Effects unit

An effects unit or pedal is an electronic or digital device that alters

how a musical instrument or other audio source sounds. In the 2010s,
most effects use solid-state electronics and/or computer chips. Some
vintage effects units from the 1930s to the 1970sand modern reissues
of these effects use mechanical components as well (e.g., Leslie
rotating speaker, spring reverb, and tape recorder-based echo effects)
or vacuum tubes. Some effects subtly "color" a sound, such as a
reverb unit used on a low setting, while others transform it
dramatically, such as a distortion pedal used with electric guitar, with
the overdrive set to its maximum level. Musicians, audio engineers
A pedalboard allows a performer to create a ready-
and record producers use effects units during live performances or in
to-use chain of multiple pedals.Signal chain order:
the studio, typically with electric guitar, electronic keyboard, electric tuner, compressor, octave generator, wah-wah
piano or electric bass. While guitar effects are most frequently used pedal, overdrive, distortion, fuzz, EQ and tremolo.
with electric or electronic instruments, effects can also be used with
acoustic instruments, drums and vocals.[1][2] Rackmounted or audio
console-integrated reverb effects are commonly used with vocals in live sound and sound recording. Examples of common effects
units include wah-wah pedals, fuzzboxes and reverb units.[3]

Effects are built into amplifiers (reverb and distortion are the most common in 2010s-era amps, but vintage amps and modern
reissued amps may also have tremolo and vibrato); housed in table top units designed for DJs and record producers, a format which
typically contains multiple effects; "stompboxes" and "rackmount units", or they are built into the instruments themselves, as in the
case of the Hammond organ, which includes chorus and vibrato effects inside the instrument chassis. A stompbox or "pedal" is a
small metal or plastic box placed on the floor in front of the musician and connected to the instrument and the instrument amplifier
with patch cords. Pedals are usually the least expensive format. Typically, one or more on-off foot-operated switches control a device
that provides only one or two effects, with many pedals having knobs for controlling the volume, tone and intensity of the effect. A
rackmount device mounts on a standard 19-inch equipment rack and usually contains several types of effects.[4] Rackmount effects
typically have buttons and/or knobs on the face of the chassis for controlling the fects
ef and a patch bay at the rear of the unit.

While there is currently no firm consensus on how to categorize effects, the following are seven common classifications:
distortion/overdrive, also called "fuzz", which produce the "growling" audio clipping sounds that are a key part of electric guitar
playing in electric blues, hard rock and heavy metal music; dynamics effects which affect loudness, such as volume pedals and audio
compressors; filters which modify the frequency range of the instrument, such as the wah-wah pedal and the graphic equalizer;
modulation effects, such as the chorus, flanger and phaser; pitch/frequency effects such as a pitch shifter, a common example of
which is an octave pedal, which can shift a note down an octave (or up an octave); time-based effects, such as reverb, echo effect and
looper pedals (the latter can be used by a one person band to record a riff and then solo over it); and feedback/sustain effects, such as
electric guitar feedback and the EBow, which are two different techniques for producing pipe organ-like sustain on the electric
guitar.[5][6] Guitarists derive their signature sound or "tone" from their choice of instrument, pickups, effects units, and guitar amp
and from the different settings they use with theirpickups, effects units and amp.[7]

Contents
1 Terminology
2 Formats
2.1 Stompboxes
 2.2 Rackmounts
2.3 Built-in units
2.4 Multi-effects and tabletop units
3 History
3.1 Studio effects and early stand alone units
3.2 Amplifiers
3.3 Stompboxes
4 Types
4.1 Distortion
4.2 Dynamics
4.3 Filter
4.4 Modulation
4.5 Pitch/frequency
4.6 Time-based
4.7 Feedback/sustain
4.8 Other effects
5 Bass effects
6 Boutique pedals
6.1 Modification
7 Other pedals and rackmount units
8 See also
9 References

Terminology
An effects unit is also called an "effect box", "effects device", "effects processor" or
simply "effects". In audio engineer parlance, a signal without effects is "dry" and an
effect-processed signal is "wet". The abbreviation "F/X" or "FX" is sometimes used. A
pedal-style unit may be called a "stomp box", "stompbox", "effects pedal" or "pedal". A
musician bringing many pedals to a live show or recording session often mounts the
pedals on a guitar pedalboard, to reduce set-up and tear-down time and, for pedalboards
with lids, protect the pedals during transportation. When a musician has multiple effects
in a rack mounted road case, this case may be called an "effects rack" or "rig". When
rackmounted effects are mounted in a roadcase, this also speeds up a musician's set-up
and tear-down time, because all of the effects can be connected together inside the rack
case and all of the units can be plugged into a powerbar
.
A display of assorted BOSS
effects pedals.
Formats
Effects units are available in a variety of formats or form factors. Stompboxes are
usually the smallest, least expensive, and most rugged effects units. Rackmount devices are generally more expensive and offer a
wider range of functions.[8] An effects unit can consist of analog or digital circuitry or a combination of the two. During a live
performance, the effect is plugged into the electrical "signal" path of the instrument. In the studio, the instrument or other sound-
source's auxiliary output is patched into the effect.[9][10] Form factors are part of a studio or musician'soutboard gear.[11]

Stompboxes
 Stompboxes are small plastic or metal chassis which usually lie on the floor or in a pedalboard to be
operated by the user's feet. Pedals are often rectangle-shaped, but there are a range of other shapes (e.g.,
the circle-shaped Fuzz Face). Typical simple stompboxes have a single footswitch, one to three
potentiometers ("pots" or "knobs") for controlling the effect, and a single LED that indicates if the effect
is on. A typical distortion or overdrive pedal's three potentiometers, for example, control the level or
intensity of the distortion effect, the tone of the effected signal and the volume (level) of the effected
signal. Depending on the type of pedal, the potentiometers may control different parameters of the effect.
For a chorus effect, for example, the knobs may control the depth and speed of the effect. Complex
stompboxes may have multiple footswitches, many knobs, additional switches or buttons that are
operated with the fingers, and an alphanumeric LED display that indicates the status of the effect with
Ibanez Tube
short acronyms (e.g., DIST for "distortion").[8][12] Some pedals have two knobs stacked on top of each
Screamer TS9
overdrive pedal other, enabling the unit to provide two knobs per single knob space.

An "effects chain" or "signal chain" is formed by connecting two or more stompboxes. Effect chains are
typically created between the guitar and the amp or between the preamplifier ("preamp") and the power amp. When a pedal is off or
inactive, the electric audio signal coming into the pedal diverts onto a bypass, an unaltered "dry" signal that continues on to other
effects down the chain. In this way, a musician can combine effects within a chain in a variety of ways without having to reconnect
boxes during a performance.[13] A "controller" or "effects management system" lets the musician create multiple effect chains, so
they can select one or several chains by tapping a single switch. The switches are usually ganized
or in a row or a simple grid.[14]

To preserve the clarity of the tone, it is most common to put compression, wah and
overdrive pedals at the start of the chain; modulation (chorus, flanger, phase shifter) in
the middle; and time-based units (delay/echo, reverb) at the end. When using many
effects, unwanted noise and hum can be introduced into the sound. Some performers use
a noise gate pedal at the end of a chain to reduce unwanted noise and hum introduced by
overdrive units or vintage gear.[15]

Rackmounts
A Roland V-Wah pedal
Rackmounted effects are typically built in a thin metal chassis with metal "ears"
designed to be screwed into a19-inch rack that is standard to thetelecommunication,
computing and music technology industries. Rackmounted effects may be one, two
or three rack spaces high. When purchased from the store, rack-mounted equipment
is not equipped with the rugged chassis features used on stompboxes and amps that
are designed to be transported as standalone units, such as corner protectors.
Rackmounted units are typically mounted in a rack, which is housed in road
a case, a
tough plastic case with removable front and rear covers that can be latched on during
transportation to protect the knobs and switches and then removed during
performances. A rackmount unit may contain electronic circuitry identical to a
stompbox's, although its circuits are typically more complex. Unlike stompboxes,
rackmounts usually have several different types of effects.[16]
Rackmounted effects in road cases.
Rackmounts are most commonly used in recording studios and "front of house" live These road cases have the front
sound mixing situations, though professional musicians who play electric bass, protective panels removed so that
electric guitar, or synthesizers may use them in place of stompboxes, to create a the musician can press the buttons
rackmounted head unit for their speaker cabinet(s). Rackmounts are controlled by on the face of the units to change the
effect settings. The protective panels
knobs, switches or buttons on their front panel, and often by a MIDI digital control
are put back on and latched shut to
interface. During live performances, a musician can operate rackmounted effects
protect the effects during
using a "foot controller".[17] By setting up effects in a rack-mounted road case, this transportation.
speeds up set-up and tear-down, because all of the effects can be connected together
with patch cords (which can be left connected permanently) and all of the units can
 be plugged into a power bar. This means that a musician only needs to plug in the main
power bar into AC Mains power and plug their instrument into the rack, and the last
effect unit's output into theirinstrument amplifier and/or the PA system.

"Shock mount" racks are designed for musicians who frequently move gear between
venues. Shock mounts help to protect electronic devices from bumps during
transportation. Devices that are less than 19 inches wide may use special "ear" adapters
to mount on a rack.[18]
Of all of the formats, rackmount
effects from the 2010s typically
have the most advanced Built-in units
alphanumeric text display Effects are often incorporated into
capacities. The Eventide HE3000 amplifiers and even some types of
Ultra-Harmonizer pictured here
instruments. Electric guitar amplifiers
displays the entire name of an
effect or setting, which helps typically have built-in reverb and
users to find their preferred distortion, while acoustic guitar and
settings and effects. keyboard amplifiers tend to only have
built-in reverb. Some acoustic instrument
amplifiers have reverb, chorus,
Even in the 2010s, the vintage
compression and equalization (bass and treble) effects. Vintage guitar amps (and their
Fender Bandmaster remains a
2010-era reissued models) typically have tremolo and vibrato effects, and sometimes sought-after amp by guitarists
reverb. The Fender Bandmaster Reverb amp, for example, had built-in reverb and (pictured is a 1968 model). Note
vibrato. Built-in effects may offer the user less control than standalone pedals or the four inputs, two for regular
rackmounted units. For example, on some lower- to mid-priced bass amplifiers, the only sound and two which are run
control on the audio compression effect is a button or switch to turn it on or off, or a through the onboard vibrato effect
unit.
single knob. In contrast, a pedal or rackmounted unit would typically provide ratio,
threshold and attack knobs and sometimes "soft knee" or other options to allow the user
to control the compression.

Since the 2000s, guitar amplifiers began having built-in multi-effects units or digital modeling effects. Bass amplifiers are less likely
to have built-in effects, although some may have a compressor/limiter or fuzz bass effect.[19] Bass amps from the 1980s sometimes
included built-in bass chorus.

Instruments with built-in effects include Hammond organs, electronic organs, electronic pianos and digital synthesizers.[20] Built-in
effects for keyboard typically include reverb, chorus and, for Hammond organ, vibrato. Many "clonewheel organs include an
overdrive effect. Occasionally, acoustic-electric and electric guitars will have built-in effects, such as a preamp or equalizer.[21][22]

Multi-effects and tabletop units

A multi-effects device (also called a "multi-FX" device) is a single electronics
effects pedal or rackmount device that contains many different electronic effects.
Multi-FX devices allow users to "preset" combinations of different effects, allowing
musicians quick on-stage access to different effects combinations.[23] Multi-effects
units typically have a range of distortion, chorus, flanger, phaser and reverb effects.
The most expensive multi-effects units may also have looper functions. Pedal-style
multieffects range from fairly inexpensive stompboxes that contain two pedals and a Boss ME-50 guitar multi-effects pedal
few knobs to control the effects to large, expensive floor units with many pedals and
knobs. Rackmounted multieffects units are typically mounted in a rack. Guitarists
and bassists may mount their rackmounted multief
fects unit in the same rack with their preamplifier and power amplifier
.
A tabletop unit is a type of multi-effects device that sits on a desk and is controlled manually. One such example is the Pod guitar
amplifier modeler. Digital effects designed for DJs are often sold in tabletop models, so that the units can be placed alongside a DJ
mixer, turntables and CD scratching gear.[24] For a DJ, a pedal located on the floor would not be practical because she/he would find
it hard to adjust the knobs.

History

Studio effects and early stand alone units

The earliest sound effects were strictly studio productions. In the mid to late 1940s, recording
engineers and experimental musicians such as Les Paul began manipulating reel-to-reel
recording tape to create echo effects and unusual, futuristic sounds. Microphone placement
("miking") techniques were used in spaces with specially designed acoustic properties to
simulate echo chambers.[25][26][27] In 1948 DeArmond released the Trem-Trol, the first
commercially available stand-alone effects unit. This device produced a tremolo by passing an
In 1964, Dave Davies instrument's electrical signal through a water-based electrolytic fluid.[28] Most stand-alone
(second from left), lead effects of the 1950s and early 60s such as the Gibson GA-VI vibrato unit and the Fender
guitarist of The Kinks, reverb box, were expensive and impractical, requiring bulky transformers and high voltages.
famously achieved a The original stand-alone units were not especially in-demand as many effects came built into
distorted sound on "You
amplifiers. The first popular stand-alone was the 1958 Watkins Copicat, a relatively portable
Really Got Me" by slashing
tape echo effect made famous by the British band, The Shadows.[29][30]
the cones of his guitar
amplifier with a razor blade.

Amplifiers
Guitar amplifier built-in effects were the first effects that musicians used regularly
outside the studio. From the late 1940s onward, the Gibson Guitar Corp. began
including vibrato circuits in combo amplifiers. The 1950 Ray Butts EchoSonic amp
was the first to feature the "slapback" echo sound, which quickly became popular
with guitarists such as Chet Atkins, Carl Perkins, Scotty Moore, Luther Perkins, and
Roy Orbison. By the 1950s, tremolo, vibrato and reverb were available as built-in A Fender Vibrolux Reverb amp and a
effects on many guitar amplifiers. Both Premier and Gibson built tube-powered ROSS amp
amps with spring reverb. Fender began manufacturing the tremolo amps Tremolux
in 1955 and Vibrolux in 1956.[31]

Distortion was not an effect originally intended by amplifier manufacturers, but could often easily be achieved by "overdriving" the
power supply in earlytube amplifiers. In the 1950s, guitarists began deliberately increasinggain beyond its intended levels to achieve
"warm" distorted sounds.[32] Among the first musicians to experiment with distortion were Willie Johnson of Howlin' Wolf,[32]
Goree Carter,[33] Joe Hill Louis,[34][35] Ike Turner,[36] Guitar Slim,[37] and Chuck Berry.[38]

In 1954 Pat Hare produced heavily distorted power chords for several recordings (including James Cotton's Cotton Crop Blues"),
creating "a grittier, nastier, more ferocious electric guitar sound,"[39] accomplished by turning the volume knob on his amplifier "all
the way to the right until the speaker was screaming."[40] Link Wray's 1958 recording "Rumble" inspired young musicians such as
Pete Townshend of The Who, Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin, Jeff Beck, Dave Davies of The Kinks, and Neil Young to explore
distortion. Davies would famously doctor the speakers of his amp by slitting them with a razor blade to achieve a grittier guitar sound
on the 1964 song "You Really Got Me".[41] In 1966, the British company Marshall Amplification began producing the Marshall
[42][43]
1963, a guitar amplifier capable of producing the distorted "crunch" that rock musicians were starting to seek.

Stompboxes
The electronic transistor finally made it possible to cram the aural creativity of the recording
studio into small, highly portable stompbox units. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes,
allowing for much more compact formats and greater stability. The first transistorized guitar
effect was the 1962 Maestro Fuzz Tone pedal, which became a sensation after its use in the
1965 Rolling Stones hit "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction".[44][45]

Warwick Electronics manufactured the first wah-wah pedal, The Clyde McCoy, in 1967 and
that same year Jim Morris of Kelsey-Morris Sound developed the first octave effect, which The Fuzz Face effect pedal.
Jimi Hendrix named "Octavio". In 1968, Univox began marketing Shin-ei's Uni-Vibe pedal,
an effect designed by noted audio engineer Fumio Mieda that mimicked the odd phase shift
and chorus effects of the Leslie rotating speakersused in Hammond organs. The pedals soon became favorite effects of guitarists Jimi
Hendrix and Robin Trower. Upon first hearing the Octavia, Hendrix allegedly rushed back to the studio and immediately used it to
record the guitar solos on "Purple Haze" and "Fire".[46] In 1976, Roland subsidiary Boss Corporation released the CE-1 Chorus
Ensemble, the first chorus pedal, created by taking a chorus circuit from an amplifier and putting it into a stompbox.[47] By the mid-
1970s a variety of solid-state effects pedals including flangers, chorus pedals, ring modulators and phase shifters were
available.[48][49]

In the 1980s, digital rackmount units began replacing stompboxes as the effects format
of choice. Often musicians would record "dry", unaltered tracks in the studio and effects
would be added in post-production. The success of Nirvana's 1991 album Nevermind
helped to re-ignite interest in stompboxes. Some grunge guitarists would chain several
fuzz pedals together and plug them into a tube amplifier.[50] Throughout the 1990s,
musicians committed to a "lo-fi" aesthetic such as J Mascis of Dinosaur Jr., Stephen
Malkmus of Pavement and Robert Pollard of Guided by Voices continued to use analog
Several Boss pedals connected effects pedals.[51]
together.
Effects and effects units—stompboxes in particular—have been celebrated by pop and
rock musicians in album titles, songs and band names. The Big Muff, a classic fuzzbox
manufactured by Electro-Harmonix,[52] is commemorated by the Depeche Mode song "Big Muff" and the Mudhoney EP Superfuzz
Bigmuff. Nine Inch Nails, Pink Floyd, George Harrison, They Might Be Giants and Joy Division are among the many musicians who
have referenced effects units in their music.[53]

Types

Distortion
Distortion effects create warm, gritty, and fuzzy sounds by "clipping" Fuzzed guitar
an instrument's audio signal, which distorts the shape of its wave form
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and adds overtones. Distortion effects are sometimes called "gain"
effects, as distorted guitar sounds were first achieved by increasing the Power chords played "clean" and
electric power supply, e.g. gain, to tube amplifiers.[54][55][56]
with fuzz

Distortion and overdrive: Distortion and overdrive units re-shape or Problems playing this file? See media help.
"clip" an audio signal's wave form so that it has flattened peaks,
creating "warm" sounds by adding harmonics or "gritty" sounds by adding inharmonic overtones. In tube amplifiers, distortion is
created by compressing the instrument's out-going electrical signal in vacuum tubes or "valves".[55][56] Distortion pedals produce
perfectly flattened peaks or "hard" clipping. Overdrive pedals produce "soft” tube-like distortion by compressing the sine wave
without completely flattening it. Much like tube amps, overdrive units produce "clean" sounds at quieter volumes and distorted
"warm" sounds at louder volumes. Distortion and overdrive pedals may either be transistor-based or digital.[57][58] While distortion
pedals are most associated with electric guitar, they are also used with bass guitar
(fuzz bass), Hammond organ and electric piano.
Distortion and overdrive effects: Boss DS-1 Distortion, Ibanez Tube Screamer,
Marshall ShredMaster, MXR Distortion +, Pro Co RAT.

Fuzz: A fuzz pedal or "fuzzbox" is a type of overdrive pedal that clips a sound-wave
until it is nearly a squarewave, resulting in a heavily distorted or "fuzzy" "Clipping" an instrument'saudio
sound.[56][59] Fuzzboxes may contain frequency multiplier circuitry to achieve a signal produces distortion
harsh timbre by adding complex harmonics.[60][61] The Rolling Stones' song "(I
Can't Get No) Satisfaction", with the main riff played by Keith Richards with fuzz
guitar, greatly popularized the use of fuzz effects.[26] Fuzz bass (also called "bass overdrive") is a style of playing the electric bass
that produces a buzzy, overdriven sound via a tube or transistor amp or by using a fuzz or overdrive pedal.
Fuzz effects: Arbiter Fuzz Face, Electro-Harmonix Big Muff, Shin-ei Companion FY-2, Univox Super-Fuzz, Vox Tone Bender, Z.Vex
Fuzz Factory.

Dynamics
Also called volume and amplitude effects, dynamics effects modify the volume of an instrument.
Dynamics effects were among the first effects introduced to guitarists.[5]

Boost/volume pedal: A boost or "clean boost" pedal amplifies the volume of an instrument by
increasing the amplitude of its audio signal. These units are generally used for "boosting" volume
during solos and preventing signal loss in long e"ffects chains". A guitarist switching fromrhythm
[62]
guitar to lead guitar for a guitar solo may use a boost to increase the volume of his or her solo.

Treadle-based volume pedals are used by electric instrument players (guitar, bass, keyboards) to
adjust the volume of their instrument with one foot while their hands are being used to play their
instrument. Treadle-style volume pedals are often also used to create swelling effects by removing
the attack of a note or chord, as popularised by pedal steel guitar players. This enables electric
guitar and pedal steel players to imitate the soft swelling sound that an orchestra string section can
produce, in which a note or chord starts very softly and then grows in volume. Treadle-based
volume pedals do not usually have batteries or require external power. Volume effects: Electro- A rack of rackmount
Harmonix LPB-1, Fender Volume Pedal, MXR Micro Amp, Ernie Ball Volume Pedal. audio compressors in a
recording studio. From
Compressor: Compressors make loud sounds quieter and quiet sounds louder by decreasing or top to bottom: Retro
Instruments/Gates STA
"compressing" the dynamic range of an audio signal.[63] A compressor is often used to stabilize
level; Spectra Sonic; Dbx
volume and smooth a note's "attack" by dampening its onset and amplifying its sustain. A
162; Dbx 165; Empirical
compressor can also function as alimiter with extreme settings of its controls.[64] Labs Distressor; Smart
Compressor effects: Keeley Compressor, MXR Dyna Comp, Boss CS-3 Compression Sustainer. Research C2; Chandler
Limited TG1; Daking
Noise gate: Noise gates attenuate hum, hiss, and static in the signal by greatly diminishing the FET (91579); and Altec
volume when the signal falls below a set threshold. Noise gates are often used by electric guitarist 436c.
who play with vintage amps, which can have unwanted hum in the tone, and by guitarists from
heavy metal who use high distortion levels, which add noise to the signal even when no notes are
being played. Noise gates mute the signal when it falls below a certain threshold. This means that during bars of rest for the guitarist
in a song, the hum or noise from the amp or distortion pedal will not be heard by the audience. Noise gates are expanders—meaning
that, unlike compressors, they increase the dynamic range of an audio signal to make quiet sounds even quieter.[63] If used with
extreme settings and combined with reverb, they can create unusual sounds, such as the gated drum effect used in 1980s pop songs, a
style popularized by thePhil Collins song In the Air Tonight.[65][66]
Noise gate effects: Boss NS-2 Noise Suppressor.
Filter
Filter effects alter the frequency content of an audio signal that passes through them
by either boosting or weakening specific frequencies or frequency regions.

Equalizer: An equalizer is a set of linear filters that strengthen ("boost") or weaken

("cut") specific frequency regions. While basic home stereos often have equalizers
for two bands, to adjust bass and treble, professional graphic equalizers offer much
more targeted control over the audio frequency spectrum.[67] Audio engineers use
highly sophisticated equalizers to eliminate unwanted sounds, make an instrument or
[68]
voice more prominent, and enhance particular aspects of an instrument's tone.
Equalizer effects: Boss GE-7 Equalizer, MXR 10-band EQ Pedal.
Peter Frampton's Talk box
Talk box: A talk box directs the sound
from an electric guitar or synthesizer into
the mouth of a performer using a tube, allowing him or her to shape the sound into vowels
and consonants with his or her mouth. The modified sound is then picked up by a
microphone. In this way the guitarist is able create the effect that her or his guitar "licks" are
"talking". Some famous uses of the talkbox include Bon Jovi's "Livin' on a Prayer", Stevie
Wonder's "Black Man", Mötley Crüe's "Kickstart My Heart", Joe Walsh's "Rocky Mountain
Way", Alice in Chains's "Man in the box" and Peter Frampton's "Show Me the Way".[69][70]
Thomas Organ Cry Baby
Talk boxes: Dunlop HT1 Heil Talk Box, Rocktron Banshee.
(1970) manufactured by JEN
Wah-wah: A wah-wah pedal creates vowel-like sounds by altering the frequency spectrum
produced by an instrument—i.e., how loud it is at each separate frequency—in what is
known as a spectral glide or "sweep".[71] The device is operated by a foot treadle that opens and closes a potentiometer. Wah-wah
pedals are often used byfunk and rock guitarists.[72]
Wah effects: Dunlop Cry Baby, Morley Power Wah, Musitronics Mu-Tron III.

Modulation
Modulation, in general electronics, means the altering of signal Chorus effect
strength. In audio devices, modulation is a control feature that varies
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the strength of some effect over time to alter tonal properties. Some
modulation effects mix ("modulate") an instrument's audio signal with Chorus effect on guitar, coming
a signal generated by the effect called a carrier wave.[73] Other
from an Electro-Harmonix Small
Clone
modulation effects split an instrument's audio signal in two, altering
[74]
one portion of the signal and mixing it with the unaltered portion. Flanging effect
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Chorus: Chorus pedals mimic the effect choirs and string orchestras
produce naturally, by having slight variations in timbre and pitch, by A short synthesizer sample
mixing sounds with slight differences in timbre and pitch. A chorus followed by two flanging versions
effect splits the instrument-to-amplifieraudio signal, and adds a slight
Phaser effect
delay and frequency variations or "vibrato" to part of the signal while
leaving the rest unaltered.[74][75] A well-known usage of chorus is the 0:00

lead guitar in "Come As You Are" by Nirvana.[64] Unprocessed organ followed by

Chorus effects: Boss CE-1 Chorus Ensemble, Electro-Harmonix different phasing effects
Small Clone, TC Electronic Stereo Chorus.
Ring modulation effect
Flanger: A flanger creates a "whooshing" "jet plane" or "spaceship" 0:00
sound, simulating a studio effect that was first produced by recording
Notice the bell-like sound
a track on two synchronized tapes and periodically slowing one tape
by pressing the edge of its reel (the "flange"). When the two tapes' Tremolo effect
audio signals are later mixed, a comb filter effect can be heard.
0:00
Flanger units add a variably delayed version of the audio signal to the
original or signal, creating a comb filter or Doppler effect.[76][77] A low-frequency oscillator
modulating a tremolo (synthesizer)
Some famous uses of flanger effects include "Walking on the Moon"
by The Police, the intro to "Ain't Talkin' 'Bout Love" by Van Halen, Vibrato effect
and "Barracuda" by Heart.[78][79]
0:00
Flanger effects: Electro-Harmonix Electric Mistress, MXR Flanger,
Boss BF-3 Flanger. A low-frequency oscillator
modulating a vibrato (synthesizer)

Problems playing these files? See media

help.
Phaser: A phaser or "phase shifter" creates a slight rippling effect—amplifying some
aspects of the tone while diminishing others—by splitting an audio signal in two and
altering the phase of one portion. Three well-known examples of phaser are the two
handed tapping part on the Van Halen instrumental "Eruption" and the keyboard parts on
Billy Joel's "Just the Way You Are" and Paul Simon's "Slip Slidin' Away".[80]
Phase shift effects: Uni-Vibe, Electro-Harmonix Small Stone, MXR Phase 90.

Ring modulator: A ring modulator produces a resonant, metallic sound by mixing an

instrument's audio signal with a carrier wave generated by the device's internal
oscillator. The original sound wave is suppressed and replaced by a "ring" ofinharmonic
higher and lower pitches or "sidebands".[73][81] A notable use of ring modulation is the
An MXR-101 Phaser pedal guitar in the Black Sabbath song "Paranoid".[82]
Ring modulator effects: Moogerfooger MF-102 Ring Modulator.

Tremolo: A tremolo effect produces a slight, rapid variation in the volume of a note or chord. The "tremolo effect" should not be
confused with the misleadingly-named "tremolo bar", a device on a guitar bridge that creates a vibrato or "pitch-bending" effect. In
transistorized effects, a tremolo is produced by mixing an instrument's audio signal with a sub-audible carrier wave in such a way that
generates amplitude variations in the sound wave.[83][84] Tremolo effects are built-in effects in some vintage guitar amplifier. The
guitar intro in the Rolling Stones' "Gimme Shelter" features a tremolo effect.[85]
Tremolo effects: Demeter TRM-1 Tremulator, Fender Tremolux.

Vibrato: Vibrato effects produce slight, rapid variations in pitch, mimicking the fractional semitone variations produced naturally by
opera singers and violinists when they are prolonging a single note. Vibrato effects often allow the performer to control the rate of the
variation as well as the difference in pitch (e.g. "depth"). A vibrato with an extreme "depth" setting (e.g., half a semitone or more)
will produce a dramatic, ululating sound. In transistorized effects, vibrato is produced by mixing an instrument's audio signal with a
carrier wave in such a way that generates frequency variations in the sound wave.[84] Guitarists often use the terms "vibrato" and
"tremolo" misleadingly. A so-called "vibrato unit" in a guitar amplifier actually produces tremolo, while a "tremolo arm" or
"whammy bar" on a guitar produces vibrato.[86][87]
Vibrato effects: Boss VB-2 Vibrato.

Pitch/frequency
Pitch/frequency effects modify pitch by altering the frequency of a sound wave or sound signal or adding newharmonies.

Pitch shifter and harmonizer: A pitch shifter (also called an "octaver" for effects that shift pitch by an octave) raises or lowers (e.g.
"transposes") each note a performer plays by a pre-set interval. For example, a pitch shifter set to increase the pitch by a fourth will
raise each note four diatonic intervals above the notes actually played. Simple, less expensive pitch shifters raise or lower the pitch by
one or two octaves, while more sophisticated and expensive devices offer a range of interval alterations. A pitch shifter can be used
by an electric guitarist to play notes that would normally only be available on an
electric bass. As well, a bass player with a four string electric bass can use an octave
pedal to obtain low notes that would normally only be obtainable with a five-string
bass with a low "B" string.

A harmonizer is a type of sophisticated pitch shifter that combines the altered pitch
with the original pitch to create a two note harmony based on the original pitch, or
even with some pedals, three note harmony. Some hamonizers are able to create
chorus-like effects by adding very tiny shifts in pitch.[88]
Pitch shift effects: DigiTech Whammy, Electro-Harmonix POG.
An Electro-Harmonix Polyphonic
Octaver Generator (POG)

Time-based
Time-based effects delay the sound signal, add reverb or echos, or, if a long delay is possible, enable musicians to record "loops".

Delay/echo: Delay/echo units produce an echo effect by adding a duplicate

instrument-to-amplifierelectrical signal to the original signal at a slight time-delay.
The effect can either be a single echo called a "slap" or "slapback," or multiple
echos. A well-known use of delay is the lead guitar in the U2 song "Where the
Streets Have No Name", and also the opening riff of "Welcome To The Jungle" by
Folded line spring reverberation
Guns N'Roses.[89]
Delay effects: Boss DD-3 Digital Delay, MXR Carbon Copy, Electro-
Harmonix Deluxe Memory Man, Line 6 DL4, Roland RE-201. Delay effect

Looper pedal: A looper pedal or "phrase looper" allows a performer 0:00

to record and later replay a phrase, riff or passage from a song. Loops A flute before and after delay
can be created on the spot during a performance (live looping) or they
can be pre-recorded. By using a looper pedal, a singer-guitarist in a Reverberation effect
one person band can play the backing chords (or riffs) to a song, loop 0:00
them with the pedal, and then sing and do a guitar solo over the
chords. Some units allow a performer to layer multiple loops, enabling
Reverb with increasingly longer
decay times
the performer to create the effect of a full band.[90] The first loop
effects were created with reel-to-reel tape using a tape loop. High-end Problems playing these files? See media
boutique tape loop effects are still used by some studio producers who help.
want a vintage sound. Digital loop effects recreate this effect using an
electronic memory.[91]
Looper effects: Boss RC-30 Loop Station.

Reverb: Reverb units simulate the spacious sounds produced naturally in a huge
stone cathedral (or other acoustic space such as a hall or room). This is done by
creating a large number of echoes that gradually fade away in volume or "decay".
One early technique for creating a reverb effect was to send an amplified signal of
the music via a speaker to another room with reflective surfaces, such as a tile
bathroom, and then record the natural reverberations that were produced. A plate
reverb system uses an electromechanical transducer to create vibrations in a plate of
metal. Spring reverb systems, which are often used in guitar amplifiers, use a
transducer to create vibrations in a spring. Digital reverb effects use various signal
A vintage Echoplex EP-2 delay effect
processing algorithms to create the reverb effect, often by using multiple feedback
delay circuits. Rockabilly and surf guitar are two genres that make heavy use of
reverb.[92]
Reverb effects: Electro-Harmonix Holy Grail, Fender Reverb Unit.
Feedback/sustain
Audio feedback: Audio feedback is an effect produced when amplified sound is picked up by a microphone or guitar pickup and
played back through an guitar amplifier, initiating a "feedback loop", which usually consists of high-pitched sound. Feedback that
occurs from a vocal mic into a PA system is almost always avoided. However, in some styles of rock music, electric guitar players
intentionally create feedback by playing their instrument directly in front of a heavily amplified, distorted guitar amplifier's speaker
enclosure. The creative use of feedback effects was pioneered by guitarists such as Jimi Hendrix in the 1960s. This technique creates
sustained, high-pitchedovertones and unusual sounds not possible through regular playing techniques. Guitar feedback effects can be
difficult to perform, because it is difficult to determine the sound volume and guitar position relative to a guitar amp's loudspeaker
necessary for achieving the desired feedback sound.[93][94] Guitar feedback effects are used in a number of rock genres, including
psychedelic rock, heavy metal music and punk rock.

EBow is a brand name of Heet Sound Products, of Los Angeles, California, for a small,
handheld, battery-powered resonator. The Ebow was invented by Greg Heet, as a way to make
a note on an electric guitar string resonate continuously, creating an effect that sounds similar
to a bowed violin note or a sustained pipe organ note. The resonator uses a pickup - inductive
string driver - feedback circuit, including a sensor coil, driver coil, and amplifier, to induce
forced string resonance. The Ebow brand resonator is monophonic, and drives only one string
at a time.

Other handheld guitar and bass resonators on the market, manufactured under the tradename
SRG, produced by Aescher Europa, in Germany, are available in both monophonic (one note
at a time) and polyphonic (multiple notes at once) models, which include multiple onboard

An EBow guitar string trigger switch effects, such as HPF (high pass filter) for enhancing harmonics and producing
resonator. feedback effects, and LPF (low pass filter), producing a bass boost with a cello sound on
heavy gauge strings. Later EBow models, such as the plus Ebow, contain a mode slide switch
on the back, which allows the player to either produce just sustain or overtone feedback in
addition to sustain.[72]

Many compressor pedals are often also marketed as "sustainer pedals". As a note is sustained, it loses energy and volume due to
diminishing vibration in the string. The compressor pedal boosts its electrical signal to the specified dynamic range, slightly
prolonging the duration of the note.[95] This, combined with heavy distortion and the close proximity of the guitar and the speaker
cabinet, can lead to infinite sustain at higher volumes.

Other effects
Envelope follower: An envelope follower activates an effect once a designated volume is reached. One effect that uses an envelope
follower is the auto-wah, which produces a "wah" effect depending on howloud or soft the notes are being played.[96][97]

Guitar amplifier modeling: Amplifier modeling is a digital effect that replicates the sound of various amplifiers, most often vintage
analog "tube" amps and famous brands of speaker cabinets (e.g., theAmpeg SVT 8x10" bass cabinet). Sophisticated modeling effects
can simulate different types of speaker cabinets (e.g., the sound of an 8x10" cabinet) and miking techniques. A rotary speaker
simulator mimics the doppler and chorus effect sound of a vintage Leslie speaker system by replicating its volume and pitch
modulations, overdrive capacity and phase shifts.[98]

Pitch correction/vocal effects: Pitch correction effects use signal-processing algorithms to re-tune faulty intonation in a vocalist's
performance [99] or create unusual vocoder-type vocal effects. One of the best known examples of this is Autotune, a software
program and effect unit which can be used to both correct pitch (it moves a pitch to the nearest semitone), and add vocal effects.
Some stompbox-style vocal pedals contain multiple ef
fects, such as reverb and pitch correction.
Simulators: Simulators enable electric guitars to mimic the sound of other
instruments such as acoustic guitar, electric bass and sitar. Pick up simulators used
on guitars with single-coil pick ups replicate the sound of guitars with humbucker
pick ups, or vice versa. A de-fretter is a bass guitar effect that simulates the sound of
a fretless bass. The effect uses an envelope-controlled filter and voltage-controlled
amplifier to "soften" a note's attack both in volume andtimbre.[100]

Rotating speakers are specially constructed amplifier/loudspeakers used to create

special audio effects using the Doppler effect by rotating the speakers or a sound-
directing duct. The rotating speaker creates a chorus-type effect. Named after its A Line 6 modeling amplifier shown
inventor, Donald Leslie, it is particularly associated with the Hammond organ but is from above. Note the various
amplifier and speaker emulations
used with a variety of instruments as well as vocals. The Hammond/Leslie
selectable via the rotary knob on the
combination has become an element in many genres of music. The Leslie Speaker
left.
and the Hammond Organ brands are currently owned by Suzuki Musical Instrument
Corporation. The stompbox that simulates this effect is the Uni-Vibe pedal.

The Korg Kaoss Pad is a small touchpad MIDI controller, sampler, and effects
processor for audio and musical instruments, made by Korg. The Kaoss Pad's touchpad
can be used to control its internal effects engine, which can be applied to a line-in signal
or to samples recorded from the line-in. Effects types include pitch shifting, distortion,
filtering, wah-wah, tremolo, flanging, delay, reverberation, auto-panning, gating,
phasing, and ring modulation. The Kaoss Pad can also be used as aMIDI controller.

Bass effects
Bass effects are electronic effects units that are designed for use with the low pitches
created by an electric bass or for an upright bass used with a bass amp or PA system.
Two examples of bass effects are fuzz bass and bass chorus. Some bass amplifiers have
built-in effects, such as overdrive or chorus. Upright bassists in jazz, folk, blues and A rotating Leslie speaker in a
similar genres may use a bass preamplifier, a small electronic device that matches the clear plastic cabinet. Typically, the
impedance between the piezoelectric pickup and the amp or PA system. Bass preamps Leslie is mounted in a wooden
also allow for the gain of the signal to be boosted or cut. Some models also offer cabinet.
equalization controls, a compressor, and a DI box connection.

Boutique pedals
Boutique pedals are designed by
smaller, independent companies and are
typically produced in limited quantities.
Some may even be hand-made, with
hand-soldered connections. These
pedals are mainly distributed online or
through mail-order, or sold in a few
music stores.[101] They are often more A selection of bass effect pedals at a
expensive than mass-produced music store.
T-Rex brand "Mudhoney"
overdrive pedal pedals[102] and offer non-standard
features such as true-bypass switching,
higher-quality components, innovative designs, in-house-made knobs and hand-painted
 ef [103]
artwork or etching. Some boutique companies focus on re-creating classic or vintage fects.
Some boutique pedal manufacturers include:Analog Man, BJFE, Pete Cornish, Emlyn Crowther, Death By Audio, Devi Ever, Robert
Keeley, Roger Linn, Roger Mayer, Strymon, T-Rex Engineering, ToadWorks and Z.Vex Effects.

Modification
There is also a niche market for modifying or "modding" effects. Typically, vendors provide either custom modification services or
sell new effects pedals they have already modified. The Ibanez Tube Screamer, Boss DS-1, Pro Co RAT and DigiTech Whammy are
some of the most often-modified effects.[104][105] Common modifications include value changes in capacitors or resistors, adding
true-bypass so that the effect's circuitry is no longer in the signal path, substituting higher-quality components, replacing the unit's
original operational amplifiers (op-amps), or adding functions to the device, such as allowing additional control of some factor or
adding another output jack.[104][106][107]

Other pedals and rackmount units

Not all stompboxes and rackmounted electronic devices designed for musicians are effects. Strobe tuner
and regular electronic tuner pedals indicate whether a guitar string is too sharp or flat.[108] Stompbox-
format tuner pedals route the electric signal for the instrument through the unit via a 1/4" patch cable.
These pedal-style tuners usually have an output so that the signal can be plugged into a guitar amp to
produce sound. Rackmount power conditioner devices deliver a voltage of the proper level and
characteristics to enable equipment to function properly (e.g., by providing transient impulse
protection). A rackmounted wireless receiver unit is used to enable a guitarist or bassist to move around
on stage without being connected to a cable. A footswitch pedal such as the "A/B" pedal routes a guitar
signal to an amplifier or enables a performer to switch between two guitars, or between two amplifiers.

Guitar amplifiers and electronic keyboards may have switch

Some rock and pop
pedals for turning built-in reverb and distortion effects on and off; guitarists and
the pedals contain only a switch, with the circuitry for the effect bassists use
being housed in the amplifier chassis.[109] Some musicians who "stompbox" format
use rackmounted effects or laptops employ a MIDI controller electronic tuners.
pedalboard or armband remote controls to trigger sound samples,
switch between different effects or control effect
This footswitch controls an
effect (distortion), but it is settings.[110][111][112] A pedal keyboard uses pedals, but it is not an effect unit; it is a foot-
not an effects pedal as the operated keyboard in which the pedals are typically used to playbass lines.
case does not contain
effects circuitry; it is just a
switch. See also
Audio effects
Outboard gear — for more generic article
Sound effect
Audio signal processing
Acoustic wave — for natural audio effects
Vintage musical equipment

Technologies

Digital signal processor

Linear filter
Non-linear filter
Frequency divider
Frequency mixer
 Frequency multiplier

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