Chapter 4.

Problem Solutions

1. The great majority of alpha particles pass through gases and thin metal foils with no deflections.
To what conclusion about atomic structure does this observation lead?
【Sol】
The fact that most particles pass through undetected means that there is not much to deflect these
particles; most of the volume of an atom is empty space, and gases and metals are overall
electrically neutral.

3. Determine the distance of closest approach of 1.00-MeV protons incident on gold nuclei.
【Sol】
For a "closest approach", the incident proton must be directed "head-on" to the nucleus, with no
angular momentum with respect to the nucleus (an "Impact parameter" of zero; see the Appendix to
Chapter 4). In this case, at the point of closest approach the proton will have no kinetic energy, and
so the potential energy at closest approach will be the initial kinetic energy, taking the potential
energy to be zero in the limit of very large separation. Equating these energies,
Ze 2
K initial = , or
4πεormin
−19
 1  Ze 2 2 (79 )(1 .60 × 10 C) 2
rmin =   = (8.99 × 10 N ⋅ m / C )
9 2
−
= 1.14 × 10−13 m.
 4πεo  K initial 1.60 × 10 J13

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 5. What is the shortest wavelength present in the Brackett series of spectral lines?

【Sol】
The wavelengths in the Brackett series are given in Equation (4.9); the shortest wavelength (highest
energy) corresponds to the largest value of n. For n →∞,
16 16
λ→ = = 1.46 × 10− 6 m = 1.46 µm
R 1.097 × 10 m
7 -1

7. In the Bohr model, the electron is in constant motion. How can such an electron have a negative
amount of energy?
【Sol】
While the kinetic energy of any particle is positive, the potential energy of any pair of particles that
are mutually attracted is negative. For the system to be bound, the total energy, the sum of the
positive kinetic energy and the total negative potential energy, must be negative. For a classical
particle subject to an inverse-square attractive force (such as two oppositely charged particles or two
uniform spheres subject to gravitational attraction in a circular orbit, the potential energy is twice the
negative of the kinetic energy.

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 9. The fine structure constant is defined as α = e2/2εohc. This quantity got its name because it
first appeared in a theory by the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld that tried to explain the
fine structure in spectral lines (multiple lines close together instead of single lines) by assuming
that elliptical as well as circular orbits are possible in the Bohr model. Sommerfeld's approach
was on the wrong track, but α has nevertheless turned out to be a useful quantity in atomic
physics. (a) Show that α = v1/c, where v, is the velocity of the electron in the ground state of
the Bohr atom. (b) Show that the value of α is very close to 1/137 and is a pure number with no
dimensions. Because the magnetic behavior of a moving charge depends on its velocity, the
small value of α is representative of the relative magnitudes of the magnetic and electric
aspects of electron behavior in an atom. (c) Show that αao = λc/2π, where ao is the radius of the
ground-state Bohr orbit and λc is the Compton wavelength of the electron.
【Sol】
(a) The velocity v, is given by Equation (4.4), with r = r1 = ao. Combining to find v12 ,
e2 e2 e4 v1 e2 1
v1 =
2
= = , so = = α.
4πεoma o  h 2ε o  4ε o2h 2 c 2ε oh c
4πεom  
2
 πme 
(b) From the above,
(
1.60 × 10−19 C)
2
−3
2(8.85 × 10−12 C 2 / N ⋅ m 2 )(6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s )(3.00 × 108 m/s )
α = = 7. 30 × 10 ,

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 so that 1/α = 137.1 to four significant figures.
A close cheek of the units is worthwhile; treating the units as algebraic quantities the units as given
in the above calculation are
[C2 ] [N ⋅ m]
= = 1.
[C2 ] [m] [J]
[J ][s]
[N][m 2 ] [s]
Thus, α is a dimensionless quantity, and will have the same numerical v alue in any system of units.
The most accurate (November, 2001) value of 1/α is
1
= 137.03599976,
α
accurate to better than 4 parts per billion.
(c) Using the above expression for α and Equation (4.13) with n = 1 for ao,
e 2 h 2ε o 1 h λC
αao = = = ,
2ε ohc πme 2 2π mc 2π

where the Compton wavelength λC is given by Equation (2.22).

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 11. Find the quantum number that characterizes the earth's orbit around the sun. The earth's mass
is 6.0 x 1024 kg, its orbital radius is 1.5 x 1011 m, and its orbital speed is 3.0 x 104 m/s.
【Sol】
With the mass, orbital speed and orbital radius of the earth known, the earth's orbital angular
momentum is known, and the quantum number that would characterize the earth's orbit about the
sun would be this angular momentum divided by ;
L mvR (6.0 × 1024 kg)(3.0 × 104 m/s)(1.5 × 1011 m)
n= = = −34
= 2 .6 × 10 74
.
h h 1.06 × 10 J ⋅ s
(The number of significant figures not of concern.)

13. Compare the uncertainty in the momentum of an electron confined to a region of linear
dimension ao with the momentum of an electron in a ground-state Bohr orbit.
【Sol】
The uncertainty in position of an electron confined to such a region is, from Equation (3.22),
∆p > /2ao , while the magnitude of the linear momentum of an electron in the first Bohr orbit is
h h h
p= = = ;
λ 2πao ao
the value of ∆p found from Equation (3.13) is half of this momentum.

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 15. What effect would you expect the rapid random motion of the atoms of an excited gas to have
on the spectral lines they produce?
【Sol】
The Doppler effect shifts the frequencies of the emitted light to both higher and lower frequencies to
produce wider lines than atoms at rest would give rise to.

17. A proton and an electron, both at rest initially, combine to form a hydrogen atom in the
ground state. A single photon is emitted in this process. What is its wavelength?
【Sol】
It must assumed that the initial electrostatic potential energy is negligible, so that the final energy of
the hydrogen atom is E1 = -13.6 eV. The energy of the photon emitted is then -El, and the
wavelength is
hc 1.24 × 10−6 eV ⋅ m
λ= = = 9.12 × 10−8 m = 91.2 nm,
− E1 13.6 eV
in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum (see, for instance, the back endpapers of the text).

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 19. Find the wavelength of the spectral line that corresponds to a transition in hydrogen from the
n = 10 state to the ground state. In what part of the spectrum is this?
【Sol】
From either Equation (4.7) with n = 10 or Equation (4.18) with nf = 1 and ni = 10,
100 1 100 1
λ= = = 9.21 × 10−8 m = 92.1 nm,
99 R 99 1.097 × 10 m
7 -1

which is in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum (see, for instance, the back endpapers of the text).

21. A beam of electrons bombards a sample of hydrogen. Through what potential difference must
the electrons have been accelerated if the first line of the Balmer series is to be emitted?

【Sol】
The electrons’ energy must be at least the difference between the n = 1 and n = 3 levels,
 1 8
∆ E = E 3 − E1 = −E1 1 −  = (13.6 eV) = 12.1 eV
 9 9
(this assumes that few or none of the hydrogen atoms had electrons in the n = 2 level). A potential
difference of 12.1 eV is necessary to accelerate the electrons to this energy.

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 23. The longest wavelength in the Lyman series is 121.5 nm and the shortest wavelength in the
Balmer series is 364.6 nm. Use the figures to find the longest wavelength of light that could
ionize hydrogen.
【Sol】
The energy needed to ionize hydrogen will be the energy needed to raise the energy from the ground
state to the first excited state plus the energy needed to ionize an atom in the second excited state;
these are the energies that correspond to the longest wavelength (least energetic photon) in the Lyman
series and the shortest wavelength (most energetic photon) in the Balmer series. The energies are
proportional to the reciprocals of the wavelengths, and so the wavelength of the photon needed to
ionize hydrogen is
−1 −1
 1 1   1 1 
λ =  +  =  +  = 91.13 nm.
λ
 2 →1 λ ∞→ 2   121 . 5 nm 364 . 6 nm 
As a check, note that this wavelength is R-1.

25. An excited hydrogen atom emits a photon of wavelength λ in returning to the ground state. (a)
Derive a formula that gives the quantum number of the initial ex cited state in terms of λ and
R. (b) Use this formula to find ni for a 102.55-nm photon.
【Sol】 
1 1 
(a) From Equation (4.7) with n = ni , = R 1 − 2 , which is solved for
λ  ni 

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 −1/ 2
 1  λR
ni = 1 −  = .
 λR  λR − 1
(b) Either of the above forms gives n very close (four place) to 3; specifically, with the product
λR = (102.55x10-9 m)(1.097x107 m-1) = 1.125 rounded to four places as 9/8, n = 3 exactly.
27. When an excited atom emits a photon, the linear momentum of the photon must be balanced
by the recoil momentum of the atom. As a result, some of the excitation energy of the atom
goes into the kinetic energy of its recoil. (a) Modify Eq. (4.16) to include this effect. (b) Find
the ratio between the recoil energy and the photon energy for the n = 3 → n = 2 transition in
hydrogen, for which Ef - Ei = 1.9 eV. Is the effect a major one? A nonrelativistic calculation
is sufficient here.
【Sol】
(a) A relativistic calculation would necessarily involve the change in mass of the atom due to the
change in energy of the system. The fact that this mass change is too small to measure (that is, the
change is measured indirectly by measuring the energies of the emitted photons) means that a
nonrelativistic calculation should suffice. In this situation, the kinetic energy of the recoiling atom is
p 2 (h ν /c ) 2
K = = ,
2M 2M
where m is the ftequency of the emitted photon and p = h/λ = hν/c is the magnitude of the
momentum of both the photon and the recoiling atom. Equation (4.16) is then

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 (h ν )2  hν 
Ei − E f = hν + K = hν + = hν  1 + 2
.
2Mc 2
 2Mc 
This result is equivalent to that of Problem 2-53, where hν = E∞. and the term p2/(2M) corresponds to
E∞ - E in that problem. As in Problem 2-53, a relativistic calculation is manageable; the result would be
  2  −1 
E f − Ei = hν  1 + 1 +  ,
1 Mc
 2 hν  
 
a form not often useful; see part (b).
(b) As indicated above and in the problem statement, a nonrelativistle calculation is sufficient. As in
part (a),

K =
p2
=
(∆E /c )2 K
=
∆E
=
1.9 eV
= 1.01 × 10− 9 ,
-9
2M 2M
, and
∆E 2Mc 2
(
2 939 × 10 eV
6
)
or 1.0 x 10 to two significant figures. In the above, the rest energy of the hydrogen atom is from
the front endpapers.

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 29. Show that the frequency of the photon emitted by a hydrogen atom in going from the level
n + 1 to the level n is always intermediate between the frequencies of revolution of the
electron in the respective orbits.
【Sol】
There are many equivalent algebraic methods that may be used to derive Equation (4.19), and that
result will be cited here;
2E 1
fn = − 1 3 .
h n
The frequency v of the photon emitted in going from the level n + 1 to the level n is obtained from
Equation (4.17) with ni = n + 1 and nf = n;
∆E  1 1  2E1  n + 12 
ν= = − 2 = −  2 2
.
(n + 1) n  n (n + 1) 
2
h h
This can be seen to be equivalent to the expression for v in terms of n and p that was found in the
derivation of Equation (4.20), but with n replaced by n + 1 and p = 1. Note that in this form, ν is
positive because El is negative. From this expression
2E1  n + 12 n   n2 + 1n 
2
ν =− 3 2  = fn  2 2
 < fn ,
hn  n + 2n + 1 n + 2n + 1
as the term in brackets is less than 1. Similarly,

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 2E1 (n + 12 )(n + 1) (n + 12 )(n + 1)
ν=− 3  = fn +1   > fn +1,
h(n + 1)  n 2
  n 2

as the term in brackets is greater than 1.

31. A µ− muon is in the n = 2 state of a muonic atom whose nucleus is a proton. Find the
wavelength of the photon emitted when the muonic atom drops to its ground state. In what
part of the spectrum is this wavelength?

【Sol】
For a muonic atom, the Rydberg constant is multiplied by the ratio of the reduced masses of the
muoninc atom and the hydrogen atom, R' = R (m'/me) = 186R, as in Example 4.7; from
Equation (4.7),
4/3 4 /3
λ= = = 6.53 × 10−10 m = 0.653 nm,
R′ 186(1.097 × 10 m )
7 -1

in the x-ray range.

m µm p
m µ = 207me , m p = 1836me m′ = = 186me
mµ + m p

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 33. A mixture of ordinary hydrogen and tritium, a hydrogen isotope whose nucleus is
approximately 3 times more massive than ordinary hydrogen, is excited and its spectrum
observed. How far apart in wavelength will the Hα lines of the two kinds of hydrogen be?
【Sol】
The Hα lines, corresponding to n = 3 in Equation (4.6), have wavelengths of λ = (36/5) (1/R). For a
tritium atom, the wavelength would be λT = (36/5) (1/RT), where RT is the Rydberg constant
evaluated with the reduced mass of the tritium atom replacing the reduced mass of the hydrogen atom.
The difference between the wavelengths would then be
 λ   R 
∆ λ = λ − λT = λ 1 − T  = λ 1 − .
 λ   RT
The values of R and RT are proportional to the respective reduced masses, and their ratio is
R m m /(me + mH ) m H (me + mT )
= e H = .
RT memT /(me + mT ) mT (me + mH )
Using this in the above expression for ∆λ,
m (m − mH )  2me
∆λ = λ  e T  ≈ λ ,
m
 e e(m + m )
H  3m H
where the approximations me + rnH ≈ mH and mT ≈ 3mH have been used. Inserting numerical values,
(36 / 5) 2(9.11 × 10− 31 kg) −10
∆λ = = 2 .38 × 10 m = 0.238 nm.
(1.097 × 107 m-1 ) 3(1.67 × 10− 27 kg)

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 35. (a) Derive a formula for the energy levels of a hydrogenic atom, which is an ion such as He +
or Li2+ whose nuclear charge is +Ze and which contains a single electron. (b) Sketch the
energy levels of the He' ion and compare them with the energy levels of the H atom. (c) An
electron joins a bare helium nucleus to form a He + ion. Find the wavelength of the photon
emitted in this process if the electron is assumed to have had no kinetic energy when it
combined with the nucleus.
【Sol】
(a) The steps leading to Equation (4.15) are repeated, with Ze2 instead of e2 and Z2e4 instead of e4,
giving
m ′Z 2e 4 1
En = − ,
8πεo2h 2 n 2
where the reduced mass m' will depend on the mass of the nucleus.
(b) A plot of the energy levels is given below. The scale is close, but not exact, and of course there
are many more levels corresponding to higher n. In the approximation that the reduced masses are
the same, for He +, with Z = 2, the n = 2 level is the same as the n = 1 level for Hydrogen, and the n
= 4 level is the same as the n = 2 level for hydrogen.

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 The energy levels for H and He +:

(c) When the electron joins the Helium nucleus, the electron-nucleus system loses energy; the
emitted photon will have lost energy ∆E = 4 (-13.6 eV) = -54.4 eV, where the result of part (a) has
been used. The emitted photon's wavelength is

hc 1.24 × 10− 6 eV ⋅ m
λ= = = 2.28 × 10−8 m = 22.8 nm.
− ∆E 54.4 eV

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 37. A certain ruby laser emits 1.00-J pulses of light whose wavelength is 694 nm. What is the
minimum number of Cr3+ ions in the ruby?

【Sol】
The minimum number of Cr3+ ions will he the minimum number of photons, which is the total
energy of the pulse divided by the energy of each photon,
E Eλ (1.00 J)(694 × 10-9 m)
= = −
= 3.49 × 1018 ions.
hc / λ hc ( 6.63 × 10 34
J ⋅ s)(3.0 × 10 m/s)
8

39. The Rutherford scattering formula fails to agree with the data at very small scattering angles.
Can you think of a reason?

【Sol】
Small angles correspond to particles that are not scattered much at all, and the structure of the atom
does not affect these particles. To these nonpenetrating particles, the nucleus is either partially or
completely screened by the atom's electron cloud, and the scattering analysis, based on a pointlike
positively charged nucleus, is not applicable.

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 41. A 5.0-MeV alpha particle approaches a gold nucleus with an impact parameter of 2.6 x 10-13 m.
Through what angle will it be scattered?
【Sol】
From Equation (4.29), using the value for 1/4πεo given in the front endpapers,
θ (5.0 eV)(1.60 × 10-13 J/MeV) −13
cot = ( 2 .6 × 10 m) = 11.43,
2 (8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 /C2 )(79)(1.60 × 10−19 C)2
keeping extra significant figures. The scattering angle is then
 1 
θ = 2 cot −1(11.43) = 2 tan −1  o
 = 10 .
 11.43 

43. What fraction of a beam of 7.7-MeV alpha particles incident upon a gold foil 3.0 x 10-7 m
thick is scattered by less than 1 o?
【Sol】
The fraction scattered by less than 1 o is 1 - f, with f given in Equation (4.31);

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 2 2 2
 Ze 2  θ  1   Ze 2  2θ
f = πnt   cot 2
= π nt   
 4πε   K  cot

 4πεo K  2  o   2
= π (5.90 × 10 28 m-3)(3.0 × 10− 7 m)(9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m2 /C 2 )2
2
 ( 79)(1.6 × 10−19 C) 2 

×  cot2 (0.5o ) = 0.16,

 ( 7.7MeV)(1.6 × 10 J/MeV) 
-13

where n, the number of gold atoms per unit volume, is from Example 4.8. The fraction
scattered by less than 1 o is 1 - f = 0.84.

45. Show that twice as many alpha particles are scattered by a foil through angles between 60o
and 90o as are scattered through angles of 90o or more.

【Sol】
Regarding f as a function of 0 in Equation (4.31), the number of particles scattered between 60o and
90o is f (60o) - f (90o), and the number scattered through angles greater than 90o is just f (90o), and
f ( 60o ) − f ( 90o ) cot 2( 30o ) − cot 2 ( 45o ) 3 − 1
o
= 2 o
= = 2,
f ( 90 ) cot ( 45 ) 1
so twice as many particles are scattered between 60o and 90o than are scattered through angles
greater than 90o.

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 47. In special relativity, a photon can be thought of as having a “mass” of m = Eν/c2. This
suggests that we can treat a photon that passes near the sun in the same way as Rutherford
treated an alpha particle that passes near a nucleus, with an attractive gravitational force
replacing the repulsive electrical force. Adapt Eq. (4.29) to this situation and find the angle of
deflection θ for a photon that passes b = Rsun from the center of the sun. The mass and radius
of the sun are respectively 2.0 x 1030 kg and 7.0 x 10 8 m. In fact, general relativity shows that
this result is exactly half the actual deflection, a conclusion supported by observations made
during solar clipses as mentioned in Sec. 1.10.
【Sol】
If gravity acted on photons as if they were massive objects with mass m = Ev/c2, the magnitude of
the force F in Equation (4.28) would be
GM sunm
F = 2
;
r
the factors of r would cancel, as they do for the Coulomb force, and the result is
2

θ θ θ c 2b
2mc b sin = 2GM sun m cos
2
and cot = ,
2 2 2 GM sun
a result that is independent of the photon’s energy. Using b = Rsun,
 GM   ( 6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 )( 2.0 × 1030 kg ) 
θ = 2 tan −1  2 sun 
−
 = 2 tan 1



 c Rsun   (3.0 × 10 m/s)(7.0 × 10 m)
8 8

= 2.43 × 10− 4 deg = 0.87′′.

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