Gauging wide diameter from the diffraction

pattern formed in a laser

o
Plane of
measurmen
Laser
t
sourc
e

Collimator
Diffraction
pattern
 LASER INTERFEROMETER

bxtern
Beam spliter Fixed internal al
•cube comer
cube
Two
frequency
zeeman
laser f2-*f
2&f,±Af

Reference beam Doppler signal

f2-(f|±Af)
Refere
Amplifiers
Photo detecto ------►------
nce A,
signal Down
f2.f, •A \

comer
 Beam splitter

Axisl ^Axis
33% I
25%

Axis2 50% 25%

33o/o Axis2
beam
spliter

50%
67%
100%
33
Axis3 33%rCl ^3% beam laser^ 25%
* _\ spli iter Axis3

100%
laser
25%
Axis4
 Various version of ACLI

• Signal beams

Standard Interferometer
Measured chances in,
ihis distance

Interferometer
MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

Semi
reflecting
laser Fixed mirror
M2
Beam spliter
Extended (50%
monochromati Refletance)
Compensating
c source
plate Movable
mirror
M,

Eye or
detector
TWYMAN-GREEN INTERFEROMETER
 MACHINE TOOL TESTING

• The accuracy of manufactured parts depends on the

accuracy of machine tools
• It can be classified into
o Static tests o
Dynamic tests
• Static tests - If the alignment of the components of the
machine tool are checked under static conditions then
the test are called static test
• Dynamic tests - If the alignment tests are carried out
under dynamic loading condition. The accuracy of
machine tools which cut metal by removing chips is
tested by two types of test namely.
o Geometrical tests o
Practical tests
Geometrical tests : In this test, dimensions of
components, position of components and displacement of
component relative to one another is checked.
Practical tests : In these test, test pieces are machined in
the machines. The test pieces must be appropriate to the
fundamental purpose for which the machine has been
designed
PURPOSE OF MACHINE TOOL TESTING

The dimensions of any work piece

Surface finishes and geometry depends on the accuracy of

machine tool for its manufacture

High accuracy

Precision instruments based on laser

c Principle
c laser interferometer
: application in linear, angular measurements and machine
tool metrology
Coordinate measuring machine (CMM)
o Constructional features -
types o Applications o digital
devices
Computer aided inspection
 TYPE OF GEOMETRICAL CHECKS ON MACHINE TOOL

• Straightness.

• Flatness.

• Parallelism, equi-distance and coincidence.

• Rectilinear movements or squareness of straight line

and plane.

• Rotations
• Out of round.
• Eccentricity
• Radial throw of an axis.
• Run out
• Periodical axial slip
• Camming
 VARIOUS TESTS CONDUCTED ON ANY MACHINE TOOLS

• Test for level of installation of machine tool in horizontal and

vertical planes.
• Test for flatness of machine bed and for straightness and
parallelism of bed ways on bearing surface.
• Test for perpendicularity of guide ways to other guide ways.
• Test for true running of the main spindle and its axial
movements.
• Test for parallelism of spindle axis to guide ways or bearing
surfaces.
• Test for line of movement of various members like spindle and
table cross slides etc
• Test for level of installation of machine tool in horizontal and
vertical planes.
• Test for flatness of machine bed and for straightness and
parallelism of bed ways on bearing surface.
• Test for perpendicularity of guide ways to other guide ways.
• Test for true running of the main spindle and its axial
movements.
• Test for parallelism of spindle axis to guide ways or bearing
surfaces.
• Test for line of movement of various members like spindle and
table cross slides etc
• Measuring machines are used for measurement of length
over the outer surfaces of a length bar or any other long
member
• It is more useful and advantageous than vernier calipers,
micrometer, screw gauges
• The co-ordinate measuring machine is used for contact
inspection of parts
• Savings in inspection 5 to 10 percent of the time is required
on a CMM compared to manual inspection methods

• Measuring machines are used for measurement of length

over the outer surfaces of a length bar or any other long
member
• It is more useful and advantageous than vernier calipers,
micrometer, screw gauges
• The co-ordinate measuring machine is used for contact
inspection of parts
• Savings in inspection 5 to 10 percent of the time is required
on a CMM compared to manual inspection methods
 TYPES OF MEASURING MACHINES

• Length bar measuring machine

• Newall measuring machine

• Universal measuring machine

• Co-ordinate measuring machine

• Computer controlled co-ordinate measuring machine

Types of CMM

Horizontal bare mill Vertical bare mill

CAUSES OF ERRORS IN CMM

Working
«• The table and probes are in imperfect alignment.
* The probes may have a degree of run out and move up and
down in the Z-axis may occur perpendicularity errors
Dimensional errors of a CMM is influenced by
Straightness and perpendicularity of the guide ways, o Scale
division and adjustment, o Probe length.
o Probe system calibration, repeatability, zero point setting and
reversal error.
o Error due to
digitization.
 CAUSES OF ERRORS IN CMM

• The length of the probe should be minimum to

reduce deflection
• The weight of the work piece may change the
geometry of the guide ways
• Variation in temperature of CMM
The sequence of triggered identical photon from stimulated atom is known as
stimulated emission

This multiplication of photon through stimulated emission leads to coherent,

powerful, monochromatic, collimated beam of light emission

The photon comes in contact with another atom or molecule in the higher energy
level E2 then it will cause the atom to return to ground state energy level Ei by
releasing another photon
CALIBRATION OF THREE CO-ORDINATE MEASURING
MACHINE
CALIBRATION OF THREE CO-ORDINATE MEASURING
MACHINE
 APPLICATION

• Automobile, machine tool, electronics, space etc.,

• Machines are best suited for the test and inspection of
test equipment, gauges and tools
• Aircraft and space vehicles
• determination of shape
 ADVANTAGES

• The inspection rate is increased.

• Accuracy is more.
■ Operators error can be minimized.
• Skill requirements of the operator is reduced.
• Reduced inspection fixturing and maintenance cost.
• Reduction in calculating and recording time.
• Reduction in set up time.
• No need of separate go / no go gauges for each feature.
• Reduction of scrap and good part rejection
• The inspection rate is increased.
• Accuracy is more.
■ Operators error can be minimized.
• Skill requirements of the operator is reduced.
• Reduced inspection fixturing and maintenance cost.
• Reduction in calculating and recording time.
• Reduction in set up time.
• No need of separate go / no go gauges for each feature.
• Reduction of scrap and good part rejection
The table and probe may not be in perfect alignment.
The probe may have run out.
The probe moving in Z-axis may have some
perpendicular errors.
Probe while moving in X and Y direction may not be
square to each other.
There may be errors in digital system
Types
CNC-CMM
 so CAD
Model

CMM Interface of
CAD Software

CMM Source
Program

CM
M
Post
Processor
1
Pre CMM
Processor
 ------ n_ e\
SHOPFI.OOK |

"

1
 LASER INTERFEROMETRY

Two frequency Laser source

Optical elements
o Beam splitter c Beam

benders o Retro

reflectors

o Laser head's measurement receiver o

Measurement display

• A Vision system can be defined as a system for automatic

acquisition and analysis of images to obtain desired data
for interpreting or controlling an activity

• Machine vision can be defined as a means of simulating

the image recognition and analysis capabilities of the
human system with electronic and electro mechanical
techniques
 Four types of machine vision system

Image formation

Processing of image in a form suitable for analysis by

computer

Defining and analyzing the characteristic of image

Interpretation of image and decision-making

 USE OF LASER

Compiled by:

D.Vasanth Kumar
Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical
Engineerin
Jansons Institute of Technology.
Coimbatore.
• Laser Telemetric system
• Laser and LED based distance measuring instruments
• Scanning Laser gauge
• Diffraction pattern technique
• Gauging wide diameter from the diffraction pattern
formed in a laser

Laser Telemetric system

------------------ n ------------
Hystersis
synchronous

Counter | »■ Output (Digital

display system )
LASER AND LED BASED DISTANCE MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS

\ /
1_ 1-
E
f*
H s
E
1 \
c™

\ */
1/1
\/ *

r V b
•

Control unit
u i i h dispia)
 Scanning Laser gauge

Rotating mirror
scanner motor Linear
scanner lens
photocell

V
Object to be
measured
Scan count
photocell

Display up based data B kdge sensin &

iperator acquisition &. decodini!
xmsolc control svstem electronics
 Diffraction pattern technique

• These are used to measure small gaps and small

diameter parts
• A parallel coherent laser beam is diffracted by a small
part and a lens on a linear diode array focuses the
resultant pattern.
• The measurement accuracy is more for smaller parts
INTERFEROMETRY, SCREW THREAD AND
GEAR MEASUREMENTS
Principle of Interferometry

ft Light rays from a single monochromatic

source are initially all in phase
ft If the rays are travelled in different path
lengths and recombine as shown in Fig a
ft Then, their phases will be different, and
may give increased or reduced intensity
as illustrated in the fig b, c and d
ft In Fig b the rays recombine in phase
and gives maximum intensity

(i) Combination of two rays in phase

ft Whereas in Fig c the rays are antiphased giving minimum of intensity or no

light
ft While in Fig d the rays are out of phase or intermediate giving intermediate
intensity
ft These effects are called "interference" They are used in a large and
increasing variety of ways giving rise to a branch of dimensional metrology
called "interferometry"
 (c) Ray 1

Ray 2
(ii) Combination of two rays antiphased

ffi
A method of producing bands of interference is shown in Fig
m
Light passes through a very narrow slit A and then through the slits B and C
which are close together
m
Thus, two separate beams of light are formed which may be assumed to be in
phase
m
If the ray paths BO and CO are exactly equal then the waves on these paths will
be in phase at the screen and a band of light will occur at point O
as At some point M the ray path difference will be equal to one half wavelength
i.e., C M - B M = K X

O Thus, at the screen, the waves will be 180° out of phase and a band of darkness
will occur at M, and similarly at N
O At point P, the ray path difference will be one wavelength, and the waves again
will be in phase, giving a band of light at point P and similarly at Q
O Thus, a series of light and dark bands are produced
* These dark bands are known as interference fringes
I I Screen |

M et ho d fo r Pr od u c i ng I nt e rf e r e nc e B a n ds
Fig shows a section of an optical flat inclined slightly to a flat surface
Optical flats in case. About 1 inch
(2.5 cm) in diameter
o Phenomenon of optical interference is used in certain methods of fine
measurement
* For testing the flatness of surfaces, an optical flat is used
* Optical flat is a disc of glass or quartz, the faces of which are highly polished
and flat to within a few hundredths of a micrometer
* When put into close contact with a nearly flat surface, dark bands are seen,
which form a contour map of the surface exactly similar to the contours on a
map of the land
n A ray of light entering the optical flat at A is partly reflected at B along BC and
partly transmitted to be reflected at D along the path DEF
C3 The rays emerging at C and F have slightly different directions but they can be
brought together by an optical system such as the eye
B The difference between the lengths of the paths taken by the two rays is BD+DE,
and if this distance is an even number of half-
wavelengths, then the rays will be in phase and a bright band can be seen
Out of phase
• At another position G, if the path difference HKL is an odd number of
half-wavelengths, then the rays from J and M interfer to cause dark band or
fringe
• The bright and the dark fringes in this case are straight because the surface is
flat and the fringes always follow a line of constant distance between the
surface and the lower face of the flat
• Straight fringes always lie parallel to the line of contact or line of minimum
displacement of the optical flat from the surface

►The rate of separation of the lower surface of the flat and the surface under
test depends on the angle (59) of the air wedge
►If this angle is too large the rate of separation is correspondingly too great
and the fringes will be so close together that they cannot be distinguished
from one another
►If the angle is too small the fringes will be far apart
►Thus the pitch of the fringes varies inversely with respect to the angle 59

►The path difference from one fringe to the next similar fringe is one
whole wavelength (^)
►When the angle 86 is very small the vertical displacement of the
surface becomes (1/2) X
►The change in elevation between the optical flat and the surface can
be calculated by counting the number of fringes and multiplying by the
length of one half wavelength of the light used
 For example as shown in the Fig, if the
wavelength X of the incident light is = 0.5
Lim = (1/2) X= 0.25 Lim and the number of
fringes = 3, Then the separation = 3 x (1/2)
X = 0.75 Lim
Thus knowing the wavelength of the
light used, the inaccuracies in the surface
can be measured
The change in separation per band is
usually taken as 0.25 Lim, and as it is often
possible to estimate to a tenth of the
distance between bands, the accuracy of
measurement may approach 0.02 Lim
 Destructive Constructive
interference interference
Reflected Reflected
waves ISO" waves in
out of phase phase

} PatJn length
difference =
odd multiple
Path length
difference =
of M 2
even multiple of
}J2
►Constructive interference:
►At surface locations (b) where the path length difference
between the two rays is equal to an even multiple of half a
wavelength (A/2) of the light waves, the reflected waves will be
in phase, so the "troughs" and "peaks" of the waves coincide.
Therefore the waves will reinforce (add) and the resulting light
intensity will be greater. As a result a bright area will be
observed there.
Destructive interference:
► At other locations (a) where the path length difference is
equal to an odd multiple of a half-wavelength, the reflected
waves will be 180° out of phase, so a "trough" of one wave
coincides with a "peak" of the other wave. Therefore the
waves will cancel (subtract) and the resulting light intensity
will be weaker or zero. As a result a dark area will be observed
there
 ► Optical flats being used to calibrate metal
parts.
Interference Patterns

A few typical interference fringe patterns which can be obtained with

an optical flat on various surfaces are as shown in the Fig

�64598

The pattern at (a) and (b) represent flat surfaces. The differences in spacing of the fringes
represents different inclinations of the optical flat to the surface. The inclination of the optical
flat is more in case of (b) when compared to (a)
► The circular concentric fringes with decreasing diameter at (c) represents
a spherical surface of either convex or concave nature. To determine
whether the surface is convex or concave, light finger pressure may be
applied at the centre of the rings
Typical interference Fringe
patterns
o If the fringes move away from the centre as shown in (d),
then the surface will be concave. A test for convexity is to
press lightly at opposite edges alternately, as shown in the
<► Fig (e), thereby rocking the optical flat and causing the
centre of the rings to move to and fro
o Figure at (f) shows a surface which is curved more in one
direction than the other
o Fig (g) represents a smooth cylindrical surface, while Fig (h)
shows either a ridge or a valley on the surface, and a light
pressure will indicate which of the two is the case
Finally, the Fig (i) indicates the pattern over a vee block
 Optical Flats
►An optical flat is a circular piece of unstressed glass or quartz
usually about 5 cm in diameter or more
►The upper and lower surfaces are ground optically flat to get
reference planes
►They provide the most advantageous combination of
precision and accuracy of measurement
►Optical flats are made in a range of sizes, shapes and
materials
►Materials range from inexpensive glass to very
expensive sapphire
►However, high-quality optical quartz or borosilicate glass
are most commonly used
►The flats can also be coated with thin film of titanium oxide to reduce the
light lost by the reflection
►Optical flats are of two types; Type A has only one flat surface while Type B
has two parallel flat surfaces
►Cleanliness is of tremendous importance in optical
flat measurements
►Even a stray particle of dust that might settle on the part before the flat is
placed over it can result in inaccurate measurement
►Temperature changes are more apparent when using optical flats
►Optical flats are heated rapidly by handling and hence requires longer time
to regain the ambient temperature
« Principle of Autocollimator
►Autocollimator is an optical instrument used for the
measurement of small angular differences accurately
►It is essentially an infinity telescope and a collimator combined

Eyepiece Eyepiece Reticle Beam Splitter

into one instrument

• 0 is a point source of light placed at the principal focus of a collimating lens

• The rays of light from 0 incident on the collimating lens will travel as a parallel beam of
light
• If this beam strikes a plane reflector which is normal to the optical axis, then it will be
reflected back along its own path and refocused at the same point O
• If the plane reflector is tilted through a small angle 6, then the parallel beam will be
deflected through twice the angle 26 and will be brought to focus at O' in the same plane at a
distance 'x' from O
 00' = x = 2 6.f f -> Focal length of the lens

►The position of the final image does not depend upon the distance of the
reflector from the collimating lens i.e., separation x is independent of the
position of reflector from the lens
►But if the reflector is moved too much back, then the reflected rays will
completely miss the lens and no image will be formed
►Thus, for the full range of readings of the instrument, the maximum
remoteness of the reflector is limited
► For high sensitivity i.e., for large value of x corresponding to a small
angular deviation '9', a long focal length is required
Principle of the Microptic Autocollimator Reflector
work piece
on

Measuring Beam splitter

graticule Objective lens
►A crossline "target" graticule is positioned at the focal plane of a
telescope's objective system with the intersection of the crossline on the
optical axis
►When the target graticule is illuminated, rays of light diverging from the
intersection point reach the objective lens via a beam splitter and are
projected from the objective lens as parallel beam of light
►In this mode, the optical system is operating as a "collimator"

Lamp
A flat reflector placed in front of the objective lens and exactly
normal to the optical axis reflects the parallel beam of light back
along their original paths
They are then brought to focus in the plane of the target graticule
and exactly coincide with its intersection
A portion of the returned light passes straight through the beam
splitter and the return image of the target crossline is therefore
visible through the eyepiece
In this mode, it operates as a telescope focussed at infinity
► If the reflector is tilted through a small angle then the
reflected beam of light will be deflected by twice the angle
of tilt and will be brought to focus in the plane of the target
graticule but linearly displaced from the actual target

Lamp
------------------------------------ f
I I Diffuser

Reflector on

9f
work piece

crosslines by an amount 2
□ Linear displacement of the graticule image in the plane of
the eyepiece is therefore directly proportional to reflector
tilt and can be measured by an eyepiece graticule or optical
micrometer
□ The autocollimator is set permanently at infinity focus and
no device is required for focusing
□ The focal length determines the sensitivity and angular
measuring range
Eyepiece Eyepiece Reticle Beam Splitter
 Introduction to Screw Threads
n A screw thread comprises a helical groove of specified
cross-sectional shape. The cross-section of the helical
groove is called the "Form" of the thread
tt
There are number of minor errors arising in a screw thread
measurement which have their own origin in the
specification of the thread
n
The terminology employed must be precise
n Screw threads are essentially used in fastening and the
threads of this nature are simple in design and easy to
produce
♦ The most common form of the threads is V, although there
are several variations of this form are available
♦ Another function of a screw thread is to transmit power.
For example lead screw of a lathe, screw jack etc
♦ Apart from this, screw threads are used in measuring
devices like micrometers
♦ The form of the screw thread influences the function it has to
perform
♦ The aim of screw thread dimensional control is to ensure
mechanical strength, which is governed by the amount of
flank contact rather than by the fit in the threaded hole
♦ It is necessary to control the dimensions of threads
^ When a helical groove is formed on the exterior, then the thread is called an
external thread, or a screw
^ When the helical groove is formed on the interior of a circular hole then it is
called internal thread or nut
^ If there is a single helical groove then it is called single-start thread
^ If there are 'n' helical ridges running side by side around a cylinder then they
are known as n-start thread or multi-start threads
^ A taper thread may be defined in the same way, but is formed on the
exterior of a right circular cone or on the interior of a right circular conical
hole
 External screw thread terminology

►The bottom of the groove in between the two ridges is

called the root and the most important part of the ridge is
called the crest
►A crest or root may be either curved or flat in the axial
section depending upon the type of thread
►The straight part of the contour of the ridge that connects a
crest to a root is called the Flank
External screw thread terminology
► Axis of thread: This is an imaginary line running longitudinally through the
centre of the screw thread

: This is the angle between two adjacent flanks or slope

Angle of the thread
of the thread measured on an axial plane

Flank angle: This is the angle between the individual flank and the
perpendicular to the axis of the thread which passes through the vertex of
the fundamental triangle
It is commonly known as half angle of thread

► Pitch : It is the distance, measured parallel to the axis of the thread,

between corresponding points on adjacent threads in the same axial
plane and on the same side of the axis
The pitch is equal to the lead divided by the number of thread starts
External screw thread terminology
 External screw thread terminology

►Cummulative pitch : It is the distance measured between

corresponding points over a given number of threads

►Lead : It is the axial distance moved by the threaded part,

when it is given one complete revolution about its axis with
respect to a fixed mating thread

►Lead Angle : On a straight thread, the lead angle is the

angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch line with
a plane perpendicular to the axis
 External screw thread terminology

► Helix angle :
It is the angle made by the helix of a thread at the pitch
line with the axis. This angle is measured in an axial plane

► Depth of thread or Height of thread :

It is the distance from the crest of the thread to the root of
the thread measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
of the thread

Axial thickness : This is the distance between the opposite

faces of the same thread measured along the pitch line in a
direction parallel to the axis of the thread
External screw thread terminology
► Fundamental triangle : This is found by extending the flanks and joining
the points B and C. The triangle ABC is referred to as fundamental triangle

► Crest / Root truncation : It is the radial distance from the crest/root to

the nearest apex of the fundamental triangle

► Addendum : For an external thread, this is defined as the radial distance

between the major diameter and the pitch line. For an internal thread this
is the radial distance between the minor diameter and the pitch line

► Dedundum : This is the radial distance between the pitch line and the
minor diameter for external thread and for internal thread this is the
radial distance between the major diameter and the pitch line
External screw thread terminology
► Major diameter : This is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder, co-axial with
the screw, which just touches the crests of an external thread or the roots
of an internal threads. It is often referred to as the outside diameter, crest
diameter or full diameter

► Minor diameter :This is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder, co-axial with

the screw which just touches the roots of an external thread or the crests
of an internal threads. It is often referred to as root diameter or core
diameter

► Effective diameter or pitch diameter :

This is the diameter of the pitch cylinder or imaginary cylinder which is
co-axial with the axis of the screw, and intersects the flanks of the threads
in such a way that the width of threads and width of spaces between the
threads are equal
► If the pitch cylinder is imagined as generated by a straight line parallel
to the axis of screw, then that straight line is referred to as the pitch line
External screw thread terminology
► Functional (Virtual) Diameter :
The functional diameter of an external or internal thread is
the pitch diameter of the enveloping thread of perfect
pitch, lead, and flank angles, having full depth of
engagement but clear at crests and roots, and of a
specified length of engagement
It may be derived by adding to the pitch diameter in the
case of an external thread, or subtracting from the pitch
diameter in the case of an internal thread, the cumulative
effects of deviations from specified profile, including
variations in lead and flank angle over a specified length of
engagement
 External screw thread terminology

Types of Screw Threads

► Vee Threads :
These threads are mainly used for fastening purposes.
Typical forms in this group are ; ISO threads, Unified
threads, B.A., (British Association) whitworth threads etc.
These threads are simple in design and easy to produce
► Transmission Threads :
These threads are used to cause displacement in a
mechanisms or in the transmission of power. For example,
 the lead-screw of a lathe, typical forms of this group are ;
square thread, Acme thread, Buttress thread, etc.,

Errors in Screw Threads

►There are six important elements in a thread, errors in any one of which
may cause rejection,
►These are the major diameter, minor diameter, and effective diameter,
pitch angle, flank angle, and the profile at crest and root
►In addition, concentricity of the various diameters must be controlled
►Errors in the major and minor diameters may cause interference with the
mating thread, and reduction in the flank contact, or weakness by the
reduction in the wall thickness
 External screw thread terminology

►Errors in the effective diameter determine the amount of slackness or

interference between the flanks of mating threads

Errors in pitch are the errors in the effective diameter helix

measured parallel to the axis of the screw thread and are of
three types :

Periodic errors :
Periodic errors are those which vary in magnitude along
the length of the thread and occurs at regular intervals
 If the error occurs for every revolution, then the thread is
called "drunken"
In drunken thread, the advance of the helix is irregular in
one complete revolution
the pitch measured parallel to the thread axis will always
be correct, the only error is that the thread is not cut to a
true helix

n If the screw thread is regarded as an inclined plane wound round a cylinder and if
the thread is unwound from the cylinder, then the drunkness can be visualised
The helix will be a curve in the case of drunken thread and not a straight line
Errors of this type are most frequently caused by lack of squareness in the thrust
bearing of the lead screw used to produce the thread
 External screw thread terminology

► Progressive pitch error :

If the pitch of the thread is uniform but is longer or shorter
than its nominal value, then the error is called progressive
 These errors may be caused by a change in length due to
hardening, or by the errors in the pitch of the lead screw,
or by the faults in the saddle guide ways

Erratic Errors :
 External screw thread terminology

These errors vary in an irregular manner along the length of

the thread
Their causes are often difficult to identify. Possible
sources are faults in the machine and irregular cutting
action resulting from non-uniformity in the material of
the screw i
 Measurement of Major Diameter
C3 Formeasuring the major diameter of an
external thread, a good quality hand
micrometer is quite suitable
H Extreme care is necessary to ensure
that, only light pressure is applied
because the anvils of the micrometer
make contact only at
the points on the screwthread
B Excessive pressure may lead to
elastic deformation and correction
due to elastic compression has to be
applied
n For greater accuracy, the major
diameter is measured by a bench
micro-meter or a floating carriage
diameter measuring machine
FLOATING CARRIAGE MACHINE TO
MEASURE MAJOR DIA, MINOR DIA AND
EFFEVTIVE DIAMETER OF SCREW THREAD
► A fiducial indicator has a fixed anvil, and further this indicator has a positional
adjustment to increase the range of the instrument
► This instrument has a large micrometer drum with a vernier scale to give direct
readings of 0.0002 mm
 Supports

ft To measure major diameter, the instrument is first set to a datum by

means of slip gauges or preferably a standard cylinder of known
diameter
ft This standard cylinder having a diameter about equal to that of the
thread diameter to be measured is mounted between the holding
centres of the instrument and the first reading R1 of the micrometer
is taken
ft The standard cylinder is then removed and the screw thread of which
the major diameter has to be measured is held between the centres,
and a second micrometer reading R2 is taken
n If the diameter of standard cylinder = S
Micrometer reading over the standard cylinder = R1
Micrometer reading over the screw thread = R2
The major diameter of the screw thread, D = S ± (difference between Rx
and R2)
n The + or - sign is determined depending on whether the standard cylinder is
smaller or larger in diameter than the threads major diameter
n This measurement must be repeated at 3 position along the thread to
determine any taper which may be present, and at least at three angular
positions to detect ovality

Major Diameter of Internal Threads

►In measuring the major diameter of internal threads an
indirect approach is followed by making the replica of the screw
thread using casting technique
 ►It is important to obtain a perfect replica and once a good
replica is obtained the various elements of the thread can be
measured just similar to that done for the external threads
►Plaster of paris, dental waxes or sulphur may be used to
obtain the replica or cast samples

►An internal thread whose major diameter has to be measured is

thoroughly cleaned and coated with a thin film of oil
►Then, two wooden blocks are placed on either side of the thread such
that their upper surfaces lie about half-way up the thread, thus
forming a well to receive the plaster
The cast material is then poured to a depth less than the radius of the
thread to permit easy removal of cast without screwing it out
After the plaster is set, it is taken out by pulling the middle portion of
the cast without rotating
Making a casting of the internal thread

blocks
Measurement of Minor Diameter
The principle of measuring the minor diameter is same as that of
measuring the major diameter, but vee -shaped prisms are used
Prisms of suitable sizes are placed between the standard cylinder and the
instrument anvils in order to take a first micrometer reading R1

► The standard cylinder is replaced by the screw thread and a second

micrometer reading R2 is taken
►If the diameter of the standard cylinder = S
►Micrometer reading over standard cylinder = R1
►Micrometer reading over the screw thread = R2
►The minor diameter of the screw thread, D = S ± (difference
between R1 and R2)
 Minor Diameter of Internal Thread
(a) Using taper parallels :
For small internal thread diameters, taper parallels are used
It consists of pairs of wedges whose outer edges are curved and
parallel
As the wedges are slid over each other, the diameter across the outer
edges varies, and may be measured with a micrometer
Micrometer
 (b) Using Rollers :
For larger internal thread diameters, precision rollers are
inserted inside the thread along with the slip gauges of
suitable length
► Minor diameter = length of slip gauges + 2 x diameter
Screw Thread Pitch Measurement
The two commonly used methods for pitch measurement are
as follows :
(a) Using tool room microscope
(b) Using pitch measuring machine
(a) Using tool room microscope
A tool maker's microscope may be used for the measurement of pitch
The screw thread is held between the centres on the microscope table and
the table is rotated by an angle equal to the helix angle of the thread
► A sharp image of the thread is projected on to the screen
By moving the table along the screw axis this image is matched with the
master profile which was obtained from the master thread mounted in the
projection head, and an initial reading is taken
►The table is traversed until the image of the next thread
matches the master profile and the second reading of the
micrometer is taken
►Then the difference between these two readings gives the
measured pitch of the screw thread
►The depth of thread and flank angle can also be measured
using this principle
 (b) Using pitch measuring machine
<@> The screw thread whose pitch has to be measured is
mounted between the centres of the machine
<@> A stylus, of suitable size which makes contact along the
thread flanks at points near the pitch line is inserted into the spring
loaded head
<@> The principle of the method of measurement is to, move
the stylus along the screw thread, parallel to the axis from one
tooth space to the next and to measure the amount of movement
on a micrometer
Pitch measuring machine
►The spring loaded head permits the stylus to move up the
flank of the thread and down into the next space as it is moved
along

►Accurate positioning of the stylus between the two flanks

is obtained by ensuring that, the pointer T is always
opposite to its index mark when readings are taken

►With the micrometer reading near the zero on the scale,

the indicator is moved along to bring the stylus opposite
the first thread space and is clamped in position
►The indicator is next adjusted radially until the stylus
engages between the thread flanks and the pointer K is
opposite the line mark
►When the pointer is accurately in position, the micrometer
reading is noted
►The stylus is then moved along into the next thread space,
by rotation of the micrometer, and a second reading taken
►The difference between the two readings is the pitch ofthe thread
►Readings are taken in this manner until the whole length of
the screw thread has been covered
Measurement of Screw Thread Angle (Flank
angle)

►The most convenient and commonly employed method for

the measurement of angles of the flanks is optical
projection

►The shadow of the thread is viewed on a screen and

the angles are measured by means of a protractor
► The screw thread to be measured is mounted between
the centres on the projector
* The pivoted arm of the protractor is then rotated until the edge of its
shadow is parallel to the thread flank
* The first reading on the scale is taken
* The screw under test is now moved at right angles to its axis until the
shadow of the thread on the other side is brought into position on the
protractor

* The protractor arm is now swung about its pivot and adjusted in order to
measure the angle ofthe same flank

n The second reading is taken

n The mean of these two readings is then the angle between this flank and a
normal to the screw axis
 Measurement of Effective Diameter
For measuring effective diameter two small cylinders or wires are
inserted in the grooves of the thread

ft The diameter must be same for both wires and must be known very
accurately
ft A correct value of the effective diameter will be obtained only if the
wires make contact at the pitch line. Wires of this size are called
as "best size" wires
^ The diameter of the wires used should be such that they
contact the flanks at a distance from the pitch line not
exceeding one-twentieth of the length of the straight flank

® The effective diameter can be measured by two wire or three

wire method
 Two Wire Method
• • A reading is first taken over a standard cylinder with
the two wires in position between the cylinder and the
micrometer anvils
• • The standard cylinder is then removed and the screw
thread is mounted between the centres and a second
reading is taken
• • From these two readings the diameter "7~" under the wires
is obtained
• • The effective diameter is given by E = T + C
Measurement of Effective Diameter (Two wire)
 Where, T is the dimension under the wires = M - 2d in which d is the diameter of
wire, M is the dimension over the wires.
And C is a constant value, which depends on the diameter of the wires, the pitch
and angle of the screw thread. The value of C can be obtained as follows :

In the triangle OAB,

OA OB . cosec
—2
d e
— cosec —
2 2
AG OA - OG
\
— cosec --- 1
2I 2
In the triangle AFD%
AF DF . cot
-2
Assuming the wires touches the flank exactly at the effective diameter,
 = £.«** 4 2
where DF = —
FG = AF - AG 4
P J d
cosec — 1 I
= — . cot ---------
4 2 2
2 But, E - T = 2 x FG
(Considering FG on either side of the thread]

For w h i t w o r t h thread, 9 = 55°

C= 0.9605 p - 1.1657 d
For metric thread, 9 = 60°
C = 0.866 p - d
 Three Wire Method

It is an accurate method of measuring the effective diameter In this 3

wires or rods of known diameter are used, one on one side and two on
the other side
where
M -> Diameter over the wires E -> Effective
diameter d -> diameter of the wires
h -> height of the centre of the wire or rod from the
effective diameter 9
—> Angle of
thread r -> radius of the wire H -> depth of
the thread D -> major diameter of the thread

in the triangle ABD

 G
AD = AS cosec —
2
d 9
= — cosec —
2 2

H = DE cot -
2

= — cot —

2
And, CD = - F/ = — cot -
2
4
Further, ft = An - CD

n ■ — cosec — — — cot —
2 2
1 2
i -

Distance over the wiies, Af = £ + 2h + 2r 2r

= £ + 2 I r cosec ------------ — cot —

2 4 2
Q
= E +- 2r I 1 -+- cosec — L - — co* —
2
or
2)
1 + cosec — - —
K
9
2
M = £ + tf I 1 + cosec — I - — col —
2
For wtdtworth ttnfeJtd

G = 55* depth of thread - p

*- 0.64 pr cosec - - 2.1657 and cot - - 1.921

2 2
 M E + d 1 + cosec ------------- cot -
I 2) 2
2
D - 0.64 p + rf(1 + 2.1657) ^
(1.921) 2
.-. Af = D + 3.1657 d - 1.6005 p
where D is major diameter of the thread.
For metric threads

Depth of thread = 0.6495 p

:. E = D - 0.6495 p , 0 = 60°,
6 6
cosec - = 2, and cot - = 1.732
2 2

.-. M = £> - 0.6495 p +rf(l + 2) - £ (1.732)

2
= D + 3d - (0.6495 + 0.866) p
iW = D + 3d - 1.5155 p
We can measure the value of M practically and then compare with the
theoretical values with the help of the formulae derived above. After finding
the
correct value of M and knowing d, E can be found out.
 Expression for Best Size Wire
The best size wire is the one which makes contact at the pitch
line or effective diameter of the screw thread
OP is perpendicular to the flank position of the thread
Toolma 's Microscope
k

work table
carriage

Mirror

Eye pieces
optical head *"trP''

____ C
O Crosslines ore engraved on the ground-glass screen which can be
rotated through 360° and the measurements are made by these
cross lines

& The angle of rotation of the screen can be read through an auxiliary
eyepiece provided on the optical head

? Different types of graduated and engraved screens and corresponding

eyepieces are used for measuring different elements
 Introduction to Gear Measurement
* Gears are mainly used for transmission of power and motion
ft In order to transmit power or motion, the driving and the driven
gear wheels must be of perfect geometrical form
ft The gear wheels have to be manufactured precisely and should
be measured accurately
ft The two commonly used profiles of gear teeth are the
involute profile and the cycloidal profile
-> Involute profile :
It is defined as the locus of a point on a straight line which
rolls around a cylinder without slipping
It is also defined as the path described by a point on an
inextensible cord which is unwound from a stationary cylinder
->Cycloidal profile :
It is defined as the curve traced by a point on the circumference
of a circle which rolls without slipping on a fixed straight line
Pitch
line
5 Gear teeth terminology
 Top land
Face
Addendum circle
Pitch surface
pitch circle
Addendum
Total depth

Cleat a nc
Clearance cir

Root or
dedendurn
circle
 Terminology of Gear Teeth
H Base circle :
It is the circle from which the gear teeth profiles are generated H
Pitch circle :
It is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the same
motion as the actual gear
H Pitch circle diameter:
It is the diameter of the circle which by pure rolling action would produce
the same motion as the toothed gear wheel
The size of the gear is usually specified by the pitch circle diameter
B Pitch point:
It is a common point of contact between two pitch circles of two meshing
gear wheels
■ Pressure angle :
It is the angle between the common normal to two gear teeth at the point
of contact and the common tangent at the pitch point
TOOTH PARTS
PINEON
Whnli; Dc-prh

i :i m u Ni i 'Oin.

__ T r a n s v e r s e S e c t i o n
• • Addenum :
It is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the tip of the tooth
• * Dedendum :
It is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of the
tooth
Dendendum = Addendum + Clearance
• • Clearance :
It is defined as the radial distance from the tip of a tooth to the bottom
of a mating tooth space, when the teeth are symmetrically engaged
• • Face of tooth :
It is that part of the tooth surface which is above the pitch surface
 Flank of the tooth :
It is that part of the tooth surface which is lying below the
pitch surface
Addendum circle and Dedendum circle :
These are the circles drawn through the top of the teeth and
the bottom of the teeth respectively
Circular pitch :
It is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch
circle from a point on one tooth to the corresponding point
on the adjacent tooth
Diametral pitch :
It is the ratio of number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter
in millimeters
Pd =T/D
» Module :
It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in millimeters to the number of
teeth
m=D/T
u Total depth :
It is the radial distance between the addendum and the dedendum circle
► Working depth :
It is the radial distance from the addendum circle to the clearance circle
L- th thickness :
It is the width of the tooth measured along the pitch circle from its
intercept with one flank to its intercept with the other flank of the same
tooth
L Backlash:
It is the difference between the tooth space and the mating tooth
thickness measured along the pitch circle
► Face width : It is the width of the gear tooth measured parallel
to its axis
 Gear Measurement:
►For proper inspection of gear, it is essential to pay attention to the
raw material, each process in the production cycle, machining of
the blanks, heat treatment, the cutting and surface finish of the
teeth
►The gear blank should be tested for dimensional accuracies like face
width, bore, outside diameter of the hub and its eccentricity
►As outside diameter forms the datum from where the tooth
thickness is measured, it forms an important item to be controlled
►Concentricity of the blanks is also essential and the side faces
should be true to the bore
 Concentricity of Gear Teeth
► If the gear teeth are not concentric then there is a
fluctuation in velocity while transmitting the motion
The tooth concentricity can be checked by,
(I Mounting the gear between the bench centres, placing a standard roller in
each tooth space and measuring the deviation using a dial indicator
• Using a projector in which case the teeth are brought against a stop and
each image of the tooth on the screen should coincide with a line on the
screen
*l Using a gear testing fixture fitted with a spring loaded slide and dial
indicator, in which the spring exerts a constant pressure on the mating
teeth and the movements of the dial indicator gives the measure of the
eccentricity of the teeth
Alignment of each tooth :
►Alignment of each tooth on a gear wheel is essential
otherwise the load will not be distributed evenly over its
face
►Tooth alignment can be checked by placing a standard roller
in the tooth space and checking for parallelism with a
surface plate
►The accuracy of any gear wheel mainly depends upon its
cutting tool accuracy and the setting of the machine
►For most of the gears, optical projection and rolling tests are
sufficient
► In the manufacture of high precision gears it is necessary to determine the
accuracy of individual elements like tooth thickness, pitch of the teeth and the
form of the teeth etc

► The inspection of gear wheel is mainly done by two methods

: a) Analytical Method
► In analytical inspection, all the individual elements of the gear teeth are checked.
This method is slow and tedious and not of much use for industry. The analytical
inspection of gears consists of determining the following teeth elements
► Profile
► Thickness of tooth
► Backlash
► Spacing
► Run out or eccentricity or concentricity
► Pitch
b) The Functional Method
►This method of inspection consists of carrying out the
running test of gear with another gear which is more
accurate and is known as control gear or master gear
►This method of inspection determines composite error,
vibration, noise level or variation in action
►However, the master gear used as a reference has to be
measured on elemental basis only
Checking of Composite Error (Rolling Gear Test)

This test is commonly used in mass production of gear wheels It

takes much less time and gives quite accurate results
The composite errors can be checked by measuring the variations of centre distance
when the gear to be tested is rotated under spring pressure against a master gear The
test is generally performed on a most commonly used machine called Parkinson Gear Tester
Gear Tester
►This test reveals any errors in the tooth form, pitch
and concentricity of the pitch circle
►When two gears are in mesh with each other, then
any of the above errors will cause the variation of
centre distance
►The variation in the centre distance is utilized for
determining the errors in gear wheel by this machine
►The machine essentially consists of a base. Two
carriages one fixed and the other movable are
mounted on the base
►The position of the fixed carriage can be adjusted in
order to accommodate a wide range of diameters.
While in use, this fixed carriage is locked in one
position
►The movable carriage is spring loaded towards the
fixed carriage. Two spindles are mounted in a parallel
plane on each carriage and are made to suit the bore
of the gear wheels
►A dial gauge is made to rest against the movable
carriage. The master gear is mounted on the fixed
carriage spindle while the gear to be tested is
mounted on the movable carriage. Then the dial
gauge is adjusted to read zero
►The two gears which are meshing are then rotated by
hand and the variations in the dial gauge readings
are observed
Measurement of Individual Elements of a
Gear
Measurement of tooth thickness
► The tooth thickness is generally measured at pitch circle
and is therefore, the pitch line thickness of the tooth
Following are the various methods of measuring the
gear tooth thickness :
►Measurement of tooth thickness by gear tooth
vernier caliper
►Constant chord method
►Base tangent method
►Measurement by dimension over pins

Gear Tooth Vernier Caliper

The gear tooth thickness can be conveniently measured by a gear tooth
vernier
Since the gear tooth thickness varies from the tip to the base circle of the
tooth, the instrument must be capable of measuring the tooth thickness at a
specified position on the tooth
The gear tooth vernier has two vernier scales The vertical vernier scale is
used to set the depth (d) along the pitch circle from the top surface of the
tooth at which the width (w) has to be measured
While the horizontal vernier scale is used to measure the width (w) of the
teeth
Gear Tooth Vernier Caliper
►Considering one gear tooth, the theoretical values of w and d
can be found out which may be verified by the instrument
►w is a chord ADB, but tooth thickness is specified as an arc
distance AEB
►Also the depth d adjusted on the instrument is slightly greater
than the addendum CE, width w is therefore called chordal
thickness and d is called the chordal addendum
w = AB = 2AD
 360
We know that e=
4/V
where N is the
number of teeth

In the A l e ADO,
w

=
2
R =
si
n

I
A
D

A
O

0
 (
;

p
i
t
c
h

c
i
r
c
l
e

r
a
d
i
u
s
)
4
/
V

pitch circle diameter

module m=
2R Number of teeth
N
R=
N.m

N
m

.
f
3
6
0
^
w
=
 2
.

.
s
i
n

4
/
V

Also from the figure,

d = O C - OD.
Addendum is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the tip of the tooth. Its
value is equal to one module
But OC = OE + Addendum = R + m Nm
—+m
2

and OD = R cos 9
cos
Nm 2

, Nm Nm (90^
.". d = ---- + m --------- cos —
2 2 \N

Nm '1 + ----
2 f90A
cos —
yv I n,
UNIT-IV

LASER METROLOGY
PRECISION INSTRUMENT BASED ON LASER:
v Laser stands lor Light Amplification b> Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
V Laser instrument is a device to produce powerful, monochromatic, collimaled beam
of light in which the waves are coherent.
V Laser development Is for production of clear coherent light. The advantage ol
coherent light is that whole of the energy appears to be emanating from a very small
point.
V The beam can be focused easily into either a parallel beam or onto a \cr> small point
by use of lenses A major impact on optical measurement has been nude by
development in elector optics, providing automation, greater acuity of setting and
faster response time.
V Radiation sources have developed in a number of areas, the most important
developments are light emitting diodes and lasers.
v The laser is used extensively for interferometry particularly the He- Ne gas type. The
laser distance measuring interferometer has become an industry standard.
 This produces 1 to 2mm diameter beam of red light power of 1MW and focused at a
V
point of very high intensity. The beam begins to expand at a rate of 1 mm/m. The laser
beam is visible and it can be observed easily.
V This is used for very accurate measurements of the order of O.lum is 100m. LASER
METROLOGY
V Metrology lasers are low power instruments. Most are helium-neon type.
Wave-output laser that emit visible or infrared light. He-Ne lasers produce light at a
wavelength of 0.6um that is in phase, coherent and a thousand times more intense
than any other monochromatic source.
V Laser systems have wide dynamic range, low optical cross talk and high contrast.
V Laser fined application in dimensional measurements and surface inspection because
of the properties of laser light.
v These are useful where precision, accuracy, rapid non-contact gauging of soft, delicate
oi hot moving points.

USE OF LASER
1. Laser Telemetric system:
V Laser telemetric system is a non-contact gauge that measures with a collimaled laser
beam. It measures at the rate of 150 scans per second.
V It basically consists of three components, a transmitter, a receiver and processor
electronics. The transmitter module produces a collimaled parallel scanning laser
beam moving at a high constant, linear speed.
V The scanning beam appears a red line. The receiver module collects and photoelically
senses the laser light transmitted past the object being measured.
V The processor electronics takes the received signals to convert them 10 a convenient
form and displays the dimension being gauged.
V The transmitter contains a low power helium-neon gas laser and its power supply, a
specially designed collimating lens, a synchronous motor, a multi faceted

1
 V Laser equipment produces real straight line, whereas an alignment telescope
provides an imaginary line that cannot be seen in space.
v This is important when it is necessary to check number of components to a
predetermined straight' line. Particularly it' they are spaced relatively long
distances apart, as in aircraft production and in shipbuilding.
V Laser equipment can also be used for checking flatness of machined surface by
direct displacement. By using are optical square in conjunction with laser
equipment squareness can be checked with reference to the laser base line.

TART-A

1 What is interferometer? And its types/

2.Name the common source of light used for interferometer?
3.Definc-Crust and Rough?
4,Dcfinc- Wavelength
5. What is meant by alignment test on machine tools?
6. Stale the basic principle of Laser
7. State the use of Laser
8. What is the other name tor alignment test on machine tools/
9. List the various geometrical checks made on machine tools. 10.De fine-LASER?
11. Define-Beam splitters
12. Define-Beam benders
13. Define-Retro reflectors

PART-B
1. What s meant by alignment test on machine tools? Why they are accessary? Explain.
2. Slate the basic principle and use of Laser.
3. Distinguish between geometrical and practical lest on machine -l.Sketeh and explain the
Michelson interferometer in detail. 5.Sketch and describe the optical system in any two of the
following.
a. Laser interferometer.
b. N.P.L. Flatness interferometer.
6. Sketch and explain the Two frequency interferometer in detail.
7.Slate the applications of Lasers in Linear and Angular measurements
8. State the applications of Laser Interferometer in testing of machine tools?
Dynamic tests:
V I f the alignment tests arc carried out under dynamic loading condition. The accuracy
of machine tools which cut metal by removing chips is tested by two types of test namely.
1. Geometrical tests
2. Practical tests.
Geometrical tests:
V In this test, dimensions of components, posit-on of components and displacement of
component relative to one another is checked.
Practical tests:
V In these test, test pieces are machined in the machines. The test pieces must be
appropriate to the fundamental purpose for which the machine has been designed.

PURPOSE OF MACHINE TOOL TESTING

V The dimensions of any work piece, its surface finishes and geometry depends on the
accuracy of machine tool for its manufacture.
V In mass production the various components produced should be of high accuracy lo be
assembled on a non-sensitive basts.
V The increasing demand for accurately machined components has led lo improvement
of geometric accuracy of machine tools. For this purpose various checks on dilTcrenl
components of the machine tool are carried out.
TYPE OF GEOMETRICAL CHECKS ON MACHINE TOOLS.
Different types of geometrical tests conducted on machine tools arc as follows:
1. Straightness.
2. Flatness.
3. Parallelism, equi-distance and coincidence.
4. Rectilinear movements or squareness of straight line and plane.

189
 5. Rotations.
Main spindle is lo be tested for
1) Out of round.
2) Eccentricity
3) Rudiul throw of un uxi.s.
4) Runout
5) Periodical axial slip
6) Camming

VARIOUS TESTS CONDUCTED ON ANY MACHINE TOOLS

1) Tesl for level of iasiallalion of machine tool in horizontal and vertical planes.
2) Tesl for flatness of machine bed and for .straightness and parallelism of bed ways
on bearing surface.
3) Tesl for perpendicularity of guide ways to other guide ways.
4) Test for true running of the main spindle and its axial movements.
5) Tesl for parallelism of spindle axis to guide ways or bearing surfaces.
6) Test for line of movement of various members like spindle and table cross slides
etc.
USE OF LASER FOR ALIGNMENT TESTING
V The alignment tests can be carried out over greater distances and lo a greater degree
of accuracy using laser equipment

190
LNTERFEROMETRIC MEASl'REMENT OF ANGLE
V With laser interferometer it is possible to measure length lo an accuracy of 1 part in 106
on a routine basis.
V With the help of two retro reflectors placed at a fixed distance and a length measuring
laser interferometer the change in angle can be measured to an accuracy of 0.1 second.
The device uses sine Principle. The line joining the poles the retro-reflectors makes the
V hypotenuse of the right iriangle. The change in the path difference of the reflected beam
represents the side of the iriangle opposite to lite angle being measured.
Such laser interferometer can be used to measure an angle up to ± 10 degrees with a
V resolution of 0. 1 second. The principle of operauon is shown in fig.
t,

Laser
Inlcrferomcicr
Re lice lor mourn
LASER EQUIPMENT FOR ALIGNMENT TESTING
V This testing is particularly suitable in aircraft production, shipbuilding etc. Where a
number of components, spaced long distance apart, have to be checked lo a predetermine
straight line.
V Other uses of laser equipment arc testing of flatness of machined surfaces, checking
square ness with the help of optical square etc. These consist of laser tube will produces a
cylindrical beam of laser about 10mm diameter and an auto reflector with a high degree of
accuracy. Laser tube consist of helium-neon plasma tube in a hea aluminum cylindrical
housing. The laser beam comes out of the housing from its centre and parallel to Ihe
housing within 10" of arc and alignment stability is the order of 0.2" of arc per hour.
V Auto reflector consists of detector head and read out unit. No. of photocell are arranged to
compare laser beam in each half horizontally and vertically. This is housed on a shard
V which has two adjustments to translate the detector in its two orthogonal measuring
directions perpendicular lo the laser beam. The devices delect the alignment of flat
surfaces perpendicular lo a reference line of sight.
MACHINE TOOL TESTING
V 'Die accuracy of manufactured parts depends on the accuracy of machine tools. The quality of
V work piece depends on Rigidity and stillness of machine tool and its components.
V Alignment of various components in relation to one another Quality and accuracy of driving
mechanism and control devices. It can be classified into
V 1. Static tests
2. Dynamic tests.
Static tests:
V I f the alignment of ihe components of the machine tool are checked under static
conditions then the test are called static test.
v This system can be used for both incremental displacement and angle measurements. Due to
large counting range it is possible to attain a resolution of 2mm in 10m measuring range.
v Means arc also provided to compensate for the influence of ambient temperature, material
temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity fluctuation.
TWYMAN-GREEN INTERFEROMETER
V The Twyman-Green interferometer is used as a polarizing interleromelcr with variable
amplitude balancing between sample and reference waves.
V For an exact measurement of the test surface, the instrument error can be detennined by an
absolute measurement. This error is compensated by storing the same in microprocessor
system and subtracting from the measurement of the test surface.
V It has following advantages
1. It permits testing of surface with wide varying reflectivity.
2. It avoids undesirable feed back of light reflected of the tested surface and
the instrument optics.
3. It enables utilization of the maximum available energy.

191
 4. Polarisation permits phase variation to be effected with the necessary
precision.
LASER VIEWERS
v The profile of complex components like turbine blades can be checked by the use
of optical techniques. It is based on use of laser and CCTV. V A section of the blade,
around its edge is delineated by two flat beam of laser
light. This part of the edge is viewed at a narrow angle by the TV camera or beam
splitter.

V Both blade and graticule are displayed as magnified images on the monitor, the
graticule position being adjustable so that its image can be superimposed on the
profile image.
V The graticule is effectively viewed at the same angle as the blade. So. distortion due lo
viewing angle affects both blade and graticule. This means thai the graticule images
arc direct 1:1.

192
MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
V Michclson interferometer consist of a monochromatic light source a beam splitter and
two mirrors.
V The schematic arrangement of Michclson interferometer is shown in fig. The
monochromatic light falls on a beam splitter, which splits the light into two rays of
equal intensity at right angles. One ray is transmitted to mirror M| and other is
reflected through beam splitter to mirror M:..
V From both these mirrors, the rays are reflected back and these return at the
semi-reflecting surface from where they are transmitted to the eye.
V Mirror M< is fixed and mirror Mj is movable. If both the mirrors arc at same distance
from beam splitter, then light will arrive in phase and observer will see bright spot due
to constructive interference.
V If movable mirror shifts by quarter wavelength, then beam will return to observer 180°
out of phase and darkness will be observed due to destructive interference

V Each half-wave length of mirror travel produces a change in the measured optical path
of one wavelength and the reflected beam from the moving mirror shifts through 360°
phase change.
v When the reference beam reflected from the fixed mirror and the beam reflected from
the moving mirror rejoin at the beam splitter, they alternately reinforce and cancel
each other as the mirror moves Thus each cycle of intensity at the eye represents 7J2
of mirror travel.
V When white light source is used then a compensator plate is introduced in each of the
path of mirror M( So that exactly the same amount of glass is introduced in each of the
path.
V To improve the Michclson interferometer
ti) Use of laser the measurements can be made over longer distances and highly
accurate measurements when compared to other monochromatic sources. I.U)
Mirrors are replaced by cube-comer reflector which reflects light parallel to its
angle of incidence.
liii) Photocells are employed which convert light intensity variation in voltage
pulses to give the amount and direction of position change.
DUAL FREQUENCY LASER LNTERFEORMETER
V This instrument is used to measure displacement, high-precision measurements of
length, angle, speeds and refractive indices as well as derived static and dynamic
quantities.
LASER INTERFEROMETER
V II is possible to maintain the quality of interference fringes over longer distance when
lamp is replaced by a laser source:
V Laser interferometer uses AC laser as the light source and the measurements to be
made over longer distance.
V Laser is a monochromatic optical energy, which can be collimaled into a directional
beam AC. Laser interferometer (ACLI) has the following advantages.
0 High repeatability
0 High accuracy
0 Long range optical path
0 Easy installations
0 Wear and tear
V Schematic arrangement of laser interferometer is shown in fig. Two-frequency
zeeman laser generates light of two slightly different frequencies with opposite
circular polarisation.
V These beams gel split up by beam splitter B One part travels towards B and from
there lo external cube corner here the displacement is lo he measured.
hxtcrnai
V This interferometer uses cube corner reflectors which reflect light parallel to its angle
of incidence. Beam splitter B> optically separates the frequency J which alone is sent
to the movable cube corner reflector.
V The second frequency from B 2 is sent to a fixed reflector which then rejoins IT at the
beam splitter B 2 to produce alternate light and dark interference flicker at about 2
Mega cycles per second. Now if the movable reflector moves, then the returning beam
frequency Doppler-shifted slightly up or down by Af
V Thus the light beams moving towards photo detector P 2 have frequencies f> and (fi ±
Af d and P 2 changes these frequencies into electrical signal.
V Photo detector P2 receive signal from beam splitter B 2 and changes the reference beam
frequencies f| and i2 into electrical signal.
V An AC amplifier A separates frequency, difference signal i2 - fj and A2 separates
frequency difference signal.
V The pulse converter extracts i. one cycle per half wavelength of motion. The up-down
puLses arc counted electronically and displayed in analog or digital form.

194
 b) Beam lenders:
V These are used to deflect the light beam around corners on its path from the laser to
each axis.
V These arc actually just flat mirrors but having absolutely flat and very high reflectivity.
Normally these are restricted to 90° beam deflections to avoid disturbing the
polarizing vectors.
c) Retro reflectors:
V These can be plane mirrors, roof prism or cube comers. Cube corners are three
mutually perpendicular plane mirrors and the reflected beam is always parallel to the
incidental beam./
V Each ACLI transducers need two retro reflectors. All ACLI measurements are made by
sensing differential motion between two retro reflectors relative to an interferometer.
V Plane mirror used as retro reflectors with the plane mirror interferometer must be flat
to within 0.06 micron per cm.
' iii) Laser head's measurement receiver
V During a measurement the laser beam is directed through optics in the
measurement path and then returned to the laser head is measurement receiver
which will detect part of the returning beam and a doppler shifted frequency
component.
(iv) Measurement display
V It contains a microcomputer to compute and display results. The signals from
receiver and measurement receiver located in the laser head arc counted in two
separate pulse converter and subtracted.
V Calculations are made and the computed value is displayed. Other input signals for
correction are temperature, co-efficient of expansion, air velocity etc.. which can be
displayed.
(v| Various version of ACLI
a) Standard
Interferometer:
v Least expensive.
V Retro reflector for this instrument is a cube corner.
V Displacement is measured between the interferometer and cube corner.
this distance
|^ ___ ('
From liisef
source Interferometer

To receiver

btSigna) beams Interferometer:

V Beam traveling between the interferometer and the retro reflector.
V Its operation same as standard interferometer.
V The interferometer and retro reflector for this system are smaller than
the standard system.
V Long range optical path
V Easy installation
V Wear and tear.

PRINCIPLE OF LASER
v The pliolon emitted during stimulated emission has the same energy, phase and
frequency as the incident photon.
V This principle states that the photon comes in contact with another atom or
molecule in the higher energy level E2 then it will cause the atom to return lo
ground slate energy level El by releasing another photon.
V The sequence of triggered identical photon from stimulated atom is known as
stimulated emission. This multiplication of photon through stimulated
emission leads to coherent, powerful, monochromatic, collimatcd beam of
light emission. This light emission is called laser.

LASER INTERFERO.METRY Brief

DescriptIon of components (i| Two
frequency Laser source
0 It is generally He-Nc type that generates stable coherent light beam of two frequencies,
one polarized vertically and another horizontally relative to the plane of the mounting
feet.
0 Laser oscillates at two slightly different frequencies by a cylindrical permanent magnet
around the cavity. The two components of frequencies arc distinguishable by their
opposite circular polarization
0 Beam containing both frequencies passes through a quarter wave and half wave plates
which change the circular polarizations to linear perpendicular polarisations, one
vertical and other horizontal. Thus the laser can be rotated by 90°about the beam axis
without affecting transducer performance.

195
0 If the laser source is deviated from one of the four optimum positions, the photo receiver
will decrease. At 45° deviation the signal will decrease to zero, (ii) Optical elements: (a)
Beam splitter:
V Fig shows the beam splitters lo divide laser output along different axes. These divide
the laser beam into separate beams.
V To avoid attenuation it is essential that the beam splitters must be oriented so that the
reflected beam forms a right angle with the transmitted beam
V So that these two beams: arc coplanar with one of the polarisation vectors of the input
form.
lAxte)
% 25%
Axis2 3J% 150% 25%
beam I Axis2
splilcr

50%
67%
100%
Axis3 33 V. 33% beam laser 25%
splilcr A.\is3
25% Axlvl

196
 Reference Reforetlectof
beam (S (fixed)

From laser 1
V
— Mcasurmcnt
beam
source 1 / (P polarised)
To electronic
v
Interferomet
er
polarised)
receiver
V The two-frequency laser head provides one frequency with P polarisation and
another frequency with S-polarisation.
V The laser beam is split at the polarizing beam splitter into its two separate
frequencies.
The measuring beam is directed through the interferometer to reflect off a target mirror or
retro reflector attached to the object to be measured. The reference beam is reflected from
V fixed retro reflector. The measurement beam on its return path rccombines with
the reference beam and is directed to the electronic receiver. 7. Gauging wide diameter from
the diffraction pattern formed in a laser
v Fig.( 1) shows a method of measuring the diameter of thin wire using the
interference fringes resulting from diffraction of the light by the wire in the
laser beam.
V A measure of the diameter can be obtained by moving the photo detector until
the output is restored to its original value.
V Changes in wire diameter as small as 0.2% over wire diameter from 0.005 to
0.2mm can be measured..

Collimator Diffraction
partem
V Fig. (2) shows the length measurement by fringe counting. The laser output,
which may be incoherent illumines three slits at a time in the first plane which
form interference fringes.
V The movement can be determined by a detector. The total number of slits in die
first plane is governed by the length over which measurement is required
Grating
The spacing between the slits and
distance of the slit to the
plane of the grating depend on the
wavelength of the light used.
Interference \

3. Scanning Laser gauge

V Fig shows a schematic diagram of a scanning laser gauge, it consist of
transmitter, receives and processor electronics.
V A thin band of scanning laser light Is made to pass through a linear scanner
lens to render it parallel beam. "The object placed in a parallel beam, casts a
lime dependent shadow.
V Signal from the light entering the photocell (receiver) arc proc by a
microprocessor to provide display of the dimension represented by the time
difference between the shadow edges.
V It can provide results to an accuracy of0.25 for 10—5 Omm diameter objects. It
can be used for objects 0.05mm to 450mm diameter; and offers repeatability of
O.lum

Ro I a ling mimx

photocell

197
 scanner motor
Display - lip based dam Hdgc
sensint
operator ■u ,| .1. -u.il & & decoding
:onso!c control system eleciromcs

4. Photo diode away imaging

V The system comprises of laser source, imaging optics, photodiode array, signal
processor and display unit.
V For large parts, two arrays in which one for each edge are used. Accuracies as
high as 0.05 urn have been achieved.
5. Diffraction pattern technique
V These arc used lo measure small gaps and small diameter parts. A parallel coherent
laser beam is diffracted by a small pari and a lens on a linear diode array focuses the
resultant pattern.
V Its use is restricted to small wires. The measurement accuracy is more for smaller
parts. The distance between the alternating light and dark hands in the diffraction
pattern is a (tired function of the wile diameter, wavelength of laser beam and the focal
length of the lens.
6. Two- frequency laser interferometer
V Fig. shows schematic arrangement. This consists of two frequency laser head,
beam directing and splitting optics, measurement optics, receivers, and
wavelength compensators and electronics.
V It is ideally suited for measuring linear positioning straightness in two planes,
pitch and yaw.

198
 V

reflector prism, a synchronous pulse pholo detector and a protective

replaceable window.
The high speed of scanning permits on line gauging and thus it is possible to
detect changes in dimensions when components arc moving on a continuous
product such as in rolling process moving at very high speed.
V There is no need of waiting or product to cool for taking measurements. This
N\stem can also be applied on production machines and control then with

closed feed back loops.

v Since the output of this system is available in digital form, it can run a process
controller limit alarms can be provided and output can be taken on digital
printer.
Edge
Hysiersis
synchronous
Object
molor lo ___
be
measured Photo
dcilecto
r

Scunner
Gate
—| sensin
— g
»- Output {Digital display system)
2. Laser and LED based distance measuring instruments
V These can measure distances from 1 to 2in with an accuracy of the order of 0. 1
to 1% of the measuring range When the light emitted by laser or LED hits an
object, scatter and same of this scattered light is seen by a position sensitive
detector or diode array.
V If the distance between die measuring head and the object changes, the angle
at which the light enters the detector will also change.
V The angle of deviation is calibrated in terms of distance and output is provided
as 0-2OmA. Such instruments are very reliable because there are no moving
parts their response time is milliseconds.
V The measuring system uses two distance meters placed at equal distance on
either side of the object and a control unit to measure the thickness of an
object. The distance meter is focused at the centre of the object.
i

1
\ /
\ /
> ■

c
: )

Control
unit with
display

199
 V Laser equipment produces real straight line, whereas an alignment
telescope provides an imaginary line that cannot be seen in space.
V This is important when it is necessary lo check number of components to
a predetermined straight * line. Particularly if they are spaced relatively
long distances apart, as in aircraft production and in shipbuilding.
V Laser equipment can also be used for checking flatness of machined
surface by direct displacement. By using are optical square in conjunction
with laser equipment squareness can be checked with reference to the
laser base line.

PART-A

lWhal is interferometer? And its types/

2.Name the common source of light used for interferometer?
3.Define-Crust and Rough?
4.Dcfine- Wavelength
5. What is meant by alignment test on machine tools?
6. Stale the basic principle of Laser
7. Slate the use of Laser
5. What is the oilier name for alignment test on machine tools/
9. List the various geometrical checks made on machine tools.
10.Define-LASER?
11. Definc-Beam splitters
12. Definc-Beam benders
13. Define-Retro reflectors

PART-B
1. What is meant by alignment test on machine tools? Why they are necessary? Explain.
2. State the basic principle and use of Laser.
3. Distinguish between geometrical and practical test on machine 4.Sketch and explain
the Michelson interferometer in detail. 5.Sketch and describe the optical system in any
two of the following.
a. Laser interferometer.
b. N.P.L. Flatness interferometer.
6. Sketch and explain the Two frequency interferometer in detail.
7.Slate the applications of Lasers in Linear and Angular measurements
8. State the applications of Laser Interferometer in testing of machine tools?
Dynamic tests:
V I f the alignment tests are carried out under dynamic loading condition. The accuracy of machine
tools which cut metal by removing chips is tested by two types of test namely.
1. Geometrical tests
2. Practical tests.
Geometrical tests:
V In this test, dimensions of components, position of components and displacement of component
relative to one another is checked.
Practical tests:
V In these test, test pieces arc machined in the machines. The test pieces must be appropriate to the
fundamental purpose for which the machine has been designed.

PURPOSE OF MACHINE TOOL TESTING

v The dimensions of any work piece, its surface finishes and geometry depends on the accuracy of
machine tool for its manufacture.
V In mass production the various components produced should be of high accuracy to be assembled
on a non-sensitive basis.
 V The increasing demand for accurately machined components has led to improvement of
geometric accuracy of machine tools. For this purpose various checks on different components of
the machine tool are carried out.
TYPE OF GEOMETRICAL CHECKS ON MACHINE TOOLS.
Different types of geometrical tests conducted on machine tools are as follows:
1. Straightness.
2. Flatness.
3. Parallelism, equi-distance and coincidence.
4. Rectilinear movements or squareness of straight line and plane.
5. Rotations.
Main spindle is to be tested for
1) Out of round.
2) Eccentricity
3) Radial throw of an axis.
4) Runout
5) Periodical axial slip
6) Camming

VARIOUS TESTS CONDUCTED ON ANY MACHINE TOOLS

1) Test for level of installation of machine tool in horizontal and vertical planes.
2) Test for flatness of machine bed and for straightness and parallelism of bed ways on bearing
surface.
3) Test for perpendicularity of guide ways to other guide ways.
4) Test for true running of the main spindle and its axial movements.
5) Test for parallelism of spindle axis to guide ways or bearing surfaces.
6) Test for line of movement of various members like spindle and table cross slides etc.
USE OF LASER FOR ALIGNMENT TESTING
V The alignment tests can be carried out over greater distances and to a greater degree of accuracy
using laser equipment.
interfero.metric measi rement of angle
V With laser interferometer it is possible to measure length lo an accuracy of 1 part in 106
on a routine basis.
V With the help of two retro reflectors placed at a fixed dislancc and a length measuring
laser interferometer the change in angle can be measured to an accuracy of 0.1 second.
The device uses sine Principle. The line joining the poles the retro-reflectors makes the
V hypotenuse of the right iriangle. The change in the path difference of the reflected beam
represents the side of the iriangle opposite lo the angle being measured.
Such laser interferometer can be used to measure an angle up to ± 10 degrees with a
V resolution of 0. 1 second. The principle of operauon is shown in fig.
t,

Laser Interferometer
Re lice tor mount
LASER EQUIPMENT FOR ALIGNMENT TESTING
V This testing is particularly suitable in aircraft production, shipbuilding etc. Where a
number of components, spaced long distance apart, have to be checked lo a predetermine
straight line.
V Other uses of laser equipment arc testing of flatness of machined surfaces, checking
square ness with the help of optical square etc. These consist of laser tube will produces a
V cylindrical beam of laser about 10mm diameter and an auto reflector with a high degree
of accuracy. Laser tube consist of helium-neon plasma tube in a hea aluminum
cylindrical housing. The laser beam comes out of the housing from its centre and parallel
to Ihe housing within 10" of arc and alignment stability is the order of 0.2" of arc per
hour.
V Auto reflector consists of detector head and read out unil. No. of photocell are arranged
to compare laser beam in each half horizontally and vertically. This is housed on a shard
V which has two adjustments to translate the detector in its two orthogonal measuring
directions perpendicular lo the laser beam. The devices delect the alignment of flat
surfaces perpendicular lo a reference line of sight.
MACHINE TOOL TESTING
V 'Die accuracy of manufactured parts depends on the accuracy of machine tools. The quality of
V work piece depends on Rigidity and stillness of machine tool and its components.
V Alignment of various components in relation to one another Quality and accuracy of driving
mechanism and control devices. It can be classified into
V 1. Static tests
2. Dynamic tests.
Static tests:
V I f the alignment of ihe components of the machine tool are checked under static
conditions then the test are called static test.
v This system can be used for both incremental displacement and angle measurements. Due to
large counting range it is possible to attain a resolution of 2mm in 10m measuring range.
v Means arc also provided to compensate for the influence of ambient temperature, material
temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity fluctuation.
TWYMAN-GREE.N INTERFEROMETER
V The Twyman-Grccn interferometer is used as a polarizing interferometer with variable
amplitude balancing between sample and reference waves.
V For an exact measurement of the test surface, the instrument error can be determined by an
absolute measurement. This error is compensated by storing tlie same in microprocessor
system and subtracting from the measurement of the test surface.
V It has following advantages
1. It permits testing of surface with wide varying reflectivity.
2. It avoids undesirable feed back of light reflected of the tested surface and
the instrument optics.
3. It enables utilization of the maximum available energy.

202
 4. Polarisation permits phase variation to be effected with the necessary
precision.
LASER VIEWERS
V The profile of complex components like turbine blades can be checked by the use of
optical techniques. It is based on use of laser and CCTV.
V A section of the blade, around its edge is delineated by two flat beam of laser light.
This part of the edge is viewed at a narrow angle by the TV camera or beam splitter.

V Both blade and graticule are displayed as magnified images on the monitor, the
graticule position being adjustable so that its image can be superimposed on the
profile image.
V The graticule is effectively viewed at the same angle as the blade. So. distortion due
to viewing angle affects both blade and graticule. This means that the graticule
images arc direct 1:1.

203
MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
V Michclson interferometer consist of a monochromatic light source a beam splitter and
two mirrors.
V The schematic arrangement of Michclson interferometer is shown in fig. The
monochromatic light falls on a beam splitter, which splits the light into two rays of
equal intensity at right angles. One ray is transmitted to mirror M| and other is
reflected through beam splitter lo mirror M:..
V From both these mirrors, the rays are reflected back and these return at the
semi-reflecting surface from where they are transmitted lo the eye.
V Mirror M< is fixed and mirror Mj is movable. If both the mirrors arc at same distance
from beam splitter, then light will arrive in phase and observer will see bright spot due
to constructive interference.
V If movable mirror shifts by quarter wavelength, then beam will return to observer 180°
out of phase and darkness will be observed due lo destructive interference

V Each half-wave length of mirror travel produces a change in the measured optical path
of one wavelength and the reflected beam from the moving mirror shifts through 360°
phase change.
v When the reference beam reflected from the fixed mirror and the beam reflected from
the moving mirror rejoin at the beam splitter, they alternately reinforce and cancel
each other as the mirror moves Thus each cycle of intensity at the eye represents ~k!2
of mirror travel.
V When white light source is used then a compensator plate is introduced in each of the
path of mirror M( So that exactly the same amount of glass is introduced in each of the
path.
V To improve the Michclson interferometer
ti) Use of laser the measurements can be made over longer distances and highly
accurate measurements when compared lo other monochromatic sources, lii)
Mirrors are replaced by cube-comer reflector which reflects light parallel lo its
angle of incidence.
liii) Photocells are employed which convert light intensity variation in voltage
pulses to give the amount and direction of position change.
DUAL FREQUENCY LASER LNTERFEORMETER
V This instrument is used to measure displacement, high-precision measurements of
length, angle, speeds and refractive indices as well as derived static and dynamic
quantities.
LASER INTERFEROMETER
V II is possible 10 maintain the quality of interference fringes over longer distance when
lamp is replaced by a laser source:
V Laser imcrferometer uses AC laser as the light source and the measurements to be
made over longer distance.
V Laser is a monochromatic optical energy, which can be collimaled into a directional
beam AC. Laser interferometer (ACLI) has the following advantages.
0 High repeatability
0 High accuracy
0 Long range optical path
0 Easy installations
0 Wear and tear
V Schematic arrangement of laser interferometer is shown in fig. Two-frequency
zceman laser generates light of two slightly different frequencies with opposite
circular polarisation.
V These beams gel split up by beam splitter B One part travels towards B and from
there to external cube comer here the displacement is to he measured.
txtcrnai
V This interferometer uses cube comer reflectors which reflect light parallel to its angle
of incidence. Beam splitter B> optically separates the frequency J which alone is sent
to the movable cube comer reflector.
V The second frequency from B 2 is sent to a fixed reflector which then rejoins f 1 at the
beam splitter B 2 to produce alternate light and dark interference flicker at about 2
Mega cycles per second. Now if the movable reflector moves, then the returning beam
frequency Doppler-shifted slightly up or down by Af
V Thus the light beams moving towards photo detector P 2 have frequencies f> and (fi ±
Af d and P 2 changes these frequencies into electrical signal.
V Photo detector P2 receive signal from beam splitter B 2 and changes the reference beam
frequencies f| and i2 into electrical signal.
V An AC amplifier A separates frequency, difference signal i2 - fj and A2 separates
frequency difference signal.
V The pulse converter extracts i. one cycle per half wavelength of motion. The up-down
puLses arc counted electronically and displayed in analog or digital form
 b) Beam lenders:
V These are used to deflect the light beam around corners on its path from the laser lo
each axis.
V These arc actually just flat mirrors but having absolutely flat and very high reflectivity.
Normally these are restricted to 90° beam deflections to avoid disturbing the
polarizing vectors.
c) Retro reflectors:
V These can be plane mirrors, roof prism or cube comers. Cube corners are three
mutually perpendicular plane minors and the reflected beam is always parallel lo the
incidental beam./
V Each ACLJ transducers need two retro reflectors. All ACLI measurements are made by
sensing differential motion between two retro reflectors relative lo an interferometer.
V Plane mirror used as retro reflectors with the plane mirror interferometer must be flat
lo within 0.06 micron per cm.
' iii) Laser head's measurement receiver
V During a measurement the laser beam is directed ihrough optics in the
measurement path and then returned lo ihe laser head is measurement receiver
which will detect part of the returning beam and a doppler shifted frequency
component.
(iv) Measurement display
V It contains a microcomputer lo compute and display results. The signals from
receiver and measurement receiver located in the laser head arc counted in two
separate pulse converter and subtracted.
V Calculations are made and the computed value is displayed. Other input signals for
correction are temperature, co-efficient of expansion, air velocity etc.. which can be
displayed.
(v| Various version of ACLI
a) Standard
Interferometer:
v Least expensive.
V Retro reflector for this instrument is a cube corner.
V Displacement is measured between the interferometer and cube corner.
this distance
|^ ___ ('
From liiser
source Interferometer

To receiver

htSignal beams Interferometer:

V Beam traveling between the interferometer and the retro reflector.
V Its operation same as standard interferometer.
V The interferometer and retro reflector for this system are smaller than
the standard system.
V Long range optical path
V Easy installation
V Wear and tear.

PRINCIPLE OF LASER
v The plioton emitted during stimulated emission has the same energy, phase and
frequency as the incident photon.
V This principle states that the photon comes in contact with another atom or
molecule in the higher energy level E2 then it will cause the atom to return to
ground stale energy level El by releasing another photon.
V The sequence of triggered identical photon from stimulated atom is known as
stimulated emission. This multiplication of photon through stimulated
emission leads to coherent, powerful, monochromatic, collimaled beam of
light emission. This light emission is called laser.

LASER 1MER1EROMETRY Brief

Descripfion of components (i|
Two frequency Laser source
0 It is generally He-Ne type that generates stable coherent light beam of two frequencies,
one polarized vertically and another horizontally relative to the plane of the mounting
feet.
0 Laser oscillates at two slightly different frequencies by a cylindrical permanent magnet
around the cavity. The two components of frequencies arc distinguishable by their
opposite circular polarization
0 Beam containing both frequencies passes through a quarter wave and half wave plates
which change the circular polarizations to linear perpendicular polarisations, one
vertical and other horizontal. Thus the laser can be rotated by 90° about the beam
axis without affecting transducer performance.

206
0 If the laser source is deviated from one of the four optimum positions, the photo receiver
will decrease. At 45° deviation the signal will decrease to zero, (ii) Optical elements: (a)
Beam splitter:
V Fig shows the beam splitters to divide laser output along different axes. These divide
the laser beam into separate beams.
V To avoid attenuation it is essential that the beam splitters must be oriented so that die
reflected beam forms a right angle with the transmitted beam.
V So that these two beams: arc coplanar with one of the polarisation vectors of the input
form.
Mxisl
% 25%
150% 25%
Axis2
beam
splitcr

50%
67%
100%
Axis3 33 V. 33% beam laser 25%
spliier A.\is3
25% Axlvl

207
 Reference beam
Reforetleciof
(S polarised)
(fixed)

From laser
1
V
— Measurmcnt beam

source 1
/ (P polarised)

To electronic
v
Interferometer
receiver
V The two-frequency laser head provides one frequency with P polarisation and
another frequency with S-polarisation.
V The laser beam is split at the polarizing beam splitter into its two separate
frequencies.
The measuring beam is directed through the interferometer to reflect off a target mirror or
retro reflector attached lo the object to be measured. The reference beam is reflected from
V fixed retro reflector. The measurement beam on its return path rccombines wiih
the reference beam and is directed to the electronic receiver. 7. Gauging wide diameter from
Ihe diffraction pattern formed in a laser
v Fig.( 1) shows a method of measuring the diameter of thin wire using the
interference fringes resulting from diffraction of the light by the wire in the
laser beam.
V A measure of the diameter can be obtained by moving the photo detector until
the output is restored to its original value.
V Changes in wire diameter as small as 0.2% over wire diameter from 0.005 lo
0.2mm can be measured..

Collimator Diffraction
partem
V Fig. (2) shows the length measurement by fringe counting. The laser output,
which may be incoherent illumines three slits at a time in the first plane winch
form interference fringes.
V The movement can be determined by a detector. The total number of slits in the
first plane is governed by the length over which measurement is required
Grating
The spacing between the slits and
distance of the slit to the
piano of the grating depend on the
wavelength of the light used.
Interference \

208
3. Scanning Laser gauge
V Fig shows a schematic diagram of a scanning laser gauge. It consist of transmitter, receives
and processor electronics.
V A thin band of scanning laser light is made to pass through a linear scanner lens to render it
parallel beam. "The object placed in a parallel beam casts a time dependent shadow.
V Signal from the light entering the photocell (receiver) arc proc by a microprocessor to
provide display of the dimension represented by ihe time difference between the shadow
edges.
V It can provide results to an accuracy otIJ.25 for l()-4()mni diameter objects. It can be used
for objects 0.05mm to 450mm diameter: and offers repeatability of 0 .1 urn

Routing mirriK scanner motor

Jbdgc sensing & Linear
scanner lens
photocell
decoding electronics

4. Photo diode away imaging

V The system comprises
of laser source,
imaging optics,
photodiodc array,
Display
HP hascJ ■ datasignal processor and display unit.
acquisition
orator &
V For large parts, two arrays in which one for each edge are used. Accuracies
control svstcm
console
as high as 0.05 urn have been achieved.
5. Diffraction pattern technique
V These are used to measure small gaps arid small diameter parts. A parallel coherent laser beam is
diffracted by a small part and a lens on a linear diode array locuses the resultant pattern.
V Its use is restricted to small w ires. The measurement accuracy is more for smaller parts. The
distance between the alternating light and dark hands in the diffraction pattern is a (tired function
of the wile diameter, wavelength of laser beam and the focal length of the lens.
6. Two- frequency laser interferometer
V Fig. show s schematic arrangement. This consists of two frequency laser head, beam
directing and splitting optics, measurement optics, receivers, and
w avelength compensators and electronics.
V I t is ideally suited lor measuring linear positioning straightness ui t w o planes, pilch and
yaw.
UNIT-IV

LASER METROLOGY
PRECISION INSTRl'MENT BASED ON LASER:
v laser stands tor Light Amplification h> Stimulated Emission or Radiation.
V Laser instrument is a device to produce powerfuL monochromatic, collimated beam of light in
which the waves are coherent.
v Laser development is for production of clear coherent light. The advantage of coherent light is that
whole of the energy appears to be emanating from a very small point.
v The beam can be focused easily into either a parallel beam or onto a very small point by use of lenses
A major impact on optical measurement has been made by development in elector optics, providing
automation, greater acuity of setting and faster response time.
V Radiation sources have developed in a number of areas, the most important developments are light
emitting diodes and lasers.
V The laser is used extensively for intcrferometry particularly ihe He- Nc gas type. The laser distance
measuring interferometer has become an industry standard.
v This produces 1 to 2mm diameter beam of red light power of IMW and focused at a point of very high
intensity. The beam begins to expand at a rate of lmm/m. The laser beam is visible and it can be
observed easily.
v This is used for very accurate measurements of the order of O.lum is 100m. LASER METROLOGY
v Metrology lasers are low power instruments. Most arc helium-neon type. Wave output laser that emit
visible or infrared light. Hc-Nc lasers produce light at a wavelength of 0.6um that is in phase,
coherent and a thousand times more intense than any other monochromatic source.
V Laser systems have wide dynamic range, low optical cross talk and high contrast, v Laser fined
application in dimensional measurements and surface inspection
because of the properties of laser light.
V These arc useful where precision, accuracy, rapid non-contact gauging of soli, delicate or hot
moving points.

L'SE OF LASER
1. Laser Telemetric system:
V Laser lelemelric system is a non-contact gauge that measures with a collimated laser beam. It
measures at the rate of 150 scans per second.
v It basically consists of three components, a transmitter, a receiver and processor
electronics. The transmitter module produces a collimated parallel scanning laser
beam moving at a high constant, linear speed, v The scanning beam appears a red line. The receiver
module collects and

209
 photoclically senses the laser light transmitted past the object being measured, v The processor
electronics takes the received signals to convert them 10 a
convenient form and displays the dimension being gauged, v The transmitter contains a low power
helium-neon gas laser and its power supply.
a specially designed collimating lens, a synchronous motor, a multi faceted

210
 V

reflector prism, a synchronous pulse photo detector and a protective replaceable

window.
The high speed of scanning permits on line gauging and thus it is possible to detect
changes in dimensions when components arc moving on a continuous product such as
in rolling process moving at very high speed. There is no need of waiting or product
V to cool for taking measurements. This system can also be applied on production
machines and control then with closed feed back loops.
Since the output of this system is available in digital form, it can run a process
V controller limit alarms can be provided and output can be taken on digital printer.
Hystersis
synchronous
motor ___ Object to
be
measured

Gat Edge
Scunner
e
1 sensi
Output ni
(Digital
display
2. Laser and LED based distance measuring instruments system)
V These can measure distances from I to 2in with an accuracy of the order of 0. 1 to I %
of the measuring range When the light emitted by laser or LED hits an object, scatter
and same of this scattered light is seen by a position sensitive detector or diode array.
If the distance between the measuring head and the object changes, the angle at
V which the light enters the detector will also change.
The angle of deviation is calibrated in terms of distance and output is provided as
v 0-2OmA. Such instruments are very reliable because there arc no moving parts their
response time is milliseconds.
The measuring system uses two distance meters placed at equal distance on cither
V side of the object and a control unit to measure the thickness of an object. The
distance meter is focused at the centre of the object.

Control
unit »ith
disnlaj
3. Scanning Laser gauge
V Fig shows a schematic diagram of a scanning laser gauge. It consist of transmitter.
receives and processor electronics, v A thin band of scanning laser light is made to
pass through a linear scanner lens to
render it parallel beam. "The object placed in a parallel beam casts a time
dependent shadow, v Signal from the light entering the photocell (receiver) arc proc
by a
microprocessor lo provide display of ihe dimension represented by the time
difference between the shadow edges, v ll can provide results to an accuracy
of<).25 for 10—50mm diameter objects. It
can be used for objects 0.05mm to 450mm diameter; and offers repeatability of
O.lum

Routing muii

Scan
photoce
K ll
scanner
motor
Display pp based data
*
jperator acquisition & & decoding.

:i«nstill control system electronics

4. Photo diode away imaging

V The system comprises of laser source, imaging optics, phoiodiodc array, signal
processor and display unit.
V For large parts, two arrays in which one for each edge arc used. Accuracies as high as
0.05 um have been achieved.
5. Diffraction pattern technique
V These are used to measure small gaps and small diameter parts. A parallel coherent laser
beam is diffracted by a small part and a lens on a linear diode array focuses the resultant
paitcm.

211
 V Its use is restricted to small wires. The measurement accuracy is more for smaller parts. The
distance between the alternating light and dark hands in the diffraction pattern is a (tired
function of the wile diameter, wavelength of laser beam and the local length of the lens.
6. Two- frequency laser interferometer
V Fig. shows schematic arrangement. This consists of two frequency laser head, beam
directing and splitting optics, measurement optics, receivers, and wavelength
compensators and electronics.
V ll is ideally suited for measuring linear positioning straightness in two planes, pilch
and yaw.

212
 Reference beam
Reforefiector
(S
(fixed)

From laser MeasurmcPl beam

source-" (P polarised)

lo elecironic
polari
sed) Interferometer
receiver

V The iwo-frcqucncy laser head provides one frequency with P polarisation and another
frequency with S-polarisation.
V The laser beam is split at the polarizing beam splitter into its two separate frequencies.
V The measuring beam is directed through the interferometer lo reflect off a target mirror
or retro reflector attached lo the object to be measured. The reference beam is reflected from fixed
V retro reflector. The measurement beam on its return path recombines with the reference
beam and is directed to the electronic receiver. 7. Gauging wide diameter from the diffraction
pattern formed in a laser
V Fig.( 1) shows a method of measuring the diameter of thin wire using the interference
fringes resulting from diffraction of the light by the wire in the laser beam.
V A measure of the diameter can be obtained by moving the photo detector until the
output is restored lo its original value.
V Changes in wire diameter as small as 0.2% over wire diameter from 0.005 to 0.2mm
can be measured..

Collimator Diuraction
V partem
Fig. (2) shows the length measurement by fringe counting. The laser output, which
may be incoherent illumines three slits at a time in the first plane which form
V interference fringes.
The movement can be determined by a detector. The total number of slits in the
first plane is governed by the length over which measurement is required
Grating
The spacing between the slits and
Detector
distance of the slit lo the plane of the
grating depend on the wavelength
of the light used.
Interference \

213
 PRINCIPLE OF LASER
V The photon emitted during stimulated emission has the same energy, phase and
frequency as the incident photon.
v This principle states that the photon comes in contact with another atom or molecule in
the higher energy level E2 then it will cause the atom lo return to ground slate energy
level El by releasing another photon.
v The sequence of triggered identical photon from stimulated atom is known as
stimulated emission. This multiplication of photon through stimulated emission
leads to coherent, powerful monochromatic, collimated beam of light emission. This
Ught emission is called laser.

LASER IMERFEROMETRY Brief

Description of components (1) Two
frequency Laser source
0 It is generally Hc-Ne type thai generates stable coherent light beam of two frequencies, one
polarized vertically and another horizontally relative to the plane of the mounting feet.
0 Laser oscillates at two slightly different frequencies by a cylindrical permanent magnet
around the cavity. The two components of frequencies are distinguishable by their opposite
circular polarization
0 Beam containing both frequencies passes through a quarter wave and half w ave plaies which
change the circular polarizations lo linear perpendicular polarisations, one vertical and other
horizontal. Thus Ihe laser can be rotated by 'XI0 about ihe beam axis wilhout affecting
transducer performance.
0 If the laser source is deviated from one of the four optimum positions, the photo receiver w ill
decrea.se. At 45° deviation ihe signal w ill decrease lo zero, (ii) Optical elements: (a) Beam splitter:
V Fig shows the beam splitters to divide laser output along different axes. These divide the
laser beam into separate beams.
V To avoid allenuation it is esseniial that the beam splitters musi be oriented so thai ihe
reflected beam forms a right angle with the transmitted beam
V So lhal these two beams: are coplanar with one of the polarisation vectors of the input form.

Axis2 50%
33% beam
ipliler
67%

13Hbc
AjcM am *
iplitci A.\i
33%f 3

bl Beam benders:
V These arc used lo deflect the light beam around corners on its path from the laser to each
axis.
V These arc actually just flat mirrors but having absolutely flat and very high reflectivity.
Normally these arc restricted to 90° beam deflections to avoid disturbing the polarizing
vectors.
c) Rvlru reflectors:
V These can be plane mirrors, roof prism or cube comers. Cube corners are three mutually
perpendicular plane mirrors and the reflected beam is always parallel to the incidental beam./
V Each ACU transducers need two retro reflectors. All ACLI measurements arc made by
sensing differential motion between two retro reflectors relative to an interferometer.
V Plane mirror used as retro reflectors with the plane mirror interferometer must be flat to
within 0.06 micron per cm.
(iii) Laser head's measurement receiver
v During a measurement the laser beam is directed through optics in the measurement path and then
returned to the laser head is measurement receiver which will detect part of the returning beam and a
doppler shifted frequency component. ti\ i Measurement display
v It contains a microcomputer to compute and display results. The signals from receiver and
measurement receiver located in the laser head are counted in two separate pulse converter and
subtracted. V Calculations arc made and the computed value is displayed. Other input signals for
correction are temperature, co-efficient of expansion, air velocity etc.. which can be displayed, (v)
Various version of ACLI a) Standard Interferometer:
V Least expensive.
V Retro reflector for this instrument is a cube corner.
V Displacement is measured between the interferometer and cube comer.
.Measured
chance* in_ ihis distance

Interferometer

To receiver

214
h,Signal beams Interferometer:
V Beam traveling between the interferometer and the retro reflector.
V Its operation same as standard interferometer.
V The interferometer and retro reflector for this system arc smaller than the
standard system.
V Long range optical path
V Easy installation
V Wear and tear.

215
LASER INTERFEROMETER
v It is possible lo maintain the quality of interference fringes over longer distance when lamp is
replaced by a laser source:
v Laser interferometer uses AC laser as the light source and the measurements to be made over
longer distance.
Laser is a monochromatic optical energy, which can be collimated into a directional beam
AC. Laser interferometer (ACLI) has the following advantages. 0 High repeatability High
accuracy Long range optical path Easy installations Wear and tear
O Schematic arrangement of laser interferometer is shown in fig.
0 Two-frequency zceman laser generates light of two slightly different
o frequencies with opposite circular polarisation.
These beams gel split up by beam splitter B One pan travels towards B and
V from o

there lo external cube corner here the displacement is to he measured.

Beam spliter Fixed internal txtcmat
cube
cube comer
corne
Two r
frequency
zeeman

Reference beam P. Doppler signal

f2-(f,±Af)
Up

Photo detector, Pulse

---- £-
Amplifiers
convenor Down

Reference signal
A■
V This interferometer uses cube comer reflectors which reflect light parallel to its angle of
incidence. Beam splitter B 2 optically separates the frequency J which alone is sent to the
movable cube corner reflector.
V The second frequency from B2 is sent to a fixed reflector which then rejoins f 1 at the beam
splitter B 2 to produce alternate light and dark interference flicker at about 2 Mega cycles
per second. Now if the movable reflector moves, then the returning beam frequency
Doppler-shifted slightly up or down by Af
V Thus the light beams moving towards photo detector P2 have frequencies i2 and (fi ± Af i,
and P2 changes these frequencies into electrical signal. Photo detector P 2 receive signal
V from beam splitter B2 and changes the reference beam frequencies f( and f 2 into electrical
signal
V An AC amplifier A separates frequency, difference signal f 2 - ft and A2 separates
frequency difference signal.
The pulse converter extracts i. one cycle per half wavelength of motion. The up-down
pukes arc counted electronically and displayed in analog or digital form

216
Ml< TIKLSON INTERFEROMETER
V Michclson interferometer consist of a monochromatic light source a beam splitter and two
mirrors.
v The schematic arrangement of Michclson interferometer is shown in fig. The rnonochromatic
light falls on a beam splitter, which splits the light into two rays of equal intensity at right
angles. One ray is transmitted lo mirror M| and other is reflected through beam splitter to
mirror M2,.
V From both these mirrors, the rays arc reflected back and these return at ihe semi-reflecting
surface from where they are transmitted lo the eye.
V Mirror M2 is fixed and mirror M| is movable. 11 both the mirrors are at same distance from
beam splitter, then light will arrive in phase and observer will see bright spot due to
constructive interference.
v If movable mirror shifts by quarter wavelength, then beam w ill return lo observer 180° out of
phase and darkness will be observed due to destructive interference
Fined mirror V ,

V Each half-wave length of mirror travel produces a change in the measured optical path of one
wavelength and ihe reflected beam from ihe moving mirror shifts through 360° phase change.
v When Ihe reference beam reflected from the fixed mirror and the beam reflected from ihe
moving mirror rejoin ai Ihe beam splitter, they alternately reinforce and cancel each other as
the mirror moves Thus each cycle of intensity at the eye represents A/2 of mirror travel.
V When while Ught source is used then a compensator plate is introduced in each of the path of
mirror Mi So (hat exactly ihe same amount of glass is introduced in each of the path.
V To improve the Michelson inierferometer
li) Use of laser Ihe measurements can be made over longer distances and highly
accurate measurements when compared lo other monochromatic sources, lii) Minors
are replaced by cube-comer reflector which reflects light parallel to iis angle of
incidence.
liii) Photocells are employed which convert light intensity variation in voltage pulses to give the
amount and direction of position change. I > I VI- FREQUENCY LASER INTERFEORMETER
v This instrument is used to measure displacement, high-precision measurcmenis of length,
angle, speeds and refractive indices as well as derived sialic and dynamic quantities.

s
 v This system can be used for both incremental displacement and angle measurements. Due to
large counting range it is possible to attain a resolution of 2mm in 1 Om measuring range.
V Means arc also provided to compensate for the influence of ambient temperature, material
temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity fluctuation.
TWYMAN-GREEN INTERFEROMETER
V The Twyman-Grecn interferometer is used as a polarizing interferometer with variable
amplitude balancing between sample and reference waves.
V For an exact measurement of the test surface, the instrument error can be determined by an
absolute measurement. This error is compensated by storing the same in microprocessor
system and subtracting from the measurement of the test surface.
V It has following advantages
1. It permits testing of surface with wide varying reflectivity.
2. It avoids undesirable feed back of light reflected of the tested surface and
the instrument optics.
3. It enables utilization of the maximum available energy.
4. Polarisation permits phase variation to be effected with the necessary
precision.
LASER VIEWERS
V The profile of complex components like turbine blades can be checked by the use of
optical techniques. It is based on use of laser and CCTV.
V A section of the blade, around its edge is delineated by two flat beam of laser
light. This part of the edge is viewed at a narrow angle by the TV camera or beam
splitter.

V Both blade and graticule are displayed as magnified images on the monitor, the
graticule position being adjustable so that its image can be superimposed on the
profile image.
V The graticule is effectively viewed at the same angle as the blade. So. distortion due
lo viewing angle affects both blade and graticule. This means that the graticule
images arc direct 1:1.

218
interfekometric measurement of angle
V With laser interferometer it is possible to measure length to an accuracy of 1 part in
106 on a routine basis.
V With the help of two retro reflectors placed at a fixed distance and a length measuring
laser interferometer the change in angle can be measured to an accuracy of 0.1
second. The device uses sine Principle.
V The line joining the poles the retro-reflectors nukes the hypotenuse of the right
triangle. The change in the path difference of the reflected beam represents the side of
the triangle opposite to the angle being measured.
Such laser interferometer can be used to measure an angle up to ± 10 degrees with a
resolution of 0. 1 second. The principle of operation is shown in fig.
t,

InterferonwkT
Um Reflctlor mourn

LASER EQUIPMENT FOR ALIGNMENT TESTING

V This testing is particularly suitable in aircraft production, shipbuilding etc. Where a
number of components, spaced long distance apart, have to be checked to a
predetermine straight line.
V Other uses of laser equipment are testing of flatness of machined surfaces, checking
square ness with the help ol optical square BtC
V These consist of laser tube will produces a cylindrical beam of laser about lOnim
diameter and an auto reflector with a high degree of accuracy.
V Laser tube consist of helium-neon plasma tube in a hea aluminum cylindrical
housing. The laser beam comes out of the housing from its centre and parallel to the
housing within 10" of arc and alignment stability is the order of 0.2" of arc per hour.
V Auto reflector consists of detector head and read out unit. No. of photocell arc
arranged lo compare laser beam in each hall hon/ontalh and verticahV
V This is housed on a shard which has two adjustments to translate the detector in its
two orthogonal measuring directions perpendicular to the laser beam. The devices
detect the alignment of flat surfaces perpendicular to a reference line of sight.
MACHINE TOOL TESTING
v The accuracy of manufactured pans depends on the accuracy of machine tools. The quality of
v work piece depends on Rigidity and stillness of machine tool and its components.
V Alignment of various components in relation to one another Quality and accuracy of driving
mechanism and control devices. It can be classified into
V 1. Static tests
2. Dynamic tests.
Static tests:
V 1 f the alignment of the components of the machine tool are checked under static
conditions then the test are called static test.
Dwiamic tests:
v If ihe alignment tests arc carried out under dynamic loading condition. The accuracy of
machine took which cut metal by removing chips is tested by two types of test namely.
1. Geometrical tests
2. Practical tests.
Geometrical tests;
V In this test, dimensions of components, position of components and displacement of
component relative to one another is checked.
Practical tests:
v In these test, lest pieces are machined in the machines. The test pieces must be
appropriate to the fundamental purpose for which the machine has been designed.

PURPOSE OF MACHINE TOOL TESTING

V The dimensions of any work piece, its surface finishes and geometry depends on the
accuracy of machine tool for its manufacture.
V In mass production the various components produced should be of high accuracy to
be assembled on a non-sensitive basis.
V The increasing demand for accurately machined components has led to improvement
of geometric accuracy of machine tools. For this purpose various checks on different
components of the machine tool are carried out.
TYPE OF GEOMETRICAL CHECKS ON MACHINE TOOLS.
Different types of geometrical tests conducted on machine tools arc as follows:
1. Straightness.
2. Flatness.
3. Parallelism, euui-distance and coincidence.
4. Rectilinear movements or squareness of straight line and plane.
5. Rotations.
Main spindle is to be tested for
1) Out of round.
2) Eccentricity
3) Radial throw of an axis.

219
 4) Runout
5) Periodical axial slip
6) Camming

VARIOUS TESTS CONDUCTED ON ANY MACHINE TOOLS

1) Test for level of installation of machine tool in horizontal and vertical planes.
2) Test for flatness of machine bed and for straightness and parallelism of bed ways
on bearing surface.
3) Test for perpendicularity of guide ways toother guide ways.
4) Test for true running of the main spindle and its axial movements.
5) Test for parallelism of spindle axis to guide ways or bearing surfaces.
6) Test for line of movement of various members like spindle and table cross slides
etc.
USE OF LASER FOR ALIGNMENT TESTING
V The alignment tests can be carried out over greater distances and to a greater
degree of accuracy using laser equipment.
V Laser equipment produces real straight line, whereas an alignment telescope
provides an imaginary line that cannot be seen in space.
V This is important when it is necessary to check number of components to a
predetermined straight' line. Particularly if they are spaced relatively long
distances apart, as in aircraft production and in shipbuilding.
V Laser equipment can also be used for checking flatness of machined surface by
direct displacement. By using are optical square in conjunction with laser
equipment squareness can be checked with reference lo the laser base line.

PART-A

lWhal is interferometer? And its types/

2.Namc the common source of light used for interferometer?
3.Dcfine-Crusl and Rough?
4.Dcfinc- Wavelength
5. What Is meant by alignment lest on machine tools?
6. Slate the basic principle of Laser
7. Slate the use of Laser
8. What is the other name for alignment test on machine tools/
9. List the various geometrical checks made on machine tools.
10.Define-LASER?
11.Definc-Beam splitters
12.Definc-Beam benders
13.Define-Retro reflectors

PART-B
1. What Is meant by alignment test on machine tools? Why they arc necessary? Explain.
2. Slate the basic principle and use of Laser.
3. Distinguish between geometrical and practical test on machine 4.Skctch and explain the
Michclson interferometer in detail. 5.Skctch and describe the optical system in any two of the
following.
a. Laser interferometer.
b. N.P.L. Flatness interferometer.
6. Sketch and explain the Two frequency interferometer in detail.
7.Slale the applications of Lasers in Linear and Angular measurements
8. Slate the applications of Laser Interferometer in testing of machine tools?

220
INTERFEROMETR1C MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE
v Wkh laser intcrfcn>me!cr it is possible lo measure length to an accuracy of 1 part
in 106 on a routine basis, v With the help of two retro reflectors placed al a fixed
distance and a length
measuring laser Interferometer the change in angle can be measured to an
accuracy of 0.1 second. The device uses sine Principle, v The line joining the poles the
retro-reflectors nukes the hypotenuse of the right
iriangle. The change in the path difference of the reflected beam represents the

&
side of the triangle opposite lo the angle being measured.
V Such laser interferometer can be used to measure an angle up lo ± 10 degrees with a
resolution of 0. 1 second. The principle of operation is shown in fig.
L|

Ke Hector mount
LASER EQUIPMENT FOR ALIGNMENT TESTING
v This testing is particularly suitable in aircraft production, shipbuilding etc.
Interferometer
Laser
Where
a number of components, spaced long distance apart. ha\c to be checked to a
predetermine straight line, v Other uses of laser equipment arc testing of flatness of
machined surfaces.
checking square ncss with the help of optical square etc. v These consist of laser lube
will produces a cylindrical beam of laser about 10mm
diameter and an auto reflector with a high degree of accuracy.
V Laser tube consist of helium-neon plasma tube in a hea aluminum cylindrical housing.
The laser beam comes out of the housing from its centre and parallel to ihe housing
within 10" of arc and alignment stability is the order of 0.2" of arc per hour.
V Auio reflector consists of detector head and read out unit. No. of photocell arc
arranged to compare laser beam in each half horizontally and vertically.
V This is housed on a shard which has two adjustments to translate the detector in its
two orthogonal measuring directions perpendicular lo the laser beam. The devices
deled the alignment of flat surfaces perpendicular lo a reference line of sight.
MACHINE TOOL TESTING
V The accuracy of manufactured parts depends on ihe accuracy of machine tools.
V The quality of work piece depends on Rigidity and stiffness of machine tool and its
components.
V Alignment of various components in relation to one another Quality and accuracy of driving
mechanism and control devices.
V It can be classified into
1. Static tests
2. Dynamic lesis.
Static tests:
v If the alignment of ihe components of ihe machine tool are checked under static
conditions then the lest are called static lest.
V This system can be used for both incremental displacement and angle measurements. Due
to large counting range it is possible to attain a resolution of 2mm in 10m measuring
range.
V Means arc also provided lo compensate for the influence of ambient temperature, material
temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity fluctuation.
TWYMAN-GREEN INTERFEROMETER
V The Twyman-Green interferometer is used as a polarizing interferometer with variable
amplitude balancing between sample and reference waves.
V For an exact measurement of the test surface, the instrument error can be determined by
an absolute measurement. This error is compensated by storing the same in
microprocessor system and subtracting from the measurement of the test surface.
V It has following advantages
1. It permits testing of surface with wide varying reflectivity.
2. It avoids undesirable feed back of light reflected of the tested surface
and the instrument optics.
3. It enables utilization of the maximum available energy.
4. Polarisation permits phase variation to be effected with the necessary
precision.
LASER VIEWERS
V The profile of complex components like turbine blades can be checked by the use
of optical techniques. It is based on use of laser and CCTV.
V A section of the blade, around its edge is delineated by two flat beam of laser light.
This part of the edge is viewed at a narrow angle by the TV camera or beam
splitter.

221
 V Both blade and graticule are displayed as magnified images on the monitor, the
graticule position being adjustable so that its image can be superimposed on the
profile image.
V The graticule is effectively viewed at the same angle as the blade. So, distortion
due lo viewing angle affects both blade and graticule. This means that the
graticule images arc direct 1:1.
UNIT-IV

LASER METROLOGY
PRECISION INSTRUMENT BASED ON LASER:
V Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
V Laser instrument is a device to produce powerful, monochromatic, collimated beam
of light in which the waves are coherent
V Laser development Ls for production of clear coherent light. The advantage of
coherent light Ls that whole of the energy appears to be emanating from a very small
point.
V The beam can be focused easily into either a parallel beam or onto a very small point
by use of lenses A major impact on optical measurement has been made by
development in elector optics, providing automation, greater acuity of selling and
faster response time.
V Radiation sources have developed in a number of areas, the most important
developments are light emitting diodes and lasers.
v The laser is used extensively for interfcrometry particularly the He- Ne gas type. The
laser distance measuring interferometer has become an industry standard.
V This produces 1 lo 2mm diameter beam of red light power of 1MW and focused at a
point of very high intensity. The beam begins to expand at a rale ol lmm/m. The laser
beam is visible and il can be observed easily.
V This is used for very accurate measurements <>l the order of O.lum is 100m. LASER
METROLOGY
V Metrology lasers are low power instruments. Most are hchum-ncon type.
Wave-output laser that emit visible or infrared light. Hc-Nc lasers produce light at a
wavelength of 0.6um that is in phase, coherent and a thousand times more intense
than any other monochromatic source.
V Laser systems have vv ide dynamic range, low optical cross talk and high contrast.
V Laser fined application in dimensional measurements and surface inspection because
of the properties of laser light.
V These are useful where precision, accuracy, rapid non-contact gauging of soft,
delicate or hot moving points.

USE OF LASER
1. Laser Telemetric system:
V Laser telemetric system is a non-contact gauge thai measures with a collimated laser
beam. It measures al the rate of 150 scans per second.
V It basically consists of three components, a transmitter, a receiver and processor
electronics. The transmitter module produces a collimated parallel scanning laser
beam moving at a high constant, linear speed.
V The scanning beam appears a red line. The receiver module collects and photoelically
senses the laser light transmitted past the object being measured.
V The processor electronics takes the received signals lo convert them 10 a convenient
lorm and displays the dimension being gauged.
v The transmitter contains a low power helium-neon gas laser and its power supply, a
specially designed collimating lens, a synchronous motor, a multi faceted

222
 reflector pnsin. a synchronous pulse pholo detector and a protective replaceable
window.
The high speed of scanning permits on line gauging and thus it is possible lo detect
changes in dimensions when components are moving on a continuous product such as
in rolling process mov ing at very high speed. There is no need of waiting or product lo
V cool for taking measurements. 11ns system can also be applied on production machines
and control then with closed Iced back loops.
Since the output of this system is available in digital form, it can run a process controller
V limit alarms can be provided and output can be taken on digital printer.
Hystersis
synchronous
Object to !>c
measured

Motor k«—| Gate Fdge

Oscillator"]
Scunner
r, [.■:
drive
________ t
1 sensing

Output (Digital
I La*--' display system)
f---------------- *W
Counter

2. Laser and LED based distance measuring instruments

V These can measure distances from I lo 2m w ith an accuracy of the order of 0. 1 to I % ol
the measuring range When the light emitted by laser or LED hits an object, scatter and
same of this scattered light is seen by a position sensitive detector or diode array.
V If the distance between the measuring head and the object changes, die angle at which
the light enters the detector will also change.
V The angle of deviation is calibrated in terms of distance and output is prov ided as
0-2OmA. Such instruments are very reliable because there are no moving parts their
response time is milliseconds.
V The measuring system uses two distance meters placed at equal distance on either side
of the object and a control unit to measure the thickness of an object. The distance meter
ls focused at the centre of the object.

U
L 41
O

b
B

Conlri
.l unit
with Ji
.f ■

223
3. Scanning Laser gauge
V Fig shows a schematic diagram of a scanning laser gauge. It consist of transmitter,
receives and processor electronics.
V A thin band of scanning laser light is made lo pass through a linear scanner lens lo
render it parallel beam. 'The object placed in a parallel beam, casts a time dependent
shadow.
V Signal from the light entering the photocell (receiver) arc proc by a microprocessor
to provide display of the dimension represented by the time difference between the
shadow edges.
V It can provide results to an accuracy oil).25 for l()—SOmm diameter objects. It can
be used for objects 0.05mm to 450mm diameter: and offers repeatability of 0.1 urn

Rotating mimn
scanner motor Linear

Display »- Hp base J data tdge sensini

operator acquisition & & decoding

:onsok control system electronics

4. Photo (iii >tic away imaging

V The system comprises of laser source, imaging optics, photodiode array, signal
processor and display unit.
V For large parts, two arrays in which one lor each edge are used. Accuracies as high
as 0.05 urn have been achieved.
5. Diffraction pattern technique
V These are used to measure small gaps and small diameter parts. A parallel coherent laser
beam is diffracted by a small part and a lens on a linear diode array focuses the resultant
pattern.
V Its use is restricted to small wires. Tile measurement accuracy is more lor smaller parts.
The distance between the alternating light and dark hands in the diffraction pattern is a
(tired function of the w lie diameter, wavelength of laser beam and the local length of the
lens.
6. Two- frequency laser interferometer
V Fig. shows schematic arrangement. This consists of two frequency laser head, beam
directing and splitting optics, measurement optics, receivers, and
w uvelength compensators and electronics.
V It is ideally suited for measuring linear positioning straightness in two planes, pitch
and yaw.

a
 Referenc Reforetlector
e /(fixed)

leasurmcnt beam
I MWit
M.I!
(f polarised)
,:si

To electronic Target
receive mirror
r
bean (S
polaristdL

V The iwo-frequeney laser head provides one frequency w nh F polarisation and another
frequency with S-polarisation.
V The laser beam is split at the polarizing beam splitter into its two separate frequencies.
v The measuring beam is directed through the interferometer to reflect off a target mirror or
retro reflector attached to the object to be measured.
V The reference beam is reflected liom fixed retro rellector. The measurement beam on its
return path rccombmcs with the reference beam and is directed to the electronic receiver.
7. Gauging wide diameter from the diffraction pattern formed in a laser
V Fig.( 1) shows a method of measuring the diameter of thin w ire using the interference
fringes resulting from diffraction of the light by the wire in the laser beam.
V A measure of the diameter can be obtained by moving the photo detector until the output
is restored to us original value.
v Changes in w ire diameter as small as 0.2% over w ire diameter from 0.005 to 0.2mm can
be measured..
Plane
ot
mcasurme
ni

Diffraction
partem
V Fig. (2) shows the length measurement by fringe counting. The laser output, which
may be incoherent illumines three slits at a time in the fust plane which form
interference fringes.
V The movement can be determined by a detector. The total number of slits in the first
plane is governed by the length over
which measurement is required

Fqui-spaced Detector
slits & counter Orating
The spacing belw ecu the slits and
distance of the slit to the plane of
Interference
the IV grating depend on the wavelength
of the light used.
V
 PRINCIPLE OF LASER
V The photon emitted during stimulated emission has the same energy, phase and
frequency as the incident photon.
V This principle states that the photon comes in contact with another atom or
molecule in the higher energy level 1:2 then it will cause the atom to return to
ground state energy level Ll by releasing another photon.
v The sequence of triggered identical photon from stimulated atom Ls known as
stimulated emLssion. ThLs multiplication of photon through stimulated emission
leads lo coherent, powerful, monochromatic, collimated beam of light emLssion.
This light emLssion is called laser.

LASLK 1NTKKFFKOMLTKV Brief

Description of components lil Two
frequency Laser source
0 It is generally He-Ne type that generates stable coherent light beam of t*o frequencies, one
polarized vertically and another horizontally relative to the plane of the mounting feel.
0 Laser oscillates at two slightly different frequencies by a cylindrical permanent magnet
around the cavity. The two components of frequencies are distinguishable by their
opposite circular polarization
0 Beam containing both frequencies passes through a quarter wave and hall wave plates which
change the circular polarizations to linear perpendicular polarisations, one vertical and
other horizontal. Thus the laser can be rotated by 9(f about the beam axis w ithout affecting
transducer performance.
0 If the laser source is deviated from one of the four optimum positions, the photo receiver will
decrease. At 45° deviation the signal will decrease to zero. (ii) Optical elements: (aI Beam splitter.
V Fig shows the beam splitters to divide laser output along different axes. These divide the
laser beam into separate beams.
V To avoid attenuation it is essential that the beam splitters must be oriented so that the
reflected beam forms a right angle with the transmitted beam.
V So that these two beams: are coplanar with one of the polarisation vectors of the input
form.
AAxisI A
xi
25% s)
Anis 350%
bea Aius
2 3m 2
%splilc
r
33%
67% sty/.

2 Axi
* toon
33%
beam
Agjjj

33 %i laser 5 S3
splilcr
100 %
'Axiv
%
laser t
25%

5
b) Beam benders:
V These are used to deflect the light beam around corners on its path from the laser to each
.IMS.

V These are actually just Hal mirrors but having absolutely flat and very high reflectivity.
Normally these are restricted to l K f beam deflections to avoid disturbing the polarizing vectors.
e) Retro reflectors:
V These can be plane mirrors, roof prism or cube comers. Cube corners are three mutually
perpendicular plane mirrors and the reflected beam is always parallel to the incidental beam.."
V Each ACLI transducers need two retro reflectors. All ACLI measurements are made by sensing
differential motion between two retro reflectors relative to an interferometer.
V Plane mirror used as retro reflectors with the plane mirror interferometer must be flat to within
0.06 micron per cm.
in Laser head's measurement receiver
V During a measurement the laser beam is directed through optics m the measurement
path and then returned to the laser head is measurement receiver which will delect part of the
returning beam and a doppler shifted frequency component.
(iv) Measurement display
V It contains a microcomputer to compute and display results. The signals from receiver and
measurement receiver located in the laser head are counted in two separate puLse converter
and subtracted.
V Calculations are made and the computed value is displayed. Other input signals for
correction are temperature, co-efficient of expansion, air velocity etc.. which can be
displayed. (v) Various
version of ACLI a I Standard
Interferometer:
V Least expensn e
 V Retro reflector for this instrument is a cube corner.
V Displacement is measured between the interferometer and cube corner.
. m __ Measured chances in r.
■his distance
To receiver

h (Signal beams Interferometer:

V Beam traveling between
the interferometer and the retro reflector. comer
V Its operation same as standard interferometer.
V The interferometer and retro reflector for ilus system arc smaller than the
standard system.
V Long range optical path
V Lasy installation
V Wear and tear.
LASER INTERFEROMETER
V It is possible to maintain the quality of interference fringes over longer distance when lamp is
replaced by a laser source:
V Laser interferometer uses AC laser as the light source and the measurements lo be made-over
longer distance.
V Laser is a monochromatic optical energy. vv Inch can he collimated into a directional beam AC.
Laser interferometer (ACLI) has the following advantages.
0 High repeatability
0 High accuracy
0 Long range optical path
0 Easy installations
0 Wear and tear
V Schematic arrangement of laser interferometer is shown in fig. Two-frequency zeeman laser
generates light of two slightly different frequencies with opposite circular polarisation.
V These beams get split up by beam spinier B One part travels towards B and from there lo
external cube comer here the displacement is lo he measured.

V This interferometer uses cube coiner reflectors which reflect light parallel to its angle of
incidence. Beam splitter B3optically separates the frequency J which alone is sent to the movable
cube corner reflector.
V The second frequency from B; is sent to a fixed reflector which then rejoins 1 1 at the beam
splitter B2 to produce alternate light and dark interference flicker at about 2 Mega cycles per
second. Now if the movable reflector moves, then the returning beam frequency Dopplcr-shiftcd
slightly up or down by Af
V Thus the light beams moving towards photo detector P2 have frequencies 1: and (f 1 ± Af 1, and
P; changes these frequencies into electrical signal.
V Photo detector P2 receive signal from beam splitter B2 and changes the reference beam
frequencies 1, and f; into electrical signal.
V An AC amplifier A separates frequency, difference signal f2 - f, and A: separates frequency
difference signal.
V The pulse converter extracts i. one cycle per half wavelength of motion. The up-down puLses
are counted electronically and displayed in analog or digital form.

227
MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
V Michclson interferometer consist of a monochromatic light source a beam splitter and two
mirrors.
V The schematic arrangement of Michclson interferometer is shown m fig. The monochromatic
light falls on a beam splitter, which splits the light into two rays of equal intensity at right angles.
One ray is transmitted to mirror Mi and other is reflected through beam splitter lo mirror Mi..
V From both these mirrors, the rays are reflected back and these return at the serni-rcfleeting surface
from where thcv arc transmitted to the eye.
V Mirror M; is fixed and mirror M, is movable. II both the mirrors are at same distance from beam
splitter, then light will arrive in phase and observer will see bright spot due to constructive
interference.
V If movable mirror shifts by quarter wavelength, then beam will return to observer 180° out of
phase and darkness w ill be observed due to destructiv c interference
Fixed mirror M,

Beam spliter
<5<r%Reflettnce
)
sourc
e

Eye or
detecto
r

v Each half-wave length of mirror travel produces a change in the measured optical path of one
wavelength and the reflected beam from the moving mirror shifts through 360° phase-change.
V Wlien the reference beam reflected from tlx.* fixed mirror and the beam reflected from the
moving mirror rejoin at the beam splitter, they alternately reinforce and cancel each other as the
mirror moves Thus each cycle of intensity at the eve represents hll of mirror travel.
V When white light source is used then a compensator plate is introduced in each of the path of
mirror Mi So that exactly the same amount of glass is introduced in each of the path.
V To improve the Michclson interferometer
li) Use of laser the measurements can be made over longer distances and highly accurate
measurements when compared to other monochromatic sources. Iiii Mirrors are replaced
by cube-corner reflector which reflects light parallel lo its angle of incidence.
liii) Photocells are employed which convert light intensity variation in voltage-pulses lo
give the amount and direction of position change.
DUAL FREQUENCY LASER INTERFEORMETER
V fhis instrument is used to measure displacement, high-precision measurements ol length, angle,
speeds and refractive indices as well as derived static and dynamic quantities.

228
 v This system can be used for both incremental displacement and angle measurements. Due
to large counting range it Ls possible lo attain a resolution of 2mm in 10m measuring
range.
v Means arc also provided to compensate for the influence of ambient temperature, material
temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity fluctuation.
TWYMAVGREEN INTERFEROMETER
V The Twyman-Green interferometer is used as a polarizing interferometer with variable
amplitude balancing between sample and reference waves.
V For an exact measurement of the test surface, the instrument error can be determined by
an absolute measurement. This error is compensated by storing the same in
microprocessor system and subtracting from the measurement of the test surface.
V It has following advantages
1. It permits testing of surface with wide varying reflectivity.
2. It avoids undesirable feed back of light reflected of the tested surface
and the instrument optics.
3. It enables utilization of the maximum available energy.
4. Polarisation permits phase variation to be effected with the necessary
precision.
LASER VIEWERS
V The profile of complex components like turbine blades can be checked by the use
of optical techniques. It is based on use of laser and CCTV.
V A section of the blade, around its edge is delineated by two flat beam of laser
light. This part of the edge is viewed at a narrow angle by the TV camera or beam
splitter.

V Both blade and graticule are displayed as magnified images on the monitor, the
graticule position being adjustable so that its image can be superimposed on the
profile image.
V The graticule is effectively viewed at the same angle as the blade. So. distortion
due lo viewing angle affects both blade and graticule. This means thai the
graticule images arc direct 1:1.

229
INTERFEROMETRIC MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE
V With laser interferometer it ls possible to measure length to an accuracy of I part in 106 on a routine basis.
V With the help of two retro reflectors placed at a fixed distance and a length measuring laser interferometer the
change in angle can be measured to an accuracy of 0.1 second. The device uses sine Principle.
v The line joining the poles tlic retro-reflectors makes the hypotenuse of the right triangle. The change in the path
difference of the reflected beam represents the side of the triangle opposite to the angle being measured.
V Such laser interferometer can be used to measure an angle up to r 10 degrees with a resolution of 0. 1 second. The
principle of operation is shown in fig.

L,

Interferometer
Laser Reflector mount

LASER EQUIPMENT FOR ALIGNMENT TESTING

V This testing is particularly suitable in aircraft production, shipbuilding etc. Where a number of components, spaced
long distance apart, have to be checked lo a predetermine straight line.
V Other uses of laser equipment are testing of flatness of machined surfaces, checking square ness with the help of optical square etc.

These consist of laser tube will produces a cylindrical beam of laser about 10mm diameter and an auto reflector with
a high degree of accuracy. Laser lube consist of helium-neon plasma lube in a hea aluminum cy hndrical housing.
V The laser beam comes out of the housing from its centre and parallel to the housing within 10" of arc and alignment
stability is the order of 0.2"' of arc per hour.
V Auto reflector consists ol detector head and read out unit. No. of photocell are arranged to compare laser beam in
each halt horizontally and vertically.
V This is housed on a shard which has two adjustments to translate the detector in its two orthogonal measuring
directions perpendicular to the laser beam. The de\ ices detect the alignment of flat surfaces perpendicular lo a
reference line of siuhl.
MACHINE TOOL TESTING
V The accuracy of manufactured parts depends on the accuracy of machine tools
V The quality of work piece depends on Rigidity and stillness of machine tool and its components.
V Alignment of various components in relation lo one another l)ualny and accuracy of driving mechanism and control de\ ices.
V It can be classified into
1. Static tests
2. Dynamic tests.
Static tests:
V I f the alignment of the components of the machine lool are checked under static-conditions then the lest are called
static test.

Dynamic tests:
V If the alignment tests are carried out under dynamic loading condition. The
accuracy of machine tools which cut metal by removing chips is tested by two types
of test namely.
1. Geometrical tests
2. Practical tests.
Geometrical tests:
V In this test, dimensions of components, position of components and displacement
of component relative lo one another Ls checked.
Practical tests:
V In these lest, test pieces arc machined in the machines. The test pieces must be
appropriate to the fundamental purpose for which the machine has been designed.

PURPOSE OF MACHINE TOOL TESTING

v The dimensions of any work piece, its surface finishes and geometry depends on ihe
accuracy of machine tool for its manufacture.
V In mass production the various components produced should be of high accuracy
lo be assembled on a non-sensitive basis.
V The increasing demand for accurately machined components has led lo
improvement of geometric accuracy of machine tools. For this purpose various
checks on different components of the machine tool are carried out.
TYPE OF GEOMETRICAL CHECKS ON MACHINE TOOLS.
Different types of geometrical tests conducted on machine tools are as follows:
1. Straightness.
2. Flatness.
3. Parallelism, equi-distance and coincidence.
4. Rectilinear movements or squareness of straight line and plane.
5. Rotations.

230
 Main spindle is lo be tested for
1) Out of round.
2) Eccentricity
3) Radial throw of an axis.
4) Runout
5) Periodical axial slip
6) Camming

VARIOUS TESTS CONDUCTED ON ANY MACHINE TOOLS

1) Test for level of installation of machine tool in horizontal and vertical planes.
2) Test for flatness of machine bed and for straightness and parallelism of bed
ways on bearing surface.
3) Test for perpendicularity of guide ways to other guide ways.
4) Test for true running of the main spindle and its axial movements.
5) Test for parallelism of spindle axis to guide ways or bearing surfaces.
6) Test for line of movement of various members like spindle and table cross
slides etc.
USE OF LASER FOR ALIGNMENT TESTING
V The alignment tests can be carried out over greater distances and to a greater
degree of accuracy using laser equipment.
V Laser equipment produces real straight line, whereas an alignment telescope provides an
imaginary line that cannot be seen in space.
V This is important w hen it is necessary to check number of components to a predetermined
slraighl' line. Particularly it they are spaced relatively long distances apart, as m aircraft
production and in shipbuilding.
V Laser equipment can also be used lor checking flatness of machined surface by direct
displacement. By using are optical square in conjunction with laser equipment squareness can
be checked with reference lo the laser base line.

PART-A

lWhat is interferometer' And Us types/

2.Name the common source of light used for interferometer?
3.Definc-Crust and Rough?
•l.Define- Wavelength
5. What is meant by alignment lest on machine tools?
6. Slate the basic principle of Laser
7. Stale the use of Laser
X. What is the other name for alignment test on machine tooLs/ 9. List the
various geometrical checks made oil machine tools. 10.De fine-LASER?
11. Define-Beam splitters
12. Definc-Beam benders
13. Define-Retro reflectors

PART-B
1. What is meant by alignment test on machine tools? Why (hey are necessary? Explain.
2. Stale the basic principle and use of Laser.
3. Distinguish between geometrical and practical test on machine -l.Sketch and
explain the Michclson interferometer in detail.
5.Sketch and describe ihe optical system in any two of the following.
a. Laser interferometer.
b. N.P.L Flatness interferometer.
6 Sketch and explain the Two frequency interferometer in detail. 7.Slate the applications of
Lasers in Linear and Angular measurements
8. State the applications of Laser Interferometer in testing of machine tools?

231