SVKM’S SHRI BHAGUBHAI MAFATLAL

POLYTECHNIC
IRLA-JUHU, VILE PARLE (WEST),
MUMBAI-400056

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Prepared & submitted by

MANASI BHALCHANDRA RANE
1210022

VIII SEM, INPLANT TRAINING AT

“RITE DEVELOPERS PVT.LTD.”

Under the guidance of

Prof. SANDEEP N RANSHUR

YEAR 2015-2016
 SVKM’S SHRI BHAGUBHAI MAFATLAL
POLYTECHNIC
IRLA-JUHU, VILE PARLE (WEST),
MUMBAI-400056

Inplant Training Dissertation Report

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Diploma course by:

NAME OF STUDENT : MANASI BHALCHANDRA RANE

ROLL NO : 1210022
EXAM SEAT NO : 1210022
SEMESTER : VIII
COURSE : CIVIL ENGINEERING
COMPANY NAME &ADDRESS : RITE DEVELOPERS PVT. LTD, A/2,
SHREE KRISHNA COMPLEX, OPP. W.E
HIGHWAY, NEAR NATIONAL PARK,
BORIVALI(E), MUMBAI - 400066
ACADAMIC YEAR : 2015-2016
TRAINING PERIOD : 21ST DEC ,2015 to 4th JUNE,2016

THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT

KUMARI: MANASI BHALCHANDRA RANE

EXAMINATION SEAT NO: 1210022

Has satisfactorily completed his inplant training and submitted the dissertation report.

GUIDE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT PRINCIPAL

DATE:
 SVKM’S SHRI BHAGUBHAI MAFATLAL
POLYTECHNIC
IRLA-JUHU, VILE PARLE (WEST),
MUMBAI-400056

Approval Sheet
This is to certify that,

KUMARI: MANASI BHALCHANDRA RANE

EXAMINATION SEAT NO: 1210022

Has presented Implant Training Dissertation Report in fulfillment of Diploma course in

Civil Engineering and the same is assessed by:

1. _____________________

2. _____________________
 CONTENTS

List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Abbreviations
1. Introduction
1.1 General
1.2 Necessity
1.3 Objectives
1.4 Organization
1.5 My duties & responsibilities
1.6 Work at glance
2. Inplant Training
2.1 Introduction
2.2 RCC work
2.2.1 Formwork
2.2.2 Columns
2.2.3 Beams and slabs
2.2.4 Staircase
2.2.5 OHWT and LMR
2.2.6 Quality control of concrete
2.2.7 Machinery used for construction
2.3 Finishing work
2.3.1 Block work
2.3.2 External plaster
2.3.3 Water-proofing
2.3.4 Gypsum plaster & false ceiling
2.3.5 Tiling
2.3.5.1 Wall and dado tiling
2.3.5.2 Flooring
2.3.6 Texture & Painting
2.3.6.1 External
 2.3.6.2 Internal
2.3.7 Plumbing
2.3.7.1 Concealed Drainage
2.3.7.2 Wall Conceal plumbing
2.3.8 Electrical work
2.4 Possession Process
2.5 Site management and planning
3. Conclusion
References
Acknowledgement
 List of figures
Fig Title Page no.
no.
2.1 China film faced plywood
2.2 Common plywood
2.3 Design of Columns
2.4 Formwork of Column
2.5 Top view of column formwork
2.6 Elevation of column formwork
2.7 Formwork & reinforcement of beams
2.8 Formwork & reinforcement of slab
2.9 Casting of slab
2.10 Details of staircase
2.11 Formwork of staircase
2.12 Relation of strength & water/cement ratio
2.13 Relations of (1) Water /cement ratio & cement content, (2)
Strength & water/cement ratio, (3) Strength & cement content
2.14 Needle vibrator
2.15 Dumper
2.16 Steel cutter machine
2.17 Concrete mixer
2.18 Flemish bond
2.19 English bond
2.20 Stretching bond
2.21 Plastering
2.22 Liquid membrane coating
2.23 Bituminous membrane coating
2.24 Bituminous sheet coating
2.25 Brick bat water proofing
2.26 Floor tiling
2.27 Ceramic wall tiling
2.28 Rainfall texture
2.29 Circular trowel texture
2.30 Interior painting
2.31 External painting
2.32 Ceiling painting
2.33 Toilet Conceal plumbing
2.34 Two pipe system of plumbing
2.35 Electric conceal work of slab
2.36 Electric main distribution board (DB)
 List of tables
Table Title Page no.
no.
2.1 Period of removal of formwork
2.2 Permissible Stresses In Concrete (For calculations relating to
resistance to concrete)
 Nomenclature
Serial Abbreviations
no.
1 PCC - Plain cement Concrete
2 RCC - Reinforced Cement Concrete
3 OHWT -Over Head Water Tank
4 LMR - Lift Machine Room
5 pH - Potential of Hydrogen
6 psi - Pound per sq.inche
7 Mpa - Mega pascals
8 OPC - Ordinary Portland Cement
9 HYSD bars - High Yield Strength Deformed bars
10 TMT - Thermo Mechanically Treated
11 M.S - Mild Steel
12 UK - United Kingdom
13 RPM - Revolutions per minute
14 AAC - Autoclaved Aerated Concrete
15 G.I - Galvanized Iron
16 EIC - Engineer in charge
17 IPS - Indian pattern stone
18 POP - Plaster of Paris
19 RAL color - Reichsausschuss fur Lieferbedingungen
20 PPE - Personal Protective Equipment
21 PVC - Polyvinyl Chloride
22 SWG - Standard Wire Gauge
23 DB - Distribution Board
24 MCB - Miniature Circuit Breaker
25 WBS - Work Breakdown Structure
26 OBS - Organization Breakdown Structure
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 General
Students passing from Technical Institutes with Sandwich Practical training are
able to organize and appreciate work situations better and find it easier to adapt to factory
working later. Through Sandwich Practical training, students are able to study relevant
discipline subjects better and integrate teaching and training for gainful employment.
Subsequent on-the-job training period is also reduced in case of such students.
Through sandwich practical training student able to study relevant discipline, subjects
better & integrate teaching & training for gainful employment. Subsequent on the job
training period is also reduced in case of such students. The training was initially
supported by the government of India.
S.B.M. Polytechnic has been able to establish policies and procedure covering all
aspects of training and communicate effectively with the industries. Students, who go
through the training program and later enter industry, establish a link between S.B.M.
Polytechnic and industry.
Faculty members and Department Heads who are involved in supervision, placement and
evaluation can likewise promote and help improve established norms and standards of
training. They are the spokesmen.

It is the performance of students, faculty supervisors and promotional efforts from

Departments and Management that attracts more and more companies to join hands with
S.B.M. Polytechnic.

1.2 Necessity
As we know Necessity is the „Mother Of Invention‟, it is necessary to get training in
order to develop practical knowledge regarding the field. Inplant training is essential as it
helps students to have better employment opportunities on completion of studies.
Rate of progress of a student is subsequently better. Also students are able to appreciate
work situations at site, tackle problems involving men, machinery, material and
processes.
 Depending on company work situations and scale of operation differs. It helps
students to gain positive attitudes and approach to training, keenness and inquisitiveness
to learn.
After all, a technician is more useful to industry after training. Interns function
somewhere between a student and an employee. Internships may be paid or unpaid, may
receive academic credit or not. The experience is intended to help the student close the
gap between school and work. Students and employers are often asked to agree on a
learning contract with specific objectives for the experience.
Although internships may take many forms, the purpose of an internship is to provide a
meaningful learning experience for the student. It is possible that the work done during
an internship may still be menial, but it should be meaningful in helping the student
understand the job, profession, or field.

1.3 Objectives
Not all jobs qualify as internships. An internship may take place in academic year or
during the summer. Some students may even apply for an internship after graduation.
This will help the student determine what she hopes to learn from the experience and will
help the employer design experiences that will help the student achieve her goals.
Jawaharlal Nehru has said “It’s good to have goodwill. It’s good to have enthusiasm,
but it is essential to have training”.
Participating in an internship is an important experience to complement the
learning that your student is doing in the classroom. It can provide her with some good
practical experience. However, there are many additional, somewhat more concrete
reasons why your student may want to be sure to include an internship in her college
experiences.
Objectives of training are:
1. Students are exposed to industrial environment which cannot be simulated in the
polytechnic.
2. Students work under factory discipline.
3. Students understand the psychology of the workers, their habits, attitudes and approach
to problems along with the practices followed either at factory or site.
4. Students get familiarized with various materials, processes, products and their
applications along with relevant aspects of shop management.
5. Students realize the size and scale of operations in industry.
6. Students get opportunity to use their knowledge in problem solving and in project
assignment.
7. Students are able to understand relevant application-oriented subjects better in
subsequent semester.
8. Students understand various constrains of time and cost within which goods are
produced and services rendered in specified quantum.
9. Students appreciate need of co-ordinate effort of various persons at different levels in
different departments in achieving set goals and targets.
10. Students understand the scope, functions and job responsibilities in various
departments of an organization.
Finally, many internships are fun and great self-confidence builders.

1.4 Organization
The company in which I was appointed as a „Trainee engineer‟ was “Rite
Developers Pvt. Ltd”. They are builders and land developers.
Rite Developers Private Limited is a Private incorporated on 01 February 2002. It
is classified as Non-government Company and is registered at Registrar of Companies,
Mumbai. Its authorized share capital is Rs.16,000,000 and its paid up capital is
Rs.10,700,000.It is involved in Building of complete constructions or parts thereof civil
engineering
Directors of Rite Developers Private Limited are Samir Shirish Dadia, Virchand
Popat Shah, Bhavana Ritesh Shah, Ritesh Virchand Shah.
The on-going projects of Rite Developers pvt ltd are Rite Fortune, Rite Prime,
Rite Skylux, Rite Advent and Rite Divine and all these projects are Redevelopment
Projects. Amenities provided to these projects are security features, rooftop garden, and
arrival lounge for guests, automatic elevators with stainless steel car parking and other
basic amenities.
 1.5 My duties & responsibilities
Though I was a trainee, I was an employee for the company and on that basis
there were certain duties and responsibilities assigned to me, which also helped me to
improve my knowledge and work practically.
Duties assigned to me on site were: -
 Study the drawings of site and observe the work at site.
 Supervision of all kind of work
 To check whether the work going on site is according to plan and specification.
 To avoid wastage of material as far as possible
 Checking the formwork and reinforcement of column, slab, etc.
 To maintain the quality of the concrete & other finishing item.
 To take care that, the curing of concrete is done properly (i.e. 7 days minimum
from the day of casting) with suitable method.
 Checking the materials received on site.
 At the time of casting, the thickness of slab maintain by us.
 To see removal of formwork for various structural members should be done on
time.
 To co-ordinate with contractors and so on.

1.6 Work at glance

The first day when I joined, I was placed at „Rite Fortune‟, the project was almost
complete and was about to receive the Occupation certificate, thus on going activity at
site was the possession process of tenants of the building. Thus, the things I observed
were the finishing work of entrance lobby, paving work of open space was in progress,
staircase internal painting was in progress and possession process and its paper work.
After that project received Occupation certificate, I was shifted to another project
named „Rite Prime‟ where I observed RCC construction of OHWT and LMR and other
finishing work is in progress.
 Chapter 2
INPLANT TRAINING

2.1 Introduction
Inplant Training will provide an industrial exposure to the students as well as to
develop their career in the high tech industrial requirements. Reputed companies are
providing inplant training to Students. Here students are initially get counseled in order to
emerge out their interest in various streams and what are all the basic concepts they know
on that domain.
After the successful completion of studies students has to face this competitive
world with this knowledge to face many problems and to find the right solutions which is
to be solved in the minimum duration of time. The inplant training is get totally different
from the class environments.
Inplant training provides the industrial exposure to the students how to face the
industry once they foot out from the campus. The industrial knowledge is essential for all
students to get success in their job. Once student step in to the industry they should be
ready to face competitive world with knowledge. The core competence area extending its
boundary daily as technology grows.
Student need to update day to day stuff from various innovative technologies. It‟s
actually “Implant training”, the basic awareness starts from here. Start from basic till the
edge of skill we provide the best content practically to the students.
On successful completion of our implant training students will be skilled enough
and ready to shine. Job opportunity for students who has certificate on Implant training is
high compared to non-trained students, because the companies will know that student‟s
knowledge will be boosted by Implant training.

2.2 Reinforced cement concrete work

Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using
reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frame and more.
Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete.
 Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating
optimal building structures. Small changes in the design of a floor system can have
significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating
costs, occupancy levels and end use of building. Without reinforcement, constructing
modern structures with the concrete material would not be possible.
RCC is the combination of using steel and concrete instead of using only concrete
to offset some limitations. Concrete is weak in tensile stress with compared to its
compressive stress. To offset this limitation, steel reinforcement is used in the concrete at
the place where the section is subjected to tensile stress. Steel is very strong in tensile
stress. The reinforcement is usually round in shape with approximate surface deformation
is placed in the form in advance of the concrete. When the reinforcement is surrounded by
the hardened concrete mass, it forms an integral part of the member. The resultant
combination of two materials are known as reinforced concrete. In this case the cross-
sectional area of the beam or other flexural member is greatly reduced. You can also read
the article on reinforced concrete beam behavior.
Monolithic construction is possible with R.C.C framed structures and they can
resist vibrations, earthquakes and shocks more effectively than load bearing walled
buildings. Speed of construction for RCC framed structures is more rapid.

Advantages of RCC Structure:

Nowadays, RCC is used in most of the structures. The advantages of RCC
(Reinforced Cement Concrete) are as following:

1. Reinforced Cement Concrete has good compressive stress (because of

concrete).
2. RCC also has high tensile stress (because of steel).
3. It has good resistance to damage by fire and weathering (because of concrete).
4. RCC protects steel bars from buckling and twisting at the high temperature.
5. RCC prevents steel from rusting.
6. Reinforced Concrete is durable.
7. The monolithic character of reinforced concrete gives it more rigidity.
8. Maintenance cost of RCC is practically nil.
9. In some types of structures, such as dams, piers, and footings, it is the most
economical structural material.
 10. It can be cast to take the shape required, making it widely used in precast
structural components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent
deflection.

Steel reinforcement of RCC Structure:

Reinforced concrete is the concrete in which steel is embedded in such a manner
that the two materials act together in resisting forces. The reinforcing steel rods, bars, or
mesh absorbs the tensile, shear, and sometimes the compressive stresses in a concrete
structure.
Plain concrete does not easily withstand tensile and shear stresses caused by wind,
earthquakes, vibrations, and other forces and is therefore unsuitable in most structural
applications. In reinforced concrete, the tensile strength of steel and the compressive
strength of concrete work together to allow the member to sustain these stresses over
considerable spans. The invention of reinforced concrete in the 19th century
revolutionized the construction industry, and concrete became one of the world‟s most
common building materials.
Steel reinforcement is available in the form of plain steel bars, deformed steel
bars, cold-drawn wire, welded wire fabric, and deformed welded wire fabric. Reinforcing
steel must conform to applicable Indian standard specifications.
Deformed steel bars: Deformed bars are round steel bars with lugs, or
deformations, rolled into the surface of the bar during manufacturing. These deformations
create a mechanical bond between the concrete and steel. Deformed steel bars are the
most common type of reinforcement used in structural concrete.
Properties of steel used:
For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement steel needs to
have the following properties at least:
 High relative strength
 High toleration of tensile strain
 Good bond to the concrete, irrespective of pH, moisture, and similar
factors
 Thermal compatibility, not causing unacceptable stresses in response to
changing temperatures.
  Durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or
sustained stress
 Concrete is a mixture of coarse (stone or brick chips) and fine (generally
sand or crushed stone) aggregates with a paste of binder material (usually
Portland cement) and water.
 When cement is mixed with a small amount of water, it hydrates to form
microscopic opaque crystal lattices encapsulating and locking the
aggregate into a rigid structure. The aggregates used for making concrete
should be free from harmful substances like organic impurities, silt, clay,
lignite etc. Typical concrete mixes have high resistance to compressive
stresses (about 4,000 psi (28 MPa); however, any appreciable tension (e.g.,
due to bending) will break the microscopic rigid lattice, resulting in
cracking and separation of the concrete. For this reason, typical non-
reinforced concrete must be well supported to prevent the development of
tension.
 If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in
concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only
compression but also bending and other direct tensile actions. A reinforced
concrete section where the concrete resists the compression and steel
resists the tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the
construction industry.

2.2.1 Formwork
When concrete is fresh and in its liquid state it must be restrained within a mold in
order for it to set in its required shape. Formwork is the term used to describe this mold.
For most in-situ pours, the formwork is made of wood. A smooth outer surface
provides the main support for the concrete as it sets. This is normally made of plywood.
Concrete is approximately 2.4 times as dense as water, and in its liquid state, it
imposes considerable forces on the formwork containing it. Consequently it is necessary
to reinforce the plywood with horizontal wooden beams, tie rods, channels and props.
Material and quality of formwork
There are two factors that decide how well the concrete will look in the final
result. One is how the concrete is placed and compacted, and the other is the quality of
the formwork.
Formwork is made from expensive materials, and requires great skill and
experience in its manufactures. Its importance is evident when you consider that the cost
of fabrication, erecting and striking the formwork, often exceeds the cost of the concrete
it is designed to shape and support.
Formwork usually needs to be used many times for it to be cost efficient. This can
only be done if it is carefully handled, cleaned and stored, regardless of what material it is
made from.
For anything other than most small of concreting jobs e.g. walls over 1m in
height, a drawing should be provided, showing what formwork is required. This need not
be an intricate design drawing, a simple sketch is usually sufficient.

The following points are to be kept in view to effect economy in the cost of
formwork:
1. The plan of the building should imply minimum number of variations in the size
of rooms, floor area etc. so as to permit reuse of the formwork repeatedly.
2. Design should be perfect to use slender sections only in a most economical way.
3. Minimum sawing and cutting of wooden pieces should be made to enable reuse of
the material a number of times. The quantity of surface finish depends on the
quality of the formwork.

Formwork can be made out of timber, plywood, steel, precast concrete or fibre glass
used separately or in combination. Steel forms are used in situation where large numbers
of re-use of the same forms are necessary. For small works, timber formwork proves
useful. Fibre glass made of pre-cast concrete and aluminium are used in cast-in-situ
construction such as slabs or members involving curved surfaces.
Fig no: 2.1 China film faced plywood

Fig no. 2.2 Common plywood

Good formwork should fulfill the following criteria:
 It is strong enough to support the weight of fresh concrete during placing
and compacting, and any other loads it may be required to take.
 The face of the formwork is of sufficient quality for its use.
 It can be easily erected and struck.
 It is sufficiently stable in all weathers.
 It can be handled safely and easily using the equipment available.
 It provides suitable access for placing and compact the concrete.
 It confirms with appropriate safety regulations.
 The joints between members are sound enough to prevent grout leakage.

Types of formwork
Traditional timber formwork: The formwork is built on site out of timber and
plywood or moisture-resistant particleboard. It is easy to produce but time-consuming for
larger structures, and the plywood facing has a relatively short lifespan. It is still used
extensively where the labor costs are lower than the costs for procuring reusable
formwork. It is also the most flexible type of formwork, so even where other systems are
in use, complicated sections may use it.

Timber beam slab formwork:

Similar to the traditional method, in this stringers and joist are replaced with
engineered wood beams and supports are replaced with metal props. This makes this
method more systematic and reusable.
On the dawn of the rival of concrete in slab structures, building techniques for the
temporary structures were derived again from masonry and carpentry. The traditional slab
formwork technique consists of supports out of lumber or young tree trunks that support
rows of stringers assembled roughly 3 to 6 feet or 1 to 2 meters apart, depending on
thickness of slab. Between these stringers, joists are positioned roughly 12 inches,
30 centimeters apart upon which boards or plywood are placed. The stringers and joists
are usually 4 by 4 inch or 4 by 6 inch lumber. The most common imperial plywood
thickness is ¾ inch and the most common metric thickness is 18 mm.
Modular slab formwork (Aluminium formwork):
These systems consist of prefabricated timber, steel or aluminum beams and
formwork modules. Modules are often no larger than 3 to 6 feet or 1 to 2 meters in size.
The beams and formwork are typically set by hand and pinned, clipped, or screwed
together. The advantages of a modular system are: does not require a crane to place the
formwork, speed of construction with unskilled labor, formwork modules can be removed
after concrete sets leaving only beams in place prior to achieving design strength.

Table no. 2.1 Period of removal of formwork

S. No. Description of structural member Period of time

1 Walls, columns and vertical sides of beams 1 to 2 days
2 Slabs (props left under) 3 days
3 Beam soffits (props left under) 7 days
4 Removal of props to slabs
(a) For slabs spanning up to 4.5 m 7 days
(b) For slabs spanning over 4.5 m 14 days
5 Removal of props to beams and arches
(a) Spanning up to 6 m 14 days
(b) spanning over 6 m 21 days

2.2.2 Columns
Column in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that
transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural
elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member. The term column
applies especially to a large round support with a capital and base and made of stone, or
appearing to be so.
A column that carries the load down to a foundation must have means to transfer
the load without overstressing the foundation material. Reinforced concrete and masonry
columns are generally built directly on top of concrete foundations.
 When seated on a concrete foundation, a steel column must have a base plate to
spread the load over a larger area, and thereby reduce the bearing pressure. The base plate
is a thick, rectangular steel plate usually welded to the bottom end of the column.
Many structures will require in situ columns. Columns at ground level will be constructed
on a pile cap, edge beam or some other type of foundation. In multi-storey construction,
they will be constructed on a suspended slab or beams. In all cases the construction
process will be similar. At the base of the column, „starter‟ bars will project from the
supporting member.
Reinforcement, main vertical bars and horizontal links, will lap with starter bars
for continuity. If starter bars do not project a full lap length the column bars are connected
mechanically. Reinforcement projects from top of the column for continuity. Formwork
of „starter‟ which can be of maximum 1 feet height is fixed, with the necessary props to
make sure that it is vertical and it is in position with respect to the projection of the
column on previous floors. And also to see that it does not move during the casting of the
concrete.

Reinforcement of columns:
A column is a slender, vertical member that carries a superimposed load.
Concrete columns, especially those subjected to bending stresses, must always be
reinforced with steel. A PIER or PEDESTAL is a compressive member that is short
(usually the height is less than three times the least lateral dimension) in relation to its
cross-sectional area and carries no bending stress. A bearing wall could be classified
as a continuous pier. In concrete columns, vertical reinforcement is the principal
reinforcement.
However, a loaded column shortens vertically and expands laterally; hence,
lateral reinforcements in the form of lateral ties are used to restrain the expansion.
Columns reinforced in this manner are called tied columns. If
the restraining reinforcement is a continuous winding spiral that encircles the core and
longitudinal steel, the column is called a spiral column.
Reinforcement of columns consist of stirrups, bending wires to bind them and the
projecting steel bars of columns right from the foundation which continues through-out
the building.
 Fig no 2.3 Design of Columns

Formwork of columns:
The column formwork systems now available are normally modular in nature and
allow quick assembly and erection on site while minimizing labor and crane time. The
formworks made of steel or aluminium sometimes with a timber form-face liner, can be
adjusted on site to give different column sizes. They have a variety of internal surfaces
depending on the concrete finish required. Metal formwork systems can have integral
concreting platforms with guard rails and access equipment including ladders. This
reduces the need for independent access. In some systems the props used to stabilize the
column formwork are integral. The metal forms are easy to clean and reuse with little
waste generated compared with traditional formwork.
An alternative approach for circular columns is to use disposable formwork,
which consist of cardboard tubes with a plastic liner. These are left in place until the
concrete has gained sufficient strength and then the cardboard is carefully removed. For
this type of formwork, working platforms for concreting have to be erected separately to
allow access to the top of the column.
Casting of columns:
Once the formwork has been nailed down around the rebar, the construction crew
can mix and pour the concrete. The concrete mix is very important because the ratio of
water to cement helps determine both the strength and workability of the concrete, so it
must be done exactly according to specifications.
The concrete is then poured into the formwork around the rebar where it begins to
harden. The formwork generally open from top through which the crew can pour the
concrete, because if the concrete were allowed to fall from the top of the formwork, the
components would begin to separate, thereby resulting in a much weaker structure.
The operation of placing and compaction are interdependent and are carried out
simultaneously. They are most important for the purpose of ensuring the requirements of
strength, impermeability and durability of hardened concrete in the actual structure. As
for as placing is concerned, the main objective is to deposit the concrete as close as
possible to its final position so that segregation is avoided and the concrete can be fully
compacted. The aim of good concrete placing can be stated quite simply.
Thus, concrete is compacted with the help of „Needle vibrator‟ of 60 mm diameter.

Fig no. 2.4 Formwork of Column

De-shuttering and curing of columns
De-shuttering period relates to the maturity of concrete and depends on the
environmental temperature. Forms shall not stuck until concrete has reached strength at
least twice the strength at which concrete may be subjected at the time of removal of
formwork. Assuming standard conditions of workmanship and quality of materials,
removal time of shuttering should be decided.
In summers, formwork of columns can be de-shuttered by 24 hours. While in
winters it should be de-shuttered by 48 hours.
Curing of concrete plays a major role in developing the microstructure and pore
structure of concrete. Curing of concrete means maintaining moisture inside the body of
concrete during the early ages and beyond in order to develop the desired properties in
terms of strength & durability. A good curing practice involves keeping the concrete
damp until the concrete is strong enough to do its job. However, good curing practices are
not always religiously followed in most of the cases, leading to a weak concrete.
The duration of curing of concrete depends on the grade & type of cement, mix
proportion, desired concrete strength, shape and size of the concrete member and
environmental & exposure conditions. The duration may vary from few days to a month.
For Ordinary Portland cement OPC, 10 days curing is important while, if Minerals
& Admixture added to cement 14 days.

Fig no. 2.5 Top view of column formwork

 Fig no 2.6 Elevation of column formwork

2.2.3 Beams and slabs

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by
resisting bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of
the external loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a
bending moment.
Types of beams
In engineering, beams are of several types:
1. Simply supported - a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and
have no moment resistance.
2. Fixed - a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation.
3. Over hanging - a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end.
4. Double overhanging - a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its
supports on both ends.
5. Continuous - a beam extending over more than two supports.
6. Cantilever - a projecting beam fixed only at one end.
7. Trussed - a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss.
 Concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings. Horizontal
slabs of steel reinforced concrete, typically between 4 and 20 inches (100 and 500
millimeters) thick, are most often used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner slabs
are also used for exterior paving.
Sometimes these thinner slabs, ranging from 2 inches (5.1 cm) to 6 inches (15 cm)
thick, are called mud slabs, particularly when used under the main floor slabs.
In situ concrete slabs are built on the building site using formwork - a type of
boxing into which the wet concrete is poured. If the slab is to be reinforced, the rebars are
positioned within the formwork before the concrete is poured in. Plastic tipped metal, or
plastic bar chairs are used to hold the rebar away from the bottom and sides of the form-
work, so that when the concrete sets it completely envelops the reinforcement.

Study of RCC and Working drawing:

In structural engineering, composite construction exists when two different
materials are bound together so strongly that they act together as a single unit from a
structural point of view. When this occurs, it is called composite action. One common
example involves steel beams supporting concrete floor slabs.
If the beam is not connected firmly to the slab, then the slab transfers all of its
weight to the beam and the slab contributes nothing to the load carrying capability of the
beam. However, if the slab is connected positively to the beam with studs, then a portion
of the slab can be assumed to act compositely with the beam. In effect, this composite
creates a larger and stronger beam than would be provided by the steel beam alone. The
structural engineer may calculate a transformed section as one step in analyzing the load
carry capability of the composite beam.
It is important to know how to read a plan while working on site and also
generally. Reinforcement as well as sizes of beams and slab can be worked out with the
help of plan. Working drawing has measurements of each and every detail of the structure
which helps to work practically. RCC drawing has all the details of steel reinforcement of
the respective structure.
Materials used for the formwork:
Resin bonded plywood sheets are used and are attached to timber frames to make
up panels of required sizes. The cost of plywood formwork compares favorably with that
of timber shuttering and it may even prove cheaper in certain cases in view of the
following considerations:
1. It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is
there.
2. By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labor cost of
fixing and dismantling.
3. Number of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation
purpose, number of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.
4. The formwork is commonly built from wooden planks and boards, plastic, or
steel. On commercial building sites today, plastic and steel are more common as they save
labor.
5. At low-budget sites, for instance when laying a concrete garden path, wooden
planks are very common. After the concrete has set the wood may be removed, or left
there permanently.

Reinforcement of beams and slab

Reinforcement detailing of a slab is done based on its support conditions. Slab
may be supported on walls or beams or columns. Slab supported directly by columns are
called flat slab.
Slab supported on two sides and bending takes place predominantly in one
direction only is called One Way Slab. On the other hand, when slab is supported on all
four sides and bending take place in two directions are said to be Two Way Slab.
The slabs having ratio of longer length to its shorter length (Ly/Lx) greater than 2
is called one way slab otherwise as two way slab. In one way slab main reinforcement is
parallel to shorter direction and the reinforcement parallel to longer direction is called
distribution steel. In two-way slab main reinforcement is provided along both direction.
Slabs could be simply supported, continuous or cantilever. In two way slab the corners
may be held down by restraints or may be allowed to lift up.
Additional torsion reinforcement is required at corners when it is restrained against
uplifting.

Checking before casting of beams and slab

Before casting of beams and slab, checking of the work done is very essential.So,
architect of the project is invited to visit and check the formwork done for the beams and
slab construction. Architect checks all the measurements, offsets, diagonal measurement
as per the plan.
Similarly, RCC consultant of the project also visits and checks the reinforcement
of beams and slab such as diameter of bars used, bent up‟s provided and so on according
to the plan.

Architect‟s and RCC consultant‟s check report:

After checking of formwork and reinforcement of beams and slab, architect and
consultant give their reports regarding changes in their work respectively, along with the
approval to cast the beams and slab.

Casting of beams and slab

Preparation of construction joint shall include roughening, removing all laitance
adhering to the joint and application of thick slurry before start of the new concrete.
Stock of material shall be sufficient to start the concrete. It shall be ensured by
stores/purchase department that concreting is not stopped on account of materials.
All plant and machinery are checked and made in working conditions. Proper
walkways/platforms shall be arranged so that the supports of the pipeline and manpower
are not directly stand on reinforcement.
Sufficient carpenters along with supervisor shall inspect the behavior of supports
below the slab during the casting. Extra Props shall be stocked below slab to provide
additional supports in case of any failure of supports.
The operation of placing and compaction are interdependent and are carried out
simultaneously. They are most important for the purpose of ensuring the requirements of
strength, impermeability and durability of hardened concrete in the actual structure. As
for as placing is concerned, the main objective is to deposit the concrete as close as
possible to its final position so that segregation is avoided and the concrete can be fully
compacted. The aim of good concrete placing can be stated quite simply.
Thus, concrete is compacted with the help of „Needle vibrator‟ of 40mm diameter in
beams as well as slab.

Curing and de-shuttering of beams and slab:

The curing shall be started immediately after thumb set of the concrete laid.
Hessian clothe /Plastic shall be covered over the set concrete to reduce moisture
evaporation from the concrete during hardening and thus to minimize shrinkage crazy
cracks. These cracks are inheriting property of the concrete specially appears during
casting of flat surfaces.
Removal of props to slab, of spanning up to 4.5m is 7 days and beam over
spanning over 4.5m is 14 days. And removal of props to beams, spanning up to 6m is 14
days and spanning over 6m is 21 days.
Then after, shuttering of the slab should be removed within 2 to 3 weeks and
should be kept properly for further use.

Fig no 2.7 Formwork & reinforcement of beams

Fig no 2.8 Formwork & reinforcement of slab

Fig no 2.9 Casting of slab

2.2.4 Staircase
A staircase or stairway is one or more flights of stairs leading from one floor to
another, and includes landings, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts. A
stair is one step in a flight of stairs. In buildings, stairs is a term applied to a complete
flight of steps between two floors. A stair flight is a run of stairs or steps between
landings. A well planned and designed stair should provide an easy, quick and safe mode
of communication between the various floors.
 The general requirements of a good staircase are mentioned below:
1. Location:--It should be so located that sufficient light and ventilation is
ensured in the stairway. If possible should be located centrally so as to be easily
accessible from the different corner of the building.
2. Width of stairs:--Width of the stair varies with the situation and the
purpose for which it is provided. In public building where there is a regular traffic
of people using the stair way, it's width should be sufficient while in a residential
building it may be just the minimum. The usually adopted average value of the
stair width for public and residential building is 1.8m and 80 cm respectively.
3. Length of flight:-- For the comfortable ascent of stair way the number of
step in the flight should be restricted to a maximum of 12 and minimum of 3.
4. Pitch of stairs:--The pitch of long stair should be made flatter by
introducing landings to make the ascent less tiresome and less dangerous. In
general, the slope of stair never exceed 40degree and should not be flatter than
25degree.
5. Head room:--The head room or the clear distance between the tread and
the soffit of the flight immediately above it should not be less than 2.14m.
6. Material:--The stair should preferably be constructed of materials which
possess fire resisting qualities.
7. Balustrade:--The open well stairs should be provided with balustrade so as
to minimize the danger of accidents.
8. Landing:--The width of the landing should not be less than the width of
stair.
 9. Winders:--The introduction of winders in stair should be avoided as far as
possible. They are liable to be dangerous and involve extra expense in the
construction. They are difficult to carpet and are especially unsuitable for public
buildings, However where the winders cannot be dispensed with, they should
preferably be provided near the lower end of the flight.
10. Steps proportion:-- The rise and tread of every step in a stair should be
uniform dimensions throughout. The ratio of the going and the rise of the step
should be so proportioned as to ensure a comfortable access to the stair way. And
External concrete stairs should also have a 6 mm fall on the top of the step to
allow rainwater to run off.

Fig no 2.10 Details of staircase

Formwork of staircase:
The consistency of the thickness of the concrete body of the stairs is guaranteed
throughout the internal and external parts, from start to finish and fully respecting the
dimensions provided by the project. The coatings vary depending on the form of the scale
and have different functions.
 Concrete stairs also require temporary formwork and the necessary check timber
supports. As with timber stairs, check the height from floor to floor as the first step in the
preparation of a set out. Divide this total rise into a suitable number of risers and then
calculate the proportionate size to the go, as described in the chapter dealing with timber
stairs. A flight of stairs should be easy and comfortable to climb.

Reinforcement of staircase
Reinforcement of staircase is carried out as per the RCC plan details provided by
the consultant. In this reinforcement mat of soffit is provided along with the mid landing
beam. Steel bars of reinforcement mat are projected from the footing of staircase which is
at the plinth level.
Reinforcement of one flight the staircase is generally done till first landing and is
casted accordingly. Then after, second flight is casted along with the casting of slab.
Staircase reinforcement should also have proper „cover‟ and reinforcement design of each
step should be proper and appropriate as per the plan.

(a) (b)
Fig no 2.12 (a) and (b) Formwork of staircase
Checking and casting of staircase
Checking of staircase reinforcement and formwork is very important, so that the
staircase is casted properly and as per the plan.
In staircase, risers, tread length, slope of soffit, headroom, no of steps in one
flight should be checked properly with reference to plan. Slab of mid landing should be at
the proper height. Formwork of staircase should be fixed in its place and should not bluk
and displace from its position, due to the pressure exerted by concrete after casting.
To cast concrete in staircase, start pouring the concrete into the bottom step
first. Consolidate the concrete by tapping the outside of the forms with a hammer and
spading the concrete with a shovel on the inside of the forms.
Continue this process with each step, leveling with the top of the forms, until
you have filled the forms to the top. Some of the concrete may sag under the risers as you
are pouring, don't worry this is normal. Let the concrete sit for 20 - 30 minutes and strike
them off again. It should be stiff enough to hold without sagging by now.
Use a hand float to smooth out the surface of the concrete and bring the "cream"
to the top. Let this sit for a while until all the bleed water has dissipated.

Curing and De-shuttering of staircase

Cure the concrete by keeping it wet. After the finishing process, let the concrete
set over night. The next day, remove the side forms, patch any voids with a concrete
patch material and keep the concrete wet by hosing it with water. The longer you keep it
wet the better it is for the concrete (2 - 5 days if possible). After a couple weeks you can
apply a concrete sealer to protect the concrete and help make them easier to clean.
Building concrete steps can be fun. Take your time and double check all your
measurements, use plenty of braces and find someone to help. Pouring concrete is always
easier with an extra person.
De-shuttering period relates to the maturity of concrete and depends on the
environmental temperature. Forms shall not stick until concrete has reached strength at
least twice the strength at which concrete may be subjected at the time of removal of
formwork. Assuming standard conditions of workmanship and quality of materials,
removal time of shuttering should be decided.
 In summers, formwork of columns can be de-shuttered by 24 hours. While in
winters it should be de-shuttered by 48 hours.

2.2.5 Over Head Water Tank and Lift Machine Room

A water tank is a container for storing water. The need for a water tank is as old as
civilization, to provide storage of water for use in many applications, drinking water,
irrigation agriculture, fire suppression, agricultural farming, both for plants and livestock,
chemical manufacturing, food preparation as well as many other uses. Water tank
parameters include the general design of the tank, and choice of construction materials,
linings. Various materials are used for making a water tank: plastics (polyethylene,
polypropylene), fiberglass, concrete, stone, steel (welded or bolted, carbon, or stainless).
Earthen pots also function as water storages. Water tanks are an efficient way to help
developing countries to store clean water.
In residential buildings, domestic water is generally stored into over head water
tanks. Earlier, the water tanks were of plastics (polyethylene, polypropylene) or steel etc,
but in modern construction they are generally made of RCC which serves the purpose and
is also durable and long lasting and all tanks are designed as crack free structures to
eliminate any leakage.
 Classification based on three heads:
1. Tanks resting on ground
2. Elevated tanks supported on staging
3. Underground tanks.
 Classification based on shapes
1. Circular tanks
2. Rectangular tanks
3. Intze tanks
The OHWT constructed in residential buildings are rectangular in shape and are
divided into different compartments for water needed for different purposes like domestic
water, flushing water and fire-fighting water.
Lift Machine Room (LMR)
An elevator machine room sometimes known as lift motor room is a room that
house elevator drives and controllers. Traction elevator machine rooms are located
directly over the hoist way of the elevator served by that equipment. On bottom drive
type, machine rooms are usually located next to the elevator bank or bottom of the shaft
way.
In residential buildings, these lift machine rooms are constructed above terrace
floor level at the top of lift pit to operate the working of elevators. These rooms are
constructed water proof by either Brickwork or RCC. Provisions are made as per the
design of elevators and the company appointed to provide elevator services maintains the
elevators.
Thus, in modern days provision of elevators in high-raised multi stored buildings
is a must amenity to be provided.

Reinforcement of RCC OHWT:

Over head water tanks are generally designed by the same RCC Consultant of the
project. OHWT has RCC walls constructed as per the plan and details of the steel bars to
be provided for reinforcing concrete are given in RCC plans. The specifications for
Reinforcement, concrete and its form work are same as that of other RCC member of the
buildings.
OHWT is designed to take up its own dead load and importantly the load given by the
water and the forces acting on the RCC walls of the tank.
 Some assumptions made for OHWT construction are:
 Concrete is capable of resisting limited tensile stresses the full section of concrete
including cover and reinforcement is taken into account in this assumption.
 To guard against structural failure in strength calculation the tensile strength of
concrete is ignored.
 Reduced values of permissible stresses in steel are adopted in steel are adopted in
design.
Permissible stresses in concrete:
To ensure impervious concrete mixture linear than M 20 grade is not normally
recommended to make the walls leak proof the concretes near the water face need to such
that no crack occurs. To ensure this member thicknesses are so designed that stress in the
concrete is lesser then the permissible as given in table.

Table no 2.2. Permissible Stresses In Concrete (For calculations relating to

resistance to concrete)

Permissible stresses
Grade of concrete Shear stress
Direct Tension Tension due to N/sq.mm
N/sq.mm bending N/sq.mm
M15 1.1 1.5 1.5
M20 1.2 1.7 1.7
M25 1.3 1.8 1.9
M30 1.5 2.0 2.2
M35 1.6 2.2 2.7
M40 1.7 2.4 2.7

Permissible stresses in steel:

The stress in steel must not be allowed to exceed the following values under
different positions to prevent cracking of concrete.
 When steel is placed near the face of the members in contact with liquid 115 N/ sq mm
for ms bars and 150 N/ sq mm for HYSD bars.
 When steel is placed on face away from liquid for members less than 225 mm in
thickness same as earlier.
 When steel is placed on the face away from the liquid for members 225 mm or more in
thickness: 125 N/ sq mm for M.S. bars and 190 N/sq mm for HYSD bars.
Minimum reinforcement for OHWT:
Minimum reinforcement required for 199mm thick sections is 0.3 % of the area of
concrete section which reduced linearly to 0.2% for 450 mm thick sections. In case of
floor slab for tank resting on ground the minimum reinforcement from practical
consideration should not be less than 0.3% of the gross sectional area of the floor slab.
If the thickness of the section (wall, floor or roof slab of the tank) works out to be
225 mm and above two layers of reinforcing steel shall be placed, one near each of the
section to make up the minimum reinforcement requirements.

2.2.6 Quality control of concrete

Quality control emphasizes testing of products to uncover defects and reporting to
management who make the decision to allow or deny product release, whereas quality
assurance attempts to improve and stabilize production (and associated processes) to
avoid, or at least minimize, issues which led to the defects in the first place.

 Importance of quality control

In order for the Inspector to be effective as a leader of quality concrete
construction, that person must know the reasons for the many field tests and observations
that are continually made during the concrete construction process. Using proper and
consistent test procedures is vital to achieving high quality concrete structures. The
inspector must also make detail orientated observations, knowing when to ask questions
and when to give direction.
The intent of the specifications for reinforced concrete is to generate structural
integrity and aesthetic appearance. The architect and design engineer establishes the
required properties and surface treatment of the reinforced concrete. This selection of
important concrete properties generates the complex specifications that balance the cost,
blending, local aggregate properties, transportation, placing, workability, durability and
strength of the concrete. The quality assurance personnel should know what the test
results mean and why they are important.
Quality control means rational use of resources. Quality control procedures
implement appropriate mixing, proper compaction, correct placement and adequate
curing. Quality control prevents temptation of over design. Quality control ensures strict
monitoring of every stage of concrete production and rectification of faults. Quality
control reduces maintenance costs.

Factors affecting quality of concrete:

1. Quality of Raw Materials:
Cement: Provided the cement conforms with the appropriate standard and it has
been stored correctly (i.e. in dry conditions), it should be suitable for use in concrete.
Aggregates: Quality of aggregates, its size, shape, texture, strength etc determines the
strength of concrete. The presence of salts (chlorides and sulphates), silt and clay also
reduces the strength of concrete.
Water: frequently the quality of the water is covered by a clause stating “..the
water should be fit for drinking..”. This criterion though is not absolute and reference
should be made to respective codes for testing of water construction purpose.
2. Water / Cement Ratio:
The relation between water cement ratio and strength of concrete is shown in the plot
as shown below:

Fig no 2.13 Relation of strength & water/cement ratio

The higher the water/cement ratio, the greater the initial spacing between the cement
grains and the greater the volume of residual voids not filled by hydration products.
There is one thing missing on the graph. For a given cement content, the workability of
the concrete is reduced if the water/cement ratio is reduced. A lower water cement ratio
means less water, or more cement and lower workability.
However if the workability becomes too low the concrete becomes difficult to
compact and the strength reduces. For a given set of materials and environment
conditions, the strength at any age depends only on the water-cement ratio, providing full
compaction can be achieved.
3. Coarse / fine aggregate ratio:
Following points should be noted for coarse/fine aggregate ratio:
• If the proportion of fines is increased in relation to the coarse aggregate, the
overall aggregate surface area will increase.
• If the surface area of the aggregate has increased, the water demand will also
increase.
• Assuming the water demand has increased, the water cement ratio will increase.
• Since the water cement ratio has increased, the compressive strength will
decrease.
4. Aggregate / Cement Ratio:
Following points must be noted for aggregate cement ratio:
• If the volume remains the same and the proportion of cement in relation to that
of sand is increased the surface area of the solid will increase.
• If the surface area of the solids has increased, the water demand will stay the
same for the constant workability.

Fig no 2.14 Relations of (1) Water /cement ratio & cement content, (2) Strength &
water/cement ratio, (3) Strength & cement content

• Assuming an increase in cement content for no increase in water demand, the

water cement ratio will decrease.
• If the water cement ratio reduces, the strength of the concrete will increase.
 The influence of cement content on workability and strength is an important one
to remember and can be summarized as follows:
1. For a given workability an increase in the proportion of cement in a mix has little effect
on the water demand and results in a reduction in the water/cement ratio.
2. The reduction in water/cement ratio leads to an increase in strength of concrete.
3. Therefore, for a given workability an increase in the cement content results in an
increase in strength of concrete.
5. Batching
It is the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients either by volume or by
mass and introducing them into the mixture. Traditionally batching is done by volume but
most specifications require that batching be done by mass rather than volume.
6. Age of concrete:
The degree of hydration is synonymous with the age of concrete provided the
concrete has not been allowed to dry out or the temperature is too low.
In theory, provided the concrete is not allowed to dry out, then it wil`l always be
increasing albeit at an ever reducing rate. For convenience and for most practical
applications, it is generally accepted that the majority of the strength has been achieved
by 28 days.
7. Compaction of concrete:
Any entrapped air resulting from inadequate compaction of the plastic concrete
will lead to a reduction in strength. If there was 10% trapped air in the concrete, the
strength will fall down in the range of 30 to 40%.
8. Vibration:
To compact concrete you apply energy to it so that the mix becomes more fluid.
Air trapped in it can then rise to the top and escape. As a result, the concrete becomes
consolidated, and you are left with a good dense material that will, after proper curing,
develop its full strength and durability.
Vibration is the next and quickest method of supplying the energy. Manual
techniques such as rodding are only suitable for smaller projects. Various types of
vibrator are available for use on site.
 9. Temperature:
The rate of hydration reaction is temperature dependent. If the temperature
increases the reaction also increases. This means that the concrete kept at higher
temperature will gain strength more quickly than a similar concrete kept at a lower
temperature.
However, the final strength of the concrete kept at the higher temperature will be
lower. This is because the physical form of the hardened cement paste is less well
structured and more porous when hydration proceeds at faster rate.
This is an important point to remember because temperature has a similar but more
pronounced detrimental effect on permeability of the concrete.
10. Relative humidity:
If the concrete is allowed to dry out, the hydration reaction will stop. The
hydration reaction cannot proceed without moisture. The three curves shows the strength
development of similar concretes exposed to different conditions.
11. Curing:
It should be clear from what has been said above that the detrimental effects of
storage of concrete in a dry environment can be reduced if the concrete is adequately
cured to prevent excessive moisture loss.

2.2.7 Machinery used for construction

A machine is anything that is composed of one or more parts that will work to
achieve a certain predetermined goal. These tools and devices are powered in order to
work. In the simplest terms, machines are devices that can modify the magnitude or
direction of a force. Development of economy and business would depend on the stability
and quality of these construction equipments. Civil building structures such as roads,
commercial complexes, and corporate offices, which fuel the economy, are built using
such equipment. Some of the essential products manufactured by the construction
machinery manufacturers are cranes, excavators, skid steer, earth moving equipments,
material handling equipments, construction equipments like Hot mix plants, Concrete
Mixers and construction vehicles.
Thus, Construction machinery is very important for every kind of construction
projects in order to complete the projects on time and to do the work smartly.
Construction is almost impossible without the machines that play their leading role in
completion of projects on time. Need of construction machinery is increasing day by day
due to very fast development of construction projects throughout the world. You will find
different kinds of construction machineries involved in the construction projects and
playing their role as a key equipment. These machines not only plays their role in new
construction projects but also helps to demolish the older structures which may take very
long time if the work is done by human labors.

Dumpers
A dump truck is a truck used for transporting loose material (such as sand, gravel,
or dirt) for construction. A typical dump truck is equipped with an open-box bed, which is
hinged at the rear and equipped with hydraulic pistons to lift the front, allowing the
material in the bed to be deposited ("dumped") on the ground behind the truck at the site
of delivery. In the UK and Australia the term applies to off-road construction plant only,
and the road vehicle is known as a tipper, tipper lorry (UK) or tip truck (AU).

Needle vibrators
This is perhaps the most commonly used vibrator. It essentially consists of a steel
tube (with one end closed and rounded) having an eccentric vibrating element inside it.
This steel tube called poker is connected to an electric motor or a diesel engine through a
flexible tube. They are available in size varying from 40 to 100 mm diameter. The
diameter of the poker is decided from the consideration of the spacing between the
reinforcing bars in the form-work.
The frequency of vibration varies up to 15000 rpm. The normal radius of action of an
immersion vibrator is 0.50 to 1.0m.
However, it would be preferable to immerse the vibrator into concrete at intervals of not
more than 600mm or 8 to 10 times the diameter of the poker.
The period of vibration required may be of the order of 30 seconds to 2 minute. The
concrete should be placed in layers not more than 600mm high.
Fig no 2.15 Needle vibrator

Fig no 2.16 Dumper

Steel cutting and bending machine
Cutting machines may be movable or stationary. The working member of a
movable cutting machine is a steel plate-type knife, which performs a reciprocal vertical
motion, or a round knife, which rotates at high speed. The machine is shifted manually
relative to the layer along lines drawn on the top card web. In stationary cutting machines,
the working member, or cutter, is a high-speed endless band saw. Movable cutting
machines are usually used for cleaving the layers into sections.

Concrete mixer
A concrete mixer (also commonly called a cement mixer) is a device that
homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form
concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components. For
smaller volume works portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be
made at the construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it
hardens. An alternative to a machine is mixing concrete by hand. This is usually done in a
wheelbarrow; however, several companies have recently begun to sell modified tarps for
this purpose. The concrete mixer was invented by Columbus industrialist Gebhardt
Jaeger.
To service this small-batch concrete market, there are many types of small
portable concrete mixers available.
A typical portable concrete mixer uses a small revolving drum to mix the components.
For smaller jobs the concrete made at the construction site has no time lost in transport,
giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens.
Portable concrete mixers may be powered by a gasoline engine, although it is more
common that they are powered by electric motors using standard mains current.
Fig no 2.17 Steel cutter machine

Fig no 2.18 Concrete mixer

 2.3 Finishing work
Finishing work is the concluding stage of construction; in many cases, the overall
quality of a building or structure being put into service depends on the quality of its
execution. The main types of finishing work include facing, plastering, flooring (and
parquetry), painting, wallpapering, and glazing.
In modern construction practice for residential, public, and industrial buildings,
the technology of finishing work has changed substantially. Increasingly widespread use
is being made of large prefabricated units, structures, and parts that are delivered to the
construction site in final finished form (for example, wall panels and roof slabs, sanitary
facilities, and window and door units). This substantially reduces the post assembly
finishing work. Industry has mastered production of a number of effective finishing
materials that make it possible to eliminate the most laborious and time-consuming
processes (the “wet” processes) and to improve the quality of the finish (sheets of thistle
board, facing slabs, plastic shingles, and water-resistant wallpaper).
Finishing work is carried out at construction sites by means of various types of
mechanized equipment (movable plastering and painting equipment, units for installing
floors made of polymeric materials, puttying apparatus, polishing machines, smoothing
machines, paint sprayers, and vibration pumps) that substantially facilitate and accelerate
the processes of finishing buildings and reduce the number of operations. However,
finishing work is still very labor-intensive, and for residential construction it accounts for
up to 35 percent of all labor expenditures in construction and assembly operations.
Among the most labor-intensive types of finishing work are facing operations, for
the purpose of covering the front surfaces of structures with inlaid products made of
natural or artificial materials. All facing products are usually delivered to a construction
site in ready-to-use form, in predetermined sizes, coloring, and textures. Facing
operations may be of the exterior or interior type, depending on the kind of products
being used and the means of attaching them to the surfaces.

2.3.1 Block work

Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound
together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common
materials of masonry construction are brick, building stone such as marble, granite,
travertine, and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block, and cob.
 Masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction. However, the
materials used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in which the
units are assembled can significantly affect the durability of the overall masonry
construction.
Generally, „Brick‟ is a popular medium for constructing buildings, but in modern
construction light weight concrete blocks are preferred because of its various advantages.
At my site, walls were constructed by AAC blocks (i.e Autoclaved aerated concrete
blocks). AAC is a highly thermally insulating concrete-based material used for both
internal and external construction. Besides AAC's insulating capability, one of its
advantages in construction is its quick and easy installation, because the material can be
routed, sanded, or cut to size on site using standard power steel carbon tools.
AAC is well suited for urban areas with high rise buildings and those with high
temperature variations. Due to its lower density, high rise buildings constructed using
AAC require less steel and concrete for structural members. The requirement of mortar
for lying of AAC blocks is reduced due to the lower number of joints. Similarly, the
material required for rendering is also lower due to the dimensional accuracy of AAC.
The increased thermal efficiency of AAC makes it suitable for use in areas with extreme
temperatures, as it eliminates the need for separate materials for construction and
insulation, leading to faster construction and cost savings.
Even though regular cement mortar can be used, most of the buildings erected with AAC
materials use thin bed mortar in thicknesses around ⅛ inch, depending on the national
building codes. AAC materials can be coated with a stucco or plaster compound to guard
against the elements, or covered with siding materials such as brick or vinyl.
Advantages:
1. Improved thermal efficiency reduces the heating and cooling load in buildings.
2. Porous structure allows for superior fire resistance.
3. Workability allows accurate cutting, which minimizes the generation of solid waste
during use.
4. Resource efficiency gives it lower environmental impact in all phases of its life cycle,
from processing of raw materials to the disposal of waste.
5. Light weight saves cost & energy in transportation, labor expenses, and increases
chances of survival during seismic activity.
6. Larger size blocks leads to faster masonry work.
7. Reduces the cost of the project.
8. Fire Resistant: Just like with regular concrete, ACC is fire resistant. This material is
completely inorganic and not combustible.
9. Lightweight: Concrete blocks that are made out of ACC weigh about one-fifth of
typical concrete. They are also produced in sizes that are easy to handle for quick
construction.
10. Environmentally Friendly: When used, it helps to reduce at least 30% of
environmental waste as opposed to going with traditional concrete. There is a decrease of
50% of greenhouse gas emissions. When possible, using autoclaved aerated concrete is a
better choice for the environment.

Disadvantages:
1. The production cost per unit for ACC is higher than other ordinary concrete.
2. Number of manufacturer is limited. So, cost will drastically increase in places far from
the manufacturer and need to travel a long distance.
3. It is not as strong as conventional concrete.
4. Very few contractors are familiar with autoclaved aerated concrete.
5. Construction with autoclaved aerated concrete will need special permission.

Types of block work bonds:

1. Flemish bond
This bond has one stretcher between headers, with the headers centered over the
stretchers in the course below.
Where a course begins with a quoin stretcher, the course will ordinarily terminate
with a quoin stretcher at the other end. The next course up will begin with a quoin header.
For the course's second brick, a queen closer is laid, generating the lap of the bond. The
third brick along is a stretcher, and is on account of the lap centered above the header
below.
This second course then resumes its paired run of stretcher and header, until the final pair
is reached, whereupon a second and final queen closer is inserted as the penultimate
brick, mirroring the arrangement at the beginning of the course, and duly closing the
bond.

Fig no 2.19 Flemish bond

2. English bond
This bond has alternating stretching and heading courses, with the headers
centered over the midpoint of the stretchers, and perpends in each alternate course
aligned. Queen closers appear as the second brick, and the penultimate brick in heading
courses. A muted color scheme for occasional headers is sometimes used in English bond
to lend a subtle texture to the brickwork.

Fig no 2.20 English bond

3. Stretching bond:
In this arrangement of bonding, all the bricks are laid as stretchers. The overlap,
which is usually of half brick, is obtained by commencing each alternate course with a
half brick bat. Stretching bond is used for half brick wall only. This bond is also termed
as running bond and is commonly adopted in the construction of half brick thick leaves of
cavity walls, partition walls, etc. Since there are no headers, suitable reinforcement should
be used for structural bond.

Fig no 2.21 Stretching bond

Procedure to build a AAC block wall:

1. Lay a 1-2cm mortar bed along the string line. Starting at one end, lay the first
block and tap slightly to „bed in‟. „Butter up‟ one end of the next block with mortar and
abut it to the first. Repeat using string line as a guide
2. Lay that first block and make sure it is straight.
3. Follow the first block with the next and so on until you have completed the length
of the wall making sure to apply the cement to the end of the block which will go against
the previous one.
4. Use your builder‟s line to ensure you are building a straight wall. Place a block on the
one end of the bottom row and another on the other end, place your builders line on the
first block and holding it in place with a heavier object stretch the string to the other end
of the wall and secure it there. You now have a guide to help you keep the wall straight,
simply raise the line with each complete level.
5. Place your cement onto the block in spread slightly with your trowel, lay the new
block onto the cement and tap down slightly ensuring the brick is sitting firmly and
evenly, clear away any excess cement which oozes from between the blocks.
6. Be sure to use your spirit level intermittently to help you keep a level wall.
7. Alternate the start of each row of block with a half block which will allow blocks
to overlap halfway over the block below. This creates a stronger bond than having exact
vertical lines.

2.3.1 External plastering

Walls constructed of brick, block or stone have always been finished with plaster.
As with the lath and plaster walls above, three coatings were applied the render, the
floating and the setting layers.
The plaster mixes were in days gone by the same as for lath and plaster - i.e. the
render and floating layers 1:3 (lime putty: sharp sand) with animal hair often added and
the setting layer either lime putty on its own or 3:1 (lime putty: fine sand).
With the same mixtures as lath and plaster, the problem of the length of time
required for each layer to dry sufficient for the next layer was also encounter. Towards
the end of the nineteenth century cement or gypsum was added to the mixtures to
decrease the time between layers. These mixes were typically the same as for lath and
plaster of the same period - i.e. 1:1:6 for the first two layers and equal parts lime putty
and gypsum for the setting layer.
By the mid of 20th century, lime had been largely replaced with the first two
layers being straight sand and cement renders (1:6) (without added animal hair) and the
setting layer a gypsum plaster alone.

Mix of mortar for plaster:

A mortar mix or a plaster mix is normally in the range of 1 bag of cement to 200
to 300 liters of damp sand. Mixes richer than this are typically used where masonry is
highly stressed or where plaster is subject to impact Leaner mixes are used on soft, friable
surfaces such as poorly baked and sun-dried bricks.
Cement mortar:
Cement mortar shall be prepared by mixing cement and sand in specified
proportions. Proportioning shall be carried out as detailed above. Sand shall be added
suitably to allow for bulkiness if required. Bulkiness shall be determined as specified in
IS 2386 Part-III. Cement and sand added to mixer shall be thoroughly mixed and water
shall be added to it gradually. After addition of water the mixer shall run for a minimum
of 3 minutes. The mortar mixed shall be consumed within 30 minutes of its mixing

Application of plaster:
Lime plaster in most buildings from the 18th century onwards was applied in three
coats, which enabled a flat finish to be achieved. Before embarking on any plastering
project it is worth assessing the number of coats used originally and the quality of finish
required. On the basis that three-coat work is the most common in historic buildings, it is
best to understand how to apply this and then reduce to two or one coats where
appropriate.
The first coat is known as the „scratch coat‟, because the surface is scratched with
lines to give a key for the next coat. The mix used is usually one part of lime putty to
three parts of course, sharp, well-graded sand; although if the grading of the sand includes
more or less of a particular grain size the amount of lime may need to be varied slightly.
The second coat is known as the „floating‟ or „straightening‟ coat, and is used to
Bring the surface to a level plane. The mix is usually the same as that used in the base
coat, but normally without any hair, and should not exceed 10mm in thickness. A level
surface is achieved using long „floating rules‟ or „straight edges‟, passed over the wet
surface to remove undulations.
The final coat is known as the „setting‟ or „finishing‟ coat. It is usually thinner
than the other two coats and uses fine sharp sand. The mix can vary depending on the
hardness and the type of finish required; the richest mix being three parts of lime to one
of fine sharp sand, and the leanest mix being one part of lime to three parts of sand. More
sand will give a harder finish and is more suitable for open textured floated finishes; more
lime will give a softer surface but allows it to be polished smoother. For standard work a
mix of one to one is suitable.
Check list of plaster:
Plaster work should only follow the steps mentioned below:-
a) Surface must be thoroughly cleaned.
b) Plaster area must be provided with level dabs or spots allowing working and
checking with 2-3 m straight edge. Depth of plaster must not be less than 8mm at any
point.
c) Required concealing services must be completed and tested.
d) No further cutting of masonry must be required.
e) Repairs carried out to masonry or concealing work must be cured and dry.
f) Surface must be sufficiently damp.
g) Plaster dabs are checked for plumb and level by the EIC or his representative.
h) Joints shall be racked and grouted/ pointed with square crushed aggregates.
i) Joints, concealing and repairing areas must be covered with 20 gauge GI
chicken mesh as per the EIC‟s instruction (Chicken mesh shall be applicable for internal
and duct/boxing plaster only.)

Fig no 2.22 Plastering

 2.3.2 Water-proofing
Of all the rooms in your house, you will need the bathroom to be the most
waterproof. Waterproofing is one of the first steps to take place when a bathroom is being
built. It involves installing a waterproof barrier around the walls and floor in your
bathroom to protect the structure of the house from the moisture. Waterproofing is very
black and white, your bathroom is either waterproof or not waterproof. Waterproofing is
best done in stages. Some of it will need to go down before the floors and walls are fully
laid, some of it will need to go down after everything is in place, including the paint.
Perhaps most important areas are where the walls meet the floor. Any gaps where water
can seep in can cause major structural damage, which is hugely expensive to repair.

BENEFITS OF WATERPROOFING
• Increased property value
• Structurally sound foundation
• A healthier home environment for a family
• A warmer basement during winter
• Enjoy an increased living space
• A more attractive and more comfortable home
•
Water proofing of sunk:
Bathroom waterproofing needs a very systematic approach with detailed
specifications for all the sections including floors, walls, splash zones, plumbing lines and
tiling. A generic outline as per internationally approved Australian Standard of
“Waterproofing of Wet Areas” is mentioned below.
Adequate drop is to be provided during casting of floor slab to ensure that the
finished level of the wet area is sufficiently lower than the level of adjacent concrete slab
to prevent migration of water into the dry area. If pipes are encased in screed, a minimum
20mm thick screed is to be provided at the floor water outlet level – accordingly the drop
in floor level should be adjusted.
These are some different methods of water proofing for toilets:
1. Liquid membrane
2. Bituminous waterproofing
3. Brick bat water barrier method

Liquid membrane water proofing

The liquid applied membrane provides a fully bonded, continuous seam-free,
homogenous layer with no laps or joins which is a major advantage over sheeting
membranes. Liquid applied membranes come to the site in liquid form, which are then
either sprayed or brush-applied on the surface. The liquid cures in the air to form a
seamless, joint-free membrane. The thickness can be controlled by applying more of the
liquid chemical per unit area.
Since the application procedure is very quick, a contractor will try and finish the
entire area to be waterproofed in a single day to avoid cold joints. However, if a very
large area is to be done on successive days, cold joints can easily be done by overlapping
the new membrane over the old - the chemical will stick to itself readily.
These are generally considered to be superior to sheet based membranes as they
are joint-free. However care must be taken in application to provide just the right
thickness. The membrane can tear or break if it is too thin.
Some of the liquid membranes available are:
• Mastic asphalt
• Two components polyurethane tar modified
• Two components tar epoxies modified
• Single pack moisture curing polyurethane
• Water based epoxy two part for hydrostatic pressure situations
• Polyester resin two parts reinforced with fiberglass matt
• Flexible epoxy resin two parts
• Bitumen latex modified single pack
• Acrylic co-polymer water based single part
• Acrylic co-polymer cement modified two components
In general, liquid applied membranes are easy to apply, seamless, semi-flexible, ease
of detailing, ease of maintenance and repair, UV resistant and economical. One of the
important characteristics of liquid membranes is its ability to breathe.
 Regardless of which class of membrane is used, waterproofing membranes are
only as good as the applicator. Manufacturers and distributors expect their product to be
applied as specified. Failure to adhere to their recommendations can retard the
performance of the membranes.

(a) (b)
Fig no. 2.23 Liquid membrane coating
Bituminous waterproofing
Bituminous waterproofing systems are designed to protect residential and
commercial buildings. Bitumen (asphalt or coal-tar) is a mixed substance made up of
organic liquids that are highly sticky, viscous, and waterproof. These systems are
sometimes used to construct roofs.
Key benefits:
• Total waterproofing.
• One component, ready to use.
• Water based (solvent free).
• Excellent elasticity and maximum versatility.
• It can be coated directly (using common glues).
• Application by roll or brush.
Application:
1. Surface must be cleaned, consolidated, and with appropriate slope.
2. Spread Polite mesh over the surface, taking care to do overlapping on joints of at
least 3 cm. Polite must not show bubbles or frills.
 3. To obtain a good thickness apply Acriflex Mono in 2 coats.
4. It can be applied by brush, roll or airless. Total drying time is 12 hours at 20°C.

Fig no 2.24 Bituminous membrane coating

Fig no 2.25 Bituminous sheet coating

Brick bat water barrier method:

This is the most common cement based traditional method of water proofing in
toilets and bathrooms of residential buildings.
Following are the steps of waterproofing of floor slabs:
1. Clean the surface of the slab by removing all loose materials, dust, etc. and wash
with clean water.
2. Provide and lay a screed of cement mortar (1:3) over the clean and damp surface
including waterproofing agent mixed with cement mortar. Total average thickness
 shall be 20 mm. Lay an average thickness of 115 mm consisting of brick bat layer
laid in random pattern to avoid continuity of joints and 10 mm thick., bedding, 10
mm thick, jointing with water proof cement mortar of (1:3). This layer shall be
laid to appropriate slopes towards floor drain. This layer shall be cured for
minimum 3 days before taking up the next layer. The surface which is not taken
up for next layer shall be continued to be cured for minimum 10 days.
3. Final Layer Provide and lay minimum 40 mm thick IPS layer in cement concrete
(1:2:4) with maximum size of aggregate 3 mm to 6 mm, simultaneously with
polishing trowel, using cement mortar (1:2) above which floor tiles shall be laid.
4. Curing – This layer shall be cured for 21 days by flooding the water to 25 mm
depth in panel of 1M x 1M formed by weak cement mortar bonding.
5. Testing of waterproofing-Waterproofing of slabs shall be tested by ponding the
surface with water to a depth of 25 mm for 24 hours or longer. The waterproofing
shall be considered satisfactory, if no leaks or damp patches show on the soffit.

Fig no 2.26 Brick bat water proofing

2.3.4 Gypsum plaster & false ceiling:
Plaster is a building material used for the protective and/or decorative coating of
walls and ceilings and for molding and casting decorative elements. In English "plaster"
usually means a material used for the interiors of buildings, while "render" commonly
refers to external applications. Another imprecise term used for the material is stucco,
which is also often used for plasterwork that is worked in some way to produce relief
decoration, rather than flat surfaces.
The most common types of plaster mainly contain either gypsum, lime, or cement,
but all work in a similar way. The plaster is manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed
with water to form a stiff but workable paste immediately before it is applied to the
surface. The reaction with water liberates heat through crystallization and the hydrated
plaster then hardens.
Plaster can be relatively easily worked with metal tools or even sandpaper, and
can be molded, either on site or to make pre-formed sections in advance, which are put in
place with adhesive. Plaster is not a strong material; it is suitable for finishing, rather than
load-bearing, and when thickly applied for decoration may require a hidden supporting
framework, usually in metal.
In residential construction projects, when walls are constructed with brick or
block, they are finished with a coat of plaster which is called internal plastering. Internal
plastering has traditionally been done through a process of sand-cement plastering
finished with POP punning.
This is a two stage process and involves multiple elements like sand, cement and
water which is mixed onsite. This form of plastering is being slowly replaced by a direct
single coat application of gypsum plaster.
So gypsum plaster is actually a replacement of two processes i.e. sand cement plastering
& POP punning. Gypsum plaster is produced as a result of calcinations of the raw
gypsum in an automatic kettle under controlled temperature.
Application of gypsum is within level strips which ensure line & level surfaces.
Coat of leveling material required before painting (POP) Dries in 3 days. Attains full
strength after 28 days and also gives smooth finish. Then we can start painting.
In the last few years, gypsum plaster has become the solution of choice for all
leading builders especially in Mumbai and Pune and is now starting to catch on with
developers in other cities like Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Chennai and Delhi.
Advantages of Plaster of Paris:
1. It is light in weight and more durable.
2. It has low thermal conductivity.
3. It is very good fire resistant and hence a very good heat insulating material.
4. It does not shrink while setting. Therefore, it does not develop cracks on heating
or setting.
5. It forms a thick surface to resist normal knocks after drying.
6. It mixes up easily with water and is easy to spread and level.
7. It has good adhesion on fibrous materials.
8. It gives a firm surface on which the colours can settle.
9. It has no appreciable chemical action on paint and does not cause alkali attack.
10. Plaster of Paris gives a decorative interior finish. Its gypsum content provides it a
lot of shine and smoothness.
11. It can easily be moulded into any shape.
Disadvantages of Plaster of Paris:
1. Gypsum plaster is not suitable for exterior finish as it is slightly soluble in water.
2. It is more expensive than cement or cement lime plaster.
3. It cannot be used in moist situations.
4. Skilled labour is required for precise application and thus labour cost for applying
plaster of Paris is high.

False Ceiling:
A dropped ceiling is a secondary ceiling, hung below the main (structural) ceiling.
It may also be referred to as a drop ceiling, T-bar ceiling, false ceiling, suspended ceiling,
grid ceiling, drop in ceiling, drop out ceiling, or ceiling tiles and is a staple of modern
construction and architecture in both residential and commercial applications.
 Benefits of gypsum false ceiling:
1. Easy and cheap
2. Light weight
3. Flexible
4. Fire resistant
5. Good sound absorption capacity
Installation of false ceiling:
1. Mark the area of the false ceiling on the soffit (main ceiling) with points at
distances of 4 feet each. Drill a 12mm hole at each of these points. Mark points on
the walls at the height where the false ceiling will be suspended below the main
ceiling.
2. Affix a rawl plug in each hole and fix a soffit cleat through the rawl plug. Fix a
metal ceiling angle strip to the soffit cleat. These installations (at each point)
become the anchor points of the false ceiling.
3. Fix a perimeter channel on the walls at the height where the false ceiling will be
suspended below the main ceiling. This acts as the frame for the false ceiling.
4. Connect the free ends of the metal ceiling angle strips to the perimeter channel
using intermediate channels with metal-to-metal screws. This completes the fixed
part of the false ceiling, which anchors the suspended false ceiling.
5. Snug-fit the ceiling sections to the perimeter channel, perpendicular to the
intermediate channels, at distances of 1.5 feet each. These form the skeletal frame
for attaching plasterboards.
6. Connect ceiling sections to the intermediate channels using a connecting clip. This
offers a strong and flexible joint, facilitating easy installation of plasterboards.
7. Fix plasterboards of the desired thickness to the ceiling sections with drywall
screws. Fix boards in a staggered layout so that joints do not appear in continuous
straight lines. This reduces the possibilities of cracks in the future.
8. Cover joints and edges of plasterboards using jointing compound and paper tape
to strengthen the joints. Give a smooth finish to the plasterboard with skimming
plaster. The false ceiling is now paint-ready.

2.3.3 Tiling
A tile is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone,
metal, or even glass, generally used for covering roofs, floors, walls, showers, or other
objects such as tabletops. Alternatively, tile can sometimes refer to similar units made
from lightweight materials such as perlite, wood, and mineral wool, typically used for
wall and ceiling applications. In another sense, a tile is a construction tile or similar
object, such as rectangular counters used in playing games (see tile-based game).
 The word is derived from the French word tuile, which is, in turn, from the Latin
word tegula, meaning a roof tile composed of fired clay.
Tiles are often used to form wall and floor coverings, and can range from simple square
tiles to complex mosaics. Tiles are most often made of ceramic, typically glazed for
internal uses and unglazed for roofing, but other materials are also commonly used, such
as glass, cork, concrete and other composite materials, and stone. Tiling stone is typically
marble, onyx, granite or slate. Thinner tiles can be used on walls than on floors, which
require more durable surfaces that will resist impacts.

2.3.5.1 Wall and dado tiling

 Applying tiles to the wall
1. Apply full tiles before cut tiles. Start either at the vertical center line or from a full
tile edge.
2. Apply tile adhesive to the wall, covering a small manageable area at a time until
you get the hang of things. Spread it with a notched trowel so that all areas are evenly
ribbed. For hard to reach areas, spread the adhesive on the back of the tile before placing
it.
3. Place tiles carefully in the pattern.
4. Use your level often to check horizontal and vertical alignment of tiles as you go.
5. When all the full tiles are glued, wipe away any adhesive in unoccupied spaces. Do
not allow it to dry. Leave the full tiles 4 or 5 hours to set, before removing furring strips,
and/or applying the cut tiles.
6. When measuring a tile for cutting, allow for the width of grout lines.
7. Cutting tiles in a straight line is not difficult, and gets easier the better your cutter
is. If you have more than a dozen visible cuts, hire a good tile cutter.
8: For curved cuts or notches, mark the area of tile to be removed with a pencil. Use
tile nippers to cautiously nip away the waste, a little at a time. If the cut will be covered
by fixture plates or flanges, the cut doesn't need to be perfect. To apply a tile completely
around a pipe, first cut the tile in half, then nip away the space for the pipe.
 2.3.5.2 Floor tiling
The floor surface must be clean, dry, sound, flat and rigid. Smooth concrete is
ideal, as it's perfectly rigid. However, concrete floors should be at least four months old
before tiling, so most of the shrinkage in the concrete has occurred.
 Laying the tiles:
1. Starting at your chosen edge, or from the Centre line, lay tiles in one quarter of the
floor at a time.
2. Lay all full tiles before laying cut tiles.
3. As you lay, check the lines of tiles are straight and at 90° to each other.
4. Floor tiles are often thicker, and have to be stronger than wall tiles. They can be
difficult to cut. For smooth curved cuts and cutouts use a rod saw. Support the tile well
while cutting.
5. Use a contour gauge to duplicate irregular shapes, or make cardboard patterns. Cut out
as neatly as possible, then transfer the shape to the tile.

Fig no 2.27 Floor tiling

 Fig no 2.28 Ceramic wall tiling

2.3.4 Texture & Painting

Texture
Texture refers to the surface quality in a work of art. We associate textures with
the way that things look or feel. Everything has some type of texture. We describe things
as being rough, smooth, silky, shiny, fuzzy and so on. Some things feel just as they
appear; this is called real or actual texture. Some things look like they are rough but are
actually smooth. Texture that is created to look like something it is not, is called visual or
implied texture.
Texture may be used in a work of art to:
 Create visual interest or a focal point in a composition
 Create contrast within a design composition
 Help visually balance a design composition
In construction of buildings, owners or builders provide texture to their projects
externally to improve the elevation as well as the look of the structure. The texture is
usually provided after the external plaster of the building is completed and is finished by
painting the structure which makes it look mare esthetic.
Textured Coatings is designed to be an economical alternative to textured
elastomeric coatings. It is a high quality, acrylic latex high build coating for use on many
interior and exterior surfaces. The built-in texture helps to disguise rough and irregular
surfaces.
 Textured Coatings may also be tinted to best suit your needs. Acrylic Texture is a
high quality, flexible, base coat render. Simply trowel on and float to finish. Acrylic
Texture offers economy as no sponging is required. Acrylic Texture is both quick and
easy to use and has been formulated for use over both standard and difficult substrates
such as previously painted masonry, off-form concrete, AAC panels or blocks, fibre
cement sheet and plasterboard. Acrylic Texture is recommended for over coating with
protective membranes and can be tinted to assist in coverage of subsequent coating
systems.
Features:
• Water based
• Excellent adhesion qualities
• Economical
Benefits:
• Easy to apply and finish
• No mixing required
• Flexible
• Highly crack resistant
Uses:
• Suitable for application over properly prepared substrates such as brick, block,
cement render, concrete, cement sheeting, AAC panels/blocks and plasterboard
• Can be used interior and exterior
• Must be over coated with two coats of paints.

Fig no 2.29 Rainfall texture

 Fig no 2.30 Circular trowel texture

Painting
There are many purposes for using paint in building construction. These includes
increase the visual appeal of building surface, protect surface against weathering impact,
make the surface water proof, protect surface from termite attack and increase the surface
durability. In building, you will find two places to paint up on:
1. Exterior
2. Interior

2.3.6.1 External painting

Painting the external textured walls of a building is nothing but external painting
work. Prior to making good, walls should be pressure washed and a coat of primer /sealer
applied. Rub down and make good where repairs required. Exterior paint must have
weather resisting capability. It can be oil based or water based. But oil based paint is not
generally recommended for exterior painting. Following types of exterior paint are
available in market –

Cement paint- It is water based paint. It gives nice finish to newly constructed building.

Acrylic emulsion- It has high capability to withstand against weathering impact. It gives
surface a nice and durable finish.
Textured plaster- It is also emulsion based paint. But the surface protection capability of
textured plaster is much better than other emulsion paint.

2.3.6.2 Internal painting

To increase the visual appeal and smoothness of wall surface and ceiling interior
paint is done. Following types of paints can be used as interior paint -
Distemper: Distemper is common type paint used in interior wall and ceiling for
protecting and decorating brick wall, concrete and plastered surface. Variety of
distempers are available in the market. Such as acrylic distemper, synthetic distemper, dry
distemper etc. Acrylic distemper is washable and can be applied on plaster, wall and
Asbestos. Synthetic and dry distemper are not washable.
Plastic paint: It is also called plastic emulsion paint or interior emulsion paint. It is water
base paint.
Paint Application
 The paint system would be emulsion paint for internal but to be approved by the
Engineer. The surface to be painted when prepared one coat of paint to be applied
as primer. Curing would be made by drying until 4 hours is attained prior to the
succeeding coat to be applied.
 Two coats of Stucco would be applied after primer has reached its curing period.
But each coat shall have an interval time of 4 hours for curing. Before the
application of second coat stucco sanding would be done for cleaning and
removing of splattered, blemishes and stains on the painted surface.
 Then two coats of final paint would be applied as per the approved RAL color.
 For working at height, fixed and movable scaffolding would be erected as per area
requirements. Scaffolding when erected shall be inspected with Safety officer
prior to usage. Operatives will be inductive before working at site. Pre-start
meeting would be conducted before the start of painting activities and tool box
meeting would be regularly conducted by safety officer for all concern operatives.
Inspection Request to be submitted for checking and approval of the Engineer.
General Safety:
1. All works shall comply with safety procedure or instruction set out in project
safety plan and Municipality rules and regulations.
2. Basic PPE to be worn by all staff or laborers.
3. All operatives involve in this work shall be inducted before entering the site.
4. Tool box talk shall be conducted regularly.

Fig no 2.31 Interior painting

Fig no. 2.31 External painting

 Fig no 2.32 Ceiling painting

2.3.7 Plumbing
Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications.
Heating and cooling, waste removal, and potable water delivery are among the most
common uses for plumbing however plumbing's not limited to these applications.
Plumbing utilizes pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, and other apparatuses to convey
fluids. Trades that work with plumbing such as boilermakers, plumbers, and pipefitters
are referred to the plumbing trade. In the Developed world plumbing infrastructure is
critical for public health and sanitation.
 The major categories of plumbing systems or subsystems are:
1. Potable cold and hot tap water supply
2. Plumbing drainage venting
3. Sewage systems and septic systems with or without hot water heat recycling and
gray water recovery and treatment systems
4. Rainwater, surface, and subsurface water drainage fuel gas piping hydronics, i.e.
heating and cooling systems utilizing water to transport thermal energy, as in
district heating systems, like for example the New York City steam system.
 For plumbing purposes, the term “multi-storey” is applied to buildings that are too
tall to be supplied throughout by the normal pressure in the public water mains. These
buildings have particular needs in the design of their sanitary drainage and venting
systems. Water main supply pressures of 8–12 meters (25–40 feet) can supply a typical
two-storey building, but higher buildings may need pressure booster systems. In hilly
areas, the drinking-water supply pressures will vary depending on the ground elevation.
In these cases, the water authority may have to specify areas where particular supply
pressures can be relied upon for the design and operation of buildings. Where a building
of three or more storeys is proposed a certificate should be obtained from the drinking-
water supply authority guaranteeing that the present and future public drinking-water
supply pressure will be adequate to serve the building. If the public water pressure is
inadequate, suitable means shall be provided within the building to boost the water
pressure.

Drainage system considerations:

In the drainage system for a multi-storey building, the drains from the plumbing
fixtures are connected to vertical drain stacks that convey the waste and sewage to below
the lowest floor of the building. The fixture drain traps must be vented to prevent their
water trap seal from being siphoned by negative pressure or blown out by positive
pressure in the drain piping. The fixture vent pipes must extend through the roof to
outdoors.
Wherever possible, the sanitary drainage system from a building should discharge
to the public sewer by gravity. All plumbing fixtures located below ground level should
be pumped into the public sewer or the drainage system leading to the sewer. The pump
line should be as short as possible and looped up to a point not less than 0.6 meters (24
inches) above ground level to prevent back siphonage of sewage. A principal concern of
all dual systems is the assurance that no cross-connections have occurred during
installation or repair.
Correct installation of non-return devices will prevent hot water from entering the
cold water system in the event of an interruption of pressure. Regulations controlling the
delivery of hot water from a hot water vessel may require tempered or thermostatically
controlled water in all ablution areas, aged persons‟ homes, hospitals, schools and other
public places, and use of thermostatically controlled mixing valves is encouraged where
practicable. The acceptable temperature of hot water systems at the tap should be
determined in concert with public health officials.

Hot water supply system:

Dual drinking-water supply systems are those in which two different grades of
water are available in separate piping systems. An example is the provision of a tap at a
sink supplying water directly from the incoming water service while all other fixtures are
fed from a storage tank. In developed countries, the most common is a secondary system
of piping carrying hot water to sink, washbasin and bath.
 Requirements relating to installation and protection of water storage tanks:
• Tanks must be installed on bases, platforms or supports designed to bear the weight
of the tank when it is filled to maximum capacity, without undue distortion taking place.
• Metal tanks (and other tanks when similarly specified) should be installed with a
membrane of non-corrosive insulating material between the support and the underside of
the tank.
• Tanks must be supported in such a manner that no load is transmitted to any of the
attached pipes.
• Tanks must be accessible for inspection, repairs, maintenance and replacement.
• Tanks must be provided with a cover, designed to prevent the entry of dust, roof
water, surface water, groundwater, birds, animals or insects.
• Insulation from heat and cold should also be provided.
• Tanks storing potable water should not be located directly beneath any sanitary
plumbing or any other pipes conveying non-potable water.

2.3.7.1 Concealed Drainage

Plumbing of pipes for drainage of soil waste and sullage in bathrooms and kitchens is
usually carried out , concealed into the ‘Brick Bat Water proofing’ method which is a
traditional method of water proofing in residential buildings. The configuration of these pipes
depends on the location of the toilet relative to pre-existing plumbing and the construction of
the building.
 Common procedure for any plumbing work of bathroom drains is:
1. Install a 4-inch vertical PVC pipe that extends from a point at least one foot above
the toilet bowl to the sewer. This is the soil stack and it should tie into the sewer
with long sweep wye, or "Y"-shaped, fitting. Use a plastic wye if the sewer pipe is
 plastic, but if the sewer is cast iron, install a cast iron wye with a threaded inlet
and screw on a PVC adapter. Glue the soil stack to the plastic wye or the adapter
with PVC cement.
2. Place the drain for the toilet at a location in the bathroom that will provide enough
clearance for the toilet when it is installed; 12 inches from the back wall is
suitable for most toilets.
3. Cut a 3- or 4-inch diameter hole for the drain in the subfloor with a reciprocating
saw. The size of the hole depends on what size waste pipe you plan to use. A 3-
inch line provides better drainage, but if the distance to the soil stack is more than
6 feet, 4-inch pipe is required.
4. Fit a closet flange of the appropriate diameter into the hole in the bathroom and
screw it to the subfloor with a screwdriver. The flange holds the toilet to the floor
and forms the connection between the toilet and the waste line. Glue a closet
elbow to the flange pipe under the subfloor with PVC cement. The elbow should
be pointed in the direction of the soil stack.
5. Glue PVC pipe to the elbow and extend it to the soil stack, maintaining a
downward slope toward the stack of 1/8 to 1/4 inch per foot. Cut into the stack
and glue in a 4-inch sanitary tee with a 3- or 4-inch opening, depending on the
size of the waste line. Glue the waste line to the tee.
6. Reduce the size of the opening of the top of the soil stack to 2 inches with a
reducing coupling. Glue 2-inch PVC pipe to the reducer and extend it through the
roof. This pipe vents the toilet and should terminate 1 foot above the roof line.

2.3.7.2 Wall Conceal plumbing

Plumbing pipes for water supply in various fitting of bathroom like shower, flush
valve, spout, jet spray and basin, are concealed into the walls and are then finished with
mortar and are covered by tiles to improve the esthetic look of the bathroom. The
plumbing conceal work is carried out as per the architects detailing plans and position of
sanitary fittings.
 Common procedure for plumbing in bathrooms for water supply is:
1. Choose an existing copper pipe that carries cold water near the toilet and shut off
the water to that pipe. Cut into it with a pipe cutter and solder in a copper tee with a
1/2-inch outlet.
 2. Assemble a supply line for the toilet with 1/2-inch copper pipe and fittings. It
should run from the tee to the wall behind the toilet and extend about 2 inches beyond the
wall under the tank. Solder all the joints after you have assembled the supply line, and
affix the line to a stud in the wall behind the toilet with a pipe clamp.
3. Terminate the water supply line with a shut off valve. You can either solder the
valve to the pipes, or install a valve with a compression fitting. Make sure the valve is
closed before you turn the water back on.
Toilet plumbing can be complex, especially when there are obstructions, and if you
install the pipes incorrectly, your toilet won't work properly. Consult a licensed plumber
whenever you aren't sure how to proceed.
You must get a permit from your local building department before roughing-in a new
toilet.

Fig no 2.33 Toilet Conceal plumbing

 Fig no 2.34 Two pipe system of plumbing

2.3.5 Electrical work

Electricity supply is a basic need of the modern world, since all appliances from
lights, fans, televisions, washing machines etc. work on electricity. Thus, electricity is a
must need in and type of building. In construction industry a licensed person , in charge
of the electrical work, should be given right instructions and layout plans for completing
the electrical work satisfactory and safely. It is necessary to study how the various types
of loads are connected to the supply. This helps in planning the requirement of materials,
tools, equipments etc. before starting any work.
 Some important specifications for electric conceal work in RCC buildings are:
1. Wiring: Wires shall conform to IS: 694 and comply the following features:-
a) PVC insulated stranded copper conductors.
b) 1100V grade wires for single phase and 3 phase circuits.
c) Color coded as:
• Phase-R - Red
• Phase-Y - Yellow
• Phase-B - Blue
• Neutral – Black
2. Conduit Wiring shall be complete with Following:
a) Conduits and accessories
b) Wires & Interconnection
c) Control switches and sockets.
d) Outlet box with earthing & terminal connector.
3. Light /fan point wiring shall be carried out with 3(three) wires of 1.5 sq.mm.
(1/1.4mm) copper PVC wires of 1100V grade along with earth continuity conductor of
same size with M.S box, 5A / 6A poly carbonate modular type with top pressed cover
switch and other accessories on MS moduler box shall be installed for fan regulator &
light points.
4. All systems being engineered by the vendor shall be effectively bonded to ensure earth
continuity throughout the system. Continuity shall be provided by means of a separate
earth continuity conductor for wiring in conduits. The earth continuity conductors shall as
far as possible be in one continuous length to the farthest part of the installation from the
controlling switchboard. The earth conductor shall connect all metal cases housing
electrical equipment. The branches shall be connected to the main conductor by crimped
joints.
5. 2 pairs of 0.5 mm diameter screened & shielded telephone wire in 20 mm diameter
PVC conduit partly/fully concealed in types of walls, floor etc. complete with all
accessories, wiring terminators, etc including supply of 16 SWG GI fish wire conduit and
accessories. Modular type telephone connectors in suitable size PVC box concealed to
wall including all civil works. 20 pair telephone tag block with crone connectors housed
in suitable MS junction box.
Apart from these there are many other specifications which are to be considered.
At construction site, main electrical points such as for ceiling fans or lights are concealed
into the slab itself and all other electric work is concealed in flooring tiles and walls with
proper finish over it.
 Fig no 2.35 Electric conceal work of slab

Fig no 2.36 Electric main distribution board (DB)

2.4 Possession Process
Owning a house is the ultimate dream of most people since time immemorial as it
gives a secured feeling to an individual. But the satisfaction that the buyer gets while
taking possession of his dream home is simply unexplainable. However, it is imperative
that the buyer remains cautious while doing so.
At times, the buyer may be duped by the builder / seller concerned who may have
promised a gamut of amenities, features or likewise at the start of construction. But at the
time of handing over the unit to the respective buyer, there are several unfulfilled
promises seen by the home buyer. These can vary from being an illegal property to poor
construction quality to not providing the promised amenities within the said project. As a
result, the buyer feels cheated. Hence, to avoid a situation like this it is better that buyer‟s
do a detailed check of the property they are going to take for possession.
The checklist can be broadly classified into two categories – List of Documents to Verify
and Things to check within the project and respective unit.
 The common checklist carried out by tenants in a re development project is as per
their agreement with the builder, which generally includes:
 Amenities: Builders promise a plethora of amenities such as swimming pool, club
house and gym, to name a few, at the time of booking. However, it may happen
that some of these may be delayed, or not in a non-desirable condition at the time
of possession. If not then, ensure that these amenities are made available as per the
agreement later on.
 Lifts and common areas: Check if the lifts, if any, are in the working condition
especially if your unit is higher up. Besides this, you also need to see if the
common areas are well-lit and have the promised flooring and tiling within it.
 Features and fittings: While taking possession of your unit, it is important that
you check the fittings and features promised to you at the time of booking. These
fittings include the electrical switchboard, door knobs, bathroom fittings, etc. You
must check whether the builder is providing the same or equivalent brand.
 Doors and windows: One must do a due diligence at the time of possession.
Ensure that your apartment has all the doors and windows at the designated places
as per the plan. Check the quality of the doors and the windows as per the
agreement. In case of a net mesh in windows, please check that it has been
 properly installed. Also ensure that both doors and windows are opening and
closing smoothly as well as have proper latching in them.
 Wall Paints: Wall paints need to be checked before taking possession of your
dream home. All rooms must have double coat paint with no visible patches.
Besides checking window and balcony grills paint, exterior painting should also
be ideally complete at the time of possession.
 Look for cracks: One of the most common issues visible at the time of
possession is the cracks in the wall. One must carefully look for the cracks in the
foundation, ceilings and walls, which essentially indicate movement of the
structure caused by settling, soil expansion etc. Check for cracks on the walls,
especially along the electrical sockets.
 Drainage outlets: This is also one of the important things you need to check
before taking possession of a new flat. Clogged outlets are one of the most
common issues one encounters when he moves into a new house. Hence, it is
advisable that you check all drainage outlets in balconies, bathrooms, kitchen,
utility, etc. are working and not clogged.
 Check for leakages: Besides verifying the bathroom fittings as per specifications,
it is imperative we check that all taps and bathroom fittings are in working
condition. Ensure there are no leakages while opening or closing taps. Ensure that
sink in the kitchen is properly installed and that the water is not leaking down
below it. Observe if any leakages are seen in your bathroom or kitchen. These
leakages can be easily addressed at this stage rather than later on.
 Check switches and plug-points: Ensure that all the sockets, plugs and bulb
holders are connected to the main supply. Also check if main fuse in the house is
controlling complete current supply. If case of an inverter, ensure the supply shift
to the inverter if the main switch is switched off. Verify if all switches and plug-
points are working. Check if the extra electrical sockets/switches you had asked
for are provided as per requirement. Also see if the miniature circuit breaker
(MCB) is of good quality.
 Obtain all sets of keys: Make sure that all sets of keys are obtained. In case, the
property is bought from the builder, the maintenance agency usually has a set of
keys. This too should be obtained at the time of possession.
 While a buyer may have gone through the necessary documents and may have
done a site visit before buying a property, it is important to be doubly sure that everything
is in place as expected. This simple checklist will help you have peace of mind before
occupying that dream home.

2.5 Site management and planning

Site management is the overall planning, coordination, and control of a project
from beginning to completion. Site management is aimed at meeting a client's
requirement in order to produce a functionally and financially viable project. The
construction industry is composed of five sectors: residential, commercial, heavy civil,
industrial, and environmental. A construction manager holds the same responsibilities and
completes the same processes in each sector. All that separates a construction manager in
one sector from one in another is the knowledge of the construction site. This may include
different types of equipment, materials, subcontractors, and possibly locations.
The quantity surveyor is primarily responsible for the financial planning of the
construction company‟s operations. They deal with all financial aspects such as
payments for suppliers, invoicing of clients, claims for variations and final accounts. The
quantity surveyor will deal with the cash flow of the business. This is the amount of
money flowing into the company from clients and the amount flowing out in
payments. The quantity surveyor will plan the periods when the company will receive
payment for the work undertaken on behalf of their clients. These are called valuation
dates and are normally at 30 day intervals in accordance with the contract between the
company and its client.
Planning is a general term that sets a clear road map that should be followed to
reach a destination. The term, therefore, has been used at different levels to mean
different things. Planning involves the breakdown of the project into definable,
measurable, and identifiable tasks/activities, and then establishes the logical
interdependences among them. Generally, planning answers three main questions:
What is to be done? How to do it? Who does it?
In construction, for example, plans may exist at several levels: corporate strategic
plans, pre-tender plans, pre-contract plans, short-term construction plans, and long-term
construction plans.
 These plans are different from each other; however, all these plans involve four
main steps:
 Performing breakdown of work items involved in the project into activities.
 Identifying the proper sequence by which the activities should be executed.
 Activities representation.
 Estimating the resources, time and cost of individual activities.

Project Planning Steps:

The following steps may be used as a guideline, or checklist to develop a project
plan:
1. Define the scope of work, method statement, and sequence of work.
2. Generate the work breakdown structure (WBS) to produce a complete list of activities.
3. Develop the organization breakdown structure (OBS) and link it with work
4. Determine the relationship between activities.
5. Estimate activities time duration, cost expenditure, and resource requirement.
6. Develop the project network.
 Chapter 3
CONCLUSION

Hereby, I am blessed to say that this practical training has helped me to

understand the deeper & quality aspects of civil engineering & in general, the training
was a great experience. I have learnt to cope up with many practical problems, which
aroused at my site & are likely to arise in future. It has given me the confidence to work
practically on sites and handle them on my own to some extent.
The various benefits, which I have obtained from the organization where I
was placed for training are:
1) A fair knowledge of general work done on the site.
2) A sound knowledge of studying plans & preparation of site and also learnt
the correct attitude required to work in the organization.
3) A certificate of experience, which will be ever useful to me.
In our institute, we gained theoretical knowledge which helped me to relate it with
the practical knowledge learnt on site.
In a nut shell, this scheme as inplant training provides a lot of scope for
learning & all students should try to derive maximum advantage of it. I am proud to be a
part of this INPLANT TRAINING.
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9. http://http://www.ehow.com last visited on: 6/5/16

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visited on: 8/5/16

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17. http://www.nbmcw.com/articles/concrete/25057-significance-of-curing-of-

concrete-for-durability-of-structures.html last visited on:15/5/16

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to acknowledge and express my gratitude to the following people

who had helped us to make this training a success and unforgettable experience. It‟s my
good luck that I have joined the best college in engineering –SBM Polytechnic. Our
institute has implemented „Inplant Training‟ as a part of syllabus in our courses will prove
to be very fruitfull in upcoming years of my career.
I owe a great many thanks to many people from my organization and also my
institute, who helped and supported me in this „Inplant Training Period‟.
Hereby, I convey my gratitude to our professor, Shri. Sandeep N. Ranshur for
his supervision and proper guidance throughout the training.
I also express my gratitude to our H.O.D Shri. Vinod B. Vanvari for his vital
encouragement, inspiration regarding training and placement in organization.
I convey my thanks to our Principal, Shri. Umesh Kantute for providing the
opportunity of inplant training as a part of our diploma course

I wish to place on record my words of gratitude to the owner of my organization

Mr. Ritesh Shah (Director, Rite Developers Pvt, Ltd), for his timely guidance and
training.
I also wish to thank, my site engineers, supervisors, staff members of Rite
Developers, for their co-ordination and co-operation during my training.

Manasi Bhalchandra Rane

(Roll No. 1210022, Semester VIII)