Anti-lock Braking System

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Anti-lock Braking System

ABSTRACT

Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS) are designed to maintain driver

control and stability of the car during emergency braking. Locked wheels will
slow a car down but will not provide steering ability. ABS allows maximum
braking to be applied while retaining the ability to 'steer out of trouble'
The theory behind anti-lock brakes is simple. A skidding
wheel (where the tire contact patch is sliding relative to the road) has less
traction than a non-skidding wheel. By keeping the wheels from skidding
while you slow down, anti-lock brakes benefit you in two ways: You'll stop
faster, and you'll be able to steer while you stop.
An ABS system monitors four wheel speed sensors to evaluate
wheel slippage. Slip can be determined by calculating the ratio of wheel speed
to vehicle speed, which is continuously calculated from the four individual
wheel speeds. During a braking event, the function of the control system is to
maintain maximum possible wheel grip on the road - without the wheel
locking - by adjusting the hydraulic fluid pressure to each brake by way of
electronically controlled solenoid valves.

CONTENTS
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1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................1
2. CONCEPT OF ABS..........................................................2
3. HYDRAULIC BRAKING SYSTEM3
4. PRINCIPLES OF ABS....................................................5
4.1 Pressure modulation
5. ABS COMPONENTS......................................................7
5.1 Hydraulic components
5.2 Electrical\ electronic components
6. TYPES OF ANTILOCK BRAKE SYSTEMS.................11
6.1. Four channel, four sensors ABS
6.2. Three channel, three sensor ABS
6.3. One channel, one sensor abs
7. FOUR WHEEL SYSTEM...............................................12
8. ADVANCEMENTS IN ABS...........................................15
8.1 automatic traction control
8.2 automatic stability control
9. ADVANTAGES OF ABS................................................19
10. CONCLUSION 20
11. BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................................21

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1. INTRODUCTION

Car manufacturers world wide are vying with each other to invent more
reliable gadgets there by coming closer to the dream of the ‘Advanced safety
vehicle’ or ‘Ultimate safety vehicle’, on which research and development has
been going on for the past several year. Most of the newer vehicle models offer
ABS as either standard or optional equipment .Wheel lockup during braking
causes skidding which in turn cause a loss of traction and vehicle control. This
reduces the steering ability to change direction. So the car slides out of control.
But the road wheel that is still rotating can be steered. That is what ABS is all
about. With such a system, the driver can brake hard, take the evasive action
and still be in control of the vehicle in any road condition at any speed and
under any load. ABS does not reduce stopping distance, but compensates the
changing traction or tyre loading by preventing wheel lockup.
During panic braking when the wheels are about to lockup,
sensors sense that the wheel has just begun turning slower than others on the
vehicle. So they momentarily reduce braking force on the affected wheel. This
prevents sliding of the wheels on the pavement. When the wheel resumes
rolling, full braking force is again applied. ABS repeats the process until there
is no longer any need for modulated braking. ABS acts faster than any driver
could, pumping the brakes several times per second. Depending on the type of
system, ABS adjusts the braking force at each wheel or set of wheels, whereas a
driver’s foot on the brake pedal operates all the brakes at once in normal
braking.

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2. CONCEPT OF ABS

The theory behind anti-lock brakes is simple. A skidding wheel (where

the tire contact patch is sliding relative to the road) has less traction than a non-
skidding wheel. If the vehicle have been stuck on ice and if the wheels are
spinning then the vehicle have no traction. This is because the contact patch is
sliding relative to the ice. By keeping the wheels from skidding while you slow
down, anti-lock brakes benefit you in two ways: You'll stop faster, and you'll be
able to steer while you stop. Good drivers have always pumped the brake
pedal during panic stops to avoid wheel lock up and the loss of steering
control. ABS simply gets the pumping job done much faster and in much
precise manner than the fastest human foot.

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3. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF SIMPLE

HYDRAULIC BRAKING SYSTEM.

A simple braking system consists of a master cylinder, and four wheel

cylinders. Every wheel cylinder contains two pistons which move out words
when the hydraulic fluid flows from the master cylinder to the wheel cylinders
through the suitable pipes or lines.

Springs are used to hold the brake shoes on all four wheels. When the
brake pedal is pressed the piston in the master cylinder forces the liquid out of
the cylinder. This liquid presses the two pistons in the wheel cylinders
outwards. These two pistons push the brake shoes out words. The brake shoes
in turn press against the brake drums; this stops the brake drum which will be
rotating.

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Anti-lock Braking System

When the brake pedal is released the master cylinder is pushed

backwords.This is done by a spring fitted in the master cylinder. The springs of
the brake shoe brings the shoes closer. The liquid in the wheel cylinder is
pushed outwards through the pipes. It returns through the pipes to the master
cylinder. This is how the hydraulic system of the four wheels operates

3.1 Master cylinder

It consists of a reservoir feedhole, bypass port, primarypiston, secondary

piston .The liquid in the reservoir flows through bypass port to the master
cylinder. When the pedal is pressed the primary piston moves to the left .when
it crosses the bypass port the liquid is forced along the pipe lines to the wheel
cylinders. When the pedal is released the primary piston is moved back
wards .it is the spring, which pushes the piston back wards. At the same time a
partial vacuum is developed in the space previously occupied by the spring.

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4. PRINCIPLES OF ABS

The brakes of vehicle not equipped with ABS will almost immediately
lock the wheels, when the driver suddenly applies the brake. In this case the
vehicle slides rather than rolls to a stop. The skidding and lack of control was
caused by the locking of wheels. The release and reapply of the brake pedal
will avoid the locking of the wheels which in turn avoid the skidding. This is
exactly what an antilock braking system does.

4.1 Pressure modulation

When the brake pedal is pumped or pulsed the pressure is quickly
applied and released at the wheels. This is called pressure modulation.
Pressure modulation works to prevent the wheel locking. ABS can modulate
the pressure to the brake as often as 15 times per seconds. By modulating the

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Anti-lock Braking System

pressure to the brakes the friction between the tires and the road is maintained
and the vehicle is able to come to the controllable stop.

Steering is another important consideration. As long as a tire doesn’t

slip it goes only in the direction in which it is turned. But once it is skid it has
little or no directional stability.
The Maneuverability of the vehicle is reduced if the front wheels are
locked and the stability of the vehicle is reduced if the rear wheels are locked.
ABS precisely controls the slip rate of the wheels to ensure
maximum grip force from the tyre and it there by ensures maneuverability and
stability of the vehicle. ABS control module calculates the slip rate of the
wheels based on the vehicle speed and speed of the wheels, and then it controls
the brake fluid pressure to attain the target slip rate.

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During ABS operation, the target slip rate can be from 10 to 30%. 0%
slip means the wheel is rolling freely, while 100 % means the wheel is fully
locked. A slip rate of 25 % means the velocity of a wheel is 25 % less than that
of a freely rolling wheel at the same vehicle speed.

5. ABS COMPONENTS

Many different ABS are found on today’s vehicles. These designs are
varied by their basic layout, operation and components. The ABS components
can be divided into two categories.
1. Hydraulic components
2. Electrical/electronic components
Besides these normal and conventional brake parts are part of the
overall brake system.

5.1 Hydraulic components

 Accumulator
An accumulator is used to store hydraulic fluid to maintain high
pressure in the brake system and provide the residual pressure for power
assisted braking. Normally the accumulator is charged with nitrogen gas and is
an integral part of the modulator unit.

 Antilock hydraulic control valve assembly

This assembly controls the release and application of the brake system
pressure to the wheel brake assemblies. It may be of integral type and non

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Anti-lock Braking System

integral type. In integral type the unit is combined with the power boost and
master cylinder unit into one assembly. The non integral type is mounted
externally from the master cylinder /power booster unit and is located
between the master cylinder and wheel brake assembly. Both types generally
contain solenoid valve that control the releasing, holding and applying of brake
system pressure.

 Booster pump
The booster pump is an assembly of an electric motor and pump. The
booster pump is used to provide pressurized hydraulic fluid ABS. The pumps
motor is controlled by systems control unit.

 Booster/Master cylinder assembly

It is referred as the hydraulic unit, contains the valves and pistons
needed to modulate hydraulic pressure in the wheel circuit during the ABS
operations.

 Fluid accumulator
Different than a pressure accumulator, fluid accumulator temporarily
store brake fluid, that is removed from the wheel brake unit during ABS cycle.
This fluid is then used by pump to build pressure for the brake hydraulic
system.

 Hydraulic control unit

This assembly contains solenoid valve, fluid accumulator, pump and
electric motor. The unit may have one pump and one motor or it have one
motor and two pumps.

 Main Valve
This is a two position valve and is also controlled by ABS control
module and is open only in the ABS mode. When open pressurized brake fluid

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from the booster circuit is directed into the master circuit to prevent excessive
pedal travel.

 Modulator unit
The modulator unit controls the flow of pressurized brake fluid to the
individual wheel circuits. Normally the modulator is made up of solenoid that
open and close valves, several valves that control flow of fluid to wheel brake
units and electrical relays that activate or deactivate the solenoids through the
commands of the control module. This unit may also be called the hydraulic
actuator, hydraulic power unit or the electro hydraulic control valve.

 Solenoid valves
The solenoid valves are located in the modulator unit and are electrically
operated by signals from the control module. The control module switches the
solenoids on or off to increase, decrease, or maintain the hydraulic pressure to
the individual wheel units.

 Wheel circuit valves

Two solenoid valves are used to control each circuit or channel. One
controls the inlet valve of the circuit, the controls the outlet valve .the position
is determined by the control module. Outlet valves are normally closed and
inlet valves are normally open. Valves are activated when abs control module
switches 12 volts to the circuit solenoids. During normal driving the circuits are
not activated.

5.2 Electrical\ electronic components

 ABS control module

This small computer is normally mounted inside the trunk on the wheel
housing, mounted to the master cylinder or is part of the hydraulic control
unit. It monitors system operation and controls antilock function when needed.
The module relies on input from the wheel speed sensors and feedback from

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the hydraulic unit to determine if the abs is operating correctly and to

determine when the anti lock mode is required.

 Brake pedal sensor

The antilock brake pedal sensor switch is normally closed. When the
brake pedal exceeds the antilock brake pedal sensor switch setting during an
antilock stop, the antilock brake control module senses that the antilock brake
pedal sensor switch is open and grounds the pump motor relay coil. This
energizes the relay and turns the pump motor on. When the pump motor is
running, the hydraulic reservoir is filled with high pressure brake fluid and the
brake pedal will be pushed up until antilock brake pedal sensor switch closes.
when the antilock brake pedal sensor switch closes , the pump motor is turned
off and the brake pedal will drop some with each abs control cycle until the
antilock brake pedal sensor switch opens and the pump motor is turned on
again .this minimizes pedal feedback during abs cycling .

 Pressure differential switch

It is located in the modulator unit. This switch sends a signal to the
control module whenever there is an undesirable difference in the hydraulic
pressures with in the brake system.

 Relays
Relays are electromagnetic devices used to control a high current circuit
with a low current switching circuit. In abs relays are used to switch motors
and solenoids. A low current signal from the control module energizes the
relays that complete the electrical circuit for the motor or solenoid.

 Toothed ring
It can be located on an axle shaft, differential gear or a wheels hub. This
ring is used with conjunction with the wheel speed sensor. The ring has a
number of teeth around its circumference. As the ring rotates and each tooth
passes by the wheel speed sensor, an ac voltage signal is generated between the
sensor and tooth.

 Wheel speed sensor

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It is mounted near the different toothed ring. As the rings teeth rotate
past the sensor an ac voltage is generated. as the teeth move away from the
sensor, the signal is broken until the next tooth comes close to the sensor .the
end result is a pulsing signal that is sent to the control module. The control
module translates the signal in to wheel speed. The sensor is normally a small
coil of wire with a permanent magnet in its center.

6. TYPES OF ANTILOCK BRAKE SYSTEMS

One of the classifications of abs is integral and non integral type.
Integral type they combine the master cylinder, hydraulic booster and
abs hydraulic circuit in to single hydraulic assembly.
In non integral type they use a conventional vacuum-assist booster and
master cylinder. In addition they can be classified according to the control they
provide.

6.1. Four channel, four sensors ABS

This is the best scheme. There is speed sensor on all four

wheels and a separate valve for all the four wheels. With this set up the
controller monitors each wheel individually to make sure it is achieving
maximum braking force.

6.2. Three channel, three sensor ABS

This scheme is commonly found on pick up trucks with four wheels

ABS, has a speed sensor and a valve for each of the front wheels, with one
valve and one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed sensor for the rear wheel
is located in the rear axle.

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This system provides individual control of the wheels,

so they can both achieve maximum braking force. The rear wheels however are
monitored together, they both have to start to lock up before the abs will
activate on the rear. With this system, it is possible that one of the rear wheels
will lock during a stop, reducing brake effectiveness.

6.3. One channel, one sensor abs

This scheme is commonly found on pick up trucks with

rear wheel abs .it has one valve ,which controls both rear wheels , and one
speed sensor, located in the rear axle . This system operates the same as the
rear end of the rear channel system. The rear wheels are monitored together
and both have to start to lock up before the abs kicks in. in this system is also
possible that one of the rear wheels will lock reducing brake effectiveness.

7. FOUR WHEEL SYSTEM

The hydraulic circuit for this type of system is an independent four
channel type. One for each wheel. The hydraulic control unit is a separate unit.
Normal braking is accompanied by conventional vacuum power assist brake
system.
The system prevents wheel lock up during an emergency stop by
modulating brake pressure. It allows the driver to maintain steering control
and stop the vehicle in the shortest possible distance under most conditions.
During ABS operation the driver will sense a pulsation in the brake pedal and
clicking sound.

7.1 Operation

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The ABS control module calculates the slip rate of the wheels and
control the brake fluid pressure to attain the target slip rate if the control
module senses that the wheel is about to lock based on input sensor data, it
pulses the normally open inlet solenoid valve closed for that circuit. This
prevents any more fluid from entering that circuit. ABS control module then
looks at the sensor signal from the effected wheel again. If that wheel is still
decelerating faster than other three wheels it opens the normally closed out let
solenoid valve for that circuit. This dumps any pressure that is trapped
between the closed inlet valve and the brake back to the master cylinder
reservoir. Once the effected wheel returns to the same speed as the other wheel,
the control module returns the valve to the normal condition allowing fluid
flow to the effected brake.
Based on the input from vehicle speed and the wheel speed sensor, the
control module calculates the slip rate of each wheel, and transmits a control
signal to the modulator unit solenoid valve when the slip rate is high.
Wheel speed at each wheel is measured by variable reluctance
sensors and sensor indicators. The sensors operate on magnetic induction
principles.

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As the teeth on brake sensor indicators rotate past the sensors, ac

current is generated. The ac frequency changes in accordance with the wheel

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speed. The ABS control unit detects the wheel sensor signal frequency and
there by detects wheel speed.

7.2 FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM OF FOUR CHANNEL ABS

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8. ADVANCEMENTS IN ABS
Some systems, which work with the ABS, are Automatic traction control
and Automatic stability control, which are discussed below.

8.1 AUTOMATIC TRACTION CONTROL (ATC)

Automatic traction control systems apply the brakes when a drive wheel
attempts to spin and lose traction. The system works best when one drive
wheel is working on a good traction surface and the other is not. The system
also works well when the vehicle is accelerating on slippery road surfaces,
especially when climbing hills. ATC is most helpful on four wheel or all wheel
drive vehicles in which loss of traction at one wheel could hamper driver
control.
During road operation the ATC system uses an electronic control
module to monitor the wheel speed sensors. If a wheel enters a loss of traction
situation, the module applies braking force to the wheel in trouble. Loss of
traction is identified by comparing the vehicle speed to the speed of the wheel.
If there is a loss of traction the speed of the wheel will be greater than expected
for the particular vehicle speed. ABS and ATC systems can be integral and uses
the common valves.
These systems are designed to reduce wheel slip and maintain traction
at the drive wheels when the road is wet or snow covered. The control module
monitors wheel speed. If during acceleration the module detects drive wheel
slip and if brakes are not applied, the control module enters into the traction
control mode. The inlet and outlet solenoid valves are pulsed and allow the
brake to be quickly applied and released.

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In some systems when a loss of traction is sensed, it not only cycles the
brakes but signals the engine control module to retard ignition timing and
partially close the throttle as well, which in turn reduces engine output.
Many systems are equipped with a dash mounted warning light to alert
the driver that the system is operating. There will also be a manual cut off
switch so that the driver can turn off ATC operation.

8.2 AUTOMATIC STABILITY CONTROL

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Like ATC, the stability control systems are linked with the ABS. it can
also be called Electronic Stability Programme (ESP). Stability control systems
momentarily apply the brakes at any one wheel to correct over steer or under
steer. The control unit receives signals from the typical sensors plus a yaw,
lateral acceleration (G-force) and a steering angle sensor.
The system uses the angle of the steering wheel and the speed of
the four wheels to calculate the path chosen by the driver. It then looks at
lateral G-forces and vehicle yaw to measure where the vehicle is going. (Yaw is
defined as the natural tendency for a vehicle to rotate on its vertical center
axis). So it is also called Yaw control.

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Under steer is the condition in which the vehicle is slow to respond to

steering changes. Over steer occurs when the rear wheels try to swing around
causing the car to spin. When the system senses under steer in a turn the brake
at the inside rear wheel is applied. During over steer the outside front brake is
applied. Relaying on the input from the sensors and computer programming
the system calculates if the vehicle is going exactly in the same direction in
which it is being steered. In case of any difference between what the driver is
asking and what the vehicle is doing, the system corrects the situation by
applying one of the right or left brakes.

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9. ADVANTAGES OF ABS
 It allows the driver to maintain directional stability and
control over steering during braking
 Safe and effective
 Automatically changes the brake fluid pressure at each
wheel to maintain optimum brake performance.
 ABS absorbs the unwanted turbulence shock waves and
modulates the pulses thus permitting the wheel to continue turning
under maximum braking pressure.

Disadvantages
 It is very costly
 Maintenance cost of a car equipped with ABS is more.

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10. CONCLUSION

ABS has been so far developed to a system, which provides rapid,

automatic braking in response to signs of incipient wheel locking by
alternatively increasing and decreasing hydraulic pressure in the brake line
Statistics show that approximately 40 % of automobile
accidents are due to skidding. These problems commonly occur on vehicle with
conventional brake system which can be avoided by adding devices called ABS
If there is an ABS failure, the system will revert to normal brake
operation. Normally the ABS warning light will turn on and let the driver
know there is a fault

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Bibliography

 Automotive technology –Jack erjavec

 Automobile engineering – kirpal Singh
 www.SeminarsTopics .com

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