Ali

Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: ‫ َﻋ ِﻠﻲ ا ْﺑﻦ ا ِﺑﻲ َﻃﺎ ِﻟﺐ‬,
romanized: ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib; 13 September
601 – 29 January 661)[2][3] was the cousin
and son-in-law of Muhammad, the last
prophet of Islam. He ruled as the fourth
caliph from 656 to 661, but is regarded as
the rightful immediate successor to
Muhammad as an Imam by Shia Muslims.
 Ali ibn Abi Talib
Haydar
Abu Turab
Al-Murtaza

Rashidun Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib - ‫ﻋﻠﻲ ﺑﻦ أﺑﻲ‬

‫ﻃﺎﻟﺐ‬.svg
Calligraphic representation of Ali's name
4th Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate
(Sunni View)
Reign 656–661[1]

Predecessor Uthman ibn Affan

Successor Hasan ibn Ali

1st Imam of Shia Islam
Reign 632–661

Successor Hasan ibn Ali (2nd Imam)

Born 15 September 601

 (13 Rajab 21 BH)[1][2][3]
Inside Ka'bah, Mecca,
Hijaz, Arabian
Peninsula[1][4]
(present-day Saudi Arabia)

Died 29 January 661

(21 Ramadan AH 40)
(aged 59)[2][3][5][6]
Kufa, Mesopotamia,
Rashidun Caliphate
(present-day Iraq) killer
Abdur Rahman ibne
Muljim

Burial Imam Ali Mosque,

Najaf, Iraq

Spouses Fatimah
Umamah bint Zainab

l
 Umm ul-Banin
Leila bint Masoud
Asma bint Umays
Khawlah bint Ja'far
Al Sahba' bint Rabi'ah

Issue Descendants of Ali

Al-Hasan
Al-Husayn
Zaynab
Umm Kulthum
Muhsin
Muhammad
Abbas
Abdullah
Hilal
Muhammad ibn Abu
Bakr (stepson)
 Bakr (stepson)

Full name

'Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib Arabic: ‫َﻋ ِﻠﻲ ا ْﺑﻦ ا ِﺑﻲ َﻃﺎ ِﻟﺐ‬

Tribe Quraysh (Banu Hashim)

Father Abu Talib ibn 'Abd al-

Muttalib

Mother Fatimah bint Asad

Religion Hanif (as of 610)/Islam

 ʿAlī bin Abī Ṭālib
Hakob Hovnatanian - Ali ibn Abi Talib.jpg
ʿAlī bin Abī Ṭālib by Hakob Hovnatanyan (c. 19th
century)

Sunnism: Rightly-Guided Caliph

Shiism: First Imam
All Islam: Ahl al-Bayt, Ṣaḥābī, Martyr;
Commander of the Faithful, One Promised
Paradise, The Door to the City of Knowledge, One
whom God Favored, The Great News, Leader of the
God-conscious, Lion of God, Brave-heart, Leader
of the Knights of God, Father of the Dust, King of
the Saints, Leader of the Saints

Venerated in All Islam (Salafis honor

rather than venerate
him).

Major shrine Imam Ali Mosque,

 Najaf, Iraq

Ali was born inside the sacred sanctuary

of the Kaaba in Mecca, the holiest place in
Islam, to Abu Talib[7] and Fatimah bint
Asad.[1][8][9] He was the first male who
accepted Islam,[10][11] and, according to
some authors, the first Muslim.[12] Ali
protected Muhammad from an early
age[13] and took part in almost all the
battles fought by the nascent Muslim
community. After migrating to Medina, he
married Muhammad's daughter Fatimah.[1]
He was appointed caliph by Muhammad's
companions in 656, after Caliph Uthman
ibn Affan was assassinated.[14][15] Ali's
reign saw civil wars and in 661, he was
attacked and assassinated by a Kharijite
while praying in the Great Mosque of Kufa,
being martyred two days later.[16][17][18]

Ali is important to both Shias and Sunnis,

politically and spiritually.[19] The numerous
biographical sources about Ali are often
biased according to sectarian lines, but
they agree that he was a pious Muslim,
devoted to the cause of Islam and a just
ruler in accordance with the Qur'an and the
Sunnah.[2] While Sunnis consider Ali the
fourth and final of the Rashidun (rightly
guided) caliphs, Shia Muslims regard Ali
as the first Imam after Muhammad due to
their interpretation of the events at Ghadir
Khumm. Shia Muslims also believe that Ali
and the other Shia Imams (all of whom are
from the Ahl al-Bayt, Muhammad's
household) are the rightful successors to
Muhammad. Ali has also received
recognition from a variety of non-Muslim
organizations, such as the United Nations
and the World Organization for Human
Rights, for his governance and social
justice.[20][21][22][23]

Life in Mecca
Early years
Ali's father, Abu Talib, was the custodian of
the Ka'bah and a sheikh of Banu Hashim,
an important branch of the powerful
Quraysh tribe. He was also an uncle of
Muhammad, and had raised Muhammad
after Abdul Muttalib (Abu Talib's father and
Muhammad's grandfather) died.[24][25] Ali's
mother, Fatima bint Asad, also belonged to
Banu Hashim, making Ali a descendant of
Ismā'īl (Ishmael) the son of Ibrāhīm
(Abraham).[26] Many sources, especially
Shi'i ones, attest that Ali was born inside
the Kaaba in the city of Mecca,[1][27] where
he stayed with his mother for three
days.[1][9] His mother reportedly felt the
beginning of her labour pain while visiting
the Kaaba and entered it where her son
was born. Some Shia sources contain
miraculous descriptions of the entrance of
Ali's mother into the Kaaba. Ali's birth in
the Kaaba is regarded as a unique event
proving his "high spiritual station" among
Shia, while Sunni scholars consider it a
great, if not unique, distinction.[28]

According to a tradition, Muhammad was

the first person whom Ali saw as he took
the newborn in his hands. Muhammad
named him Ali, meaning "the exalted one".
Muhammad had a close relationship with
Ali's parents. When Muhammad was
orphaned and later lost his grandfather
Abdul Muttalib, Ali's father took him into
his house.[1] Ali was born two or three
years after Muhammad married Khadijah
bint Khuwaylid.[29] When Ali was five years
old, Muhammad took Ali into his home to
raise him. Some historians say that this
was because there was a famine in Mecca
at the time and that Ali's father had a large
family to support; however, others point
out that feeding Ali would not have been a
burden on his father, as Ali was five years
old at the time and, despite the famine,
Ali's father, who was financially well-off,
was known for giving food to strangers if
they were hungry.[30] While it is not
disputed that Muhammad raised Ali, it was
not due to any financial stress that Ali's
father was going through.

Father's Day

Many Shia Muslims also celebrate Imam

Ali's birth anniversary (13th day of Rajab)
as Father's Day in Iran.[31] The Gregorian
date for this changes every year:

Year Gregorian date

2018 31 March[32]

2019 21 March[33]

Acceptance of Islam

Ali had been living with Muhammad and

Muhammad's wife Khadija since he was
five years old. When Ali was nine,
Muhammad announced himself as the
Prophet of Islam, and Ali became the first
male to accept Islam. He was the second
person, after Khadija, to accept Islam.
According to Sayed Ali Asgher Razwy in A
Restatement of the History of Islam &
Muslims, "Ali and [the] Qur'an 'grew up'
together as 'twins' in the house of
Muhammad Mustafa and Khadija-tul-
Kubra."[34]

The second period of Ali's life began in

610 when he declared Islam at the age of
9, and ended with the Hijra of Muhammad
to Medina in 622.[1] When Muhammad
reported that he had received a divine
revelation, Ali, then only about nine years
old, believed him and professed to
Islam.[1][2][35][36][37] Ali became the first
male to embrace Islam.[38][39][40][41] Shia
doctrine asserts that in keeping with Ali's
divine mission, he accepted Islam before
he took part in any old Meccan traditional
religion rites, regarded by Muslims as
polytheistic (see shirk) or paganistic.
Hence the Shia say of Ali that his face is
honoured, as it was never sullied by
prostrations before idols.[35] The Sunnis
also use the honorific Karam Allahu
Wajhahu, which means "God's Favour upon
his Face." The reason his acceptance is
often not called a conversion is because
he was never an idol worshipper like the
people of Mecca. He was known to have
broken idols in the mould of Abraham and
asked people why they worshipped
something they made themselves.[42] Ali's
grandfather, along with some members of
the Bani Hashim clan, were Hanifs, or
followers of a monotheistic belief system
prior to the emergence of Islam in Mecca.

Feast of Dhul Asheera

Muhammad invited people to Islam in

secret for three years before he started
inviting them publicly. In the fourth year of
his preaching, when Muhammad was
commanded to invite his close relatives to
come to Islam,[43] he gathered the Banu
Hashim clan in a ceremony. At the
banquet, he was about to invite them to
Islam when Abu Lahab interrupted him,
after which everyone left the banquet. The
Prophet ordered Ali to invite the 40 people
again. The second time, Muhammad
announced Islam to them and invited them
to join.[44] He said to them:

I offer thanks to Allah for His

mercies. I praise Allah, and I
seek His guidance. I believe in
Him and I put my trust in Him. I
bear witness that there is no god
except Allah; He has no
partners; and I am His
messenger. Allah has
commanded me to invite you to
His religion by saying: And warn
thy nearest kinsfolk. I, therefore,
warn you, and call upon you to
testify that there is no god but
Allah, and that I am His
messenger. O ye sons of Abdul
Muttalib, no one ever came to
you before with anything better
than what I have brought to
 you. By accepting it, your
welfare will be assured in this
world and in the Hereafter. Who
among you will support me in
carrying out this momentous
duty? Who will share the burden
of this work with me? Who will
respond to my call? Who will
become my vicegerent, my
deputy and my wazir?[45]

Ali was the only one to answer

Muhammad's call. Muhammad told him to
sit down, saying, "Wait! Perhaps someone
older than you might respond to my call."
Muhammad then asked the members of
Banu Hashim a second time. Once again,
Ali was the only one to respond, and again,
Muhammad told him to wait. Muhammad
then asked the members of Banu Hashim
a third time; Ali was still the only volunteer.
This time, Ali's offer was accepted by
Muhammad. Muhammad "drew [Ali] close,
pressed him to his heart, and said to the
assembly: 'This is my wazir, my successor
and my vicegerent. Listen to him and obey
his commands.'"[46] In another narration,
when Muhammad accepted Ali's eager
offer, Muhammad "threw up his arms
around the generous youth, and pressed
him to his bosom" and said, "Behold my
brother, my vizir, my vicegerent...Let all
listen to his words, and obey him."[47] Upon
hearing this, the sons of Abd al-Muttalib
departed from the feast, mocking
Muhammad's words, as they scoffed at
Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, "He has
ordered you to listen and obey your
son!".[48]:17 In Tarikh ut-Tabari and as-
Seerat ul Halabiyya, it has been recorded
that Abu Talib asks his son Ali, "What is
this belief you are following?" to which Ali
replies, "Father, I have believed in Allah and
His Messenger, and have given credence
to him, kept to him, and followed him."[48]
Sir Richard Burton writes about the
banquet in his 1898 book, saying, "It won
for [Muhammad] a proselyte worth a
thousand sabers in the person of Ali, son
of Abu Talib."[49]

During the oppression of Muslims

During the persecution of Muslims and

boycott of the Banu Hashim in Mecca, Ali
stood firmly in support of Muhammad.[50]

Migration to Medina

In 622, the year of Muhammad's migration

to Yathrib (now Medina), Ali risked his life
by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to
impersonate him and thwart an
assassination plot on Muhammad so that
Muhammad could escape in
safety.[1][35][51] This night is called Laylat al-
Mabit. According to some ahadith, a verse
was revealed about Ali concerning his
sacrifice on the night of Hijra which says
"And among men is he who sells his nafs
(self) in exchange for the pleasure of
Allah."[52][53]

Ali survived the plot, but risked his life

again by staying in Mecca to carry out
Muhammad's instructions: to restore to
their owners all the goods and properties
that had been entrusted to Muhammad for
safekeeping. Ali then went to Medina with
Fatimah bint Asad (his mother), Fatimah
bint Muhammad (Muhammad's daughter),
and two other women.[2][35]

Life in Medina
Muhammad's era

Ali was 22 or 23 years old when he

migrated to Medina. When Muhammad
was creating bonds of brotherhood among
his companions, he selected Ali as his
brother, claiming that "Ali and I belong to
the same tree, while people belong to
different trees."[2][35][54][48] For the ten years
that Muhammad led the community in
Medina, Ali was extremely active in his
service as his secretary and deputy,
serving in his armies, the bearer of his
banner in every battle, leading parties of
warriors on raids, and carrying messages
and orders.[55] As one of Muhammad's
lieutenants, and later his son-in-law, Ali
was a person of authority and standing in
the Muslim community.[56]

Military career

With the exception of the Battle of Tabouk,

Ali took part in all battles and expeditions
fought for Islam.[35] As well as being the
standard-bearer in those battles, Ali led
parties of warriors on raids into enemy
lands.

Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior

in 624 at the Battle of Badr. The battle
began with Ali defeating the Meccan
champion Walid ibn Utba; one historian
described Ali's opening victory at the battle
as "the signal of the triumph of Islam."[57]
Ali also defeated many other Meccan
soldiers in the battle. According to Muslim
traditions Ali killed between twenty and
thirty-five enemies in battle, most agreeing
with twenty-seven;[58] while all the other
Muslims combined killed another twenty-
seven.[59]

Ali was prominent at the Battle of Uhud, as

well as many other battles where he
wielded a bifurcated sword known as
Zulfiqar.[60] He had the special role of
protecting Muhammad when most of the
Muslim army fled from the battle of
Uhud[1] and it was said "There is no brave
youth except Ali and there is no sword
which renders service except Zulfiqar."[61]
He was commander of the Muslim army in
the Battle of the Trench where he defeated
the legendary Arab warrior, Amr ibn Abd al-
Wud.[62] Muhammad made Ali commander
at this battle, claiming that "I will hand the
standard to a man who loves Allah and His
Messenger and is loved by Allah and His
Messenger. He will come back with
conquest."[48] Following this battle
Muhammad gave Ali the name Asadullāh
(which means "Lion of God") and
reportedly praised him, saying "Ali's strike
on Amr ibn Abd al-Wud is greater than the
worship of both mankind and jinn until the
Day of Judgement."[48] Ali also defended
Muhammad in the Battle of Hunayn in
630.[1]

Missions for Islam

 

Arabic calligraphy which means "There is no brave

youth except Ali and there is no sword which renders
service except Zulfiqar."

Muhammad designated 'Ali as one of the

scribes who would write down the text of
the Quran, which had been revealed to
Muhammad during the previous two
decades. As Islam began to spread
throughout Arabia, Ali helped establish the
new Islamic order. He was instructed to
write down the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the
peace treaty between Muhammad and the
Quraysh in 628. Ali was so reliable and
trustworthy that Muhammad asked him to
carry the messages and declare the
orders. In 630, Ali recited to a large
gathering of pilgrims in Mecca a portion of
the Quran that declared Muhammad and
the Islamic community were no longer
bound by agreements made earlier with
Arab polytheists. During the Conquest of
Mecca in 630, Muhammad asked Ali to
guarantee that the conquest would be
bloodless. He ordered Ali to break all the
idols worshipped by the Banu Aus, Banu
Khazraj, Tayy, and those in the Ka'bah to
purify it after its defilement by the
polytheism of old times. Ali was sent to
Yemen one year later to spread the
teachings of Islam. He was also charged
with settling several disputes and putting
down the uprisings of various tribes.[1][2]

Event of Mubahalah

According to hadith collections, in 631, an

Arab Christian envoy from Najran
(currently in northern Yemen and partly in
Saudi Arabia) came to Muhammad to
argue which of the two parties erred in its
doctrine concerning 'Isa (Jesus). After
likening Jesus' miraculous birth to Adam's
creation,[63] Muhammad called them to
mubahala (conversation), where each
party should bring their knowledgeable
men, women and children, and ask God to
curse the lying party and their followers.[64]
Muhammad, to prove to them that he was
a prophet, brought his daughter Fatimah,
'Ali and his grandchildren Hasan and
Husayn. He went to the Christians and
said "this is my family" and covered
himself and his family with a cloak.[65]
According to Muslim sources, when one of
the Christian monks saw their faces, he
advised his companions to withdraw from
Mubahala for the sake of their lives and
families. Thus the Christian monks
vanished from the Mubahala place.
According to Allameh Tabatabaei's Tafsir
al-Mizan, the word "Our selves" in this
verse[64] refers to Muhammad and Ali.
Then he narrates that Imam Ali al-Rida,
eighth Shia Imam, in discussion with Al-
Ma'mun, Abbasid caliph, referred to this
verse to prove the superiority of
Muhammad's progeny over the rest of the
Muslim community, and considered it the
proof for Ali's right for caliphate due to
God having made Ali like the self of
Muhammad.[66]

Ghadir Khumm
 

The Investiture of Ali, at Ghadir Khumm (MS Arab 161,

fol. 162r, 1307/8 Ilkhanid manuscript illustration).

As Muhammad was returning from his last

pilgrimage in 632, he made statements
about Ali that are interpreted very
differently by Sunnis and Shias.[1] He
halted the caravan at Ghadir Khumm,
gathered the returning pilgrims for
communal prayer and began to address
them.[67]
According to Encyclopedia of Islam:

Taking Ali by the hand, he asked

of his faithful followers whether
he, Muhammad, was not closer
(awlā) to the Believers than they
were to themselves; the crowd
cried out: "It is so, O Apostle of
God!"; he then declared: "He of
whom I am the mawla, of him
Ali is also the mawla (man
kuntu mawlāhu fa-ʿAlī
mawlāhu)".[68][69]
Shias regard these statements as
constituting the designation of Ali as the
successor of Muhammad and as the first
Imam; by contrast, Sunnis take them only
as an expression of close spiritual
relationship between Muhammad and Ali,
and of his wish that Ali, as his cousin and
son-in-law, inherit his family
responsibilities upon his death, but not
necessarily a designation of political
authority. [19][70] Many Sufis also interpret
the episode as the transfer of
Muhammad's spiritual power and authority
to Ali, whom they regard as the wali par
excellence.[1][71]
Sources, among them both Shia and Sunni,
state that, after the sermon, Abu Bakr,
Umar, and Uthman who pledged allegiance
to Ali.[72][73][74] However, there have been
doubts regarding the veracity of the
tradition due to evidence that Ali may not
have been present during the sermon,
instead being in Yemen at the time, a view
upheld by the historian Ibn Kathir.[75]

After Muhammad

Succession to Muhammad

Another part of Ali's life started in 632,

after the death of Muhammad and lasted
until the assassination of Uthman ibn
Affan, the third caliph in 656. During those
24 years, Ali neither took part in any battle
or conquest,[2] nor did he assume any
executive position. He withdrew from
political affairs, especially after the death
of his wife, Fatimah Zahra. He used his
time to serve his family and worked as a
farmer. Ali dug a lot of wells and planted
gardens near Medina and endowed them
for public use. These wells are known
today as Abar Ali ("Ali's wells").[76]

Ali compiled a complete version of the

Quran, mus'haf,[77] six months after the
death of Muhammad. The volume was
completed and carried by camel to show
to other people of Medina. The order of
this mus'haf differed from that which was
gathered later during the Uthmanic era.
This book was rejected by several people
when he showed it to them. Despite this,
Ali made no resistance against
standardised mus'haf.[78]

Ali and the Rashidun caliphs

Ambigram depicting Muhammad (right) and Ali (left)

written in a single word. The 180-degree inverted form
shows both words
shows both words.

While Ali was preparing Muhammad's

body for burial and performing his funeral
rites, a small group of approximately
fourteen Muslims[79] met at Saqifah. At
Saqifah, Umar ibn al-Khattab pledged
allegiance to Abu Bakr, who subsequently
assumed political power. The gathering at
Saqifah was disputed by some of
Muhammad's companions who held that
Ali had been designated his successor by
Muhammad himself.[37][80]

Relations between Abu Bakr and Ali may

have become strained after this.[81]
Following the gathering at Saqifa, Umar
and his supporters were allegedly sent by
the new Caliph to Ali's house where Ali,
Fatimah and some of their allies were
gathered.[82] Several scholars, such as Al-
Tabari and Ibn Qutaybah, narrate that
Umar threatened to burn the building down
if Ali refused to acknowledge Abu Bakr's
authority.[83][84][85] While the historian Al-
Baladhuri states that the altercation never
became violent and ended with Ali's
compliance,[86] some traditions add that
Umar and his supporters forcibly entered
the house, resulting in Fatimah's
miscarriage of their unborn son Muhsin.[87]
The Kitab Sulaym ibn Qays (attributed to
Sulaym ibn Qays, but possibly a much later
creation)[88] concludes the incident with Ali
being dragged out of the house with a rope
tied around his neck.[89] These events have
been the subject of dispute between
various accounts, with several early
historical sources narrating that Fatimah's
child Muhsin had died in early childhood
rather than being miscarried. Other
sources also add that Ali later willingly
offered Abu Bakr his oath of allegiance
and gave a praise-filled oration during his
funeral.[90][91] Professor Coeli Fitzpatrick
surmises that the story of the altercation
reflects the political agendas of the period
and should therefore be treated with
caution.[92]
 

18th century mirror writing in Ottoman calligraphy.

Depicts the phrase 'Ali is the vicegerent of God' in both
directions.

Nevertheless, the issue of succession to

Muhammad caused Muslims to split into
two groups, Sunni and Shia. Sunnis assert
that even though Muhammad never
appointed a successor, Abu Bakr was
elected first caliph by the Muslim
community. The Sunnis recognize the first
four caliphs as Muhammad's rightful
successors. Shias believe that
Muhammad explicitly named Ali as his
successor at Ghadir Khumm and Muslim
leadership belonged to him which had
been determined by divine order.[37]

According to Wilferd Madelung, Ali himself

was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for
caliphate based on his close kinship with
Muhammad, his intimate association and
his knowledge of Islam and his merits in
serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that
his delay in pledging allegiance (bay'ah) as
caliph was based on his belief of his own
prior title. Ali did not change his mind
when he finally pledged allegiance to Abu
Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but
had done so for the sake of the unity of
Islam, at a time when it was clear that the
Muslims had turned away from him.[37][93]
Ali also believed that he could fulfill his
role of Imam'ate without this fighting.[94]

At the beginning of Abu Bakr's caliphate,

there was a controversy about
Muhammad's endowment to his daughter,
especially Fadak, between Fatimah and Ali
on one side and Abu Bakr on the other
side. Fatimah asked Abu Bakr to turn over
their property, the lands of Fadak and
Khaybar. But Abu Bakr refused and told
her that prophets did not have any legacy
and that Fadak belonged to the Muslim
community. Abu Bakr said to her, "Allah's
Apostle said, we do not have heirs,
whatever we leave is Sadaqa." Together
with Umm Ayman, Ali testified to the fact
that Muhammad granted it to Fatimah
Zahra, when Abu Bakr requested her to
summon witnesses for her claim. Fatimah
became angry and stopped speaking to
Abu Bakr, and continued assuming that
attitude until she died.[95] According to
some sources, 'Ali did not give his oath of
allegiance to Abu Bakr until some time
after the death of his wife, Fatimah in the
year 633.[2]
He pledged allegiance to the second
caliph 'Umar ibn Khattab and helped him
as a trusted advisor. 'Umar particularly
relied upon Ali as the chief judge of
Medina. He also advised Umar to set Hijra
as the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
'Umar used 'Ali's suggestions in political
issues as well as religious ones.[96]

'Ali was one of the electoral council to

choose the third caliph which was
appointed by 'Umar. Although 'Ali was one
of the two major candidates, the council's
arrangement was against him. Sa'd ibn Abi
Waqqas and Abdur Rahman bin Awf, who
were cousins, were naturally inclined to
support Uthman, who was Abdur
Rahman's brother-in-law. In addition, Umar
gave the casting vote to Abdur Rahman.
Abdur Rahman offered the caliphate to Ali
on the condition that he should rule in
accordance with the Quran, the example
set by Muhammad, and the precedents
established by the first two caliphs. Ali
rejected the third condition while Uthman
accepted it. According to Ibn Abi al-
Hadid's Comments on the Peak of
Eloquence Ali insisted on his prominence
there, but most of the electors supported
Uthman and Ali was reluctantly urged to
accept him.[97]
'Uthman ibn 'Affan expressed generosity
toward his kin, Banu Abd-Shams, who
seemed to dominate him, and his
supposed arrogant mistreatment toward
several of the earliest companions such as
Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud
and Ammar ibn Yasir provoked outrage
among some groups of people.
Dissatisfaction and resistance openly
arose since 650–651 throughout most of
the empire.[98] The dissatisfaction with his
rule and the governments appointed by
him was not restricted to the provinces
outside Arabia.[99] When Uthman's kin,
especially Marwan, gained control over
him, the noble companions, including
most of the members of elector council,
turned against him or at least withdrew
their support, putting pressure on the
caliph to mend his ways and reduce the
influence of his assertive kin.[100]

At this time, 'Ali had acted as a restraining

influence on Uthman without directly
opposing him. On several occasions Ali
disagreed with Uthman in the application
of the Hudud; he had publicly shown
sympathy for Abu Dharr al-Ghifari and had
spoken strongly in the defence of Ammar
ibn Yasir. He conveyed to Uthman the
criticisms of other Companions and acted
on Uthman's behalf as negotiator with the
provincial opposition who had come to
Medina; because of this some mistrust
between Ali and Uthman's family seems to
have arisen. Finally, he tried to mitigate the
severity of the siege by his insistence that
Uthman should be allowed water.[2]

There is controversy among historians

about the relationship between Ali and
Uthman. Although pledging allegiance to
Uthman, Ali disagreed with some of his
policies. In particular, he clashed with
Uthman on the question of religious law.
He insisted that religious punishment had
to be done in several cases such as Ubayd
Allah ibn Umar and Walid ibn Uqba. In 650
during pilgrimage, he confronted Uthman
with reproaches for his change of the
prayer ritual. When Uthman declared that
he would take whatever he needed from
the fey', Ali exclaimed that in that case the
caliph would be prevented by force. Ali
endeavoured to protect companions from
maltreatment by the caliph such as Ibn
Mas'ud.[101] Therefore, some historians
consider Ali one of the leading members
of Uthman's opposition, if not the main
one. But Wilferd Madelung rejects their
judgment due to the fact that Ali did not
have the Quraysh's support to be elected
as a caliph. According to him, there is even
no evidence that Ali had close relations
with rebels who supported his caliphate or
directed their actions. [102] Some other
sources say Ali had acted as a restraining
influence on Uthman without directly
opposing him.[2] However, Madelung
narrates Marwan told Zayn al-Abidin, the
grandson of Ali, that

No one [among the Islamic

nobility] was more temperate
toward our master than your
master.[103]

Caliphate
 

Domains of Rashidun caliphate under four caliphs. The

divided phase relates to the Rashidun caliphate of 'Ali
during the First Fitna.
   Strongholds of the Rashidun caliphate of Ali during
the First Fitna
   Region under the control of Muawiyah I during the
First Fitna
   Region under the control of Amr ibn al-As during
the First Fitna

Ali was caliph between 656 and 661 during

the First Fitna, one of the most turbulent
periods in Muslim history. Since the
conflicts in which Ali was involved were
perpetuated in polemical sectarian
historiography, biographical material is
often biased. However, the sources agree
that he was a profoundly religious man,
devoted to the cause of Islam and the rule
of justice in accordance with the Quran
and the Sunnah. The sources abound in
notices on his austerity, rigorous
observance of religious duties, and
detachment from worldly goods. Authors
have noted that Ali stood firmly by his
principles and would not compromise
them for political self-gain.[104]

Election
Uthman's assassination meant that rebels
had to select a new caliph. This met with
difficulties since the rebels were divided
into several groups comprising the
Muhajirun, Ansar, Egyptians, Kufans and
Basrites. There were three candidates: Ali,
Talhah and Al-Zubayr. First the rebels
approached Ali, requesting him to accept
being the fourth caliph. Some of
Muhammad's companions tried to
persuade Ali to accept the
office,[105][106][107] but he turned down the
offer, suggesting to be a counsellor
instead of a chief.[108] Talhah, Zubayr and
other companions also refused the rebels'
offer of the caliphate. Therefore, the rebels
warned the inhabitants of Medina to select
a caliph within one day, or they would
apply drastic action. In order to resolve the
deadlock, the Muslims gathered in the
Prophet's Mosque on 18 June 656, to
appoint the caliph. Initially, 'Ali refused to
accept it, simply because his most
vigorous supporters were rebels. However,
when some notable companions of
Muhammad, in addition to the residents of
Medina, urged him to accept the offer, he
finally agreed. According to Abu Mekhnaf's
narration, Talhah was the first prominent
companion who gave his pledge to 'Ali, but
other narrations claimed otherwise, stating
they were forced to give their pledge. Also,
Talhah and Az-Zubayr later claimed they
supported him reluctantly. Regardless, Ali
refuted these claims, insisting they
recognised him as caliph voluntarily.
Wilferd Madelung believes that force did
not urge people to give their pledge and
they pledged publicly in the mosque.[14][15]
While the overwhelming majority of
Medina's population as well as many of
the rebels gave their pledge, some
important figures or tribes did not do so.
The Umayyads, kinsmen of Uthman, fled to
the Levant, or remained in their houses,
later refusing 'Ali's legitimacy. Sa'ad ibn Abi
Waqqas was absent and 'Abdullah ibn
'Umar abstained from offering his
allegiance, but both of them assured 'Ali
that they would not act against him.[14][15]
Ali thus inherited the Rashidun caliphate –
which extended from Egypt in the west to
the Iranian highlands in the east—while the
situation in the Hejaz and the other
provinces on the eve of his election was
unsettled.

Soon after Ali became caliph, he

dismissed provincial governors who had
been appointed by Uthman. Uthman had
appointed his family members as
governors and in other positions of power,
and public dissatisfaction with this
nepotism was one of the factors that had
caused a rebellion against him.[109] In
addition, Uthman's governors were widely
known for their corruption and plundering.
Ali was told by his advisers that it would
not be politically wise to dismiss Uthman's
governors immediately, but he refused to
be complicit in their injustice and
corruption.[110][111][112][113] According to
Wilferd Madelung, Ali was deeply
convinced of his right and his religious
mission, unwilling to compromise his
principles for the sake of political
expediency, and ready to fight against
overwhelming odds.[114] Some of Uthman's
governors were replaced, but others, such
as Muawiyah I (a relative of Uthman and
governor of the Levant), refused to submit
to Ali's orders.[2]

Inaugural address in Medina

When he was appointed caliph, Ali stated

to the citizens of Medina that Muslim
polity had come to be plagued by
dissension and discord; he desired to
purge Islam of any evil. He advised the
populace to behave as true Muslims,
warning that he would tolerate no sedition
and those who were found guilty of
subversive activities would be dealt with
harshly.[115]
First Fitna

A'ishah, Talhah, Al-Zubayr and the

Umayyads, especially Muawiyah I and
Marwan I, wanted 'Ali to punish the rioters
who had killed Uthman.[116][117] They
encamped close to Basra. The talks lasted
for many days and the subsequent heated
exchange and protests during the parley
turned from words to blows, leading to
loss of life on both sides. In the confusion
the Battle of the Camel started in 656,
where Ali emerged victorious.[118] Some
historians believe that they used this issue
to seek their political ambitions because
they found Ali's caliphate against their own
benefit. The rebels maintained that
Uthman had been justly killed, for not
governing according to Quran and Sunnah,
hence no vengeance was to be
invoked.[2][35][119]

Some say the caliphate was a gift of the

rebels and Ali did not have enough force to
control or punish them,[115] while others
say Ali accepted the rebels' argument or at
least did not consider Uthman a just
ruler.[120] Ali himself writes in his famous
work, Nahj al-Balagha, that he was blamed
by the Umayyads for the assassination of
Uthman.[121]
The Umayyads knowledge of me
did not restrain them from
accusing me, nor did my
precedence in accepting Islam
keep these ignorant people from
blaming me. Allah's admonitions
are more eloquent than my
tongue. I am the contester
against those who break away
from Faith and the opposer of
those who entertain doubts.
Uncertainties should be placed
before Qur'an, the Book of Allah
(for clarification). Certainly,
 people will be recompensed
according to what they have in
their hearts. – Nahj al-Balagha:
Sermon 75[121]

Under such circumstances, a schism took

place which led to the first civil war in
Muslim history. Some Muslims, known as
Uthmanis, considered Uthman a rightful
and just caliph till the end, who had been
unlawfully killed. Some others, who are
known as party of Ali, believed Uthman
had fallen into error, he had forfeited the
caliphate and been lawfully executed for
his refusal to mend his ways or step down;
thus Ali was the just and true Imam and
his opponents are infidels. This was not
the position of Ali himself. This civil war
created permanent divisions within the
Muslim community regarding who had the
legitimate right to occupy the
caliphate.[122]

The First Fitna, 656–661, followed the

assassination of Uthman, continued
during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended
by Muawiyah's assumption of the
caliphate. This civil war (often called the
Fitna) is regretted as the end of the early
unity of the Islamic ummah (nation).[123]
Ali appointed 'Abd Allah ibn al'-Abbas[124]
governor of Basra and moved his capital to
Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in Iraq.
Following the Roman-Persian Wars and
the Byzantine–Sasanian wars that lasted
for hundreds of years, there were deep
rooted differences between Iraq, formally
under the Persian Sassanid Empire and
Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire.
The Iraqis wanted the capital of the newly
established Islamic State to be in Kufa so
as to bring revenues into their area and
oppose Syria.[125] They convinced Ali to
come to Kufa and establish the capital in
Kufa, in Iraq.[125]
Later Muawiyah I, the governor of Levant
and the cousin of Uthman, refused Ali's
demands for allegiance. Ali opened
negotiations hoping to regain his
allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on
Levant autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah
replied by mobilising his Levantine
supporters and refusing to pay homage to
Ali on the pretext that his contingent had
not participated in his election. Ali then
moved his armies north and the two
armies encamped themselves at Siffin for
more than one hundred days, most of the
time being spent in negotiations. Although
Ali exchanged several letters with
Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the
latter, nor persuade him to pledge
allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties
led to the Battle of Siffin in 657.[2][126]

After a week of combat was followed by a

violent battle known as laylat al-harir (the
night of clamour), Muawiyah's army was
on the point of being routed when Amr ibn
al-Aas advised Muawiyah to have his
soldiers hoist mus'haf (either parchments
inscribed with verses of the Quran, or
complete copies of it) on their spearheads
in order to cause disagreement and
confusion in Ali's army.[2][126] Ali saw
through the stratagem, but only a minority
wanted to pursue the fight.[37] The two
armies finally agreed to settle the matter
of who should be caliph by arbitration. The
refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to
fight was the decisive factor in his
acceptance of the arbitration. The
question as to whether the arbiter would
represent Ali or the Kufans caused a
further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Qays
and some others rejected Ali's nominees,
'Abd Allah ibn 'Abbas and Malik al-Ashtar,
and insisted on Abu Musa Ash'ari, for his
neutrality. Finally, Ali was urged to accept
Abu Musa. Amr ibn al-As was appointed
by Muawiyah as an arbitrator. Seven
months later the two arbitrators met at
Adhruh about 10 miles north west of Maan
in Jordan in February 658. Amr ibn al-As
convinced Abu Musa Ash'ari that both Ali
and Muawiyah should step down and a
new caliph be elected. Ali and his
supporters were stunned by the decision
which had lowered the caliph to the status
of the rebellious Muawiyah. Ali was
therefore outwitted by Muawiyah and Amr
ibn al-As.[127][128] When the arbitrators
assembled at Daumet-ul-Jandal, a series
of daily meetings were arranged for them
to discuss the matters in hand. When the
time arrived for taking a decision about the
caliphate, Amr bin al-A'as convinced Abu
Musa al-Ashari into entertaining the
opinion that they should deprive both Ali
and Muawiya of the caliphate, and give to
the Muslims the right to elect the caliph.
Abu Musa al-Ashari also decided to act
accordingly.[129] According to Poonawala,
it seems that the arbiters and other
eminent persons, with the exclusion of
Ali's representatives, met in January 659 to
discuss the selection of the new caliph.
Amr supported Muawiyah, while Abu Musa
preferred his son-in-law, Abdullah ibn
Umar, but the latter refused to stand for
election in default of unanimity. Abu Musa
then proposed, and Amr agreed, to depose
both Ali and Muawiyah and submit the
selection of the new caliph to a Shura. In
the public declaration that followed Abu
Musa observed his part of the agreement,
but Amr declared Ali deposed and
confirmed Muawiya as caliph.[2]

Ali refused to accept the verdict of him

stepping down and for an election to be
held and found himself technically in
breach of his pledge to abide by the
arbitration.[130][131][132] 'Ali protested,
stating that it was contrary to the Qur'an
and the Sunnah and hence not binding.
Then he tried to organise a new army, but
only the Ansar, the remnants of the Qurra
led by Malik Ashtar, and a few of their
clansmen remained loyal.[2] This put Ali in
a weak position even amongst his own
supporters.[130] The arbitration resulted in
the dissolution of 'Ali's coalition, and some
have opined that this was Muawiyah's
intention.[2][133]

The most vociferous opponents in Ali's

camp were the very same people who had
forced Ali into the ceasefire. They broke
away from Ali's force, rallying under the
slogan "arbitration belongs to God alone."
This group came to be known as the
Kharijites ("those who leave"). They
considered everyone to be their enemy. In
659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in
the Battle of Nahrawan.[129][129][134][135]
The Qurra then became known as the
Kharijites. The Kharijites then started
killing Ali's supporters and other Muslims.
They considered anyone who was not part
of their group as an unbeliever.[135]
Although 'Ali won the battle by a huge
margin, the constant conflict had begun to
affect his standing.[129] While dealing with
the Iraqis, 'Ali found it hard to build a
disciplined army and effective state
institutions. He also spent a lot of time
fighting the Kharijites. As a result, 'Ali
found it hard to expand the state on its
eastern front.[136]

At about the same time, unrest was

brewing in Egypt. The governor of Egypt,
Qais, was recalled, and Ali had him
replaced with Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr
(the brother of Aisha and the son of
Islam's first caliph Abu Bakr). Muawiyah
allowed 'Amr ibn al-'As to conquer Egypt
and 'Amr did so successfully.[137] Amr had
first taken Egypt eighteen years earlier
from the Romans but had been dismissed
by Uthman.[137] Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr
had no popular support in Egypt and
managed to get together 2000 men but
they dispersed without a fight.[137]

In the following years, Muawiyah's army

occupied many cities of Iraq, which Ali's
governors could not prevent, and people
did not support him to fight with them.
Muawiyah overpowered Egypt, Hijaz,
Yemen and other areas.[138] In the last year
of Ali's caliphate, the mood in Kufa and
Basra changed in his favour as the people
became disillusioned with Muawiyah's
reign and policies. However, the people's
attitude toward Ali differed deeply. Just a
small minority of them believed that Ali
was the best Muslim after Muhammad
and the only one entitled to rule them,
while the majority supported him due to
their distrust and opposition to
Muawiyah.[139]
Policies

Anti-corruption campaign and egalitarian

policies

Ali is said to have vowed and forewarned

of an uncompromising campaign against
financial corruption and unfair privileges in
the ranks of the caliphate after he was
pressed by the public to succeed the
caliphate following the death of Uthman.
Shias argue that his determination in
pushing these reforms despite their
unpopularity with the elite have been the
cause of hostilities from the rich and the
privileged former companions of the
Prophet.[140][141] In a famous letter to one
of his governors, Malik al-Ashtar, he
articulates his pro-poor, anti-elitist
approach:

Remember that displeasure and

disapproval of common men,
have-nots and depressed
persons more than overbalances
the approval of important
persons and displeasure of a few
big will be excused by the Lord if
the general public and masses of
your subjects are happy with
you. The common men, the poor,
apparently less important
 sections of your subjects are the
pillars of Islam….be more
friendly with them and secure
their confidence and
sympathy.[141]

'Ali recovered the land granted by 'Uthman

and swore to recover anything that elites
had acquired before his election. Ali
opposed the centralisation of capital
control over provincial revenues, favouring
an equal distribution of taxes and booty
amongst the Muslim citizens; he
distributed the entire revenue of the
treasury among them. 'Ali refrained from
nepotism, including with his brother 'Aqeel
ibn Abu Talib. This was an indication to
Muslims of his policy of offering equality
to Muslims who served Islam in its early
years and to the Muslims who played a
role in the later conquests.[2][142]

Forming coalitions

Ali succeeded in forming a broad coalition,

especially after the Battle of the Camel.
His policy of equal distribution of taxes
and booty gained the support of
Muhammad's companions, especially the
Ansar who were subordinated by the
Quraysh leadership after Muhammad, the
traditional tribal leaders, and the Qurra or
Qur'anic reciters that sought pious Islamic
leadership. The successful formation of
this diverse coalition seems to be due to
Ali's charismatic character.[2][143] This
diverse coalition became known as Shi'a
Ali, meaning "party" or "faction of Ali".
However, according to Shia, as well as
non-Shia reports, the majority of those
who supported 'Ali after his election as
caliph, were shia politically, not religiously.
Although at this time there were many who
were counted as political Shia, few of
them believed Ali's religious
leadership.[144]
Governance doctrine

His policies and ideas of governing are

manifested in the letter he sent to Malik al-
Ashtar after appointing him governor of
Egypt. This instruction, which has
historically been viewed as the ideal
constitution for Islamic governance
alongside the Constitution of Medina,
involved detailed description of duties and
rights of the ruler and various
functionaries of the state and the main
classes of society at that time.[145][146] Ali
wrote in his instructions to Malik al-Ashtar:
Infuse your heart with mercy,
love and kindness for your
subjects. Be not in face of them a
voracious animal, counting
them as easy prey, for they are
of two kinds: either they are
your brothers in faith or in
creation. Error catches them
unaware, deficiencies overcome
them, (evil deeds) are committed
by them intentionally and by
mistake. So grant them your
pardon and your forgiveness to
the same extent that you hope
 God will grant you His pardon
and His forgiveness. For you are
above them, and he who
appointed you is above you, and
God is above him who appointed
you. God has sought from you
the fulfillment of their
requirements and He is trying
you with them.[147]

Since the majority of 'Ali's subjects were

nomads and peasants, he was concerned
with agriculture. He instructed to Malik to
give more attention to development of the
land than to the collection of the tax,
because tax can only be obtained by the
development of the land and whoever
demands tax without developing the land
ruins the country and destroys the
people.[148]

Assassination in Kufa

The Great Mosque of Kufa, where Ali was fatally

attacked
On 19 Ramadan AH 40, which would
correspond to 26 January 661,[149] while
praying in the Great Mosque of Kufa, Ali
was attacked by the Kharijite Abd-al-
Rahman ibn Muljam. He was wounded by
ibn Muljam's poison-coated sword while
prostrating in the Fajr prayer.[150] 'Ali
ordered his sons not to attack the
Kharijites, instead stipulating that if he
survived, ibn Muljam would be pardoned
whereas if he died, ibn Muljam should be
given only one equal hit (regardless of
whether or not he died from the hit).[151]
'Ali died two days later on 29 January 661
(21 Ramadan AH 40).[2][150] Al-Hasan
fulfilled Qisas and gave equal punishment
to ibn Muljam upon Ali's death.[139]

Aftermath

Outside view of
Imām Alī Shrine
in Najaf, Iraq
 

Inside view of
the mosque in
Najaf, before
the renovations
 in 2008
 

Rawze-e-Sharif,
the Blue
Mosque, in
Mazari Sharif,
Afghanistan –
where a
minority of
Muslims believe
Ali ibn Abu Talib
is buried

After Ali's death, Kufi Muslims pledged

allegiance to his eldest son Hasan without
dispute, as Ali on many occasions had
declared that just People of the House of
Muhammad were entitled to rule the
Muslim community.[152] At this time,
Muawiyah held both the Levant and Egypt
and, as commander of the largest force in
the Muslim Empire, had declared himself
caliph and marched his army into Iraq, the
seat of Hasan's caliphate.

War ensued during which Muawiyah

gradually subverted the generals and
commanders of Hasan's army with large
sums of money and deceiving promises
until the army rebelled against him. Finally,
Hasan was forced to make peace and to
yield the caliphate to Muawiyah. In this
way Muawiyah captured the Islamic
caliphate and tuned it to a secular
kingdom (Sultanate). Umayyad caliphate
later became a centralised monarchy by
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.[153]

Umayyads placed the severest pressure

upon Ali's family and his Shia, in every way
possible. Regular public cursing of Imam
Ali in the congregational prayers remained
a vital institution which was not abolished
until 60 years later by Umar ibn Abd al-
Aziz. [103]

Madelung writes:
Umayyad highhandedness,
misrule and repression were
gradually to turn the minority of
Ali's admirers into a majority. In
the memory of later generations
Ali became the ideal
Commander of the Faithful. In
face of the fake Umayyad claim
to legitimate sovereignty in
Islam as God's Vice-regents on
earth, and in view of Umayyad
treachery, arbitrary and divisive
government, and vindictive
retribution, they came to
 appreciate his [Ali's] honesty, his
unbending devotion to the reign
of Islam, his deep personal
loyalties, his equal treatment of
all his supporters, and his
generosity in forgiving his
defeated enemies.[154]

Ibn Abi'l-Hadid narrates the following

about the Umayyad treatment towards Ali
and his followers:

"Everybody knows that when

the Umayyads held the reins of
the Islamic world, they spared
no single effort for extinguishing
the light of Ali and inventing
flaws against him. Moreover,
they issued the decisions of
cursing him openly from the
mimbars of their mosques and
sentenced to death anyone who
would mention any of his
incalculable merits. They also
prevented people from reporting
any narration that might refer
to any of his accolades. Finally,
they even prevented people from
 calling their newborns by his
name."[48]:6

Burial in Najaf

According to Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, Ali did

not want his grave to be desecrated by his
enemies and consequently asked his
friends and family to bury him secretly.
This secret gravesite was revealed later
during the Abbasid caliphate by Imam
Ja'far al-Sadiq, his descendant and the
sixth Shia Imam.[155] Most Shias accept
that Ali is buried at the Tomb of Imam Ali
in the Imam Ali Mosque at what is now the
city of Najaf, which grew around the
mosque and shrine called Masjid
Ali.[156][157]

However another story, usually maintained

by some Afghans, notes that his body was
taken and buried in the Afghan city of
Mazar-E-Sharif at the famous Blue
Mosque or Rawze-e-Sharif.[158]

Virtues
Ali is respected not only as a warrior and
leader, but as a writer and religious
authority. A numerous range of disciplines
from theology and exegesis to calligraphy
and numerology, from law and mysticism
to Arabic grammar and rhetoric are
regarded as having been first adumbrated
by Ali.[157]

Prophetic knowledge

According to a hadith which is narrated by

Shia and Sufis, Muhammad told about him
"I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its
gate ..."[157][159][160] Muslims regard Ali as a
major authority on Islam. According to the
Shia, Ali himself gave this testimony:

Not a single verse of the Quran

descended upon (was revealed
to) the Messenger of God which
he did not proceed to dictate to
me and make me recite. I would
write it with my own hand, and
he would instruct me as to its
tafsir (the literal explanation)
and the ta'wil (the spiritual
exegesis), the nasikh (the verse
which abrogates) and the
mansukh (the abrogated verse),
the muhkam and the
mutashabih (the fixed and the
ambiguous), the particular and
the general ...[161]
It has been narrated that when Abbas was
a baby, Ali placed him on his lap, kissed his
hands and began to weep. He foretold the
tragedy of Abbas and the inevitable fate of
his hands which caused his wife, Umm ul-
Banin, to also weep. However, he goes on
to describe Abbas's future position and
great status with God, and this relieves
her.[48]

Theosophy

According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Ali is

credited with having established Islamic
theology, and his quotations contain the
first rational proofs among Muslims of the
Unity of God.[162] Ibn Abi al-Hadid has
quoted

As for theosophy and dealing

with matters of divinity, it was
not an Arab art. Nothing of the
sort had been circulated among
their distinguished figures or
those of lower ranks. This art
was the exclusive preserve of
Greece, whose sages were its
only expounders. The first one
among Arabs to deal with it was
Ali.[163]
In later Islamic philosophy, especially in
the teachings of Mulla Sadra and his
followers, like Allameh Tabatabaei, Ali's
sayings and sermons were increasingly
regarded as central sources of
metaphysical knowledge, or divine
philosophy. Members of Sadra's school
regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician
of Islam.[1] According to Henry Corbin, the
Nahj al-Balagha may be regarded as one of
the most important sources of doctrines
professed by Shia thinkers, especially after
1500. Its influence can be sensed in the
logical co-ordination of terms, the
deduction of correct conclusions, and the
creation of certain technical terms in
Arabic which entered the literary and
philosophical language independently of
the translation into Arabic of Greek
texts.[164]

In addition, some hidden or occult

sciences such as jafr, Islamic numerology,
and the science of the symbolic
significance of the letters of the Arabic
alphabet, are said to have been
established by Ali[1] through his having
studied the texts of al-Jafr and al-Jamia.

Eloquence
Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic
literature and pioneered in the field of
Arabic grammar and rhetoric. Numerous
short sayings of Ali have become part of
general Islamic culture and are quoted as
aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They
have also become the basis of literary
works or have been integrated into poetic
verse in many languages. Already in the
8th century, literary authorities such as
'Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-'Amiri pointed
to the unparalleled eloquence of Ali's
sermons and sayings, as did al-Jahiz in the
following century.[1] Even staffs in the
Divan of Umayyad recited Ali's sermons to
improve their eloquence.[165] The most
famous selection of Ali's utterances and
writings has been gathered in a book
called Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence)
by a 10th-century Shia scholar, Al-Sharif al-
Radi, who selected them for their singular
rhetorical beauty.[166]

The sermons without dots and alephs

Of note among sermons quoted in the

book, is the undotted sermon as well as
the sermon without Aleph.[167] According
to narrations, some companions of
Muhammad had gathered somewhere
discussing the role of letters in speaking.
They concluded that Aleph had the
greatest contribution in speaking and that
dotted letters were also important.
Meanwhile, Ali read two long impromptu
sermons, one without using Aleph letter
and the other without dotted letters,
containing deep and eloquent concepts,
according to Langroudi, a Shia author.[168]
George Jordac, a Christian author, said
that sermons without Aleph and dot had to
be regarded as literary masterpiece.[169]

Compassion

Ali is revered for the deep sympathy and

support he shown for the poor and
orphans, and the egalitarian policies he
pursued during his caliphate with aim of
achieving social justice. He is quoted as
saying:

If God grants wealth and

prosperity to any person, he
should show kindness to his
deserving kith and kin, should
provide for the poor, should
come the assistance of those are
oppressed with calamities,
misfortunes and reverses,
should help the poor and have-
nots and should assist honest
 people to liquidate their
loans...[141]

It is narrated in Kitab al-Kafi that Amir al-

Mu'minin Ali ibn Abi Talib was presented
with honey and figs from locations near
Baghdad. Upon receiving the gifts, he
ordered his officers to bring the orphans
so that they can lick the honey from the
containers while he distributed the rest
himself among the people.[170]

Works
 

One of the first copies of the Qur'an ever transcribed in

the Islamic world by 'Ali ibn Abi Talib.

The compilation of sermons, lectures and

quotations attributed to Ali are compiled in
the form of several books.

Nahj al-Balagha (The Peak of Eloquence)

contains eloquent sermons, letters and
quotations attributed to Ali which is
compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi (d.
1015). Reza Shah Kazemi states:
"Despite ongoing questions about the
authenticity of the text, recent
scholarship suggests that most of the
material in it can in fact be attributed to
Ali" and in support of this he makes
reference to an article by Mokhtar
Jebli.[157] This book has a prominent
position in Arabic literature. It is also
considered an important intellectual,
political and religious work in
Islam.[1][171][172] The Urdu translator of
Nahjul Balagha Allama Syed Zeeshan
Haider Jawadi[173] has compiled a list of
61 books and name of their writers from
AH 204 to 488, and provided the
sources in which compilation work of
Sharif Razi can be traced out. Masadir
Nahj al-Balagha wa asaniduh, written by
al-Sayyid 'Abd al-Zahra' al-Husayni al-
Khatib, introduces some of these
sources.[174] Also, Nahj al-sa'adah fi
mustadrak Nahj al-balaghah by
Muhammad Baqir al-Mahmudi
represents all of Ali's extant speeches,
sermons, decrees, epistles, prayers, and
sayings that have been collected. It
includes the Nahj al-balagha and other
discourses which were not incorporated
by ash-Sharif ar-Radi or were not
available to him. Apparently, except for
some of the aphorisms, the original
sources of all the contents of the Nahj
al-balagha have been determined.[171]
 There are several Comments on the Peak
of Eloquence by Sunnis and Shias such
as Comments of Ibn Abi al-Hadid and
comments of Muhammad Abduh.
Supplications (Du'a), translated by
William Chittick.[175]
Ghurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim
(Exalted aphorisms and Pearls of
Speech) which is compiled by Abd al-
Wahid Amidi (d. 1116) consists of over
ten thousand short sayings of Ali.[176]
Divan-i Ali ibn Abu Talib (poems which
are attributed to Ali ibn Abu Talib).[2]

Family life
In 623, Muhammad told Ali that God
ordered him to give his daughter Fatimah
Zahra to Ali in marriage.[1] Muhammad
said to Fatimah: "I have married you to the
dearest of my family to me."[177] This
family is glorified by Muhammad
frequently and he declared them as his Ahl
al-Bayt in events such as Mubahala and
hadith like the Hadith of the Event of the
Cloak. They were also glorified in the
Qur'an in several cases such as "the verse
of purification".[178][179]

Ali had four children born to Fatimah, the

only child of Muhammad to have surviving
progeny. Their two sons, Hasan and
Husain, were cited by Muhammad to be
his own sons, honoured numerous times
in his lifetime and titled "the leaders of the
youth of Jannah (Heaven)."[180][181] Ali and
Fatimah also had a third son, Muhsin;
however, he died as a result of a
miscarriage when Ali and Fatimah were
attacked after Muhammad's death.
Fatimah died shortly after the attack as
well.[182][183][184]

At the beginning they were extremely poor.

Ali would often help Fatimah with the
household affairs. According to some
sources, Ali performed the work outside
the house and Fatimah performed the
work inside the house, a setup that
Muhammad had determined.[185] When the
economic situations of the Muslims
became better, Fatimah gained some
maids but treated them like her family and
performed the house duties with them.[186]

Their marriage lasted until Fatimah's death

ten years later and was said to be full of
love and friendliness.[187] Ali is reported to
have said about Fatimah, "By Allah, I did
never anger her or force her to do
something (unwillingly) until Allah took her
to the better world. She also did never
anger me nor did she disobey me in
anything at all. When I looked at her, my
griefs and sorrows were relieved."[188][189]
Although polygamy was permitted, Ali did
not marry another woman while Fatimah
was alive, and his marriage to her
possesses a special spiritual significance
for all Muslims because it is seen as the
marriage between two great figures
surrounding Muhammad.

After Fatimah's death, Ali remarried and

had several other children.[1] Among his
wives after Fatimah was Umamah bint
Zainab; Fatimah had told Ali to marry her
after her death, as Fatimah knew that
Umamah loved and would take good care
of their children.[190]
Descendants

Ali initially married Fatimah, who was his

most beloved wife. After she died, he got
married again. He had four children with
Fatimah, Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali,
Zaynab bint Ali[1] and Umm Kulthum bint
Ali. His other well-known sons were al-
Abbas ibn Ali, born to Fatima binte Hizam
(Um al-Banin), and Muhammad ibn al-
Hanafiyyah.[191] Muhammad ibn al-
Hanafiyyah was Ali's son from another
wife from Hanifa clan of central Arabia
named Khawlah bint Ja'far. After Fatima's
death, Ali married Khawla bint Ja'far of the
Bani Hanifa tribe.
Hasan, born in 625, was the second Shia
Imam and he also occupied the outward
function of caliph for several months after
Ali's death. In the year AH 50 he was
poisoned and killed by a member of his
own household who, as has been
accounted by historians, had been
motivated by Mu'awiyah.[192]

Husayn, born in 626, was the third Shia

Imam. He lived under severe conditions of
suppression and persecution by
Mu'awiyah. On the tenth day of Muharram,
of the year 680, he lined up before the
army of the caliph with his small band of
followers and nearly all of them were killed
in the Battle of Karbala. The anniversary of
his death is called the Day of Ashura and it
is a day of mourning and religious
observance for Shia Muslims.[193] In this
battle some of Ali's other sons were killed.
Al-Tabari has mentioned their names in his
history: Al-Abbas ibn Ali, the holder of
Husayn's standard, Ja'far, Abdallah and
Uthman, the four sons born to Fatima binte
Hizam; Muhammad and Abu Bakr. The
death of the last one is doubtful.[194]

Some historians have added the names of

Ali's other sons who were killed at Karbala,
including Ibrahim, Umar and Abdallah ibn
al-Asqar.[195][196]
His daughter Zaynab—who was in Karbala
—was captured by Yazid's army and later
played a great role in revealing what
happened to Husayn and his followers.[197]

Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known

as sharifs, sayeds or sayyids. These are
honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning
'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord'
or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants,
they are respected by both Sunni and
Shia.[1]

Views
 

The name of Ali with Islamic calligraphy in Hagia

Sophia, (present-day Turkey)

Muslim views

Except for Muhammad, there is no one in

Islamic history about whom as much has
been written in Islamic languages as Ali.[1]
In Muslim culture, Ali is respected for his
courage, knowledge, belief, honesty,
unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty
to Muhammad, equal treatment of all
Muslims and generosity in forgiving his
defeated enemies, and therefore is central
to mystical traditions in Islam such as
Sufism. Ali retains his stature as an
authority on Quranic exegesis, Islamic
jurisprudence and religious thought.[154] Ali
holds a high position in almost all Sufi
orders which trace their lineage through
him to Muhammad. Ali's influence has
been important throughout Islamic
history.[1] Sunni and Shia scholars agree
that The Verse of Wilayah was narrated in
honour of Ali, but there are differing
interpretations of wilayah and the
Imamate.[198] The Sunni scholars believe
that the verse is about Ali but does not
recognise him as an Imam while, in the
Shia Muslim view, Ali had been chosen by
God as successor of Muhammad.[199]

Ali in the Quran

There are many verses interpreted by Shi'a

scholars as referring to Ali or other Shi'a
Imams. Responding to this question that
why the names of the Imams are not
mentioned in Quran expressly Muhammad
al-Baqir answers (in a Twelver hadith):[a]
"Allah revealed Salat to his Prophet but
never said of three or four Rakats, revealed
Zakat but did not mention to its details,
revealed Hajj but did not count its Tawaf
and the Prophet interpreted their details.
Allah revealed this verse and Prophet said
this verse is about Ali, Hasan, Husayn and
the other twelve Imams."[200][201]
According to Ali, one quarter of Qur'anic
verses are stating the station of Imams.
Momen has listed many of these verses in
his An Introduction to Shi'i Islam.[202][203]
However, there are few verses that some
Sunni commentators interpret as referring
to Ali, among which are The verse of
Wilayah (Quran, 5:55) that Sunni and Shiite
scholars[b] believe refers to the incident
where Ali gave his ring to a beggar who
asked for alms while performing ritual
prayers in the mosque.[198][204]The verse of
Mawadda (Quran, 42:23) is another verse
which Shiite scholars, along with Sunni
ones like Al-Baydawi and Al-Zamakhshari
and Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi, believe that the
phrase Kinship refers to Ali, Fatimah and
their sons, Hasan and
Husayn.[205][206][207][208]

The verse of purification (Quran, 33:33) is

also among the verses both Sunni and
Shiite conjoined the name of Ali with it
along with some other
names.[c][202][206][209][210][211][212] The
aforementioned verse of Mubahala, and
also the verse 2:269 in which Ali is
honoured with unique wisdom by both
Shiite and Sunni commentators are other
verses of this kind.[202][206][213]

Shia

Zulfiqar with, and without the shield. The Fatimid

depiction of Ali's sword as carved on the Gates of Old
Islamic Cairo, namely Bab al-Nasr
 

Ali's Sword and shield carved on Bab al-Nasr gate wall,

Cairo

The Shia regard Ali as the most important

figure after Muhammad[214] and he
represents a complex, legendary figure in
their memory. He is a paragon of virtues,
such as courage, magnanimity, sincerity,
straightforwardness, eloquence and
profound knowledge. Ali was righteous but
suffered injustice, he was authoritative but
also compassionate and humble, vigorous
but also patient, learned but also man of
labor.[215] According to Shia, Muhammad
suggested on various occasions during his
lifetime that Ali should be the leader of
Muslims after his death. This is supported
by numerous hadiths which have been
narrated by Shias, including Hadith of the
pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty
things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith
of the Cloak, Hadith of position, Hadith of
the invitation of the close families, and
Hadith of the Twelve Successors.

Ja'far al-Sadiq narrates in hadith that

whatever virtue found in Muhammad was
found in Ali, turning away from his
guidance would be akin to turning away
from Allah and his Prophet. Ali himself
narrates that he is the gateway and
supervisor to reach Allah.[170]

According to this view, Ali as the

successor of Muhammad not only ruled
over the community in justice, but also
interpreted the Sharia Law and its esoteric
meaning. Hence he was regarded as being
free from error and sin (infallible), and
appointed by God by divine decree (nass)
through Muhammad.[216] It is believed in
Twelver and Ismaili Shīa Islam that 'aql,
divine wisdom, was the source of the
souls of the Prophets and Imams and gave
them esoteric knowledge called ḥikmah
and that their sufferings were a means of
divine grace to their devotees.[1][217][218]
Although the Imam was not the recipient
of a divine revelation, he had a close
relationship with God, through which God
guides him, and the Imam in turn guides
the people. His words and deeds are a
guide and model for the community to
follow; as a result it is a source of sharia
law.[216][219][220]

Shi'ite pilgrims usually go to Mashad Ali in

Najaf for Ziyarat, pray there and read
"Ziyarat Amin Allah"[221] or other
Ziyaratnamehs.[222] Under the Safavid
Empire, his grave became the focus of
much devoted attention, exemplified in the
pilgrimage made by Shah Ismail I to Najaf
and Karbala.[37]

Sunni

Sunnis view Ali as the fourth caliph. Ali is

also known as one of the greatest warrior
champions of Islam. Examples include
taking on the Quraish champion at the
Battle of the Trench when nobody else
dared. After multiple failed attempts of
breaking the fort in the Battle of Khaybar,
Ali was summoned, miraculously healed
and conquered the fort.[223]
Muhammad ibn Idris Al-Shafi‘i, founder of
the Shafi‘i school of fiqh, narrated the
following when asked his opinion on Ali:

"What can we say about a

person whose partisans have
had to hide his merits because of
fear, and enemies have hidden
his merits out of envy?
Nevertheless between these two,
his merits that have become
widely known are too numerous
to be counted."[48]:6

Sufi
Almost all Sufi orders trace their lineage to
Muhammad through Ali, an exception
being Naqshbandi, who go through Abu
Bakr. Even in this order, there is Ja'far al-
Sadiq, the great great grandson of Ali.
Sufis believe that Ali inherited from
Muhammad the saintly power wilayah that
makes the spiritual journey to God
possible.[1]

Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri claim

that the tradition began with Ali and
Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as the
Sheikh of the principles and practices of
Sufism.[224]
Sufis recite Manqabat Ali in the praise of
Ali.

Titles

Ali is known by various titles, some given

due to his personal qualities and others
due to events in his life:[1]

Al-Murtaza ("The Chosen One")

Amir al-Mu'minin (Arabic: ‫ا ِﻣ ْﻴﺮ ْٱﻟ ُﻤ ْﺆ ِﻣ ِﻨ ْﻴﻦ‬,
"Commander of the Faithful Ones")
Bab-e Madinatul-'Ilm (Arabic: ‫ﺪﻳﻨ َُﺔ‬ ْ ‫ﺎب َﻣ‬
ِ ‫َﺑ‬
‫ ْٱﻟ ِﻌ ْﻠﻢ‬, "Door of City of the Knowledge")
Abu Turab (Arabic: ‫اﺑُﻮ ُﺗ َﺮاب‬, "Father of the
Soil")
 Asadullah (Lion of God")
Haydar ("Braveheart" or "Lion")
Walad al-Kaʿbah (Arabic: ‫ َوﻟَﺪ ٱﻟﮑ َ ْﻌ َﺒﺔ‬, "Baby
of the Kaaba")[225]

As a "deity"

Ali is recorded in some traditions as

having forbidden those who sought to
worship him in his own lifetime.[226]

Alawites

Some groups such as the Alawites are

claimed to believe that Ali was God
incarnate. They are described as ghulat
(Arabic: ‫ ُﻏ َﻼة‬, "exaggerators") by the
majority of Islamic scholars. These groups
have, according to traditionalist Muslims,
left Islam due to their exaggeration of a
human being's praiseworthy traits.[226]

Ali-Illahism

In Ali-Illahism, a syncretic religion centres

on the belief that there have been
successive incarnations of their Deity
throughout history, and reserves particular
reverence for 'Ali, the son-in-law of
Muhammad, who is considered one such
incarnation.[227]

Druze
The Druze, a syncretic religion, believe that
God was incarnated in human beings,
especially Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah a
descendant of Ali.

Historiography
The primary sources for scholarship on
the life of Ali are the Qur'an and ahadith, as
well as other texts of early Islamic history.
The extensive secondary sources include,
in addition to works by Sunni and Shī'a
Muslims, writings by Christian Arabs,
Hindus, and other non-Muslims from the
Middle East and Asia and a few works by
modern western scholars. However, many
of the early Islamic sources are coloured
to some extent by a positive or negative
bias towards Ali.[1]

There had been a common tendency

among the earlier western scholars
against these narrations and reports
gathered in later periods due to their
tendency towards later Sunni and Shī'a
partisan positions; such scholars
regarding them as later fabrications. This
leads them to regard certain reported
events as inauthentic or irrelevant. Leone
Caetani considered the attribution of
historical reports to Ibn Abbas and Aisha
as mostly fictitious while proffering
accounts reported without isnad by the
early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq.
Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance
of indiscriminately dismissing everything
not included in "early sources" and in this
approach tendentiousness alone is no
evidence for late origin. According to him,
Caetani's approach is inconsistent.
Madelung and some later historians do
not reject the narrations which have been
compiled in later periods and try to judge
them in the context of history and on the
basis of their compatibility with the events
and figures.[228]
Until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, few
books were written and most of the
reports had been oral. The most notable
work previous to this period is The Book of
Sulaym ibn Qays, written by Sulaym ibn
Qays, a companion of Ali who lived before
the Abbasid.[229] When paper was
introduced to Muslim society, numerous
monographs were written between 750
and 950. According to Robinson, at least
twenty-one separate monographs have
been composed on the Battle of Siffin. Abi
Mikhnaf is one of the most renowned
writers of this period who tried to gather
all of the reports. 9th and 10th century
historians collected, selected and
arranged the available narrations.
However, most of these monographs do
not exist any more except for a few which
have been used in later works such as
History of the Prophets and Kings by
Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d.923).[230]

Shia of Iraq actively participated in writing

monographs but most of those works
have been lost. On the other hand, in the
8th and 9th century Ali's descendants such
as Muhammad al Baqir and Jafar as Sadiq
narrated his quotations and reports which
have been gathered in Shia hadith books.
The later Shia works written after the 10th
century are about biographies of The
Fourteen Infallibles and Twelve Imams.
The earliest surviving work and one of the
most important works in this field is Kitab
al-Irshad by Shaykh Mufid (d. 1022). The
author has dedicated the first part of his
book to a detailed account of Ali. There
are also some books known as Manāqib
which describe Ali's character from a
religious viewpoint. Such works also
constitute a kind of historiography.[231]

See also

Book: Sahabah

Alevism
 Al-Farooq (title)
Hashemites Royal Family of Jordan
Idris I The First King of Morocco
Founded 788
List of expeditions of Ali during
Muhammad's era
Ali in Muslim culture

Footnotes
a. Note that Al-Baqir is also regarded as
an Imam by the Isma'ili Shia, who
believe in different Imams to the
Twelvers
b. See at-Tabari: at-Tarikh, vol.6, p.186;
as-Suyuti: ad-Durru 'lmanthur, vol.2, pp.
 293–4; ar-Razi: at-Tafsiru 'l Kabir,
vol.12, p.26: az-Zamakhshari: at-Tafsir
al-Kashshaf, vol.1, p.469; al-
Jassas:Ahkamu 'l-Quran, vol.2, pp.
542–3; al-khazin: at-Tafsir, vol.2, p.68
Imamate: The vicegerency of the Holy
Prophet By Sayyid Saeed Akhtar Rizv
p24
c. see al-Bahrani, Ghayat al-Marum, p.
126:al-Suyuti, al-Durr al-Manthur, Vol. V,
p.199; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al Musnad,
Vol. I, p.331; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, al-
Tafsir al-Kabir, Vol. I, p.783; Ibn Hajar,
al-Sawa'iq p.85

Notes
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won't stop me from gathering these
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[Quran 21:89 ]

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Besides, men cannot do without
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certainly are enemies of mine, and the
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Muhammad (saw). Also don't give
them the chance to pray over me, nor
to any of their followers. I want you to
wash me at night, put the shroud on
me, perform the prayer upon my body,
and bury me at night when eyes are
rested and sight is put to sleep. And
after my burial, sit beside my grave
and recite Noble Qur'an for me.""
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Cleary, Thomas (1996). Living and Dying with
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57062-211-3.
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9506986-6-3.
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Uhud. Ta-Ha Publishers. ISBN 978-1-897940-
39-6.
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External links

Ali
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Shī'a biography

The Life of the Commander of the

Faithful Ali Ibn Abu Talib (as) by Shaykh
 Mufid in Kitab al-Irshad
Website devoted to the Life of Imam Ali
ibn Abi Talib
A Biographical Profile of Imam Ali by
Syed Muhammad Askari Jafari
Online Biography by Witness-Pioneer

Quotes

A Website featuring
validated/referenced quotes of Imam Ali
ibn Abi Talib
"Shadow of the Sun" published on first
Shia Imam, a collection of 110 hadiths
from Prophet (s) concerning the
character of Ali.
 Ali
of the Ahl al-Bayt
chief of Banu Hashim since 653
Clan of the Banu Quraish
Born: 15 September 601  Died: 29 Ja

Shia Islam titles

1st Imam of Twelver,

Zaydi, Sevener and Su
Preceded by
Nizari Ismaili; Ha
Muhammad
Asās/Wāsih of Hu
(Final prophet)
Musta'li Ismaili (N
632–661

Sunni Islam titles

Preceded by Caliph of Islam Su

Uthman ibn 4th Rashidun Caliph Ha
 Affan 656–661

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