullabad village is located in a rain-shadow area of Satara district and falls in the semi-arid zone. Groundwater is the
major source of agricultural and drinking water needs in this village. Groundwater in this village, with a population of 1,857
persons, is fed by three different aquifers over 854 square km.

The focus of the three year project was to ensure availability of drinking water and meeting the agricultural needs of the
village through participatory, sustainable and equitable approaches. The project was executed during 2011 -2013.

Stakeholders
The participatory features of the initiative were supported by the whole of the village, and also included passing of social
resolutions by the Gram Sabha. The Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM)
was the key knowledge resource centre as well as the implementing agency. The Bengaluru-based Arghyam foundation
funded the project and provided strategic support.

40
 began with a hydrogeological and socio-economic survey
of the village. ACWADAM documented the availability of
water and the pattern of water use. All 167 wells were
mapped and 29 of them were closely monitored as they
represented the local aquifer conditions. Villagers were also
involved in groundwater and weather data collection. They
attended training sessions and sensitisation workshops on
groundwater science.

After documenting and analysing the hydrogeological

characteristics, concepts about watersheds and aquifers
and groundwater movement were explained, which further
helped in building local cognitive capacities. Simplified
analysis and interpretations of aquifer systems, aquifer-
Approach and Methodology wise groundwater balance, groundwater exploitations
The intervention followed a series of steps towards trends in the village and its future impacts were shared and
improved management of groundwater resources in a discussed among the community on a regular basis.
democratic manner. These steps included awareness
ACWADAM has also set up a weather monitoring station
and sensitisation about the need for community-based
to develop a groundwater budget and protocols for water
water management, hydrogeological and socio-economic
conservation for the aquifer system. To exemplify social
surveys, groundwater budgeting, setting up a weather
resolutions with regard to the protocols, the local village
monitoring station, training and orientation sessions on
assembly (Gram Sabha) passed resolutions. Communities
basic concepts of hydrogeology.
then prepared groundwater security plans for the village
ACWADAM promoted the idea of community-based as a whole. Farmers in the village were educated about
groundwater management by illustrating its direct benefits. the different crops and their respective water consumption.
Trust building over time helped arrive at a consensus The village assembly resolution also regulated use to only
for implementation of a participatory groundwater the shallow unconfined aquifer system. The deeper aquifer
management system. The development of protocols was kept intact in its natural state, which helped in ensuring
for collective and sustainable usage of water resources equilibrium between shallow and deeper groundwater.

Results and outcomes

Adoption of these protocols over a period of three years • Analysis of farm produce and revenues in 2012
has ensured that the local community’s drinking water revealed that farmers in Randullabad had earned
and agricultural needs are fulfilled. The impact can be more profit as they had cultivated eight major crops
observed in the improvement of various indicators and in including vegetables. The profit earned increased in
positive behavioral changes as indicated below: the range of 90-130 per cent.
• In one of the aquifers, the recharge increased by Other social changes were also observed. Farmers have
nearly 60 per cent from 2.49 lakh m3 in 2011-12 to averted digging deeper bore wells even during the lean
4.10 lakh m3 in 2012-13. Similarly in another aquifer, season. They also employed micro-irrigation techniques
recharge doubled over three years. thus reducing groundwater abstraction in two of the three
• Prior to the interventions, Randullabad farmers aquifers. Soil moisture had considerably improved as a
cultivated ten crops annually: six during the result of recharge mechanisms.
winter season and four during the monsoon. After Through this project, ACWADAM backed groundwater
sensitisation workshops, they cultivated 15 types of science, built capacities at the local level and helped set
crops: five during winter and 10 during the monsoon up infrastructure to monitor aquifer status and weather
season. Crop diversification led to positive impact on changes. As a result, farmers were able to take informed
groundwater balance, agricultural water use, increased decisions on cropping and increase their earnings while
incomes and lower crop risks among the farmers. securing their water resources.

By
Sundar M Senthilnathan
ACWADAM and Arghyam

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 41
Community led resource efficient agriculture in
Bundelkhand
Enabling farmer community for collective local planning and resource management

Background
Bundelkhand, a semi-arid region in Central India, is characterised by poor human development indicators and degraded
natural resources. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, with 90 per cent of the population being dependent on
agriculture and 75 per cent of agriculture being rain-fed.
Poor productivity and adherence to obsolete and resource inefficient farming practices has proved to be a bane for the
farming community in the region. Farmers have inadequate knowledge and capacity of sustainable and scientific farming
systems. Increasing populations have led to further decrease in landholding size contributing to decrease in productivity
levels and farm profitability. This has led to high distress in the farming sector, leading to a vicious cycle of livelihood
insecurity, poverty and debt.
The project focused on mainstreaming a culture of participatory planning and management of natural resources and farm
assets for sustainable agricultural growth and equitable development at the village level. The project was implemented in
Dhikoli, Nayakheda and Domagor villages in the Pahuj watershed of Jhansi district in the Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh.

Stakeholders
The intervention was built on an existing project funded by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics (ICRISAT). The farmers were the key stakeholders. They participated in village level agricultural planning and
took collective and rationalised decisions based on the availability of resources. Farmers were trained on improved and
resource efficient practices and also encouraged to spread awareness amongst their peers.
The role of the Panchayat was to facilitate processes of participatory local governance and planning for bringing about
desired changes in practice through convergence with government programmes.

42
 • Promoting crop diversification specifically focusing on
less water intensive crops like barley; and,
• Establishment of seed banks and nurseries to ensure
sustained availability of good quality planting material.
Implemented between 2013 and 2015, the project was
based on a holistic approach consisting of planning,
technological, institutional and capacity building measures
like –
a) Water budgeting exercises to sensitise stakeholders
towards management of limited water resources and
thereby influencing appropriate cropping decisions and
creation of water harvesting potential;
b) Demonstration of resource efficient technologies such
as drip and sprinkler irrigation and the use of solar
pumps. An enterprise model was developed around
Approach and Methodology solar pumps, wherein irrigation water was provided as
a paid service on an hourly basis;
This intervention was built on an existing project for
developing model watersheds that was funded by ICRISAT. c) Creation of farm ponds and micro-ponds;
It aimed to instill a culture of participatory planning and d) Capacity enhancement of the existing village
efficient management of natural resources for sustainable watershed committees through trainings and
agricultural growth through the following activity demonstrations;
components:
e) Participatory planning processes involving all
• Improving water and energy use efficiencies at villagers and the local government for sustainable
village level by adoption of appropriate agricultural management of natural resources and its integration
technologies and practices; with mainstream local development process;
• Training village level community institutions to f) Mobilisation of Farmers’ Clubs for sharing of farm
undertake sustainable management and equitable use machinery and equipment; and,
of water resources in agriculture through collective
g) Provision of loans by SHGs for the purchase of micro-
decision making;
irrigation equipment.

Results and outcomes

Approximately 250 farmers benefitted from this (d) Building collaborations between different sections of
intervention where farmers reported an average of 20 the village community thus strengthening the local
per cent increase in the farm productivity. An annual government system;
increase in net returns by INR 10,000 – 15,000 per (e) Leveraging 400 per cent of government funding
hectare was also reported. This initiative also led to through convergence; and,
some other positive results including:
(f) Increased participation of women in decision
(a) Adoption of water and energy efficient farming making.
systems;
This pilot intervention in three villages has scope to be
(b) Enhanced water harvesting potential, soil moisture replicated elsewhere across the country by integrating
and biomass; this unique approach in the existing government
(c) Improved resilience within livelihood system of programmes for watershed and agricultural development.
people against changing climate;

By
Mayukh Hajra
Development Alternatives

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 43
Creative farmer games teach judicious use of
water in agriculture
Participatory aquifer mapping and crop water budgeting to change farmers’behavior in
Andhra Pradesh

Background
Anantapur is a particularly water-distressed district in Andhra Pradesh. In 2010-12, 76% of the total area irrigated is serviced
by tube wells, an increase from 44% in the period 1998-2001. During the same period, the area irrigated by dug wells
declined from 27% to 4% and that by tanks fell from 22% to 15%. During the project phase, more than 80% of the irrigated
needsand more than 90% of household needs, including drinking, are met by groundwater alone.Further, groundwater is the
most important source of drinking water in Anantapur. The rural population here is almost entirely dependent on groundwater
for drinking and other domestic uses. Groundwater governance is thus important to ensure more equitable distribution of
groundwater for essential purposes like drinking.

The increasing dependence on groundwater and the corresponding decline of tanks andother forms of communal assets are
related. It is within this context that the interventions on groundwater are significant.

The project described here aimed to understand how participation in economic field experiments can influence the knowledge,
attitudes and behaviour of the participants andtheir communities with respect to the management of common pool resources,
especially groundwater.

The project was conducted over two phases. The first phase was between April-August 2013 and the second phase was
between December 2013 and August 2014. It encompassed 28 habitations spread across the mandals of NP Kunta,
Gandlapenta and Tanakallumandals of Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh (AP).

44
 • Small and Marginal Farmers: A majority of farmers did
not have tube wells in this region.

• Dalits: The price of groundwater depletion was often

paid by marginalized communities, including Dalits and
so it was important to engage with Dalits separately.

• Village institutions: Institutions like the Village

Development Committees and Watershed Management
Committees were involved in identifying the people who
could play the games and for mobilizing people to take
part in the discussions that followed the games.

• Tube well owners: Engaging with this group helped in

understanding the difficulties of sharing groundwater.

• IFPRI and ASU: The International Food Policy Research

Institute (IFPRI) and Arizona State University (ASU)
Stakeholders were instrumental in designing the games, analysing
the findings and coming out with academic report and
• Farmers of Anantapur: They were the principal papers.
stakeholders of this project. Care was taken to involve
both irrigated and un-irrigated farmers from both, forward • FES: The Foundation for Ecological Security
castes and Dalit communities, as well as small or administered the games in the field and undertook the
marginal farmers. various concomitant surveys. They ensured the quality
of the data collected and provided context to understand
• Women: No community social behaviour model of the findings of the exercise.
groundwater is complete without the perspectives of
women, who bore the brunt of the groundwater crisis in
Anantapur.

Village resource map

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 45
Approach and Methodology Each game started with 50 units of water in the common
bore well and continued till the water reaches 10 units. The
The game was played in each village with two groups – one farmers had two crops to choose from: Crop A and Crop B.
of men and one of women – of 5 participants each. Each The former consuming one unit of water and giving two units
group got to play two games comprising of 10 roundseach of remuneration, while the latter consumed three units of
(a total of 20 rounds): Each round stood for one cropping water and gave five units of remuneration. Thus, if all the five
season. Since Kharif season in Anantapur was largely farmers grew only Crop A, they could maintain water levels for
driven by rainfall, the focus was on the behaviour of the perpetuity and if they chose Crop B, they would exhaust water
farmer during the Rabi season when the dependence on in four rounds.
groundwater or other alternative forms of irrigation was high.
At the end of the game, players were paid five times the
In the first game, participants made decisions individually. In amount of virtual money earned (50 units of virtual money
the second game, participants could discuss and arrive at translated to INR 250 in reality). If every farmer chose Crop B
collective decisions on what crops to plant. to maximise individual earnings, collective water levels would
collapse in no time. If they only chose Crop A to conserve
If the water level touched 20 units, each farmer was to be
water, earnings would be low. The challenge was to find the
penalized one unit of money to indicate purchase of water. If
ideal mean (in this case, three people sowing Crop A and two
the water levels touched 10 units, the game would end as it is
sowing Crop B), and to persuade each other to adopt this
assumed that at this point, the water in the aquifer could not
ideal mean in a way that the earnings were distributed more
be replenished. At the beginning of each round, the common
evenly and water levels were sustained for a longer duration.
groundwater resource could be recharged by a fixed quantity
This process was followed for both men and women.
of five units.

Participatory game session

46
Results and outcomes
In all about 600 men and women spread across three communication, each person planted the crop as per
mandals of Anantapur were engaged. The representation their will, but when they played with communication,
of various groups among the total number of players was they were able to talk to each other and plant low
approximately as follows: water using crops.
• Other Backward Castes (OBCs): 47% • Highlighting the role of institutional
• General category: 37% mechanisms: An important spin-off of the game
was that it helped in underscoring the importance
• Scheduled castes: 10%
of institutional mechanisms for better groundwater
• Small land holders (less than 2 hectares of land) governance. Several players and observers felt that
comprised the largest land holdingc ategory among the availability of some institutional platform that
the players (45%), largely in keeping with the permitted discussions on groundwater and had the
demographic trend of the study area. authority to pass resolutions regarding access to
The general feedback from the players was that the and sharing of groundwater could be effective in
game was useful in helping them understand the ensuring more equitable distribution of the same.
linkages among crops, water levels and income.They They felt that such a platform could enable those
felt that that the rounds played with communication who had access to tube wells and those that did
helped them in better gauging each other’s concerns, not to regularly interact to find mutually agreeable
which in turn helped them in conserving scarce water solutions regarding groundwater.
resources better. Thus, many farmers felt that some
institutional platform where groundwater concerns could Sustainability and scaling up
be discussed would be ideal for long-term conservation Within the organisation, FES plans to integrate the
of this precious resource. games with their Water Commons initiative to trigger
The specific impacts of the intervention are below. dialogue and collective action around groundwater. The
• Underscoring the need for judicious use games will be made more unpredictable, by introducing
of groundwater: The experimental games dice to simulate the inherent unpredictability of rainfall,
underscored the relationship between judicious use for instance. Youth from rural communities will be trained
of groundwater and improved household income. In in conducting the games, leading to the creation of a
most habitations, players realised that they would pool of people within the villages where they work, who
earn more, both individually and collectively, by will then be in a position to map the mental models and
using the available groundwater smartly. explain the same to the rest of the members in the local
language.
• Highlighting the role of communication:
Groundwater consumption was higher in those The engagement with communities will expand into a
rounds which were played without communication, package of activities comprising ofthese experimental
in comparison to those where the players games, crop water budgeting exercises and discussions
communicated with each other.Participants around possible agronomic interventions that can help
acknowledged this through comments to the meet the twin-objectives of water conservation and
effect that when they played the game without income maximisation.

By
Subrat Singh
Foundation for Ecological Security

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 47
Collective farming for enhancing farmers’
income
Promoting precision farming techniques among marginalised farmer groups in
Tamil Nadu

Background
Periyakalakkadi is a village in Kanchipuram district of Tamil Nadu, situated very close to the Chennai highways and the
East Coast Road (ECR). Land in Periyakalakkadi was allotted to rural landless and poor labourers during the Bhoomidhan
(Bhoodan) movement through an NGO, ASSEFA. But for the last 25 years, these lands had been lying fallow due to a variety
of reasons such as reduced income, cultivation of rainfed crops and cultivation of water-guzzling crops like paddy. Under the
TN-IAMWARM (Tamil Nadu-Irrigated Agriculture Modernisation and Water Bodies Restoration and Management) project,
Bhoomidhan lands were under micro-irrigation for the first time in Periyakalakadi village. Lands were kept barren and under-
utilized due to crop failures, leading to reduced income. The area lacked technological integration. From August 2013 onwards,
a project to integrate technological intervention and precision farming with the already established micro-irrigation system was
taken up by the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU).

Stakeholders
TNAU developed and implemented the project. The farmers of the region actively participated and cooperated with on-farm
demonstrations, they also participated in collective farm operations with common accountingand profit-sharing. This initiative
was funded by World Bank through TN-IAMWARM Project.

48
 hybrids, soil mulching, use of biological consortia
for pest and disease management and training on
grading, packaging, and marketing.
• To establish market tie-ups and a quality-based pricing
system to maximise profitability
• To study socio-economic dynamics by opening up a
group account and sharing profits among members.
The intervention followed these steps:
• Door-to-door meetings with individuals, particularly
women to brief them on the project and the scope for
income generation from the fallow land;
• Creating awareness groups, conducting participatory
rural appraisal and formulation of cropping programme;
• Exposure visits and training for skill development in
vegetable farming;
Approach and Methodology
• Mobilisation of inputs such as seeds, seedlings,
The project encouraged group farming to share work and
fertilizers and mulching sheet, as well as frequent
create unity, coping with deteriorating land and water
agro-advisories;
quality by using scientific techniques, building self-
• Revival of the drip system with assistance from TNAU
confidence by increasing income, and overall retention
scientists;
of farmers in agriculture through precision farming and
collective, community-driven farming. These goals shaped • Diagnosis of pest and disease problem, and providing
the following objectives for the project: advice on integrated pest and disease management;

• To create awareness on collective farming of • Creating marketing channels after conducting grading;
vegetables under drip irrigation. These techniques • Creating a common bank account, depositing daily
included precision farming components such as income which was then shared at the end of the
cultivation of market-driven vegetable crops and season.

Results and outcomes

The community-based activity was carried out by TNAU increase in yield at 88.6 per cent over the control.
with different vegetable crops in cropping sequence, • As per the cropping system advised to the different
based on water availability. Farmers used to grow short- groups, those who have adopted short duration
duration crops rather than long-duration and perennial horticultural crop with lucrative market price paved
crops like watermelon, muskmelon, chilies, greens, and for the more net income.
ladies finger. Using the mulching technology, higher
productivity was observed compared to drip without
Sustainability and scaling up
mulching. A total of 60 farm families benefited from this
project through the agricultural work, direct marketing, After the completion of this project, the intervention is
and training programmes. The TN-IAMWARM project in seen to be self-sustaining as the farmers have been
Periyakalakkadi village has shown the following impacts: continuing the cropping with the knowledge gained
from that one-year project. Global scaling up can be
• The net income of the farmer groups went up to as
encouraged through organisation or participation in
high as INR 1,90,000/ha/year
international workshops and conferences on precision
• The productivity was almost doubled with highest farming in vegetable crops.

By
B. J. Pandian
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 49
People’s barrage transforms village economy
An exemplary case of self – mobilised community building Chikkapadasalgi
barrage in Karnataka

Background
Vijayapur district of Karnataka is blessed with five rivers: Krishna, Malaprabha, Ghataprabha, Bhima and Doni. However, the
district remained drought prone and hence, economically backward. Agricultural and livestock development has not been able
to reach its full potential. A ‘people’s dam’ was built across the river Krishna near Chikkapadasalagi village in Vijayapur to store
and impound the river water, to be used by people on either side of the barrage for drinking and agricultural purposes, and
also meet the requirements of Jamakhand town. This would help provide drinking water to human beings and cattle and create
irrigation facilities for the lands on either side of the Krishna River in Karnataka, leading to enhancement of agricultural and
livestock production, and improved livelihoods.

Stakeholders
The project witnessed a wave of support across all sections of the society. It was funded, constructed, managed and owned
by the farmer-beneficiaries under the banner of Krishna Theera Ryot Sangha (KTRS) with Shri Siddu Nyamagouda, a local
farmer playing a leadership role. KTRS mobilised people, money and materials required for completion of the project. Several
government officials guided and assisted the project to take shape. Irrespective of their economic and social background, men
and women came forward to construct the barrage. Many social and religious groups and voluntary organisations contributed
for completion of this project. Engineers from the locality working in far off places like Mumbai left their jobs and voluntarily
joined in construction of the barrage.

50
 c) Financial assistance from the Council for Advancement
of Peoples’ Action and Rural Technology (CAPART);
and,
c) Labour, money and materials (wood, steel, stone,
cement, transportation facilities) from the people.

Construction work of barrage was taken up in two phases:

January-May 1988 and January-June, 1989. Technical
details of the barrage are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Technical details of Chikkapadasalagi barrage

Particulars Details
Name of the project Chikkapadasalgi barrage
River Krishna
Location Across Krishna river near
Chikkapadasalagi village in
Jamakhandi block of erstwhile
Vijayapur district, Karnataka
Length 430 m

Approach and Methodology Height 8m

Storage capacity 4.5 TMC
The story is a source of inspiration in mobilising funds,
Width of reservoir 0.45 km
human resources and materials. Contribution included:
Length of reservoir 45 km
a) Contributions from the farmer-beneficiaries: INR 500 per
Project cost INR 92.56 lakh
horse power of irrigation pump set;
Period of construction 11 months
b) Donations from the general public, educational and
Source: Anonymous, 1998 and 2015, Krishna Theera Ryot Sangha Office,
religious institutions, associations of merchants, Jamakhandi
weavers, employees, advocates and Zilla Panchayats;

Results and outcomes and a 500-733 per cent increase in land value;
Total command area of the barrage, which was 26,748 • Establishment of many sugar factories including
acres in 1989, increased to 60,000 acres in 2015. The Jamkhandi Sugars Ltd.; and,
impact was widely experienced by farmers and others,
• Enhanced confidence amongst farmers, improved
leading to the following results:
health and hygiene and a sense of ownership.
• Drinking water availability to 3 lakh people and
about 25,000 cattle in 30 villages; Sustainability and scaling up
• Irrigation facility round the year to 60,000 acres of To manage the barrage, a Management and Executive
land; Committee was formed for maintenance and
• Improving crop and livestock production and management of the barrage. Following the success
increase in productivity – from INR 41,218 in 1989 of this effort, attempts were made by community
to INR 9,16,482 for irrigated lands in 2015; organisations to build small-scale irrigation structures
• Significant increase in ownership of assets such across rivers in Karnataka. The Government of
as houses, bullock carts, agricultural implements, Karnataka launched a program called Nammur Bandhar
tractors and cars/ jeeps; (Our village barrage) and constructed a number of
barrages across rivers in the state.
• Improved wage rates (578-687 percent increase)

By
Rajendra Poddar
University of Agricultural Sciences

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 51
Women step out for resolving water crisis in
village
An initiative by Mewati women to overcome drinking water crisis in Haryana

Background
Mundaka village, in Mewat district of Haryana, is a small village with 109 households. It is an isolated and underdeveloped
hamlet located at the far end of the state. The village community faced acute water shortage adding to the burden of the
women who were primarily responsible for making water available for their families. The S M Sehgal Foundation initiated the
formation of women’s collectives in all five blocks of the district in 2014.These women collectives comprised women who are
representatives in Panchayats, school management committees, village health sanitation and nutrition committeesand other
governance institutions. These women decided to build a water tank for resolving the severe scarcity of water in the village for
which they collectively raised money.

Stakeholders
• Financial support for construction of infrastructure was provided by Leo and Heather Smith, US-based philanthropists.

• S M Sehgal Foundation facilitated the project in both villages.

• The women’s collective mobilised the community members to select the site of tank construction and also provided
financial support. They have also taken responsibility to monitor the construction work and maintenance of the tank in the
future.

52
 They had already been equipped to participate in the
development processes of their villages through trainings
and discussions held earlier by the foundation. In the case
of the water tank, the women’s collective went door to door

Approach and Methodology and collected INR 6,000 from the community. They also
raised a request with the sarpanch (village headman) for a
The Sehgal Foundation raised funds for the tank in Mundaka contribution to the cost of the tank from the government fund.
from Leo and Heather Smith. Community meetings at the This request led to an allocation of INR 15,000.
village were held, which were attended mostly by men.
Several disagreements among the village’s men led to a lack Sehgal Foundation raised the remaining funds and designed

of constructive communication. At this point, the Mundaka the model for the construction of a water tank. The water

women’s collective (mahila sangathan) took charge of the tank consists of a bio sand filtration system for water

implementation of the project. purification and has a storage capacity of 50,000 litres.
Construction was completed in two months.

Results and outcomes

The 109 households in Mundaka have continued using
the tank water till date. This intervention has benefitted
the community by ensuring constant availability of
clean drinking water in the village. It has also reduced
the economic burden on the village residents. The
sequence of events in the project has helped women
participate in the community and collectively solve the
problems. They have promised to maintain the tank
and have also opened a bank account in the name of a
mahila sangathan member to manage the finances for
future maintenance.

By
Shruti Kapoor
S M Sehgal Foundation

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 53
Bore-well pooling by farmers to address
water security
Equitable sharing of groundwater for sustainable agriculture in AP and Telangana

Background
In erstwhile Andhra Pradesh (now Telangana and Andhra Pradesh), arid to semi-arid weather, deep hard rock aquifers, power
and monetary subsidies to farmers and absence of any formal legislation/ social regulation to govern water extraction have
resulted in competitive bore-well digging. Such rampant extraction has gravely exacerbated the already stressed groundwater
situation in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Much of the discourse around groundwater management for irrigation has been
limited to developing more groundwater sources, i.e. digging more bore-wells. At the same time, changing food habits have also
prompted farmers to switch to water-intensive crops such as paddy.

Andhra Pradesh suffers from water scarcity as the permissible levels for drawing ground water are at 40 per cent, but the state
draws about 58 per cent. Changes in the rainfall distribution have led to frequent crop losses in low rainfall areas of the state.

In this context, WASSAN (Watershed Support Services and Activities Network), which is partly supported by Arghyam, engaged
with farmers in three districts in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh to create a sustainable model for resource sharing and
groundwater management.The project was functional from January 2011 to December 2013.

In Mehbubnagar district, 57 farmers in three villages pooled their 132 acres of land. In Anantapur district, 67 farmers owning
328 acres pooled their groundwater resources and in Ranga Reddy district 18 farmers with 45 acres.

54
 and diverse crops (for example, from paddy to groundnut);
adoption of micro-irrigation systems such as sprinklers and
drips.

They had already been equipped to participate in the

development processes of their villages through trainings
and discussions held earlier by the foundation. In the case of
the water tank, the women’s collective went door to door and
collected INR 6,000 from the community. They also raised a
request with the sarpanch (village headman) for a contribution
to the cost of the tank from the government fund. This request
led to an allocation of INR 15,000.

Sehgal Foundation raised the remaining funds and designed

the model for the construction of a water tank. The water tank
consists of a bio sand filtration system for water purification
and has a storage capacity of 50,000 litres. Construction was
completed in two months.
Stakeholders
The major partners involved in this project were - Approach and Methodology
WASSAN: Creation of a sustainable model for resource The villages identified in these districts – both with and
sharing and groundwater management; bringing farmers without access to groundwater – faced an increasingly
together through voluntary compliance. precarious livelihood situation. WASSAN brought the farmers
Arghyam: Providing strategic and financial support towards together through a system of voluntary compliance and using
the initiative. a shared network of ‘bore-well pooling’ to address access
to critical irrigation water, uncertainties in agriculture and
Farmers/bore-well owners: Agreeing to the linkage of seasonal migration.
bore-wells through distribution pipes; switching to sustainable

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 55
The interventions included the following broad steps: laying pipelines from the network to every field within
the collective, thus assuring critical irrigation to all
(i) Identifying farmers with bore wells was the first step,
areas under bore well pooling. This also required the
and then creating a collective of well owners and non-
establishment of cost-sharing norms for the network’s
well-owning farmers. Bore-wells were pooled through a
maintenance. Farmers agreed to a moratorium on new
common pipeline network, and it was agreed that water
bore wells for a stipulated period of time.
would be shared amongst all.
Each collective was formalised through Memorandum
(ii) Hydrogeology training, establishment of norms, and
of Understanding (MoU), signed by each member in the
capacity-building was necessary to map bore wells,
presence of the local Mandal Revenue Officer (MRO).
aquifers, and rain-fed areas. Groundwater sharing norms
Further, each collective set up a bank account that held a
were devised and put in place along with a system for
common fund for the O&M costs of the bore well network.
maintenance and enforcement. Building institutions for
conflict resolution and building technical capacities in
Financing and institutional mechanism
groundwater measurements was also done during this
phase. Mehbubnagar and Anantapur districts required the total
project investment of INR 2.1 lakh (around INR 5,000
(iii) Promotion of soil conservation practices included per acre) for bore-well pooling. Micro irrigation sets were
practices such as crop-residue management, green provided at subsided costs through the Andhra Pradesh Micro
manure composting and generating adequate biomass. Irrigation Project (APMIP). Seeds were provided from the
Trees were introduced for diversification and to reduce National Food Security Mission (NFSM) budget and National
evaporation losses. Micro-irrigation systems were Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) funds were
promoted as sustainable forms of farming. Farmers were used to construct the water storage structures (pipelines
also encouraged to make better crop choices and switch were laid, trenches were dug and the cost of the material was
to more appropriate crops for the region. covered by NREGS. For O&M, farmers who owned bore-wells
(iv) Establishing the bore-well network was done by mapping contributed INR 200 per acre annually and non-bore well
agricultural land and connecting bore- wells, and then owners paid around INR 1000 per acre annually.

56
Results and outcomes
The outcomes and lessons from this intervention are as (iv) Assured livelihoods and reduced migration: By
follows: ensuring critical irrigation for both seasons, bore-
(i) Reduced pumping time: Bore-well pumping well pooling decreased the incidence of seasonal
hours dropped by around a third leading to both migration. In Malkaipeta Thanda bore-well pooling
water and power savings in Gorantlavaripalli one was able to provide a reliable livelihood to farmers
of the intervention villages. The overall reduction in without access to groundwater. These farmers would
pumping hours was 25 per cent. otherwise have migrated in search of work.

(ii) Improved water availability, use efficiency and

Sustainability and scaling
crop productivity: In Chellapur village, after four
agricultural seasons, the irrigated area doubled Technology interventions such as bore-well pooling
and the grain production increased by 240 per should be examined through the groundwater
cent. Fodder production also increased threefold. In governance lens. WASSAN’s bore-well pooling
Gorantlivaripalli, availability of small scale irrigation intervention fleshes out the interconnections between
during critical periods increased by 41 per cent. the three different pillars of groundwater governance:
About 10 per cent of the existing fallow land was technology, capacities, and systems. It showed that
also brought under cultivation post intervention. Area technology can only thrive in an environment where
under paddy declined and that under groundnut capacities (resource understanding and management)
increased. In Kumaravandlapali, there was an and systems (social regulation and cost sharing norms)
increase in agricultural water use efficiency. The have been put in place. Hence it will be necessary to
total area under cultivation also increased. unpack the groundwater governance framework for
different hydrogeology and socio-economic settings and
(iii) Rise in groundwater levels: Groundwater
identify the pre-conditions necessary for a technology
levels also returned to within the safe zone. In
innovation to thrive.
Kumaravandlapali, groundwater levels rose by
2.06m between 2011 and 2013. Water levels This initiative has set the tone for further experimentation
in MalkaipetaThanda also rose one bore-well in groundwater collectivisation and technology innovation.
registered a water level rise of 2.32m between 2010 In 2012 this model of collective sharing groundwater
and 2013. was also adopted by the Indira Jala Prabha, the Andhra
Government’s flagship programme.

By
Radhika Viswanathan
Arghyam and WASSAN

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 57
“Water management is our responsibility
and our right”
Water planning and budgeting by empowered Jal Sahelis in Bundelkhand

Background
The Bundelkhand region in North India is presently known as water- starved terrain. A persistent drought situation in the area
has not been addressed by the drought declaration criteria or drought management manual of the state. In such a condition,
the burden of fetching and managing water becomes the primary responsibility of women for managing their household chores
and fulfilling family water needs despite the fact that they have no equitable say in the decision-making process of water
management.
Against this backdrop, the Parmarth Samaj Sevi Sansthan sought to reduce the vulnerability of the community by securing
water through women’s participation. The project area, comprising three districts, faced approximately 50 percent deficit in
annual rainfall.

Stakeholders
The primary stakeholders in the project were representatives from Jal Saheli Network and the Pani Panchayats which
were community-based organizations of the region. The Parmarth Samaj Sevi Sansthan (PSSS) is a national civil society
organisation working in the Bundelkhand region. The project was financially supported by the European Union.

Approach and Methodology

The execution of this strategy- decentralisation of water resource management- has played a crucial role in improving
community resilience and decreasing the adverse impacts of climate change. To this end, Parmarth created water livelihood

58
 CASE STUDY: Community
management of water in Budawni
For the last few years, Budawni village in Talbehat
block, Lalitpur district, was facing water scarcity. Pani
Panchayat and Jal Saheli prepared the water security
plan of this village through a participatory approach.
During the mapping phase, the Pani Panchayat outlined
the demand and supply side of the water, and prepared
an action plan. It was implemented by the committee
members through revival of traditional water bodies in
the village, such as a traditional pond (with the support
linkage models incorporating the critical dimension of
of the Panchayat) and a check dam (with the support of
community participation. A bottom-up approach enabled the
the project). This initiative taken by the Pani Panchayat
incorporation of the traditional water management process.
Committee has changed the lives of the marginalised
Women’s participation in decision-makingprocess at all levels farmers and now the villagers are acknowledging the
was essential in this approach. Creation of a distinguishable leadership of the Pani Panchayat.
representative for women’s voice in democratic institutions
can, in the long term, led to a positive impact on livelihood capacity-building, technical training, and this exposure
opportunities. created awareness about water and livelihood rights and
IWRM techniques. The training input also enhanced their
Interventions
understanding of technical design, management, and
The interventions under the project aimed at achieving water maintenance of traditional water bodies. This also enabled
and food security. The project also aimed to make a transition women leaders for formation of Water Security Plans,
in the role of women, from arranging water for individual including gender empowerment (gender-based water
household units to managing water for the overall community. budgeting). It also envisaged that they would be able to
The major intervention was the preparation of a water identify, create, and revive water bodies with community
security plan, which included an action plan for ensuring participation. Overall water availability improved through
water security and sustainability of the village. About 2,000 renovation of 30 old water structures and creation of 20 new
women leaders were trained and empowered through water structures.

Results and outcomes

• The women collectives prepared 56 water security families in accessing safe drinking water.
plans which were incorporated in the Village • Improved water availability and food security for 6,760
Panchayat plans households of 60 villages. It improved the situation of
• Land bunding of length 4000m was executed in 11 women directly in these 60 project villages and 200
villages, benefiting 61 targeted families other villages through promotion of network of Jal
• As a result of water security plans, 11 earthen bunds Saheli.
and seven new check dams were created
• About 42 hand-pumps became functional after re- Sustainability
boring, allowing 121 families to access safe drinking The strategy aimed to establish accountable community
water women-led formal institutions which would be supported
• Also approximately 76 hand-pumps were repaired by the village and caste heads and Panchayati Raj
and platforms were constructed, benefitting 1287 bodies.

By
Sanjay Singh
Parmarth Samaj Sevi Sansthan

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 59
Jal Sabhas of Thar defy climate change
A success story of community-led water management system in Gujarat and Rajasthan

Background
The Marwar region of the Thar Desert in Western India has the lowest water endowment in Rajasthan. Rainfall is sparse with an
annual average of 200 mm; groundwater is saline and unsuitable for drinking as well as agriculture. With the changing climate,
droughts have become more frequent with the region witnessing six drought years in the last decade.
This project was planned in response to the rising global temperatures estimated to increase up to 4°Celsius in the Thar Desert
by 2050.The project was implemented in Potaliya, Gangawas, Thumbli and Kalawatsar villages of Marwar region between
October 2013 and December 2014.

Stakeholders
The village community, led by the Jal Sabha (village level water users’ association) was the primary stakeholder in the project.
The Jal Bhagirathi Foundation (JBF) facilitated creation of the Jal Sabha, and acted as a catalyst, facilitator and support system
for the project. The project was supported by The Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Limited (HSBC India).

Approach and Methodology

As groundwater in the Thar Desert is extremely saline and unsuitable for drinking as well as agriculture, impounding water
harvesting structures that hold water on the surface were constructed in the project villages. These structures included:
• Talab or Nadi which are ponds dug at a natural depression in the land to collect water from large catchment areas.
• Tanka or underground tanks, constructed for collecting and storing runoff water from natural or artificial catchments or from
a rooftop.
• Beri or shallow percolation wellsnear ponds for recharging clean water into the wells.
A ‘Community Led Water Management System’ was developed in the villages which tapped runoff from the catchment

60
 well) to filter the water from talab, thereby making it potable
and ensuring year-round availability, and two school tankas to
ensure water availability for children during school hours.
To enable household-level water availability, 108 tankas were
constructed in houses across the four villages. The project
also addressed the interrelated issue of sanitation.
• A total of 302 toilets were constructed across the four
villages.
• Households were mobilised to construct some 200 soak
pits for liquid waste management and ensure hygienic
disposal of the waste water from houses

area which could be an agor (catchment area), gauchar • A liquid drainage system was constructed in village
(grassland) or oran (sacred forest), through water or feeder Potaliya for the disposal of water and prevention of water
channels to a surface-water harvesting structure, namely, logging, a first of its kind in the region.
talab (village pond) or nadi (grassland pond) located at the • In addition, two village level soak pits were designed
outskirts of the village. This system ensured that every drop of and constructed in the heart of villages for liquid waste
water falling on the catchment area was diverted to the water disposal.
harvesting structure.
The remarkable characteristic of this intervention was that
Simultaneously, catchment areas of these above mentioned the community raised between 30-70 per cent of the cost
structures that acted as the repositories of biodiversity involved in water and sanitation projects, and this amount
were developed to improve efficiency of water harvesting. was further deposited in the Jal Sabha’s bank account named
Village pasture lands were revived and communities were as Jal Kosh, ensuring transparency in financial transactions.
encouraged to plant local variety of grass and trees to create JBF funded the balance cost after completion of the project.
availability of fodder for livestock. This financial contribution from the community into the project
The project supported a total of eight community-level water assets helped foster ownership and ensured buy-in from
harvesting structures including three ponds (talab/nadi), two the community, reinforcing their commitment to long-term
check dams to harvest water from hillocks, one beri (recharge management of the infrastructure created.

Results and outcomes

The project reached out to 5,100 direct beneficiaries month as they no longer needed to buy water.
across the four villages and 3,550 indirect beneficiaries • The water in the household tanka stayed cool and
living in adjacent villages. The project outcomes were– was less affected by impurities and contamination.
• Inclusive Jal Sabhas (water user associations) with • Sanitation facilities in all four villages improved,
participation of marginalized sections and women allowing women to have privacy and the option to
were facilitated and capacitated in the four villages. relieve themselves at their convenience any time
At least 20 per cent of the Jal Sabha members were during the day.
women.
• Water harvesting capacity of 48,883 cubic metres
• Women saved 3 – 4 hours per day which otherwise created in talab (ponds), storage capacity of 1.2
was spent for procuring water. million litres created in household tankas, 77,000 litre
• Beneficiaries could now save INR 500 - 800 per water harvesting capacity created in the school and
community tanka.

By
Kanupriya Harish, Jal Bhagirathi Foundation
Aloka Majumdar, The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Limited, India

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 61
62
 Section III
Water harvesting structures
The ancient Indian architecture had an inbuilt component of water harvesting structures based on local terrain,
geology and weather conditions. These structures played a vital role in capturing rain water and storing it
for use over longer period. However these traditional water harvesting structures disappeared with time thus
leaving communities with the challenges of water scarcity. In such a scenario, rainwater holds the potential to
address this issue in a sustainable manner. Therefore, it needs to be harvested to replenish and sustain both
groundwater and surface water reserves as it has direct bearing on the agricultural productivity.

This section includes stories based on various water harvesting measures adopted in diverse ecologies to
improve water access and agriculture. In Rajasthan and Gujarat, a host of site-specific measures like khadins,
percolation wells and sub – surface dykes were adopted to improve water availability. Most of these structures
capture surface runoff and store it to be used later. This helped farmers to harvest additional crop yields
and also increase livestock holdings. Similarly in Kerala, a sub – surface dyke (differing from the one built in
Rajasthan) was useful in arresting sub-surface flow of water which earlier used to flow directly into the sea due
to the undulating topography.
Dobhas of Jharkhand were another example of in-situ water conservation by small farmers to harvest
rainwater and improve their agricultural yields. Development of village-level integrated natural resource
management plans, crop diversification and value chain development were additional interventions alongside
on-farm water conservation structures to increase incomes of tribal families. The revival of traditional water
conservation structures by marginalised communities of Bihar, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh helped them
improve their economic status remarkably. Relatedly, widespread adoption of low cost masonry structures
helped in augmenting the groundwater in arid regions of Rajasthan.

All these examples clearly describe the benefits of such efforts, reinforcing the importance of traditional
wisdom in capturing rainwater according to the local terrain, climate, appropriate structure selection,
community involvement and adoption of an integrated approach.

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 63
Drip System - Kheda nainpura- Seawariya

Site specific water conservation structures

Witnessing dual impact on community and environment in arid Rajasthan and Gujarat

Background
With an average annual rainfall of mere 317 mm Rajasthan is the most arid part of the country. Since there are no major surface
water bodies like rivers, lakes or canals, rainfall and groundwater is the principal water source for domestic, agriculture and
industrial purposes throughout the year.
In Pali and Nagaur districts, the average annual rate of depletion of groundwater table exceeded 0.4 m. This over-extraction
of groundwater led to deterioration in the water quality. Similarly, Kodinar district in Gujarat is characterised by highly erratic
rainfall, aridity, and seawater intrusion due to excessive withdrawal of groundwater from coastal aquifers for irrigation. There
have been critical problems of freshwater availability in the state of Gujarat since 1970.
With this as the background, Ambuja Cement Foundation (ACF) started projects in Rajasthan (since 2002) and Gujarat (1993
onwards) to promote land and water resource management and to encourage community ownership of local water resources.

Stakeholders
• Ambuja Cements Ltd: Provided technical and financial support to ACF’s projects.
• Communities: Participated in planning and implementation of projects which led to their ownership, paving the way for
long term sustainability.
• Partner organisations: ACF has partnered with the Governments of Gujarat and Rajasthan to implement water resource
management and agro-based livelihood programmes. ACF received some project-based funding and knowledge support
from organisations like Sir Ratan Tata Trust (SRTT), Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Limited (SSNL), Water and Sanitation
Management Oroganisation (WASMO) and Department of Rural Development, Rajasthan.

64
 use. Its main feature is a very long (100-300m) earthen
embankment built across the lower hill slopes lying below
gravelly uplands. The channels allow excess water to
drain off. The khadin system is based on the principle of
harvesting rainwater on farmland and subsequent use of this
water-saturated land for crop production. In the project area,
16 khadins were constructed by ACF.

2. Farm ponds: A farm pond is a structure for harvesting

runoff water from local field to ensure supplementary
irrigation during dry spells. One pond can irrigate 1.5-2.0 ha
land.

3. Check dams: This is an embankment constructed across

the drainage to store rainwater for agriculture purpose and
for groundwater recharge.

4. Subsurface dykes: ACF constructed subsurface dykes

(Subsurface barrier in the sandy river bed) in Pali district
for the conservation and utilisation of groundwater. It is an
example of technology for groundwater conservation for
rivers having sandy bed in arid and semi-arid regions of
Approach and Methodology Rajasthan
The main thrust of the project comprised two objectives-
to elicit community participation and ownership; and to
construct site-specific water conservation structures that
would ease water scarcity and increase availability of water
for agriculture.
Owing to differences in topography such as terrain,
rainfall and existing water bodies, the nature of rainwater
conservation activities in Rajasthan and Gujarat were
different. The following were some of the site-specific
structures constructed to address challenges in these two
states:

Interventions in Rajasthan
1. Khadin: Commonly used in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.
Also known as dhora, a khadin is an indigenous structure Sketch of a subsurface dyke
designed to harvest surface runoff water for agriculture

5. Percolation well: The purpose of a percolation well is

to recharge groundwater. A positive impact on groundwater
recharge was observed due to these percolation wells which
resulted in more area being brought under cultivation.

6. Promotion of micro-irrigation: Better irrigation

methodologies like the use of sprinkler and drip irrigation
have been also promoted to ensure that water is used
judiciously in farms. Increased availability of water has led to
farmers growing up to 3 crops in some areas.

Sketch of a Khadin structure

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 65
Interventions in Gujarat and reduction in salinity ingress. It served an area of 1,067
hectares through increased availability of water through a
The major focus in Kodinar region wasto construct a series
storage capacity of 1.41 MCM of water.
of check dams on all rivers of the region. Percolation wells
were constructed in ponds and riverbeds to enhance the 2. Interlinking projects in coastal areas of Kodinar/
potential ground water recharge. Further, farmers were Sutrapada regions
encouraged to recharge their wells. Deepening of ponds
This project was conceptualised and initiated in the villages
and construction of waste weirs increased the water storage
of Kodinar with widening and deepening of a rivulet and
capacity of the traditional ponds. Construction of nalla plug,
interlinking of ponds. It was further scaled-up with a larger
small check dams, was undertaken on small rivulets to
project of interlinking of rivers and reservoir/ tidal regulators
increase recharge. All the measures were executed in an
through construction of a spreading channel. This was done
integrated manner and in a pre-defined, fixed area.
in partnership with Salinity Control Department.
1. Shingoda – II, Pickup Weir III (Bhekheshwar Dam)
3. Conversion of minedout pit in water reservoir
Shingoda – II is minor irrigation project constructed by ACF
Mined-out pits were converted into reservoirs by linking
under the Irrigation Department’s Sardar Patel Participatory
nearby local streams which created water storage capacity
Water Harvesting Scheme. This project benefitted six
of more than 10 MCM in the pits.
coastal villages of Kodinar through groundwater recharge

Community meeting in Koteriya village

66
 Results and outcomes
• As indicted above, several site-specific water The results from this work were remarkable:
conservation structures were constructed in • Farmers in some coastal villages were able to
Rajasthan and Gujarat. Table 1 describes the cultivate 2-3 crops as compared to a single crop in
interventions in the two states: the past, resulting in enhanced incomes.
• The local community people proactively looked
Table 1: Water conservation structures constructed by ACF in after maintenance of traditional water bodies
Rajasthan and Gujarat
• Farmers owning wells within the influence area of
Water conservation structures Number constructed the subsurface dyke increased livestock holding by
Check dam construction / 274 55 per cent. Kharif crops grown on the khadin bed
Renovation
gave much higher yield and net return as compared
Construction of dykes 20 to those cultivated outside khadin area.
Well recharging / Percolation well 1,301
• Drinking water availability at household level
Construction / Renovation of ponds 390
reduced drudgery of women who earlier used to
Link Channels / Canals construction 69 spend 1 to 4 hours per day to collect water. Annual
Water storage tank / Farm ponds 1,917 family expenditure on water purchase and on
Khadin Bund 10 medicines to cure water borne diseases was also
Micro and improved irrigation 2,939 hectares reduced.

By
Sunil Kumar Rana
Ambuja Cement Foundation

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 67
Augmenting groundwater resources through
subsurface dyke
Dyke construction to capture rain runoff in undulating topography of Kerala

Background
Kerala’s undulating topography has resulted in formation of rainwater drainage as surface and subsurface runoff to nearby
streams and rivers. Kerala receives annual average rainfall of 300 cm through the two monsoons from June to December.
Excess water received during this short span of time goes unutilised after recharging the groundwater into the Arabian Sea.
During the rainy season, the water table usually rises to nearly 1-2 m below the ground surface in the midlands and gradually
recedes after the cessation of rainfall. Much of the water stored in the soil escapes to the lower portion of the valley, from where
it drains into rivers and streams.
The research farm of the Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Station, Odakkali, Kerala Agricultural University faced severe
water scarcity for irrigation of coconut palms. The project aimed to harvest sub-surface runoff and store it beneath the soil to
meet irrigation requirements of the farm.

Approach and Methodology

Naturally flowing groundwater, if arrested by the construction of an impermeable dyke, could augment the supply of available
groundwater which can be used for irrigation. Wells can then yield more water for longer time during summer. In contrast to
the conventional method of storing water in an open reservoir by building a dam across a river to collect the surface runoff, a
subsurface dyke arrests the sub-surface flow of water andstores it below ground level.

Construction of a subsurface dyke

The main objective of this intervention encircled harvesting and conserving the sub-surface runoff during rainy season at the

68
 Figure 1 Cross sectional view of the underground dam

Research Station. The topographical features of the site To ensure the safety of the wall and prevent overturning,
have ideal formations for the construction of a dyke. the trenches on either side were packed tightly with river
sand. An open well of diameter 4 m and depth 6 m was
A subsurface dyke for tapping groundwater was constructed
constructed at the upstream end of the dam, 1.5 m away
at the premises of the Research Station, under a
from the wall and approximately at the centre of its run. A
groundwater project assisted by the Swedish International
drainage channel was provided at the downstream side to
Development Agency (SIDA). Following a detailed study of
drain surface water. The static water level and the draw-
the site conditions, an appropriate structure was designed
down during pumping were observed in different observation
and constructed.
wells in the upstream and downstream sides. The results
A subsurface dyke of length 75 m was constructed from brick implied that lateral seepage towards the downstream
masonry so as to arrest subsurface flow of water. A sheet of side was substantially reduced by the wall, and that water
black polyethylene (HDPE) was provided upstream so as to was conserved in the upstream side, thereby creating an
test its feasibility as an additional lining to the brick wall (see increase in the groundwater table.
Figure 1). Observation wells (piezometers) were installed
The technical feasibility of this subsurface dyke for tapping
upstream and downstream, and in between the dam and the
groundwater was subsequently undertaken by the Research
polyethylene sheet.
Station. Observations are continuing since then.

Results and outcomes

The dam continues to function well. The main static water The dam powerfully arrested subsurface flow, as was
level in the upstream piezometers was 88 cm above that evident from the abundant amounts of water in the
in the downstream piezometers during summer months, upstream well. Water from the well was used in a drip
implying that water was conserved in the upstream side, system to irrigate coconut palms. The quantum of water
causing an increase in groundwater table levels. Pumping drawn and additional return due to irrigation from the
tests revealed that the downstream wells were unaffected crops are being monitored for assessing the long-term
by pumping, indicating that the wall and polyethylene sheet cost benefit ration of the dyke. No water was available for
were leakage-proof and did not allow water to pass through irrigation at the site before its construction, suggesting that
it. this was a suitable method to conserve groundwater in
Kerala, and in line with its unique topography.

By
K. P. Visalakshi
Kerala Agricultural University

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 69
Integrated natural resource management in
Jharkhand
Improving farm productivity and incomes through rainwater harvesting and land
husbandry practices

Background
The region under agro-climatic zone VII in India is characterised by undulating, hilly terrain and high rainfall that causes soil
erosion and drought in many parts of the area because of less availability of water storage facilities, and poor land and water
management. The greater part of this region falls under severely eroded areas. The agriculture is entirely rain-fed, mono-
cropped, and is characterised with low levels of productivity. Recent trends of monsoon uncertainty and skewed distribution of
rainfall have worsened the situation. PRADAN implemented a project from 2009 to 2013 to address these issues in Godda,
Lohardaga, Dumka, Khunti and Gumla districts of Jharkhand. A large number of women were already mobilised by PRADAN
into Self Help Groups (SHGs) and were linked to the banks. Most family structures included in the project were of small
or marginal farmers with low agricultural productivity. The average land holding of the community in the area is about 1 ha
including unproductive degraded upland and medium uplands totally dependent on the erratic rains.

Stakeholders
The families belonged to the Scheduled Tribe, Scheduled Caste and Other Backward Classes. The project received financial
resources from Swarnajayanti Grameen Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) programme of the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD),
Government of India. Jharkhand State Livelihood Promotion Society (JSLPS) was the nodal agency for the routing of funds
and monitoring of the project. PRADAN had played an instrumental role in project. PRADAN had played an instrumental role in
project.

70
 Interventions
1. Soil and water conservation through:
• Plantations (fruit trees/relevant timber/lac hosts)
in privately owned fallow/ wastelands, supported
by 30’ X 40’ model on degraded uplands. In this
model, the un-bunded and un-terraced uplands that
have 3–8 per cent slope are divided into small plots
of 30’ along the slope by 40’ across the slope.
• 5 per cent Model in medium lands to support rain
fed cultivation. This model is an in-situ rainwater
harvesting method which holds the surface run-
off within the farm plot and provides life saving
irrigation in case of dry spells.
Approach and Methodology • Land husbandry in upland, medium upland and
PRADAN assisted the households to formulate long-term homesteads to improve the soil and conserve
perspective plans for their village based on the Integrated moisture. This included gully-plugging, terracing,
Natural Resource Management (INRM) approach. The land levelling-bunding, contour bunding, and land
approach involved optimising the use of the natural treatment (such as liming, increasing organic
resources while maximising incomes included social, matter, dealing with micro-nutrient deficiencies).
resource and livelihood mapping and activity planning at the • Seepage tanks in lowlands, valleys and small
hamlet level. earthen dams on local drainage lines for harvesting
surface run off and sub-surface seepage water.
The implementation strategy included (a) Visioning • Micro-irrigation using surface water stream
and livelihood planning exercises with SHG members flows and the rainwater harvested. This provided
in the project villages; (b) Preparation of a Detailed irrigation to the kharif crops and enabled small-
Implementation Plan for each village; (c) Development of a scale cash crop cultivation in rabi and summer
group of Community-based Resource Persons (CRPs) to seasons.
provide technical support; and, (d) Capacity building of the 2. Improving agricultural productivity through the System
community through exposure visits and on field training. of Rice Intensification (SRI) method.

Results and outcomes

Availability of irrigation facilities helped farmers in taking Sustainability and scaling up
up diverse crops throughout the year in a planned manner. PRADAN has been working actively on this approach
Introduction of suitable crop combinations stabilised soil in Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
nutrient status and led to income enhancement. West Bengal, and Bihar. Since the project was designed
• Around 1,270 ha plantations were supported by on the INRM approach, the project could be replicated
30X40 model and about 675 ha of land was treated specially in the central and eastern plateau and the hilly
with 5 per cent model regions across the southeastern part of Rajasthan, most
• More than 1,300 well/ river based micro-irrigation of Madhya Pradesh (MP), Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, South
systems and about 2,970 seepage tanks were set up Bihar and western West Bengal. Almost all interventions
• More than 22,000 families benefitted by improved undertaken were initially covered by INRM but now are
cultivation of paddy and other cereals in 8,450 ha of covered under MGNREGA, a nation-wide demand driven
land in the five districts. flagship program of Government of India with huge
financial outlay.
• Vegetable cultivation in 2,450 ha of land benefitted
about 20,500 farmer families.

By
PRADAN

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 71
Transforming tribal villages of Jharkhand
under the SAFAL programme
A comprehensive package of efficient water management practices, modern agricultural
inputs and value chain development to improve tribal livelihoods

Background
Located on the eastern side of the country, Jharkhand is one of India’s most mineral- rich states but also one of the most
backward states. The agricultural economy of Jharkhand is characterised by dependence on nature, low investment, low
productivity, mono cropping with paddy as the dominant crop, inadequate irrigation facilities and small and marginal holdings.
Agricultural activities depend largely on rainfall and 85-90 percent of the total cultivated area is yet to come under irrigation.
Despite the fact that the State has a good rainfall, surface water availability for agriculture is inadequate due to lack of
appropriate rainwater harvesting and storage infrastructure.
Creating water infrastructure alone cannot suffice to raise agricultural productivity. Farmers need improved access to inputs
including fertilizers, improved seeds and credit. They need better education and information on the use of these inputs and
the latest techniques of production. Investments in water management need to be planned and implemented in the much
broader framework for agricultural and rural development, where production, markets, finance and infrastructure are conceived
holistically and are mutually supporting.
Under the above scenario, CIPT and the Birsa Agricultural University (BAU) initiated a Sustainable Agriculture and Farmers’
Livelihood (SAFAL) Programme in the state. The aim of this programme was to transform the village economy and livelihoods
by promoting the use of modern inputs.

72
 is posited to have access to five types of assets: human,
physical, social, financial, natural. Once this framework and
its connection with people is understood then interventions
can be put in place to enhance their livelihood, capabilities
and sustainability, perhaps by increasing the means and
capital available or by reducing vulnerability. Thus this process
is about understanding the current situation and developing
suggestions for improvement. CIPT- BAU has carried out
intensive field visit in Ranchi district to assess the agriculture
practices followed by the farmers along with challenges
they face in farming sector related to access of information,
irrigation, treatment of seeds and markets etc.

The SAFAL model (see Figure 2) explains the causes of

continued poverty amongst farmers and indicates how inputs
Stakeholders can turn around this situation.
The Centers for International Projects Trust (CIPT), New Delhi
SAFAL focused on building and developing skills and
was the main implementing organisation, with BAU, Ranchi
assets of both men and women so that more avenues
as the technical knowledge partner. The SAFAL programme
for income generation and thus a better livelihood can be
was financially supported by USAID. Tribal farmers were the
generated. SAFAL portfolio comprised policies, incentives
key stakeholders as they were the implementers on ground.
and interventions for cultivating resilience among the farmer
community and thereby ensuring the robustness of the
Approach and Methodology system.
Sustainable agricultural sector encompasses protection
Some details of the activities are described below.
and assurance of the stable means of rural livelihood. Many
livelihood frameworks are developed of which the most 1. Introduction of high-yielding seeds
commonly used is DFID’s Sustainable Livelihood Framework
In consultation with the farmers, scientists of BAU and
(SLF) which continues to prove influential today (see Figure
representatives of Pioneer Seed Corporation decided upon
1). At the core of sustainable livelihood approach is the
one variety each of rice (27P31 variety) and maize (30R77
assessment of different capitals that justify livelihood at
variety). Based on the willingness of the farmers to opt for rice
the individual, household or village levels. A household
or maize, 320 farmers were selected for rice cultivation and

Figure 1 Sustainable livelihood framework (DFID, 2001)

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 73
310 farmers for cultivating maize. Apart from making seeds (GKMS) were displayed on the display boards twice a week.
and water available, the farmers trained on the standard The bulletin contained weather forecasts for the next 5 days
operating practices and techniques realizing the potential and relevant farm advisories. In addition, daily advisories
yield out of the introduced crop varieties. through SMS were also provided.

2. In-situ conservation of rain-water

Dobhas, traditional watershed management structures,

store rain water which can be used for irrigation during the
non- rainy periods. The infiltration from these structures also
provided recharge to subsurface aquifers which eventually
helps in increasing soil moisture availability and to sustain
water levels in dobhas. The SAFAL programme has helped
in providing assured water for irrigation. Since Jharkhand
agriculture enjoyed very meagre irrigation potential (10-12%),
hence this technique was promoted among the farmers of
the selected villages. Twenty sites (two in each village) were
identified with the consent of farmers for constructing small
water harvesting ponds of the size 10’ x10’ x10’.

3. Weather related crop advisories

To overcome the limited access to weather and climate

related information, a wooden display board has been
installed in each of the SAFAL villages to provide weekly
weather information to the farmers. Weather based agro-
met advisory bulletins prepared by BAU under the Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD) – Ministry of Earth
Sciences (MoES) project ‘Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa Weather station installed at BAU

Figure 2 SAFAL Model (CIPT, New Delhi)

74
 Results and outcomes
By acting upon the major barriers identified in the socio- under irrigation. Water harvested in the wells (dobhas)
economic assessment undertaken by BAU, CIPT was able enabled farmers in the region tide over the water scarcity
to address various socio-economic issues of the farmers. faced during water scarce months. In addition, farmers
SAFAL programme resulted in: were provided with modern inputs like seeds, weather
and market information. This built resilience of local
• Increased access to water
communities in the region.
• Climate resilient communities
• Better yields and high income Sustainability and Scaling up
• Reduced drudgery and capacity Promotion and successful demonstration of indigenous
water harvesting structures (Dobhas) contributed to the
In a post-intervention study carried out by CIPT-BAU,
‘more crop per drop’ principle in line with the government
majority of the farmers reported having being benefitted
policy providing irrigation to every field (Har Khet Ko
from the use of improved seeds. Almost 90 per cent of the
Paani– water in every farm – vision of the Pradhan Mantri
farmers were willing to continue using improved seeds
Krishi Sinchayi Yojna- PMKSY). Combined with use of
in the next season while 88 per cent of the farmers were
modern seeds and inputs, productivity and incomes
willing to buy these seeds by themselves (see Graph 1).
jumped by 2-5 times.
The application and use of low-cost precision technologies
like soil moisture sensors helped in conserving water for
irrigation through better demand management. Coupled
with better management practices and use of improved
varieties of seeds, this resulted in significant improvement
in crop yields. A post-harvest survey indicated that on an
average the yield in paddy increased from 10 quintals per
acre to 50 quintals per acre in most of the SAFAL villages.

The SAFAL programme thus helped in providing assured

water for irrigation and resulted in increase in area Graph 1 Impact of improved seeds

By
Sandeep Dixit, Parisha Budhiraja
Centers for International Projects Trust

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 75
Meeting of pani panchayat

Reviving traditional water structures

Integrated water management for poverty reduction amongst marginalized
communities in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand

Background
Water management has an important role to play in pushing rural people out of vicious poverty cycle. Different regions in
India have to struggle every year either with water abundance like floods or water scarcity like drought, dry spells. Common
challenges of these areas include:
a) Recurrent drought in Bundelkhand (both Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh districts) region and Jharkhand leading to
agricultural loss and food insecurity;
b) Recurring floods in North Bihar leading to agricultural loss and food insecurity;
c) Decline of traditional water harvesting systems: Chandela and Bundela tanks in Bundelkhand, ahar pynes in Jharkhand
and disappearance of traditional water reservoirs and dug wells in flood-affected regions of Bihar;
d) Loss of livelihood, perpetuation of poverty and inequity; and,
e) Lack of access to government programmes.
Funded by the European Union, the project was implemented during 2011-2015. It has addressed two different sets of water
management problems in five districts across three states: Drought in Tikamgarh and Chattarpur districts of the Bundelkhand
region in Madhya Pradesh and Palamu districtin Jharkhand, and floods in flood-prone districts of Madhubani and Saupaulin
North Bihar. In all 30 panchayats and 71 villages were covered.

76
 Integrated water resource management models promoting
rainwater harvesting, surface water conservation,
groundwater recharge, water use efficiency in agriculture,
eco-sanitation and improved water quality were set up. The
emphasis was laid on reviving farmer managed traditional
irrigation systems, particularly the ahar pyne in Jharkhand,
the Chandela tanks in Bundelkhand and, dugwells and
ponds in Bihar, most of which were damaged due to
encroachment and lack of maintenance.

These systems have been socially accepted as they have

the ease to be implemented, maintained, sustained and
provide an affordable solution for the target group to meet
irrigation and drinking water needs without exploiting the

Stakeholders groundwater. These models have been taken up with

tremendous support from community and promise of
The project was implemented by Welthungerhilfe in scaling up under Government programmes. Micro irrigation
partnership with (i) Ghoghardiha Prakhand Swarajya Vikas systems, filter for removing iron, rainwater harvesting models
Sangh (GPSVS) in Bihar; (ii) Parmarth Samaj Sevi Sansthan for drinking purposes and low cost ECOSAN toilets were
in Madhya Pradesh; and (iii) Sampurna Gram Vikas Kendra demonstrated as well.
in Jharkhand.

Other stakeholders involved in the project included the

villagers and their community institutions, Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRIs) and relevant government departments.

Approach and Methodology

The interventions sought to address core problems around
lack of water for agriculture, drinking water and sanitation
and poor water quality. Steps were undertaken so as to have
dual impact in terms of addressing the problem locally and
influencing policy at the higher level. The key elements of the
project strategy included:

• Community management and ownership;

• Using traditional knowledge coupled with modern
science;
• Convergence with government programmes; and,
• Development of water conserving assets.

The interventions were initiated in 2011. Community based

institutions like Pani Panchayats, village development
committees, self-help groups, water, sanitation and hygiene
(WASH) committees and kisan clubs were formed and their
capacities were enhanced.

Villagers were informed about their entitlements and

Central/ State Government development programmes.
Multi stakeholder linkages were brought togetherand
meetings were organised with Government and Panchayat
functionaries for convergence and scaling up.

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 77
 Revival of ahar-pynes
From centuries the Palamu region of Bihar has this unique rainwater conservation system known as the ahar-pyne (ahar
meaning pond and pyne meaning canal). As the region is surrounded by hills, rainwater from the hills would flow down
and fill up the ahars. When the first ahar located just below the hills filled up, the water would get directed to the next ahar
through the pyne, or canal. This ensured water for the farmers, which otherwise would run off into the rivers.
This system worked wonders till 1980s. Subsequently, over the years, various development plans resulted in the
conversion of these systems into roads, wiping off this age-old system. While the villages have now been well connected
with road network but unfortunately it has curtailed water availability in this region. This resulted in parched land and large-
scale migration to cities.
SGVK decided to revive this traditional water system for which two blocks were chosen: Paton and Chainpur. With an
existing strong network in villages, they discussed with the villagers the possibility of reviving the ahar-pyne system and
mobilised action. “Initially, there was skepticism about this idea, but then the villagers agreed,” recalls Vinod Kumar of
SGVK.
In Paton, SGVK began working on setting up Ilaichi Ahar right below Jataha Pahad, a hill that stood like a giant beside
Kararkala village. Kailash Singh Chero, a tribal fellow has contributed two acres of his land to set up the reservoir. Some
500 villagers volunteered to dig up the reservoir for 50 long days. They directed the small streams that brought water from
Jataha Pahad into the Ilaichi Ahar. “For the first time in many years villagers saw so much of water. This is now our asset,”
says Chero.”
The villagers subsequently built Sandal Ahar, below which is now another reservoir, Barka Ahar. Each reservoir has a spill
gate linked with a pyne. So when an upstream reservoir has water, excess water then overflows to the next one through
the pyne. Seven more ahars have been developed one below the other, taking the total number of ahars to a significant
ten.
Eight villages: Kararkala, Kararkhurd, Loenga, Aredana, Sutha, Dandai, Birhori and Rajhara now have water for nearly
5,000 acres of their agricultural lands. From paddy to vegetables, the villagers grow food on their lands and migration
in search of livelihood has declined considerably. Water users committees have been formed to collectively decide on
allocations and settle disputes.
The topography of Chainpur block was comparitively more challenging as it is surrounded by hills but the ahar-pyne
system has worked well. The community here comprised mostly of tribal population. It took five months for 150 villagers
to complete the system. More than 250 acres of land of villagers situated below the reservoir draws water from the ahar.
Subsequently more ahar-pyne systems have been set up.

Story by Santosh Kumar Chiro

Revival of Chandela tank

78
 Reviving tradition in Tikamgarh
“Ye Talab hai to jeevan hai” (If this pond exists life exists) says Ramswaroop, villager from Kanti.

The main occupation of residents of Kanti village in Tikamgarh district of Madhya Pradesh (with a population of 600 plus,
predominantly belonging to Scheduled Caste and the Sahariya tribe) is farming, livestock rearing and wage earning.

On the upper side of village, there is a pond from the Chandela period some 1,200 years ago named Baijana. Chandelas
and Bundelas were the two major dynasties in the region who took keen interest in conserving water for supporting
livelihoods and development. Chandela tanks were constructed by stopping the flow of water in rivulets flowing between
hills by erecting massive earthen embankments, with a width of 60m to 120m or more. These hills with long stretches
of quartz reefs running underneath them acted as natural groundwater barriers helping to trap water between the
ridges. The earthen embankments supported on both sides with walls of coarse stones, forming a series of stone steps.
Chandela tanks usually used to have a convex curvature somewhere in the middle of the embankment and were often
constructed near human settlements or near the slopes of a cluster of hills. These tanks served to satisfy the drinking
water needs of villagers and livestock.

Over the years the tanks were silted up and became illegally occupied. Catchment areas have also been encroached.
These tanks have faced gross neglect by the Government as well as the community.

The Baijana tank used to meet the needs of this village and also recharge handpumps. With the neglect of this tank and
leakage, the surface water area declined and in summers led to drying up of hand pumps.

The villagers have prepared an action plan under the Water User Master Plan of the village to fix this tank, and
approached the local government, who contributed around INR 4.80 lakh, in addition to the INR 1.84 lakh provided under
the project and the labour contribution from the villagers.

Results and outcomes

Some of the quantifiable benefits achieved are: • Improved sanitation facilities to around 3,000 families.

• Benefit to nearly 15,000 families from marginalised Significantly the project succeeded in developing a village
sections of society based CWUMP (Community Water Use Master Plan)
• Assured irrigation for around 9, 000 acres of in all the 71 project villages and mobilised around INR
landhelped augment water resources and provide 114.06 million from local governments.
health benefits through access to safe drinking water
and sanitation Sustainability and scale up
• Revival of 22 ahar pyne systems and six Chandela The CWUMP has been prepared keeping long term
tanks sustainability in mind. The community institutions
• Water security in some 20 villages have expressed their commitments to continue their
• Adoption of better water use efficiency (WUE) engagement with the government institutions. It is,
techniques like SRI by around 3,000 farmers, which therefore, hoped that Jan Jal Jodo Abhiyan, a cross-
enhanced yield by up to 1.5 fold country campaign will scale up similar efforts in other
• Improved drinking water access to around 4,500 states.
families

By
Sanjib Kumar Dey
Welthungerhilfe

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 79
Low-cost dry stone masonry structure constructed at Shishvi village.

Low-cost water harvesting structures for

groundwater recharge
Widespread adoption of community-built structures in Rajasthan

Background
Uneven, erratic rainfall and long dry spells are common prevailing weather conditions and this adversely affect kharif crop
growth in southern Rajasthan. To combat this uncertainity associated with rainfall, farmers have evolved different area- specific
indigenous water harvesting systems. These structures are simple, cost-effective and easy to implement. However, owing
to poor design and construction these structures fail regularly. To address this problem, a project involving the design and
construction of water-harvesting structures was implemented in Shishvi village, Girwa Panchayat Samiti, Udaipur district.

Stakeholders
All India Coordinated Research Project on Groundwater Utilisation, Directorate of Water Management, ICAR, Bhubaneswar
supported the project financially. Students of Agricultural Engineering undertook site selection and topographical surveys of
the catchment and submergence areas. Farmers and communities of southern Rajasthan participated and provided on-field
support for proper implementation of project.

Approach and Methodology

The project aimed at (i) Identification of suitable rainwater harvesting technologies for the arid and semi-arid regions of
Rajasthan; (ii) Design and development of dry stone masonry type low-cost water harvesting structure; and, (iii) Evaluation of
the effectiveness of the structure for augmenting groundwater recharge.
The intervention involved planning, designand construction of a low-cost dry stone masonry structure, useful in augmentation of
the groundwater table through continuous recharge. Such structures can effectively harvest rainwater, with a maximum micro-
catchment area of 50 ha.

80
 Due to its relatively easy construction, community played an
important role in formation of these structures. With some
off-campus technical training, a group of farmers could build
these structures in a series in the valley.
The dry stone masonry type structure was six times cheaper
than the conventional masonry water harvesting structure.
The cost of constructing a 10 metre span with 2 metre
heightwas merely INR 25,000, 90 per cent of which was the
labor component.

The designed technologies considered all major factors such

as peak rate of runoff, height, volume of storage, provision of
spillway and stability.
A cross-sectional view of the low-cost dry stone masonry
structure is given in Fig 1.
The selected project area, Shishvi village, is a narrow
section of the valley, with a catchment area of 4.25 ha. Due
to hilly topography, stones were readily available in the area
(See Fig 2). Construction of structures involved local stone
and conventional skills of the community.
Its impact in terms of life-saving irrigation and groundwater
recharge was assessed between 2010-2013.
Figure 1 Cross-section of dry stone masonry structure

Results and outcomes

A total of over 70 such structures were constructed in Sustainability and scaling up
southern Rajasthan. The survival of the kharif crop was
The technology was widely disseminated among the
ensured by providing life-saving irrigations during longer
village community, governmental and non-governmental
dry spells using water from these structures.
organisations working on natural resources management
After the intervention the yeild of the open well located through bulletins, folders and paper presentations in
downstream increased significantly. The water table rose seminars and symposia. The government of Rajasthan
from 5 m to 8 m and water availability in the well was accepted this technology and constructed such structures
retained throughout the year. in watershed projects under the MGNREGA (Mahatma
The design of the intervention allowed for widespread Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act).
community participation at all levels, right from the selection Several NGOs working on natural resources management
of the site to the monitoring of the well’s water table. The also constructed such low-cost structures.
water level in the pond and the well at Shishvi village was Regular trainings in the region were conducted for wider
monitored by a school going tribal girl. The local Gram dissemination of the technology.
Panchayathas also actively participated for operations and
For global scaling up of the technology, the design of
maintenance of the structure. The enhanced availability
this structure was published in the book, Rainwater
of water facilitated cultivation of additional crops such as
Harvesting: Low Cost Indigenous and Innovative
wheat and barley. It also reduced migration of farmers.
Technologies by UNESCO and MacMillan India in 2009.

By
P.K. Singh, Manjeet Singh and K.K. Yadav
Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 81
82
 Section IV
Supply and demand side
management
Assuring water abundance involves addressing various aspects like ensuring adequate supply
and managing demand. Irrespective of the amount of water available setting the limits to manage
demand and reducing wastage are crucial to avoid situations of water scarcity. This section
describes options for reducing water demand through various approaches.

In Gujarat for example, farmers were informed about the potential of using drip irrigation for
their cotton cultivation and were also facilitated to obtain interest-free loans for purchase of
the equipment. Scientific approach to watershed management led to the improvement of crop
productivity and production. Extensive outreach efforts to sugarcane cultivators in Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh led to considerable water savings and improving water
use efficiency. In high altitude deserts of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, local
innovations led to the capturing and using of snow for agriculture, water sharing and conversion
of wastelands into productive lands. Considering the difficult terrain in this region, it was an
important initiative which reduced the drudgery of women of fetching water every day and
increased their incomes. The story from Rajkot highlighted the need for immediate action on non
– revenue water in urban areas. This case not only presented grim figures of quantified water
leakages but also provided useful recommendations on water loss management through network
audit, leakage detection and advanced technology adoption.

Managing demand and supply is possible and requires a mix of scientific assessment; user
awareness and involvement; technological interventions and process innovations.

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 83
Reducing non-revenue water (NRW) in Rajkot
Using water meters, leakage-detection instruments and state-of-the-art technology
to reduce water losses

Background
Global phenomenon like population growth, climate variability, and ever- expanding industrialisation has strong implications on
water availability and resulted in chronic water shortage problem. This has severely impacted Indian region as well. Apart from
this, leakages and theft of water, either through illegal tapping or unmeasured water supply, is also a major problem across
India. A pilot study was conducted in the Sheetal Park Area in the Rajkot Municipal Corporation (RMC) to demonstrate the need
to reduce non-revenue water in the areas served by RMC and to take up a comprehensive programme to minimise non-revenue
water. Sheetal Park, in the past faced an estimated water loss equivalent to USD 25 million annually. There was a considerable
difference between water supplied (4,000 litres was being supplied to each family) and drawn. The study was conducted in
May–December 2013 comprising160 households with a total of 800 people.

Role of Stakeholders
• The Danish Water Forum (DWF) was established to promote better use of existing knowledge within the water sector,
through global knowledge exchange between researchers and practitioners.
• The Danish Trade Council spearheaded the contract between DWF and the Gujarat state government, a role which allowed
DWF to gain access to policymakers and key stakeholders.
• The project was facilitated by the Embassy of Denmark in India as part of the Danish government’s growth plan, which was
focused on the trifecta of water, energy and food.

84
 Scope of the study was as follows:
(i) Installation of bulk meters and representative consumer
meters in the study area;
(ii) Water audit and assessment of water lost in the
distribution system for the pilot area;
(iii) Leakage detection survey using state-of-the-art
technology;
(iv) Training on the use of leakage-detection instruments;
(v) Proposing tools to manage water loss specific to the
area’s water distribution system; and,
Approach and Methodology (vi) Suggesting recommendations.
The water audit aimed to provide a general idea about the For the study area, 22 flow meters comprising seven bulk
amount of water lost in the distribution system from entry meters and 15 representative consumer meters were
point. To measure the quantity of water entering the system specifically installed as there was no metering system
and the amount reaching the consumer, DWF procured bulk available. Once the losses were measured in the system,
water meters for the main distribution lines and domestic the leakages were located in the distribution system with
water meters for consumers, so as to conduct a water audit leakages detection equipment. Four instruments helped in
and assess the water lost for the pilot area. A leakage model precise leakage detection: Aqua M50, Piezo-detection rod,
for gauging water loss management was developed. Microcorr touch correlator, and Ground Microphone (X-mic).

Results and outcomes

The study found about 30.66 per cent losses in the study On the whole the pilot study proved to be successful as
area - a significantly high figure. This was due to leakages all 160 households (total population 800) of the Sheetal
at the consumer end, leaking valves, and un-authorized Park Area benefitted from this. This study also helped in
consumption of water. Further, 22% of connections were establishing the proof of concept for this technology.
unregistered. Water distribution was inequitable, with water Recommendations from the pilot study
reception ranging from 310 litres to 550 litres of water per
In order to achieve NRW reduction, the measures
family. Seven hidden leakages were observed. The amount
proposed were as follows:
of water coming out of each of the leakages was to the tune
of 2-3 m3 in 20 minutes of water supply amounting to a total (i) Network audit by installing water meters across the
of 15-20 m3. network
(ii) Locating leakages and taking corrective action
The study revealed an NRW component of 41.77 per cent
without delay
for which the actual cost to be paid by the taxpayer, was
over INR 40 lakh per day (at the rate of INR 35 per litre). (iii) Quantifying leakages to improve the water balance
calculation and to prioritise leakage management.
Given the above high proportions of unregistered
connections coupled with leakages at the consumer end, (iv) Review of network operating practices
and leaking valves, it was necessary to track the root of (v) Awareness creation among consumers on sensible
the problem using leakage detection equipment. Doing so use of water and its conservation
enabled the NRW to decrease substantially. (vi) Technology transfer and training for developing a
Certain mindset challenges emerged during the pilot study. leakage management strategy
Water was not considered a highly priced commodity, which (vii) To develop an Operations and Maintenance
led to difficulties in setting up water meters. For the same programme integrated within the projects
reason, setting up an appropriate training programme for (viii) Review of network and preparation of renewal
local residents proved a challenge. programme as a part of asset management plan

By
Anshul Jain
Embassy of Denmark, India

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 85
Innovative approach for promoting drip
irrigation in cotton
Improving crop productivity and water use efficiency in drought-prone region of
Gujarat

Background
Surendranagar is a hilly, semi-arid region which is among the most drought-prone districts of Gujarat. The district receives
scanty average annual rainfall of about 450 mm. Other factors affecting water availability are the absence of perennial rivers
or streams and the lack of major irrigation projects. The thin, rocky soil, over-grazing and deforestation increase soil erosion.
Cotton, of which Gujarat is the largest producer, provides farmers a higher cash income in comparison to other crops, but the
cost of cultivation continues to be high due to heavy use of seeds, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides. These factors together
contribute to a low agricultural productivity. Furthermore, the acute scarcity of drinking water has affected the livelihood security
of the many marginalized communities in the district. Despite government schemes promoting Micro Irrigation System (MIS),
lack of awareness and the considerable financial investment hinder large-scale adoption of this technology.
With a view to address these issues, Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) (India) has been conducting field
operations in the Sayla, Chotila and Muli talukas of Surendranagar district and the adjacent Jasdan taluka of Rajkot district
since 1985. More recently, a drip pool project was undertaken by AKRSP to improve the productivity of cotton by reducing
water footprint through the promotion of drip irrigation in Sayla and Chotila blocks of Surendranagar and Jasdan block of Rajkot
district. The project began in April 2011 ending in March 2016.

86
 How the Drip Pool Fund works
An interest free loan fund known as Drip Pool Fundwas
created for the purpose of assisting farmers to adopt the
technique of drip irrigation for cotton farming. This Fund
functioned as a Revolving Fund. The new farmers were
given loan amounts from the loan recovered from farmers
who had already benefited from the fund. The fund also
used provisions for soil testing facilities and providing
training to farmers on better farming practices, so as to
ensure a more secure, sustainable livelihood.

Approach and Methodology

The drip irrigation intervention aimed to benefit small and
marginal cotton-growing farmers with land holdings up to 5
acres (See Box: How the Drip Pool Fund works). Targeted
farmers were provided with interest-free loans from a drip
Role of Stakeholders pool fund to enable the installation of drip irrigation system in
• AKRSP (India) implemented the Drip Pool project their lands.
playing a major role in mobilisation of small and
The average cost of installation of a drip system was
marginal farmers who cultivated cotton through the flood
approximately INR 45,000 per acre of land. The beneficiary
irrigation method.
farmer contributed INR 7,500 (17 per cent) in cash; INR
• The project was primarily funded by Cotton Connect 20,000 (44 per cent) was given as subsidy by GGRC)
South Asia Pvt Ltd. through the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), and INR
• The Gujarat Green Revolution Company (GGRC) 17,500 (39 per cent) was provided as an interest-free loan
was the other main stakeholder and provided GGRC from the Drip Pool Fund, an amount which had to be paid
subsidies to farmers for installation of drip systems at back by farmers within 24 months. The breakup is shown
50% of the total cost, as per state government norms. diagrammatically in Figure 1.

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 87
 Drip Pool Farmer
GGRC
Fund Rs. 7,500/- Total Cost
+ + =
Rs. 20,000/-
Rs. 17,500/- Cash Rs. 45,000/-
Subsidy
Interest Free Contribution (100%)
(44%)
Loan (39%) (17%)

Figure 1 Contributions to the cost of installation of a drip system per acre of land

The intervention followed the steps mentioned below.

(i) Mobilisation of the target group, i.e., small and marginal
farmers with land holdings of up to 5 acres growing
cotton using drip irrigation;
(ii) Educating the farmers about the uses of micro-drips to
reduce water consumption and ultimately in improving
crop productivity;
(iii) Obtaining the farmer’s consent, after which the farmer
was given an interest-free loan from the drip pool fund.
The farmer was required to contribute his share (17 per
cent) of the total cost;
(iv) The farmer’s contribution was combined with the loan
amount and deposited in the account of the GGRC;
and,
(v) The GGRC then provided the subsidy amount as per
government norms and sent work orders to the certified
drip supplier.
The figure below provides a systematic representation of the
process.

Step 1 Filling the application form

Step 2 Attaching the necessary documents along with the loan documents

Step 3 Registration of work order

Step 4 Tri-party agreement advance payment

Step 5 Supply and installation of materials trial run

Step 6 Insurance services agronomic & maintenance services

88
Results and outcomes
The project covered 1,183 farmers across 145 villages, with • Average yield per acre had increased by 40 per cent
a total area of 3,340 acres (1,336 ha) covered under drip • Average net percentage change in total cotton
irrigation. The following quantitative and qualitative impacts produced increased by 45 per cent.
were observed:
Though there has not been much of a difference in
(i) Water Conservation: Farmers developed the mindset
the prices offered by middlemen and the prices the
that drip irrigation is instrumental in situations of water
farmers get in market, the average selling price through
scarcity.
middlemen was INR 902.6, which was higher than the
• 98 per cent farmers from the sample survey responded
average market selling price of INR 887.
positively when asked if they have observed a
(iv) Other impacts:
reduction in water consumption when drip irrigation
was used (as compared to flood irrigation), indicating • Time spent on farms drastically reduced - by an
that drip irrigation leads to conservation of water average of 5 hours, and by as high as 15 hours in
• 96 per cent of respondents stated drip irrigation as one case, and,
their preferred method of irrigation • Respondents reported a positive change in soil
• 84 per cent respondents cited conservation of water as quality.
the main reason for using drip irrigation.
With 45 per cent increase in the yields after using drip
(ii) Cost-efficiency: Installation of drip irrigation has led irrigation, the project’s objective of creating an increase in
to reduction of costs of cultivation across costs of yield was partially met.
seeding, fertilizers, labour, and fuel.
• Average cost of seed per acre decreased by INR 650, Sustainability and scaling
cost of fertilizers decreased by INR 850 and cost of It is envisioned that the village FPO (Farmers’ Produce
fuel or electricity decreased by INR 1450. Organisation), which includes 1,200 cotton farmers, will
• While 70 per cent of respondents observed fluctuating independently carry out all the project-related activities,
labour cost and thus, it became difficult to quantify the including collective purchase of agriculture inputs and
labour cost (although they estimated the labour cost to output marketing, so as to ensure long-term sustainability.
be lowered by approximately 50 per cent).
Based on learnings from this pilot, the drip pool project
• Statistical analysis showed that, on the whole, total
is planned to be scaled up for wider adoption. Over the
cost of cultivation incurred by farmers reduced by
next three years, it is targeted to be taken to an additional
about 48.95 per cent by using drip irrigation as
10,000 small and marginal farmers covering 8,000 ha of
compared to flood irrigation.
rain-fed land.
(iii) Crop Productivity: On the whole, respondents reported
increased yield with the installation of drip irrigation.

By
Apoorva Oza
Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (India)

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 89
Networked field bunds

Community watershed-based approach for

increased agricultural productivity
A comprehensive watershed approach for sustainable ground water resources and
farm incomes in Kerala

Background
Poor crop production and productivity have led to poor incomes in Kasaragod district of Kerala. This can be partially attributed
to poor soil health and partly due to scarcity of water and degradation of natural resources which has compounded the problem.
To address these challenges, acommunity-based watershed-management based approach was developed and adopted. The
project aimed to increase farmers’ incomes by improving production and productivity of crops through the implementation of
scientific soil and water conservation measures in a watershed approach. The project was planned and implemented under
the Prime Minister’s Distressed District Programme in Kasaragod District. This was known as NABARD Holistic Watershed
Development Programme (NHWDP). The project was initiated in May 2007 and ended on 31 March 2014.

Role of Stakeholders
The project involved multi-stakeholder participation including the community, gram panchayats and also institutions like
NABARD, NGOs, other banks and CRD. These groups have actively participated at various levels including community
organisation, project planning, appraisal, capacity building, resource support and studies.
The specific roles of the partners included:
(i) NABARD: Provided grant for planning, implementation and managment
(ii) CRD as Resource Support Organisation (RSO): The RSO coordinated the project in the district and provided resource
support for formation of Village Watershed Committees.

90
 The participatory watershed project adopted a ridge-to-valley
approach in planning and implementation of the project. This
holistic watershed project encircled the following five phases:
1. Pre-Capacity Building Phase (Pre-CBP): Initial
activities such as delineation of watersheds, appraisal
visits, convening of watershed gram sabha, opening of
bank accounts, and preparation of maps.
2. Capacity Building Phase (CBP): Identifying a project
area, participatory net planning, appraising and
approving project proposals, and implementing the
project components. On successful achievement of the
60 per cent of the project target in CBP, the feasibility
study for preparing the detailed project for FIP started
(iii) Project Facilitating Agencies (PFAs): PFAs which included a detailed study of land, soil, water,
coordinated the project atthe fields and provided project biomass and socio-economic aspects.
implementation support to watershed community 3. Interim Phase (IP): An Interim Phase project was
through a variety of activities. sanctioned when necessary to bridge gap between CBP
(iv) Village Watershed Committees (VWCs): VWCs and FIP.
were formed watershed Gram Sabha for field-level 4. Full Implementation Phase (FIP): Soil, water and
implementation. biomass conservation activities; frontline demonstration
activities and livelihood activities.
Approach and Methodology 5. Post-Implementation Phase: A post asset generation
The project aimed to cover about 30,000 ha of watershed plan was prepared and implemented for the
areas in Kasaragod district. At the cluster level, 35 maintenance of these assets. The livelihood activities
watersheds with a total area of 30,351 ha were selected. The in revolving fund approach were continued by forming
project area included 40 revenue villages spread over in 25 more number of JLGs/ SHGs by the VWC.
panchayats.

Series of check dams

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 91
 Table 1: Achievements under the project activities
Activities Unit Completed Units
Bunding (Earthen bund, field bund, stone-pitched bund and crescent bund) Metre 15,74,691
Trenching (Water percolation pit, continuous contour trench, staggered trench, etc) Metre 13,62,030
Agrostological measures* (Pineapple and fodder grass planting) Running Metre 2,37,436
Agro-horticulture (planting of tree saplings and seedlings) Numbers 2,19,088
Farm pond Numbers 1,434
Storage pond Numbers 665
Renovation of existing water sources Numbers 769
Groundwater recharge system Numbers 983
Loose-boulder check dam Numbers 7,806
Brushwood check dam Numbers 2,071
Stream bank stabilisation Running Metre 10,000
Vegetable cultivation Cent 8,773
Fodder grass cultivation Cent 2,370
Jasmine bush cultivation Cent 454
*Note: Agrostological measures are agronomical measures to reinforce the bunds constructed.

The interventions were across the major components as

detailed below:
1. Project measures: Including area treatment activities
(soil, water and other natural resource management
activities), drainage line treatment activities and project
supervision by community representatives.
2. Training and Demonstration: Various frontline
demonstrations of practices such as drip irrigation in
vegetable crops, triangle planting of banana, system of
rice intensification (SRI) etc., were conducted.
3. Other agronomic interventions for production
and productivity: A major focus was the creation of
a participatory seed bank. Farmers were trained on
seed production and marketing; the VWC collected
seeds from farmers, and further sold these to needy
farmers. An agri-service and marketing centre was also
established in watersheds.
4. Livelihood support activities: Activities such as
dairying, goat rearing, back yard poultry, apiculture, etc.,
were promoted and implemented.
5. Maintenance Fund: To maintain the several assets
created under the project, a separate maintenance fund
was generated jointly by NABARD and the VWC.
6. Capacity building trainings: Workshops for building
capacities of stakeholders such as PRI representatives,
VWC, watershed community etc., were also conducted. Brush wood check dam

92
Results and outcomes
The project benefitted more than 1.6 lakh people from • Increased milk and egg production with three new
23,716 families. The project mainly concentrated on the milk collection centres established
people who owned land in the watersheds.
• Increased availability of organic manure
The major results of the project included the following: • Increased vegetation in watersheds
• Groundwater table in wells was augmented by an • Farmers learnt useful technologies and methods
average of 50 cm solving the summer water shortage such as SRI and triangle planting of banana to
of drinking water and irrigation increase crop production
• Increased availability of water from streams at least by • Increased crop production, especially of coconut
one month from March to April and vegetables, in areas where soil and water
• Reduction of soil erosion conservation activities were implemented

• Conversion of 50 acres of fallow land to cultivable land • An additional 51,387 labour days were generated to
provide income to wage labourers
• An additional 23.7 acres of land covered under
cultivation of fodder grass increased availability of • Community knowledge regarding contour marking
green fodder and contour cultivation has been increased, as
also in areas such as financial management and
• Livelihood units provided increased income to 2,353
preparing project documents
families
• Increased availability of low-cost seed through the
• Increased numbers of dairy animals such as cow,
seed bank programme.
goat, and poultry birds

By
Sasikumar C
Centre for Research and Development (CRD)

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 93
 Project Site (Olam)
Catalysing behavior change amongst sugarcane
farmers for water demand management
A multi-pronged approach to behavior change leads to large-scale conservation of
water resources in sugarcane cultivation in three Indian states

Background
An estimated 50 million farmers, mostly small and marginal, are engaged in sugarcane cultivation in India over four million
hectares of land. An additional 20 million individuals are dependent on the employment generated by the sugar mills and related
industries. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane in the world after Brazil and the year 2013-14 recorded production
level of 3,40,000 metric tonnes of sugarcane in the entire country.

But unfortunately, over the years, the problem of over exploitation of water resources has remarkably increased. This is further
aggravated due to the changing climatic conditions which have altered rainfall patterns in various parts of the country. Also flood
irrigation being the predominant method of irrigation leads to water overuse and sub-optimal productivity.

Against this backdrop, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) implemented an ambitious sustainable sugarcane advisory
programme, referred to as the India Sugar Advisory Farmer Support Programme in the three states of Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.

The project aimed to increase agricultural productivity through good water management practices at farm level and conduct
outreach with beneficiary farmers.

94
 Approach and Methodology
The project focused on good water management practices.
An indicative list of good water management practices
(GWMPs) identified by the programme for promoting water-
use efficiency in sugarcane are mentioned below:
v Land preparation
l Deep- ploughing/ sub-soiling
l Land- levelling
l Addition of organic manure/ green manuring/ press
mud compost
l Trash mulching
l Trash mulch combined with skip furrow irrigation

v Planting methods
l Trench planting
l Ring/ pit method of planting

v Irrigation methods
Role of Stakeholders l Furrow- irrigation
• IFC: Conceptualisation, design and regular technical l Skip- furrow irrigation
inputs to the program; l Drip irrigation
• Solidaridad Asia: Co- funded the programme and l Sprinkler irrigation
monitored and evaluated it at the field level; l Gated pipes
l Irrigation at critical crop growth stages.
• Co – funded by Governments of Japan, Netherlands,
Australia and Hindustan Unilever Foundation (HUF for Accordingly, the project included the following four inter-
18 months) related sets of interventions.
• DSCL Sugars and Olam Agro India Limited: Sugar
1. Training and capacity-building on sustainable
companies providing on-ground implementation; and,
sugarcane agronomy: An essential training-based
• Farmers for implementing prescribed water efficient component involved joint training from IFC and
measures.

Line sowing method

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 95
 Solidaridad for field extension workers, sugarcane staff, Development (ICECD), Ahmedabad. A total of 100
management from Olam and DCM Shriram, farmers in successful ATSPs were supposed to be established
the program area, and lead farmers. Training modules as a part of the larger India Sugar Advisory Farmer
included: Support Programme.
l Seed and varietal development for productivity 4. Bonsucro standards: IFC and Solidaridadhave jointly
enhancement and recovery; propagated the adoption of sustainable sugarcane
l Integrated pest management (IPM) including bio- production standards, namely, Bonsucro, a global metric
control of pests and diseases; and, sustainability standard for sugarcane. The Bonsucro
standards emphasised sustainability and offered a
l Soil health management focusing on increasing
win-win situation for both farmers and sugar mills. The
organic carbon content in soils
propagation of these standards was conducted through
2. Adoption and training for water-use efficiency: This a national-level workshop in May 2013, followed by
included the following: visits and meetings with Bonsucro officials to sensitize
l Strategizing on the promotion of cost-effective, the management of DCM Shriram and Olam about the
locally-appropriate water-use efficiency standards. Gap audits were conducted by December
enhancement techniques, through discussions and 2014, and submitted the reports to DCM Shriram and
consultations with government research institutions Olam.
including the Indian Institute of Sugarcane Challenges
Research (IISR), Lucknow and Vasant Dada Sugar 1. Programme interventions required discarding the
Institute (VSI), Pune and HUF. age-old practices of floor irrigation and adoption of
l Promotion of locally appropriate low-cost water- new practices, which meant challenging the prevailing
saving techniques, such as trash mulching, mindset of the farmers. Adoption of good water
application of organic manure, furrow irrigation, drip management practices was slow and guided by socio-
irrigation, and land-leveling techniques. cultural factors, not just economic considerations.

3. Farm Process Outsourcing (FPO) - Mechanization 2. Engagement of expert trainers. Continuous training of
Support through Custom-Hire Services from the farmers was crucial for a high adoption rate, but was
Agricultural Technology Service Providers (ATSPs): resource intensive.
Much-needed support towards mechanisation was 3. Manual data recording for tracking, monitoring, and
extended through an IFC collaboration with the evaluation led to delay or loss of data, which in turn led
International Centre for Entrepreneurship and Career to a non-capture of the on-ground efforts and learnings.

Furrow irrigation

96
Results and outcomes
Under this programme, about one lakh sugarcane farmers Shriram Ltd as a result of training and capacity-
of DSCL Sugar and Olam were trained on good agricultural building
and water management practices from which more than • Adoption of press-mud compost for soil health
80 per cent farmers were small holders. Around 2,000 improvements, fertiliser application reduction and
lead farmers were identified and trained across the four water-use efficiency improvements among farmers
sugar mills of DSCL Sugar in Uttar Pradesh. Close to 500 working with DCM Shriram Ltd
lead farmers were identified and trained across the two
• Near- doubling of area under FYM/ press-mud
sugar mills of Olam Agro India Limited in Madhya Pradesh
compost on a year-to-year basis among farmers
and Maharashtra. These lead farmers with the extension
working with Olam
support team of the companies reached out to 100,000
sugarcane farmers. • Double- digit growth in area under trash mulch and
furrow irrigation (among farmers working with Olam)
Training and capacity building efforts led to a significant
increase in adoption of some of the above recommended • As a result of the project and adoption of the above
GWMPs. Some of the result highlights include: practices, 98 billion litreof water-use was avoided
from Oct-Nov 2013 onwards till 2016 (see Table 1)
• Increase (37.32 per cent, year-on-year) in adoption
of trash mulching among farmers working with DCM

Table 1: Site-wise break up of water use avoided

Component DSCL Sugar (Uttar Pradesh) Olam (Barwani, MP) Olam (Hemarus, Maharashtra)
Water use avoided 55 Billion Litres 25 Billion Litres 18 Billion Litres
Source: Hindustan Unilever Foundation 2015 Assurance Report

Sustainability and scaling up The critical focus on collective action has helped
The capacity building programmes were developed transforming the outlook of the sugar companies. To some
such that they met the three principles of suitability, degree, water began to be regarded as a critical input and
sustainability and scalability. risk to business, and its long-term environmental, social,
and economic benefit was acknowledged by the sugar
On the whole, the train-the-trainer approach of the
companies.
programme, with a focus on extension workers and lead
farmersensured scalability.

By
Harsh Vivek, Suparna Jain, Richard Colback - International Finance Corporation
Prashant Pastore, Solidaridad, India

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 97
Resource Mapping by Water User Group

Integrated watershed development programme:

Partnerships for development
A large scale partnership approach starting in Andhra Pradesh and successfully
diffusing to nine other states

Background
Water resource management is one of the most serious of global challenges, intensified by the pressures of climate change.
The issue is critical especially for India. Accounting for 17 per cent of the world’s population but just 4 per cent of water
resources, the country is already under water-stress. About 90 per cent of India’s water consumption goes towards agriculture,
dominated by small/ marginal farmers whose only option is rain-fed agriculture. While this can be more than sufficient, it is
concentrated over an approximately 12 week period and is often erratic with huge inequalities in geographical distribution.
Groundwater, another vital resource, has already reached ‘unsafe’ levels in 31 per cent of districts accounting for about 33 per
cent of land area and 35 per cent of India’s population.

A programme was conceptualised and implemented with the vulnerable communities in Andhra Pradesh (AP). The project was
started in 2001 and initially covered approximately 1,000 ha across 21 villages in AP. By 2015-16, the programme expanded to
2.59 lakh ha in nine other states.

The goal encircled harvesting rainwater, recharging groundwater and managing these conserved resources through
empowered community institutions so that water would be available for irrigation to support year- round farming and a more
stable agricultural regime.

98
 A number of NGOs implemented the programme in
partnership with the local communities. ITC provided
strategic direction through its social investment team.
Other stakeholders included the Government departments
which were consulted for technical support in engineering,
agriculture and animal husbandry.

In ITC’s PPS (Public-Private-Partnerships), respective State

Governments or NABARD co-funded projects with ITC
and the three-way project implementation partnership was
extended to include local government bodies. Other players
like technical/ professional/ financial/ academic agencies
were brought on board as required.

Approach and Methodology

The program interventions were targeted at:

1. Water conservation and soil enrichment by–

Role of Stakeholders • Assisting village communities to implement soil and

moisture conservation (SMC) measures and build water
The delivery model mobilised a three-way collaborative harvesting structures to improve water availability for
partnership between communities, ITC and NGOs, extending agriculture and to conserve soil, water and nutrients.
to the Government and other players. These measures combined modern techniques with
traditional practices, and mostly used simple, low-cost
The community was involved at every stage from strategy
methods/ technologies that were adaptable to local
formation to implementation. Civil works were undertaken
needs and resources so that these could be easily
only after consultations with, and approvals/sanctions from
replicated and magnified to other regions.
village councils. Though ITC provided major funding for the
projects, community contribution – both in terms of finance The SMC measures undertaken included field bunding,
and labour – was a key element in this model. gully plugs, boulder checks, loose stone check dams,

Catchment treatment for conserving soil and moisture

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Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 99
 From bare survival to creation of assets
“After we built the water harvesting structures, our farm output increased. Prior to this, we could not grow any crops in the
Rabi season. Now 700-800 bighas can be cultivated with wheat and gram in the Rabi season. Income has gone up. There’s
more work to be done,” informs Bapulal Banjara WUG Member, Chikli Goel village, Shajapur district, Madhya Pradesh.

Not so long ago, Bapulal Banjara and his fellow villagers used to wait for the monsoon to raise their single and only crop of
the year. By January, the village wells used to dry up. Women had to walk miles for water, twice a day. There was little work
in the village. Bapulal used to cycle to the nearest town to find work as a daily labourer, earning INR 30-35 a day, barely
able to support his family of seven.

Things began to change with ITC’s Watershed Development Project in 2007. Bapulal and other farmers formed a WUG and
undertook a range of measures with ITC’s support and training. Life is different now that the wells have water till May, used
to irrigate winter crops.

contour bunds and trenches – to regulate water run-off 3. Optimising the benefits of water resources created
and minimise erosion. Structures that built water storage by–
capacities included percolation/ irrigation/ village tanks, • Integrating sustainable agricultural practices and
nallah bunds, farm ponds, stop/ check dams, etc. livestock development programs of ITC to build a more
A good example of revival of a traditional practice has vibrant farm portfolio that included sustainable on- and
been in the form of tank silt application. Although largely off- farm livelihoods.
abandoned, tank systems and silt application have The programme adopted a bottom-up participatory approach
multiple benefits. Tanks have the property of being a that prioritised the needs of the communities. This began
common resource that support equity, irrigation and with the intensive Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRAs)
groundwater recharge as well as trapping valuable to identify target beneficiaries who were motivated to form
topsoil run-off. Removing silt from tanks and applying WUGs. WUGs were enabled through intensive capacity
in fields is an age-old practice in many areas. Desilting building and training. The implementation process was highly
ensures that the tanks maintain optimal water storage collaborative, anchored in group meetings, ongoing dialogue
capacities, and silt application in fields significantly between all partners and supported by formal and informal
improved soil fertility and lowers input costs by reducing feedback mechanisms.
the need for chemical fertilizers.

• Improving biomass cover through re-vegetation of

common and private wastelands and improving
productivity of marginal lands.
• Promoting scientific land-use patterns, use of organic
fertilizers/ pesticides and simple water-saving
technologies, to improve soil health and conserve water.

2. Village-based management of water and other

natural resources by–

• Facilitating the formation of robust water user groups

(WUGs) and other community based organizations such
as Farmer Self-help Groups.
• Building the community capacity so that they could
regulate demand for diverse resources equitably and
ultimately manage their resources independently.

Water User Group (WUG) meeting

100
Results and outcomes
Till 2016, the programme was implementing 73 projects in cropping which was possible earlier. The average rise of
42 districts in 10 states, covering more than 2.59 lakh ha of 10-20 per cent in productivity across all ITC project areas
land and benefiting more than 2.05 lakh households. significantly raised household incomes.

There were 1,868 active WUGs with 34,870 members. They Although the program did not directly target drinking water,
built more than 7,998 water harvesting structures, creating project activities led to an increase of water points within
a freshwater storage capacity of about 27.34 million m3. villages, reducing drudgery for women who no longer had
The WUGs accumulated a Maintenance Fund of over INR to walk long distances to fulfil daily water requirements.
98.28 lakh. About 5.2 million person- days of employment (Also see in the box: From bare survival to creation of
were generated, especially benefitting the landless and assets)
helping to stem seasonal out-migration.

In a project in West Godavari district in Andhra Pradesh,

17 tanks in a cascade were restored with community
participation. Over 8.0 lakh m3 of additional storage was
created, benefitting over 1,760 ha. Some 11.79 lakh m3 of
silt was taken from tanks and applied in the fields of 1,059
farmers.

Uniformly across all ITC project areas there was significant

well recharge and increase in water availability that helped
to protect agricultural yields by extending critical irrigation.
Increased water availability for longer periods enabled crop
diversification and expansion of area under double/ multi- Stop dams constructed to improve water availability for irrigation

By
ITC Limited

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 101
Members of Charanji SHG in Lower Keylong, Lahaul & Spiti

Augmenting and managing resources in high

altitude deserts
A case study of improving local economy in fragile ecology of Ladakh

Background
Himalayan cold desert stretches from Ladakh in the north (in Jammu and Kashmir) to Kinnaur in the south (in Himachal
Pradesh). The region constitutes harsh terrain with isolated small villages located at altitudes above 8,000 feet. Severe winters,
arid climate, unproductive soil and minimal water resources are common characteristics of the region. Water needs have
historically been met solely by melting of the glaciers. Desertification is increasing, droughts are frequent, forests and pastures
are over exploited and arable land is limited by lack of irrigation. All these factors are leading to:

a) Low incomes resulting in subsistence existence;

b) Increasing water stress (for irrigation), reducing yield and consequent livelihood and food security;
c) Increasing stress for potable water and consequent health issues;
d) Increasing desertification and conflict over common property resources; and,
e) Women’s drudgery and low human development index.

Soil moisture conservation and irrigation interventions can help make the region’s vast tracts of wasteland (community land
previously under cultivation and now abandoned) useful again. The impact of droughts can be minimised through mitigation and
coping strategies, even in an unpredictable environment. The objectives of the project are listed below:

102
 Approach and Methodology
The beneficiary community included landless and marginal
farmers, women, semi- pastoralists, Tibetan refugees and
other communities of remote and cold desert blocks. A two-
pronged strategy was adopted including the following key
components:

(i) Creation of alternative means of livelihoods maintaining

harmony with the environment, promoting more
productive uses of natural resources, value-addition
to primary produce, use of alternate materials/
technologies for resource efficiency, and creation of
supplementary sources for supply of natural resources,
through methods such as captive production.

(ii) Protection and conservation through eco-development

interventions that improve the local ecology improving
welfare of local communities through provision of basic
• To equip disadvantaged cold desert communities with services and rights thatenable them for non- ‘resource
skills to gain improved access to land and pastures intensive’ activities, protecting against disasters
thereby raising their productivity levels (both rapid- onset and slow- onset), and facilitating
community-based conservation and governance.
• Improving incomes and reducing vulnerability to
droughts and other environmental shocks, through The interventions were concerned with the following areas.
institutionalised management of land, water and
1. Water conservation and management through
common property resources (CPRs),
training on water sharing and budgeting
• Greater participation of women and marginalised
communities. (a) Trainings on watersharing and budgeting, conservation
and management
The project was implemented in four districts of the Indian
Himalayas: Lahaul and Spiti, Kinnaur and Chamba districts (b) Revitalisation of dwindling springs through participatory
in Himachal Pradesh and Leh district in J&K. mapping and their revival through afforestation and
construction of trenches and bunds on slopes higher
Role of Stakeholders up, and installation of infiltration pits and trenches still
higher up. To maintain quality of water, the area around
The project was supported by Whitley Fund for Nature- UK each spring was fenced to stop trespassing by animals
and Big Lottery Fund- UK, and implemented by Pragya, with polluting the mouth of the spring. Native, herbaceous
Whitley Fund for Nature as the lead partner.

Planning and implementation was primarily community

driven and managed. Regional institutions such as the Indian
Institute of Technology (Roorkee); Defense Institute of High
Altitude Research; Sher-e-Kashmir Institute of Agricultural
Sciences and Technology; Central Soil and Water
Conservation Research and Training Institute and the district
departments of irrigation and public health, horticulture,
agriculture and the Desert Development Programme of the
Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India were
involved to provide technical support, training, advice and
feedback during the implementation phase.
Setting up a solar pump

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 103
 species with strong soil binding characteristics were Women in the region have reported significant improvement
also planted around the spring to counter slippage of the in the spring flows.
moist soil and closure of the spring mouth. As a result
2. Wasteland reclamation and anti-desertification
some 21 springs were revitalised (see Box: Recharged
measures to bring fallow lands under cultivation:
spring of Sakling).
Through adopting irrigation technologies such as
(c) Laying of pipelines and channels for improving access poly-lined channels and storage tanks, creating snow
to distant sources of water and setting up storage tanks. reservoirs andinstalling solar pumps for lift irrigation,
Wherever groundwater was being accessed, infiltration water-starved villages were able to reclaim wastelands
pits were created for recharge. (see Box: of snow reservoirs and solar pumps).

(d) Formation of women-led Domestic Water and Sanitation For example, households in Demul village (4,269 m in
Committees (DWSCs) for improving access to and district Lahaul and Spiti) grow subsistence crops and
management of water, and addressing sanitation needs depend on pastoralism. After assessing almost 40 per
of the village. cent of the village land as wasteland, a snow reservoir
was constructed for harvesting the abundant snowfall
For example, in Salking village which is located at 3,755
in and around the village during winters. This water
m in the district Lahaul and Spiti, people are dependent
could then be harnessed for agricultural purposes in the
on a spring for their drinking water needs situated 2 km
summer.
above the village. Reduced spring flow as a result of
general desertification in the region has been a major In another village called Chuchot in Ladakh plateau
concernof the villagers. Cattle-grazing near the mouth of a community-owned wasteland plot was selected for
the spring also caused water impurities and soil slippage. conversion into agricultural use. A solar pump was
The DWSC of Sakling village constructed 20 snow pits, installed to lift subsurface water to irrigate 1.06 ha of land
4’ X 3’ X 3’ in size just above the spring site, for improving of Chuchot Gongma and also to provide drinking water
infiltration and recharge of the aquifers feeding the to the cold desert neighborhood in thefreezing winter
fenced spring. months. This intervention benefitted 72 households in the
village.

Training on water sharing and budgeting

104
Greening wasteland in Umla village in Leh district

Snow harvesting techniques such as snow fences, 3. Formation of Women’s common property resource
trenches and pits were used at many sites to increase management (CPRM) groups: These groups were set
soil moisture content for turning wastelands into lands up to establish fodder farms, plantations of energy crops
suitable for cultivation or grazing. and kitchen gardens, to supplement their use of wild
resources, and thus reduce pressure on them. Pastoralist
Snow fences were constructed in Kardang. This region
groups were formed and assisted to undertake pasture
particularly has arid and windy stretch of Lahaul valley.
land restoration activities. The project catalysed the
Above the village, a large depression exists which is an
development of norms and processes for careful use and
effective spot for snow accumulation. Because the very
equitable distribution of CPRs among households and
high wind velocities do not allow the snow to settle on the
also between villages sharing the same CPR.
ground, the technology of snow fences was adopted to
accumulate snow. Snow fences 8.5’ high were installed Challenges here included:
along the side of the depression to a length of 100’ and
(a) Geographic isolation, landslides, unpredictable snow
a gabion wall was constructed at its lower end. The
storms and droughts;
installation helped catch blowing snow and compact the
settled snow, prolonging its period of melting. (b) Social pressures on women;
(c) Concerns over disharmony regarding household water/
Seed banks and local credit systems were set up to help
snow harvesting;
farmers recover from droughts. Watershed committees
were trained in watershed development techniques, and (d) Short summers; and,
linked to extension services to provide required support (e) Lack of confidence and coordination between farmers.
from the government and technology providers.

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 105
Results and outcomes
The project increased the ability of local people to live off aquifers and enhance subsurface flows. Since the
the resources available, without resorting to encroachment wasteland was at a distance from the village, a
into wild areas, overgrazing of grasslands, or unsustainable schedule for routine guarding of the solar pump was
use of woodlands and other natural resources such as created at the wasteland wherein one member from
springs. To achieve this, sustainable management of land, the community camps out near the pump every night
water and CPRs needed to be established in a way that to watch over the pump. The community planned
nurtured the fragile ecosystem. to construct a zing (a large, earthen storage tank)
for the wasteland in the future, and to cultivate
Some of the key overall results were:
vegetables such as potatoes and onions.
• Benefitted approximately 1,900 plus landless farmers
including 746 women. b) Wasteland plantations for marginal farmers in
Murtija, Lahaul and Spiti: Murtija is a small hamlet
• Twenty one wasteland sites were brought under
in Lahaul valley with only 12 households. This
cultivation of a mix of suitable medicinal plant species,
community sought to reclaim a wasteland area that
fodder and fuel wood species, the produce and
has no accessible water source. Under the project,
benefits of which were shared by marginal farmer
a zing (large storage tank) was constructed, thus
groups, semi-pastoralists and women. Women could
facilitating storage of water coming from the distant
set up kitchen gardens for self-consumption and local
sources. The zing was cemented and poly-lined in
sale.
order to reduce seepage losses, and fitted with a
• Some 3,700 plus pastoralists and semi-pastoralists guard-wall for safety considerations. A 1,000 m pipe
including 1,323 women also derived benefits from the length was provided by the Forest Department that
project’s activities helped draw water from the distant springs to the
• Linkages were forged with several large zing. The water fed into the wasteland, which was
pharmaceutical manufacturing units for establishing stone fenced and planted with medicinal species.
market chains such as Carumcarvi, Inularacemosa The zing also served a nursery and field set up
and Saussureacostus by the Forest Department under its Joint Forest

• The medicinal species of Carumcarvi, Inularacemosa, Management scheme. The zing was constructed

Angelica glauca, Rheum australe, Saussureacostus with 50 per cent contribution for the stone fencing

and Aconitum heterophyllum were introduced as cash around the wasteland from the community. Sourcing

crops of the 1,000 m pipe for water access from the forest
department, supervision of zing construction, and
Reaping benefits planting of plants and trees were all done by the

The diverse activities undertaken under the project yielded people themselves.

in significant results as discussed below. c) Women’s small agricultural initiatives in Lower

a) Wasteland plantations for marginal farmers in Keylong, Lahauland Spiti: Charanji SHG in Lower

Umla village, Leh: This village in the district of Leh- Keylong, a village in Lahaul valley, has a group of

Ladakh has vast tracts of wastelands. Continuous 13 women, each with a kitchen garden in which

desertification has proved to be detrimental to they cultivated medicinal and aromatic plants and

environment thereby reducing availability of the fuel spices. The women were successful in selling

wood and fodder. Under the project woody species, Buniumpersicum (kalazeera) seeds, a popular

fodder and medicinal plants were cultivated drawing local spice. They reported an increase in capital at

water from a nearby spring using a submersible pump. the individual level. The shift from dependence on

To recharge the spring, dug-outs along the infiltration monoculture of peas/ potatoes to medicinal plants

zone were made, to facilitate infiltration, recharge was welcomed as they now have an alternate source

106
 of income. All the planting, weeding, upkeep and altitude of 15,000 ft in Nyoma Block of Leh district,
harvesting were undertaken by the SHG members. not far from the Chinese border. Agriculture is
The women also looked after a medicinal plant severely constrained at this altitude and the people
nursery and greenhouse (weeding, harvesting and of the village grew only a subsistence requirement of
packaging of seed). The members met on a regular wheat, their staple food crop, during the short, single
basis to plan out the next set of activities. The group cropping season. They are semi nomadic, rearing
also used the facility of a heat sealer provided by sheeps and yaks which the menfolk shepherd in
Pragya to the medicinal plants cooperative and distant pasturelands in summers. In August 2010,
sold their produce in packets using biodegradable the catastrophic floods triggered by a cloudburst that
polythene. hit Leh damaged nearly 40 per cent of the houses.
The resulting mudslides sealed the natural spring
d) CPR Nursery in Stakna, Leh: A women’s group
that was used for drinking water and floodwater
comprising 12 single women (their husbands being
ripped through the state-constructed food warehouse
the Army personnel and hence away from home for
destroying the rice, sugar and pulses stored there.
long periods) manage this medicinal plant nursery.
Thankfully, the other food warehouse set up in
The women sowed seeds of medicinal plants
Sumdho in 2009 as part of this project withstood the
(Inularacemosa, Carumcarvi, and Saussureacostus)
floods and its supplies remained protected. The 10’
to use these seeds and saplings for cultivation on their
x 12’x 8’ moisture-proof and rodent-proof structure
lands thereby reducing the harvesting of these species
has polyurethane foam walls which could withstand
from the wild. This also reduced the time they spent
severe weather conditions, retaining its optimum
on collecting these species. These seeds and saplings
temperature for food storage. At the time of the
were also sold to farmers.
flood, there were nearly 5 tonnes of food grain in the
e) Enhancing resilience to climate change: Sumdho warehouse which helped the people of Sumdho to
is a small village comprising 53 households at an survive.

Snow reservoir in Demul village in Lahaul and Spiti district

By
Mary Ipe
Pragya

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 107
Towards a water efficient agriculture
Technological interventions and knowledge enhancement yield
excellent results in Rajasthan

Background
Like most villages in Rajasthan’s Jhunjhunu district, Mahrampur in Chirawa Panchayat has an entirely agrarian economy.
Covering an area of 541 hectares, the village is home to 258 families. About 133 tubewells contribute to soak in the land of
the village. A large number of tube wells – coupled with reckless and injudicious use of water and inadequate water-saving
techniques – led to an alarming decline in the groundwater table. Water is depleting by almost 0.7 m every year.
Therefore, for this reason, Mahrampur was chosen as the site for implementation of a two-year project (Kharif 2013 – Rabi
2015), whereby new agricultural practices and technologies were introduced and technical knowhow was imparted to farmers to
check over exploitation of groundwater.

Stakeholders
• Farming community: aided smooth implementation of the project
• Ramkrishna Jaidayal Dalmia Seva Sansthan: Supported farmers in coordinating with various stakeholders and
facilitating implementation of crop demonstration on farmers’ fields
• Department of Agriculture: Facilitatedand linked farmers with existing government programs and schemes, such as
supply of subsidised inputs, credit and technology
• Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Abusar, Jhunjhunu: Provided training on new crop technology and addressing problems of
farmers from time to time
• Centre of Environment and Development Studies (CEDS), Jaipur: Monitored and assessed the socio-economic
aspects of the project

108
 1) Baseline study for collectinginformation on prevalent
agricultural practices and priorities.

2) Awareness and capacity building through the following

activities –
• Regular informal village-level meetings and focused
group discussions
• Training programmes at regular intervals
• Annual exposure visit for farmers to KVK and BET,
Pilani;
• Krishi Mela for mass level awareness on latest
developments in agriculture.

3) Introducing quality inputs in terms of better variety

Approach and Methodology seeds and macro and micro nutrients
4) Nutrient management – Nutrient deficiencies in soil
Initially, 10 farmers were selected to undertake pilot
were identified and soil nutrients inputs were provided.
intervention.This number was subsequently raised to 50
farmers in order to have better demonstration effect and 5) Introduction of improved technologies such as summer
cover all sections of society. The following were the main deep ploughing, seed cum fertilizer drill, water saving
steps taken to achieve the objectives: devices and farm machinery.

Results and outcomes

Some of the key results of this effort are highlighted
below.
• These interventions 24 per cent increase in
production of Rabi crops and an increase of 26%
per cent in Kharif crops.
• Farmers reduced the number of irrigations from
12 to 6 in wheat and from 3 to 1 or 2 in gram
among Rabi crops.
• Use of improved agricultural machines reduced
the cost of cultivation by 20- 23 per cent.
• Deep summer plough was adoptedby farmers
engaged in seasonal crop production.
• Farmers started using soil testing procedures
and applying soil micronutrients. Data captured
on a piezometer indicated a reduction in rate of
depletion of groundwater table.

By
Bhupendra Paliwal
Ramkrishna Jaidayal Dalmia Seva Sansthan

Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 109
Notes

110
 Compendium
Best Practices on Water and
agricultural sustainability 111
112
 Contact Details
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New Delhi – 110008, India
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