Optical Communication Vector

Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first
demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the early 1840s. John
Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London, 12 years later.[10] Tyndall
also wrote about the property of total internal reflection in an introductory book about the nature
of light in 1870:[11][12]
When the light passes from air into water, the refracted ray is bent towards the perpendicular...
When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular... If the angle which the
ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the ray
will not quit the water at all: it will be totally reflected at the surface.... The angle which marks the
limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle
is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, while for diamond it is 23°42′.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, light was guided through bent glass rods to illuminate
body cavities.[13] Practical applications such as close internal illumination during dentistry
appeared early in the twentieth century. Image transmission through tubes was demonstrated
independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie
Baird in the 1920s. In the 1930s, Heinrich Lamm showed that one could transmit images through
a bundle of unclad optical fibers and used it for internal medical examinations, but his work was
largely forgotten.[10][14]
In 1953, Dutch scientist Bram van Heel [nl] first demonstrated image transmission through
bundles of optical fibers with a transparent cladding.[14] That same year, Harold
Hopkins and Narinder Singh Kapany at Imperial College in London succeeded in making image-
transmitting bundles with over 10,000 fibers, and subsequently achieved image transmission
through a 75 cm long bundle which combined several thousand fibers.[14] Their article titled "A
flexible fibrescope, using static scanning" was published in the journal Nature in 1954.[15][16] The
first practical fiber optic semi-flexible gastroscope was patented by Basil Hirschowitz, C. Wilbur
Peters, and Lawrence E. Curtiss, researchers at the University of Michigan, in 1956. In the
process of developing the gastroscope, Curtiss produced the first glass-clad fibers; previous
optical fibers had relied on air or impractical oils and waxes as the low-index cladding material. A
variety of other image transmission applications soon followed.
Kapany coined the term fiber optics, wrote a 1960 article in Scientific American that introduced
the topic to a wide audience, and wrote the first book about the new field.[14][17]
The first working fiber-optical data transmission system was demonstrated by German
physicist Manfred Börner at Telefunken Research Labs in Ulm in 1965, which was followed by
the first patent application for this technology in 1966.[18][19] NASA used fiber optics in the
television cameras that were sent to the moon. At the time, the use in the cameras
was classified confidential, and employees handling the cameras had to be supervised by
someone with an appropriate security clearance.[20]
Charles K. Kao and George A. Hockham of the British company Standard Telephones and
Cables (STC) were the first, in 1965, to promote the idea that the attenuationin optical fibers
could be reduced below 20 decibels per kilometer (dB/km), making fibers a practical
communication medium.[21] They proposed that the attenuation in fibers available at the time was
caused by impurities that could be removed, rather than by fundamental physical effects such as
scattering. They correctly and systematically theorized the light-loss properties for optical fiber,
and pointed out the right material to use for such fibers—silica glass with high purity. This
discovery earned Kao the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009.[22]
The crucial attenuation limit of 20 dB/km was first achieved in 1970 by researchers Robert D.
Maurer, Donald Keck, Peter C. Schultz, and Frank Zimar working for American glass
maker Corning Glass Works.[23] They demonstrated a fiber with 17 dB/km attenuation
by doping silica glass with titanium. A few years later they produced a fiber with only 4 dB/km
attenuation using germanium dioxide as the core dopant. In 1981, General Electric produced
fused quartz ingots that could be drawn into strands 25 miles (40 km) long.[24]
Initially high-quality optical fibers could only be manufactured at 2 meters per second. Chemical
engineer Thomas Mensah joined Corning in 1983 and increased the speed of manufacture to
over 50 meters per second, making optical fiber cables cheaper than traditional copper
ones.[25] These innovations ushered in the era of optical fiber telecommunication.
The Italian research center CSELT worked with Corning to develop practical optical fiber cables,
resulting in the first metropolitan fiber optic cable being deployed in Turin in 1977.[26][27] CSELT
also developed an early technique for splicing optical fibers, called Springroove.[28]
Attenuation in modern optical cables is far less than in electrical copper cables, leading to long-
haul fiber connections with repeater distances of 70–150 kilometers (43–93 mi). The erbium-
doped fiber amplifier, which reduced the cost of long-distance fiber systems by reducing or
eliminating optical-electrical-optical repeaters, was co-developed by teams led by David N.
Payne of the University of Southampton and Emmanuel Desurvire at Bell Labs in 1986.
The emerging field of photonic crystals led to the development in 1991 of photonic-crystal
fiber,[29] which guides light by diffraction from a periodic structure, rather than by total internal
reflection. The first photonic crystal fibers became commercially available in 2000.[30] Photonic
crystal fibers can carry higher power than conventional fibers and their wavelength-dependent
properties can be manipulated to improve performance.

Record speeds[edit]
See Fiber-optic_communication#Record_speeds

Uses[edit]
Communication[edit]
Main article: Fiber-optic communication
Optical fiber is used as a medium for telecommunication and computer networking because it is
flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance
communications, because light propagates through the fiber with much
lower attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with
few repeaters.
The per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high as
111 gigabits per second (Gbit/s) by NTT,[31][32] although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typical in deployed
systems.[33][34] In June 2013, researchers demonstrated transmission of 400 Gbit/s over a single
channel using 4-mode orbital angular momentum multiplexing.[35]
Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light
(wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate without overhead bytes)
per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of
channels (usually up to 80 in commercial dense WDM systems as of 2008). As of 2011 the
record for bandwidth on a single core was 101 Tbit/s (370 channels at 273 Gbit/s each).[36] The
record for a multi-core fiber as of January 2013 was 1.05 Pbit/s.[37] In 2009, Bell Labs broke the
100 (Pbit/s)·km barrier (15.5 Tbit/s over a single 7000 km fiber).[38]
For short-distance applications, such as a network in an office building (see FTTO), fiber-optic
cabling can save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can carry much more data
than electrical cables such as standard category 5 Ethernet cabling, which typically runs at 100
Mbit/s or 1 Gbit/s speeds. Fiber is also immune to electrical interference; there is no cross-talk
between signals in different cables, and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber
cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting
communications equipment in high voltage environments, such as power generation facilities, or
metal communication structures prone to lightning strikes. They can also be used in
environments where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping(in this
case, fiber tapping) is more difficult compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric
dual-core fibers that are said to be tap-proof.[citation needed]
Fibers are often also used for short-distance connections between devices. For example,
most high-definition televisions offer a digital audio optical connection. This allows the streaming
of audio over light, using the TOSLINK protocol.
Advantages over copper wiring[edit]
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The advantages of optical fiber communication with respect to copper wire systems are:

 High bandwidth: A single optical fiber can carry over 3,000,000 full-duplex voice calls or
90,000 TV channels.
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference: Light transmission through optical fibers is
unaffected by other electromagnetic radiation nearby. The optical fiber is electrically non-
conductive, so it does not act as an antenna to pick up electromagnetic signals. Information
traveling inside the optical fiber is immune to electromagnetic interference,
even electromagnetic pulses generated by nuclear devices.
 Low attenuation loss over long distances: Attenuation loss can be as low as 0.2 dB/km in
optical fiber cables, allowing transmission over long distances without the need for repeaters.
 Electrical insulator: Optical fibers do not conduct electricity, preventing problems
with ground loops and conduction of lightning. Optical fibers can be strung on poles
alongside high voltage power cables.
 Material cost and theft prevention: Conventional cable systems use large amounts of
copper. Global copper prices experienced a boom in the 2000s, and copper has been a
target of metal theft.
 Security of information passed down the cable: Copper can be tapped with very little
chance of detection.
Sensors[edit]
Main article: Fiber optic sensor
Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an optical
fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiberoptic sensor to a measurement system.
Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or the fact that
no electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can
be multiplexed along the length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor,
or by sensing the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can
be determined using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer.
Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure, and other
quantities by modifying a fiber so that the property to measure modulates
the intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength, or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors that
vary the intensity of light are the simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required.
A particularly useful feature of such fiber optic sensors is that they can, if required, provide
distributed sensing over distances of up to one meter. In contrast, highly localized measurements
can be provided by integrating miniaturized sensing elements with the tip of the fiber.[39] These
can be implemented by various micro- and nanofabrication technologies, such that they do not
exceed the microscopic boundary of the fiber tip, allowing such applications as insertion into
blood vessels via hypodermic needle.
Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an optical fiber cable, normally a multi-mode one, to
transmit modulated light from either a non-fiber optical sensor—or an electronic sensor
connected to an optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach
otherwise inaccessible places. An example is the measurement of temperature inside aircraft jet
engines by using a fiber to transmit radiation into a radiation pyrometer outside the engine.
Extrinsic sensors can be used in the same way to measure the internal temperature of electrical
transformers, where the extreme electromagnetic fields present make other measurement
techniques impossible. Extrinsic sensors measure vibration, rotation, displacement, velocity,
acceleration, torque, and torsion. A solid state version of the gyroscope, using the interference of
light, has been developed. The fiber optic gyroscope (FOG) has no moving parts, and exploits
the Sagnac effect to detect mechanical rotation.
Common uses for fiber optic sensors includes advanced intrusion detection security systems.
The light is transmitted along a fiber optic sensor cable placed on a fence, pipeline, or
communication cabling, and the returned signal is monitored and analyzed for disturbances. This
return signal is digitally processed to detect disturbances and trip an alarm if an intrusion has
occurred.
Optical fibers are widely used as components of optical chemical sensors and
optical biosensors.[40]

Power transmission[edit]
Optical fiber can be used to transmit power using a photovoltaic cell to convert the light into
electricity.[41] While this method of power transmission is not as efficient as conventional ones, it
is especially useful in situations where it is desirable not to have a metallic conductor as in the
case of use near MRI machines, which produce strong magnetic fields.[42] Other examples are for
powering electronics in high-powered antenna elements and measurement devices used in high-
voltage transmission equipment.

Other uses[edit]

A frisbee illuminated by fiber optics

Light reflected from optical fiber illuminates exhibited model

Optical fibers have a wide number of applications. They are used as light guides in medical and
other applications where bright light needs to be shone on a target without a clear line-of-sight
path. In some buildings, optical fibers route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building
(see nonimaging optics). Optical-fiber lamps are used for illumination in decorative applications,
including signs, art, toys and artificial Christmas trees. Optical fiber is an intrinsic part of the light-
transmitting concrete building product LiTraCon.
Optical fiber can also be used in structural health monitoring. This type of sensor is able to detect
stresses that may have a lasting impact on structures. It is based on the principle of measuring
analog attenuation.

Use of optical fiber in a decorative lamp or nightlight

Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers is used, sometimes along
with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope, which is used to view objects
through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical
procedures. Industrial endoscopes (see fiberscope or borescope) are used for inspecting
anything hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors. Many microscopes use fiber-optic light
sources to provide intense illumination of samples being studied.
In spectroscopy, optical fiber bundles transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance that
cannot be placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyze its composition. A
spectrometer analyzes substances by bouncing light off and through them. By using fibers, a
spectrometer can be used to study objects remotely.[43][44][45]
An optical fiber doped with certain rare-earth elements such as erbium can be used as the gain
medium of a laser or optical amplifier. Rare-earth-doped optical fibers can be used to provide
signal amplification by splicing a short section of doped fiber into a regular (undoped) optical fiber
line. The doped fiber is optically pumped with a second laser wavelength that is coupled into the
line in addition to the signal wave. Both wavelengths of light are transmitted through the doped
fiber, which transfers energy from the second pump wavelength to the signal wave. The process
that causes the amplification is stimulated emission.
Optical fiber is also widely exploited as a nonlinear medium. The glass medium supports a host
of nonlinear optical interactions, and the long interaction lengths possible in fiber facilitate a
variety of phenomena, which are harnessed for applications and fundamental
investigation.[46] Conversely, fiber nonlinearity can have deleterious effects on optical signals, and
measures are often required to minimize such unwanted effects.
Optical fibers doped with a wavelength shifter collect scintillation light in physics experiments.
Fiber-optic sights for handguns, rifles, and shotguns use pieces of optical fiber to improve
visibility of markings on the sight.

Principle of operation[edit]

An overview of the operating principles of the optical fiber

An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting waveguide) that transmits

light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of
a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials.[47] To
confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of
the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index
fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber.
Index of refraction[edit]
Main article: Refractive index
The index of refraction (or refractive index) is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material.
Light travels fastest in a vacuum, such as in outer space. The speed of light in a vacuum is about
300,000 kilometers (186,000 miles) per second. The refractive index of a medium is calculated
by dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in that medium. The refractive
index of a vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. A typical singlemode fiber used for
telecommunications has a cladding made of pure silica, with an index of 1.444 at 1500 nm, and a
core of doped silica with an index around 1.4475.[47] The larger the index of refraction, the slower
light travels in that medium. From this information, a simple rule of thumb is that a signal using
optical fiber for communication will travel at around 200,000 kilometers per second. To put it
another way, the signal will take 5 milliseconds to travel 1,000 kilometers in fiber. Thus a phone
call carried by fiber between Sydney and New York, a 16,000-kilometer distance, means that

there is a minimum delay of 80 milliseconds (about of a second) between when one caller
speaks and the other hears. (The fiber in this case will probably travel a longer route, and there
will be additional delays due to communication equipment switching and the process of encoding
and decoding the voice onto the fiber).
Most modern optical fiber is weakly guiding, meaning that the difference in refractive index
between the core and the cladding is very small (typically less than 1%).[48]

Total internal reflection[edit]

Main article: Total internal reflection
When light traveling in an optically dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than
the critical angle for the boundary), the light is completely reflected. This is called total internal
reflection. This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels through the
fiber core, bouncing back and forth off the boundary between the core and cladding. Because the
light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters
the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range
of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a
function of the refractive index difference between the fiber's core and cladding.
In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber
so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle is
the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to splice
and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA.

Multi-mode fiber[edit]

The propagation of light through a multi-mode optical fiber.

A laser bouncing down an acrylicrod, illustrating the total internal reflection of light in a multi-mode optical
fiber.

Main article: Multi-mode optical fiber

Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be analyzed by geometrical
optics. Such fiber is called multi-mode fiber, from the electromagnetic analysis (see below). In a
step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total internal
reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle (measured relative to a
line normal to the boundary), greater than the critical angle for this boundary, are completely
reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the
difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays that meet the
boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding, and do not convey light
and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the acceptance angle of the
fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture. A high numerical aperture allows light to propagate
down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles, allowing efficient coupling of
light into the fiber. However, this high numerical aperture increases the amount of dispersion as
rays at different angles have different path lengths and therefore take different times to traverse
the fiber.

Optical fiber types.

In graded-index fiber, the index of refraction in the core decreases continuously between the axis
and the cladding. This causes light rays to bend smoothly as they approach the cladding, rather
than reflecting abruptly from the core-cladding boundary. The resulting curved paths reduce
multi-path dispersion because high angle rays pass more through the lower-index periphery of
the core, rather than the high-index center. The index profile is chosen to minimize the difference
in axial propagation speeds of the various rays in the fiber. This ideal index profile is very close to
a parabolic relationship between the index and the distance from the axis.

Single-mode fiber[edit]
The structure of a typical single-mode fiber.
1. Core: 8 µm diameter
2. Cladding: 125 µm dia.
3. Buffer: 250 µm dia.
4. Jacket: 400 µm dia.

Main article: Single-mode optical fiber

Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light
cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as
an electromagnetic structure, by solution of Maxwell's equations as reduced to
the electromagnetic wave equation. The electromagnetic analysis may also be required to
understand behaviors such as speckle that occur when coherent light propagates in multi-mode
fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber supports one or more confined transverse modes by
which light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber supporting only one mode is called single-
modeor mono-mode fiber. The behavior of larger-core multi-mode fiber can also be modeled
using the wave equation, which shows that such fiber supports more than one mode of
propagation (hence the name). The results of such modeling of multi-mode fiber approximately
agree with the predictions of geometric optics, if the fiber core is large enough to support more
than a few modes.
The waveguide analysis shows that the light energy in the fiber is not completely confined in the
core. Instead, especially in single-mode fibers, a significant fraction of the energy in the bound
mode travels in the cladding as an evanescent wave.
The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 8–10 micrometers and is
designed for use in the near infrared. The mode structure depends on the wavelength of the light
used, so that this fiber actually supports a small number of additional modes at visible
wavelengths. Multi-mode fiber, by comparison, is manufactured with core diameters as small as
50 micrometers and as large as hundreds of micrometers. The normalized frequency V for this
fiber should be less than the first zero of the Bessel function J0 (approximately 2.405).

Special-purpose fiber[edit]
Some special-purpose optical fiber is constructed with a non-cylindrical core and/or cladding
layer, usually with an elliptical or rectangular cross-section. These include polarization-
maintaining fiber and fiber designed to suppress whispering gallery modepropagation.
Polarization-maintaining fiber is a unique type of fiber that is commonly used in fiber optic
sensors due to its ability to maintain the polarization of the light inserted into it.
Photonic-crystal fiber is made with a regular pattern of index variation (often in the form of
cylindrical holes that run along the length of the fiber). Such fiber uses diffraction effects instead
of or in addition to total internal reflection, to confine light to the fiber's core. The properties of the
fiber can be tailored to a wide variety of applications.
Mechanisms of attenuation[edit]

Light attenuation by ZBLAN and silica fibers

Main article: Transparent materials

Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity of the
light beam (or signal) as it travels through the transmission medium. Attenuation coefficients in
fiber optics usually use units of dB/km through the medium due to the relatively high quality of
transparency of modern optical transmission media. The medium is usually a fiber of silica glass
that confines the incident light beam to the inside. Attenuation is an important factor limiting the
transmission of a digital signal across large distances. Thus, much research has gone into both
limiting the attenuation and maximizing the amplification of the optical signal. Empirical research
has shown that attenuation in optical fiber is caused primarily by both scattering and absorption.
Single-mode optical fibers can be made with extremely low loss. Corning's SMF-28 fiber, a
standard single-mode fiber for telecommunications wavelengths, has a loss of 0.17 dB/km at
1550 nm.[49] For example, an 8 km length of SMF-28 transmits nearly 75% of light at 1,550 nm. It
has been noted that if ocean water was as clear as fiber, one could see all the way to the bottom
even of the Marianas Trench in the Pacific Ocean, a depth of 36,000 feet.[50]

Light scattering[edit]

Specular reflection
Diffuse reflection

The propagation of light through the core of an optical fiber is based on total internal reflection of
the lightwave. Rough and irregular surfaces, even at the molecular level, can cause light rays to
be reflected in random directions. This is called diffuse reflection or scattering, and it is typically
characterized by wide variety of reflection angles.
Light scattering depends on the wavelength of the light being scattered. Thus, limits to spatial
scales of visibility arise, depending on the frequency of the incident light-wave and the physical
dimension (or spatial scale) of the scattering center, which is typically in the form of some
specific micro-structural feature. Since visible light has a wavelength of the order of
one micrometer (one millionth of a meter) scattering centers will have dimensions on a similar
spatial scale.
Thus, attenuation results from the incoherent scattering of light at internal surfaces and
interfaces. In (poly)crystalline materials such as metals and ceramics, in addition to pores, most
of the internal surfaces or interfaces are in the form of grain boundaries that separate tiny regions
of crystalline order. It has recently been shown that when the size of the scattering center (or
grain boundary) is reduced below the size of the wavelength of the light being scattered, the
scattering no longer occurs to any significant extent. This phenomenon has given rise to the
production of transparent ceramic materials.
Similarly, the scattering of light in optical quality glass fiber is caused by molecular level
irregularities (compositional fluctuations) in the glass structure. Indeed, one emerging school of
thought is that a glass is simply the limiting case of a polycrystalline solid. Within this framework,
"domains" exhibiting various degrees of short-range order become the building blocks of both
metals and alloys, as well as glasses and ceramics. Distributed both between and within these
domains are micro-structural defects that provide the most ideal locations for light scattering.
This same phenomenon is seen as one of the limiting factors in the transparency of IR missile
domes.[51]
At high optical powers, scattering can also be caused by nonlinear optical processes in the
fiber.[52][53]

UV-Vis-IR absorption[edit]
In addition to light scattering, attenuation or signal loss can also occur due to selective absorption
of specific wavelengths, in a manner similar to that responsible for the appearance of color.
Primary material considerations include both electrons and molecules as follows:

 At the electronic level, it depends on whether the electron orbitals are spaced (or
"quantized") such that they can absorb a quantum of light (or photon) of a specific
wavelength or frequency in the ultraviolet (UV) or visible ranges. This is what gives rise to
color.
 At the atomic or molecular level, it depends on the frequencies of atomic or molecular
vibrations or chemical bonds, how close-packed its atoms or molecules are, and whether or
not the atoms or molecules exhibit long-range order. These factors will determine the
capacity of the material transmitting longer wavelengths in the infrared (IR), far IR, radio and
microwave ranges.
The design of any optically transparent device requires the selection of materials based upon
knowledge of its properties and limitations. The Lattice absorptioncharacteristics observed at the
lower frequency regions (mid IR to far-infrared wavelength range) define the long-wavelength
transparency limit of the material. They are the result of the interactive coupling between the
motions of thermally induced vibrations of the constituent atoms and molecules of the solid lattice
and the incident light wave radiation. Hence, all materials are bounded by limiting regions of
absorption caused by atomic and molecular vibrations (bond-stretching)in the far-infrared
(>10 µm).
Thus, multi-phonon absorption occurs when two or more phonons simultaneously interact to
produce electric dipole moments with which the incident radiation may couple. These dipoles can
absorb energy from the incident radiation, reaching a maximum coupling with the radiation when
the frequency is equal to the fundamental vibrational mode of the molecular dipole (e.g. Si-O
bond) in the far-infrared, or one of its harmonics.
The selective absorption of infrared (IR) light by a particular material occurs because the
selected frequency of the light wave matches the frequency (or an integer multiple of the
frequency) at which the particles of that material vibrate. Since different atoms and molecules
have different natural frequencies of vibration, they will selectively absorb different frequencies
(or portions of the spectrum) of infrared (IR) light.
Reflection and transmission of light waves occur because the frequencies of the light waves do
not match the natural resonant frequencies of vibration of the objects. When IR light of these
frequencies strikes an object, the energy is either reflected or transmitted.

Loss budget[edit]
Main article: Optical power budget
Attenuation over a cable run is significantly increased by the inclusion of connectors and splices.
When computing the acceptable attenuation (loss budget) between a transmitter and a receiver
one includes:

 dB loss due to the type and length of fiber optic cable,

 dB loss introduced by connectors, and
 dB loss introduced by splices.
Connectors typically introduce 0.3 dB per connector on well-polished connectors. Splices
typically introduce less than 0.3 dB per splice.
The total loss can be calculated by:
Loss = dB loss per connector × number of connectors + dB loss per splice × number of
splices + dB loss per kilometer × kilometers of fiber,
where the dB loss per kilometer is a function of the type of fiber and can be found in the
manufacturer's specifications. For example, typical 1550 nm single mode fiber has a loss of
0.4 dB per kilometer.
The calculated loss budget is used when testing to confirm that the measured loss is within
the normal operating parameters.

Manufacturing[edit]
Materials[edit]
Glass optical fibers are almost always made from silica, but some other materials, such
as fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate, and chalcogenide glasses as well as crystalline materials
like sapphire, are used for longer-wavelength infrared or other specialized applications. Silica
and fluoride glasses usually have refractive indices of about 1.5, but some materials such as
the chalcogenides can have indices as high as 3. Typically the index difference between
core and cladding is less than one percent.
Plastic optical fibers (POF) are commonly step-index multi-mode fibers with a core diameter
of 0.5 millimeters or larger. POF typically have higher attenuation coefficients than glass
fibers, 1 dB/m or higher, and this high attenuation limits the range of POF-based systems.
Silica[edit]
Silica exhibits fairly good optical transmission over a wide range of wavelengths. In the near-
infrared (near IR) portion of the spectrum, particularly around 1.5 μm, silica can have
extremely low absorption and scattering losses of the order of 0.2 dB/km. Such remarkably
low losses are possible only because ultra-pure silicon is available, it being essential for
manufacturing integrated circuits and discrete transistors. A high transparency in the 1.4-μm
region is achieved by maintaining a low concentration of hydroxyl groups (OH). Alternatively,
a high OH concentration is better for transmission in the ultraviolet (UV) region.[54]
Silica can be drawn into fibers at reasonably high temperatures, and has a fairly broad glass
transformation range. One other advantage is that fusion splicing and cleaving of silica fibers
is relatively effective. Silica fiber also has high mechanical strength against both pulling and
even bending, provided that the fiber is not too thick and that the surfaces have been well
prepared during processing. Even simple cleaving (breaking) of the ends of the fiber can
provide nicely flat surfaces with acceptable optical quality. Silica is also relatively chemically
inert. In particular, it is not hygroscopic (does not absorb water).
Silica glass can be doped with various materials. One purpose of doping is to raise
the refractive index (e.g. with germanium dioxide (GeO2) or aluminium oxide(Al2O3)) or to
lower it (e.g. with fluorine or boron trioxide (B2O3)). Doping is also possible with laser-active
ions (for example, rare-earth-doped fibers) in order to obtain active fibers to be used, for
example, in fiber amplifiers or laser applications. Both the fiber core and cladding are
typically doped, so that the entire assembly (core and cladding) is effectively the same
compound (e.g. an aluminosilicate, germanosilicate, phosphosilicate or borosilicate glass).
Particularly for active fibers, pure silica is usually not a very suitable host glass, because it
exhibits a low solubility for rare-earth ions. This can lead to quenching effects due to
clustering of dopant ions. Aluminosilicates are much more effective in this respect.
Silica fiber also exhibits a high threshold for optical damage. This property ensures a low
tendency for laser-induced breakdown. This is important for fiber amplifiers when utilized for
the amplification of short pulses.
Because of these properties silica fibers are the material of choice in many optical
applications, such as communications (except for very short distances with plastic optical
fiber), fiber lasers, fiber amplifiers, and fiber-optic sensors. Large efforts put forth in the
development of various types of silica fibers have further increased the performance of such
fibers over other materials.[55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62]
Fluoride glass[edit]
Fluoride glass is a class of non-oxide optical quality glasses composed of fluorides of
various metals. Because of their low viscosity, it is very difficult to completely
avoid crystallization while processing it through the glass transition (or drawing the fiber from
the melt). Thus, although heavy metal fluoride glasses (HMFG) exhibit very low optical
attenuation, they are not only difficult to manufacture, but are quite fragile, and have poor
resistance to moisture and other environmental attacks. Their best attribute is that they lack
the absorption band associated with the hydroxyl (OH) group (3,200–3,600 cm−1; i.e., 2,777–
3,125 nm or 2.78–3.13 μm), which is present in nearly all oxide-based glasses.
An example of a heavy metal fluoride glass is the ZBLAN glass group, composed
of zirconium, barium, lanthanum, aluminium, and sodium fluorides. Their main technological
application is as optical waveguides in both planar and fiber form. They are advantageous
especially in the mid-infrared (2,000–5,000 nm) range.
HMFGs were initially slated for optical fiber applications, because the intrinsic losses of a
mid-IR fiber could in principle be lower than those of silica fibers, which are transparent only
up to about 2 μm. However, such low losses were never realized in practice, and the fragility
and high cost of fluoride fibers made them less than ideal as primary candidates. Later, the
utility of fluoride fibers for various other applications was discovered. These include mid-IR
spectroscopy, fiber optic sensors, thermometry, and imaging. Also, fluoride fibers can be
used for guided lightwave transmission in media such as YAG (yttrium aluminium
garnet) lasers at 2.9 μm, as required for medical applications
(e.g. ophthalmology and dentistry).[63][64]
Phosphate glass[edit]

The P4O10 cagelike structure—the basic building block for phosphate glass

Phosphate glass constitutes a class of optical glasses composed of metaphosphates of

various metals. Instead of the SiO4tetrahedra observed in silicate glasses, the building block
for this glass former is phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), which crystallizes in at least four
different forms. The most familiar polymorph (see figure) comprises molecules of P4O10.
Phosphate glasses can be advantageous over silica glasses for optical fibers with a high
concentration of doping rare-earth ions. A mix of fluoride glass and phosphate glass is
fluorophosphate glass.[65][66]
Chalcogenide glass[edit]
The chalcogens—the elements in group 16 of the periodic table—
particularly sulfur (S), selenium (Se) and tellurium (Te)—react with
more electropositive elements, such as silver, to form chalcogenides. These are extremely
versatile compounds, in that they can be crystalline or amorphous, metallic or
semiconducting, and conductors of ions or electrons. Glass containing chalcogenides can be
used to make fibers for far infrared transmission.[citation needed]

Process[edit]
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Preform[edit]
 Illustration of the modified chemical vapor deposition (inside) process

Standard optical fibers are made by first constructing a large-diameter "preform" with a
carefully controlled refractive index profile, and then "pulling" the preform to form the long,
thin optical fiber. The preform is commonly made by three chemical vapor
deposition methods: inside vapor deposition, outside vapor deposition, and vapor axial
deposition.[67]
With inside vapor deposition, the preform starts as a hollow glass tube approximately 40
centimeters (16 in) long, which is placed horizontally and rotated slowly on a lathe. Gases
such as silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4) or germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4) are injected
with oxygen in the end of the tube. The gases are then heated by means of an external
hydrogen burner, bringing the temperature of the gas up to 1,900 K (1,600 °C, 3,000 °F),
where the tetrachlorides react with oxygen to produce silica or germania (germanium
dioxide) particles. When the reaction conditions are chosen to allow this reaction to occur in
the gas phase throughout the tube volume, in contrast to earlier techniques where the
reaction occurred only on the glass surface, this technique is called modified chemical vapor
deposition (MCVD).
The oxide particles then agglomerate to form large particle chains, which subsequently
deposit on the walls of the tube as soot. The deposition is due to the large difference in
temperature between the gas core and the wall causing the gas to push the particles
outwards (this is known as thermophoresis). The torch is then traversed up and down the
length of the tube to deposit the material evenly. After the torch has reached the end of the
tube, it is then brought back to the beginning of the tube and the deposited particles are then
melted to form a solid layer. This process is repeated until a sufficient amount of material has
been deposited. For each layer the composition can be modified by varying the gas
composition, resulting in precise control of the finished fiber's optical properties.
In outside vapor deposition or vapor axial deposition, the glass is formed by flame hydrolysis,
a reaction in which silicon tetrachloride and germanium tetrachloride are oxidized by reaction
with water (H2O) in an oxyhydrogen flame. In outside vapor deposition the glass is deposited
onto a solid rod, which is removed before further processing. In vapor axial deposition, a
short seed rod is used, and a porous preform, whose length is not limited by the size of the
source rod, is built up on its end. The porous preform is consolidated into a transparent, solid
preform by heating to about 1,800 K (1,500 °C, 2,800 °F).
 Cross-section of a fiber drawn from a D-shaped preform

Typical communications fiber uses a circular preform. For some applications such as double-
clad fibers another form is preferred.[68] In fiber lasers based on double-clad fiber, an
asymmetric shape improves the filling factor for laser pumping.
Because of the surface tension, the shape is smoothed during the drawing process, and the
shape of the resulting fiber does not reproduce the sharp edges of the preform.
Nevertheless, careful polishing of the preform is important, since any defects of the preform
surface affect the optical and mechanical properties of the resulting fiber. In particular, the
preform for the test-fiber shown in the figure was not polished well, and cracks are seen with
the confocal optical microscope.
Drawing[edit]
The preform, however constructed, is placed in a device known as a drawing tower, where
the preform tip is heated and the optical fiber is pulled out as a string. By measuring the
resultant fiber width, the tension on the fiber can be controlled to maintain the fiber thickness.

Coatings[edit]
The light is guided down the core of the fiber by an optical cladding with a lower refractive
index that traps light in the core through total internal reflection.
The cladding is coated by a buffer that protects it from moisture and physical damage.[56] The
buffer coating is what gets stripped off the fiber for termination or splicing. These coatings
are UV-cured urethane acrylate composite or polyimide materials applied to the outside of
the fiber during the drawing process. The coatings protect the very delicate strands of glass
fiber—about the size of a human hair—and allow it to survive the rigors of manufacturing,
proof testing, cabling and installation.
Today’s glass optical fiber draw processes employ a dual-layer coating approach. An inner
primary coating is designed to act as a shock absorber to minimize attenuation caused by
microbending. An outer secondary coating protects the primary coating against mechanical
damage and acts as a barrier to lateral forces, and may be colored to differentiate strands in
bundled cable constructions.
These fiber optic coating layers are applied during the fiber draw, at speeds approaching 100
kilometers per hour (60 mph). Fiber optic coatings are applied using one of two
methods: wet-on-dry and wet-on-wet. In wet-on-dry, the fiber passes through a primary
coating application, which is then UV cured—then through the secondary coating application,
which is subsequently cured. In wet-on-wet, the fiber passes through both the primary and
secondary coating applications, then goes to UV curing.
Fiber optic coatings are applied in concentric layers to prevent damage to the fiber during the
drawing application and to maximize fiber strength and microbend resistance. Unevenly
coated fiber will experience non-uniform forces when the coating expands or contracts, and
is susceptible to greater signal attenuation. Under proper drawing and coating processes, the
coatings are concentric around the fiber, continuous over the length of the application and
have constant thickness.
The thickness of the coating is taken into account when calculating the stress that the fiber
experiences under different bend configurations.[69] When a coated fiber is wrapped around a
mandrel, the stress experienced by the fiber is given by

,
where E is the fiber’s Young’s modulus, dm is the diameter of the mandrel, df is the
diameter of the cladding and dc is the diameter of the coating.
In a two-point bend configuration, a coated fiber is bent in a U-shape and placed
between the grooves of two faceplates, which are brought together until the fiber breaks.
The stress in the fiber in this configuration is given by

,
where d is the distance between the faceplates. The coefficient 1.198 is a geometric
constant associated with this configuration.
Fiber optic coatings protect the glass fibers from scratches that could lead to
strength degradation. The combination of moisture and scratches accelerates the
aging and deterioration of fiber strength. When fiber is subjected to low stresses
over a long period, fiber fatigue can occur. Over time or in extreme conditions, these
factors combine to cause microscopic flaws in the glass fiber to propagate, which
can ultimately result in fiber failure.
Three key characteristics of fiber optic waveguides can be affected by environmental
conditions: strength, attenuation and resistance to losses caused by microbending.
External optical fiber cable jackets and buffer tubes protect glass optical fiber from
environmental conditions that can affect the fiber’s performance and long-term
durability. On the inside, coatings ensure the reliability of the signal being carried
and help minimize attenuation due to microbending.

Practical issues[edit]
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Cable construction[edit]

An optical fiber cable

Main article: Optical fiber cable

In practical fibers, the cladding is usually coated with a tough resin coating and an
additional buffer layer, which may be further surrounded by a jacket layer, usually
plastic. These layers add strength to the fiber but do not contribute to its optical
wave guide properties. Rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put light-absorbing ("dark")
glass between the fibers, to prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from entering
another. This reduces cross-talk between the fibers, or reduces flare in fiber bundle
imaging applications.[70][71]
Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for
applications such as direct burial in trenches, high voltage isolation, dual use as
power lines,[72][not in citation given] installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles,
submarine installation, and insertion in paved streets. Multi-fiber cable usually uses
colored coatings and/or buffers to identify each strand. The cost of small fiber-count
pole-mounted cables has greatly decreased due to the high demand for fiber to the
home (FTTH) installations in Japan and South Korea.
Fiber cable can be very flexible, but traditional fiber's loss increases greatly if the
fiber is bent with a radius smaller than around 30 mm. This creates a problem when
the cable is bent around corners or wound around a spool,
making FTTX installations more complicated. "Bendable fibers", targeted towards
easier installation in home environments, have been standardized as ITU-T G.657.
This type of fiber can be bent with a radius as low as 7.5 mm without adverse
impact. Even more bendable fibers have been developed.[73] Bendable fiber may also
be resistant to fiber hacking, in which the signal in a fiber is surreptitiously monitored
by bending the fiber and detecting the leakage.[74]
Another important feature of cable is cable's ability to withstand horizontally applied
force. It is technically called max tensile strength defining how much force can be
applied to the cable during the installation period.
Some fiber optic cable versions are reinforced with aramid yarns or glass yarns as
intermediary strength member. In commercial terms, usage of the glass yarns are
more cost effective while no loss in mechanical durability of the cable. Glass yarns
also protect the cable core against rodents and termites.

Termination and splicing[edit]

ST connectors on multi-mode fiber

Optical fibers are connected to terminal equipment by optical fiber connectors.

These connectors are usually of a standard type such
as FC, SC, ST, LC, MTRJ, MPO or SMA. Optical fibers may be connected to each
other by connectors or by splicing, that is, joining two fibers together to form a
continuous optical waveguide. The generally accepted splicing method is arc fusion
splicing, which melts the fiber ends together with an electric arc. For quicker
fastening jobs, a “mechanical splice” is used.
Fusion splicing is done with a specialized instrument. The fiber ends are first
stripped of their protective polymer coating (as well as the more sturdy outer jacket,
if present). The ends are cleaved (cut) with a precision cleaver to make them
perpendicular, and are placed into special holders in the fusion splicer. The splice is
usually inspected via a magnified viewing screen to check the cleaves before and
after the splice. The splicer uses small motors to align the end faces together, and
emits a small spark between electrodes at the gap to burn off dust and moisture.
Then the splicer generates a larger spark that raises the temperature above
the melting point of the glass, fusing the ends together permanently. The location
and energy of the spark is carefully controlled so that the molten core and cladding
do not mix, and this minimizes optical loss. A splice loss estimate is measured by
the splicer, by directing light through the cladding on one side and measuring the
light leaking from the cladding on the other side. A splice loss under 0.1 dB is typical.
The complexity of this process makes fiber splicing much more difficult than splicing
copper wire.
Mechanical fiber splices are designed to be quicker and easier to install, but there is
still the need for stripping, careful cleaning and precision cleaving. The fiber ends
are aligned and held together by a precision-made sleeve, often using a clear index-
matching gelthat enhances the transmission of light across the joint. Such joints
typically have higher optical loss and are less robust than fusion splices, especially if
the gel is used. All splicing techniques involve installing an enclosure that protects
the splice.
Fibers are terminated in connectors that hold the fiber end precisely and securely. A
fiber-optic connector is basically a rigid cylindrical barrel surrounded by a sleeve that
holds the barrel in its mating socket. The mating mechanism can be push and
click, turn and latch (bayonet mount), or screw-in (threaded). The barrel is typically
free to move within the sleeve, and may have a key that prevents the barrel and fiber
from rotating as the connectors are mated.
A typical connector is installed by preparing the fiber end and inserting it into the rear
of the connector body. Quick-set adhesive is usually used to hold the fiber securely,
and a strain relief is secured to the rear. Once the adhesive sets, the fiber's end is
polished to a mirror finish. Various polish profiles are used, depending on the type of
fiber and the application. For single-mode fiber, fiber ends are typically polished with
a slight curvature that makes the mated connectors touch only at their cores. This is
called a physical contact (PC) polish. The curved surface may be polished at an
angle, to make an angled physical contact (APC) connection. Such connections
have higher loss than PC connections, but greatly reduced back reflection, because
light that reflects from the angled surface leaks out of the fiber core. The resulting
signal strength loss is called gap loss. APC fiber ends have low back reflection even
when disconnected.
In the 1990s, terminating fiber optic cables was labor-intensive. The number of parts
per connector, polishing of the fibers, and the need to oven-bake the epoxy in each
connector made terminating fiber optic cables difficult. Today, many connectors
types are on the market that offer easier, less labor-intensive ways of terminating
cables. Some of the most popular connectors are pre-polished at the factory, and
include a gel inside the connector. Those two steps help save money on labor,
especially on large projects. A cleave is made at a required length, to get as close to
the polished piece already inside the connector. The gel surrounds the point where
the two pieces meet inside the connector for very little light loss.[citation needed] Long term
performance of the gel is a design consideration, so for the most demanding
installations, factory pre-polished pigtails of sufficient length to reach the first fusion
splice enclosure is normally the safest approach that minimizes on-site labor.

Free-space coupling[edit]
It is often necessary to align an optical fiber with another optical fiber, or with
an optoelectronic device such as a light-emitting diode, a laser diode, or
a modulator. This can involve either carefully aligning the fiber and placing it in
contact with the device, or can use a lens to allow coupling over an air gap. Typically
the size of the fiber mode is much larger than the size of the mode in a laser diode
or a silicon optical chip. In this case, a tapered or lensed fiber is used to match the
fiber mode field distribution to that of the other element. The lens on the end of the
fiber can be formed using polishing, laser cutting[75] or fusion splicing.
In a laboratory environment, a bare fiber end is coupled using a fiber launch system,
which uses a microscope objective lens to focus the light down to a fine point. A
precision translation stage (micro-positioning table) is used to move the lens, fiber,
or device to allow the coupling efficiency to be optimized. Fibers with a connector on
the end make this process much simpler: the connector is simply plugged into a pre-
aligned fiberoptic collimator, which contains a lens that is either accurately
positioned with respect to the fiber, or is adjustable. To achieve the best injection
efficiency into single-mode fiber, the direction, position, size and divergence of the
beam must all be optimized. With good beams, 70 to 90% coupling efficiency can be
achieved.
With properly polished single-mode fibers, the emitted beam has an almost perfect
Gaussian shape—even in the far field—if a good lens is used. The lens needs to be
large enough to support the full numerical aperture of the fiber, and must not
introduce aberrations in the beam. Aspheric lenses are typically used.

Fiber fuse[edit]
At high optical intensities, above 2 megawatts per square centimeter, when a fiber is
subjected to a shock or is otherwise suddenly damaged, a fiber fuse can occur. The
reflection from the damage vaporizes the fiber immediately before the break, and
this new defect remains reflective so that the damage propagates back toward the
transmitter at 1–3 meters per second (4–11 km/h, 2–8 mph).[76][77] The open fiber
control system, which ensures laser eye safety in the event of a broken fiber, can
also effectively halt propagation of the fiber fuse.[78] In situations, such as undersea
cables, where high power levels might be used without the need for open fiber
control, a "fiber fuse" protection device at the transmitter can break the circuit to
keep damage to a minimum.

Chromatic dispersion[edit]
Main article: Dispersion (optics)
The refractive index of fibers varies slightly with the frequency of light, and light
sources are not perfectly monochromatic. Modulation of the light source to transmit a
signal also slightly widens the frequency band of the transmitted light. This has the
effect that, over long distances and at high modulation speeds, the different
frequencies of light can take different times to arrive at the receiver, ultimately
making the signal impossible to discern, and requiring extra repeaters.[79] This
problem can be overcome in a number of ways, including the use of a relatively
short length of fiber that has the opposite refractive index gradient.