Satellite Book
Satellite Book
Satellite Book
Satellite Communication
By
Kamran Ahmed
(kamrahmed@excite.com)
Course Contents
• Overview of Satellite Systems
• Orbits & Launching Methods
• Orbital Mechanics
• Orbital Perturbations
• Satellite Visibility
• Radio Wave Propagation
• Polarization
• Antenna
• Link Budget
• Interference
• Channel Characterization
1. Overview of Satellite Systems
Contents
• What is satellite communication
• The Origin of Satellite
• Elements of Satellite Communication
• Key input data
• Early Satellite Systems
• System Design Considerations
• Major Problems for Satellite
• Limitation for Satellites
• Advantages of Satellite
• Different Applications
• Frequency Allocation & Regulatory Aspects
What is Satellite Communication…
downlink downlink
uplink
uplink
IRRADIUM
IFL
Indoor Unit Outdoor Unit Antenna
(IDU) (ODU) Sub-System
70/140 C/Ku
MHz
Satellite Services
• The ITU has grouped the satellite services in to three main
groups
• Fixed Satellite Services (FSS)
• Broadcast Satellite Services (BSS)
• Mobile Satellite services (MSS)
Space Segment
• Space segment consist of a satellite in
suitable orbit.
• Space segment classified on the basis of
orbit;
– LEO
– MEO
– HEO
– GEO & GSO
Ground Segment
• The ground segment of each service has
distinct characteristics.
• Services like;
• FSS
• BSS
• MSS
– Maritime, Aeronautical & Land base
• DBS
• Etc.
Satellite Footprints
Types of footprints:
– Global beam footprint
– Hemispheric Beam Footprint
– Zone Beam Footprint
Satellite Footprints
Satellite Footprints
Satellite Footprints
Satellite Footprints
Key Input Data...
Bands:
C-Band ( )
Ku-Band ( )
Beams:
Global ( )
Hemi ( )
Zone ( )
Spot ( )
National and Regional Systems
RELAY 1962 USA/RCA & NASA Active Duplex 942-5303 4.2/1.7 GHz satellite designed to
carry telephone signals.
MOLNIYA 1965 U.S.S.R Active Duplex High altitude First Soviet communication satellite
elliptical used a high altitude elliptical orbit.
Explorer 1958 USA/NASA Broadcast 110 to 920 Very short life; Noted for
re-broadcasting an on-board
taped message from president
Eisnhour
COURIER 1960 Department of defense Store & Repeat 600-700 First radio repeater satellite. It
accepted and stored upto 360,000
teletype words as it passed
overhead and then broadcast to
ground stations further along the
orbit; only operated for 17 days.
TELSTAR 1962 USA/AT&T Active Duplex 682-4030 First satellite to receive and transmit
simultaneously; Operated in 4/6
GHz band
Early Satellites
Satellite Launching Date Country/Organization Type Height (miles) Comments
ANIK 1 1972 Canada/Telesat Active Geostationary World’s first domestic satellite; 5000
voice circuits capacity.
• Relay
– 4000 miles orbit
• Telstar
– Allowed live transmission across the Atlantic
• Syncom 2
– First Geosynchronous satellite
TELSTAR
Power GPSMobil
Glonass
Systems Mittel GalileoFunk Sat
Welle TV Mikro TV
Sun X-Rays
AM UKW Welle IR Lamp
Studio
102 104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 Hz
• International
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
– Formed in 1932 from the International Telegraph Union
– Consists of over 150 members nations
– World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC)
– International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR)
consists of 13 study groups.
ITU Regions
ITU divides the surface area of the earth into three regions for the
purpose of frequency allocation
Molnya Tundra
Period 12 h 24 h
Apogee 39 500 km 46 300 km
Perigee 1 000 km 25 300 km
Inclination 63.4° 63.4°
Satellite Orbits and Periods
Height Period Cell Visible Numbers Duration of
of Orbit1 of Orbit Diameter Part of Earth of Satellite Over flight
(km) (h) (km) % * (min)
1
above the surface of the earth
*minimum necessary for 0° elevation and 0 redundancy
GEOs
• Originally proposed by Arthur C. Clarke
• Circular orbits above the equator
• Angular separation about 2 degrees -
allows 180 satellites
• Orbital height above the earth about 23000
miles/35786.16km
• Round trip time to satellite about 0.24
seconds
GEOs (2)
• GEO satellites require more power for
communications
• The signal to noise ratio for GEOs is worse
because of the distances involved
• A few GEOs can cover most of the surface
of the earth
• Note that polar regions cannot be “seen”
by GEOs
GEOs (3)
• Since they appear stationary, GEOs do not
require tracking
• GEOs are good for broadcasting to wide
areas
• Currently 329 GEO are in orbit
(ref: web site provided by Johnston)
The original vision
• 1945 Arthur C Clark envisaged
“extraterrestrial relays”
• # of Satellites: 03
• Period: 23 h 56 min 4.091 s
• Height: 36 000 km above
equator
• Speed of flight: 3.074 km/s
and then..
• 1957 Sputnik
• a rush of experimental satellites in many
orbits
• Intelsat 1965 – 1st commercial GEO service
• over 800 objects registered so far
GEO - geostationary earth orbit
• characterised by:
– delay (echo) ~0.5sec return
– high power
– 5-7 years life
• global and spot beams
• C and K band (4-6Ghz and 12-14Ghz)
• 2 – 3o spacing
• Currently more than 200 GEO satellites in
operation
the view from 36,000km
Earth coverage with 2 spacecraft
90
70
50
30
10
-10
-30
-50
-70
-90
-170 -150 -130 -110 -90 -70 -50 -30 -10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190
Kgrav = m Me G / r2 Kzent = m r ω 2, = m v2 / r
Angular velocity ω = 2π / T, T Period, v velocity
Kgrav = Kzent und
m Me g / r2 = m r ω 2 bzw. Me g / r2 = r ω2
r 3 = Me g T2 / ( 2π )2
The period T of the circular orbit (r in km, m = 398 601.8 km3/s2) is
──── ──────
T = 2 π √ r 3 / m = 9.952 10-3 √ r 3 / km in Seconds
p = 6.611
The GEO
Ro ε d
ζ
pRo
)
The inclination: orbit remains geosynchroneous,
24 h; satellite moves North/South;
d pl ane
inclination builds up 0.8°/year if i ncline
T he
not corrected contiuously
)
After 18 years some 15° of inclination will have built up;
now the inclination reverses and decreases by 0.8°/year; d pl ane
ine
satellites with <15° inclination are geostationary by law. The incl
Legende
im Orbit
im Bau
ITU Appl.
Legend
on orbit
under constr
ITU Appl.
(1995)
Ku-Band satellites in GEO
Legende
im Orbit
im Bau
ITU Appl.
Legend
on orbit
under constr
ITU Appl.
(1995)
C and Ku-Band satellites in America
Comparison Chart
Features GEO MEO LEO
Heig ht 3 6 ,0 0 0 6 ,0 0 0 - 200-3000
(km’s ) 1 2 ,0 0 0
Time per 24 5-12 1 .5
Orbit (hrs )
Speed 1 1 ,0 0 0 1 9 ,0 0 0 2 7 ,0 0 0
(kms / hr)
Time 250 80 10
delay
(ms )
Time in Alw ays 2 - 4 hrs < 1 5 min
s ite of
Gatew ay
Satellites 3 10-12 50-70
f or Global
Coverag e
Mega LEOs, MEOs, HEOs,
and GEOs
1 TELEDESIC of microSoft with 288 LEOs at Ka-Band
2 V-Band Supplement of TELEDESIC/microSoft with 72 LEOs im Q-Band
3 GS-40 of Globalstar LP with 80 LEOs at Q-Band
4 M-Star of Mororola with 72 LEOs at Q-Band
5 LEO ONE of LEO ONE Corp. with 48 LEOs at Q-Band
6 ORBLINK of Orblink LLC with 7 MEOs in Q-Band
7 SkyBridge of ALCATEL witt 64 LEOs and 9 GEOs in Ku-Band
8 WEST of MATRA with 10 MEOs and 12 GEOs in Ka-Band
9 GESN of TRW with 15 MEOs and 4 GEOs in Q-Band
10 CELESTRI of Motorola MOT with 63 LEOs and 10 GEOs in Ka-Band
11 SpaceWay of Hughes Communications with 20 LEOs and 16 GEOs in Ka-
Band
12 StarLynx of Hughes Communications with 20 MEOs and 4 GEOs in Q-Band
13 DenAli Telecom LLC PenTriad in HEO im Ku-, Ka-, V- and W-Band
The Future
• given current-generation LEO’s and
MEO’s are predominately used for mobile
voice and low-speed data services (MPSS)
– good voice coverage for remote regions
– adjunct to GSM mobile networks ~ Globalstar
the future
• continual development in VSAT (GEO)
technology
– bandwidth gains
– multiple services = choice
• Broadband LEOs
– Teledesic
• fixed and transportable terminals
• 64k – 2M – and above (Gb)
• 288 satellites
• 2005 launch??
– SkyBridge
• 80 satellites
• 2004
what is SkyBridge?
• SkyBridge is an Alcatel controlled company planning to
establish a constellation of 80 satellites to provide
broadband data communications direct to business &
residential premises.
• Satellites are Low Earth Orbit (LEO) at an altitude of
1500 km
• offers “last mile” broadband access from 2004
– no long-haul trunking capability - connects users to
terrestrial gateway
• System cost is approx US$4.8bn
broadband LEO – low latency
36 000 km
GEO : 500ms
Astrolink
Intelsat
Spaceway
Step 2: The Payload Assist Module (PAM) rocket fires to place the
satellite into the geostationary transfer orbit (GTO)
Launching (Continued)
Step 3: Several days after the satellite gets into the GTO the
Apogee Kick Motor (AKM) fires to put the satellite into a
nearly circular orbit.
Launching (Continued)
Step 4: Orbital Adjustment by firing the AKM to achieve a circular
geosynchronus orbit. (click on the picture below)
Launch Vehicles
Launch Atlas II Delta II Ariane-4 Proton Long H-2
Vehicles March-3
equator
Lift-Off!
Up to 6 t
Land Launch
The Evolution: since the 60ies
Air Launch
since the 80ies
Anatomy of a Satellite
A communication satellite consists of the following subsystems:
• Antenna_For receiving and transmitting signals.
• Transponder_It contains the electronics for receiving the
signals, amplifying them, changing their frequency and
retransmitting them.
• Power Generation and conditioning subsystem_For creating
power and converting the generated power into a usable form
to operate the satellite.
• Command and Telemetry_For transmitting data about the
satellite (status, health etc.) to the earth and receiving
commands from earth.
• Thrust subsystem_For making the adjustments to the satellite
orbital position and altitude.
• Stabilization subsystem_For keeping the satellite antennas
pointing in exactly the right direction.
Common Abbreviations
Orbits:
GEO = Geostationary Earth Orbit
HEO = Highly inclined Elliptical Orbit
MEO = Medium altitude Earth Orbit
LEO = Low altitude Earth Orbit
IGSO = Inclined Geo-Synchroneous Orbit
HAP = High Altitude Platform
Services:
BIG = Voice Telephony
Super = Voice telephony into mobiles from GEO
Little = Data only, typically store and forward
Mega = Mega-bit/s services
DBS = Direct Broadcast satellite television Service
Dab = Digital Audio Broadcast satellite service
Nav = Navigation service
glossary
GEO – geostationary earth orbit – 36,000km IP – Internet Protocol – the language of the
MEO – Medium earth orbit – 6-12,000km Internet. The protocol stack is referred to
LEO – Low earth orbit – 200-3,000km as TCP / IP
Broadcast – One to many simultaneous Fixed – refers to a satellite receiver being
transmission, usually associated with older attached as a permanent mounting, as
style analogue transmission opposed to tracking.
Multicast – In communications networks, to Mobile – Refers to a mobile satellite receiver
transmit a message to multiple recipients at such as a personal communicator or
the same time. Multicast is a one-to-many mobile phone. Usually associated with
transmission similar to broadcasting, except LEO and MEO services.
that multicasting means sending to specific Broadband – high speed transmission. The
groups, whereas broadcasting implies threshold is arguable, but is construed as
sending to everybody. When sending large being faster than dial-up ~ 64kbps and
volumes of data, multicast saves upwards. Some conventions suggest the
considerable bandwidth, because the bulk threshold starts at 1.5 or 2Mbps.
of the data is transmitted once from its Orbit – The path of a celestial body or an artificial
source through major backbones and is satellite as it revolves around another
multiplied, or distributed out, at switching body.
points closer to the end users.
One complete revolution of such a body
2-way – Infers forward and reverse transmission
via the satellite, usually but not always VSAT– Very small aperture terminal, refers to a
asymmetric, i.e. high-speed download from small-dish service using a GEO satellite
the satellite and low speed from client to and a large central hub, usually 6 metres
the satellite plus.
latency – The time between initiating a request for DTH – Direct to home. A service bypassing
data and the beginning of the actual data normal terrestrial infrastructure such as a
transfer. A GEO satellite has a latency of satellite TV receiver. As opposed to
approx 256ms resulting in a round trip community satellite service where local
delay of about half a second (echo) distribution from a satellite receiver is done
by cable, radio or other means.
3. Orbital Mechanics
Contents
• Kepler’s Laws
• Orbital Elements
• Epoch
• Orbital Inclination
• Right Ascension of Ascending Node
(R.A.A.N.)
• Argument of Perigee
• Eccentricity
• Mean Motion
• Mean Anomaly
• Drag (optional)
• Apogee & Perigee Heights
Kepler’s Laws
• LAW 1: The orbit of a planet about the Sun is an
ellipse with the Sun's center of mass at one focus
LAW 2: A line joining a planet and the Sun
sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time
• LAW 3: The squares of the periods of the planets
are proportional to the cubes of their semi-major
axes
Kepler’s First Law
• LAW 1: The orbit of a planet about the
Sun is an ellipse with the Sun's center of
mass at one focus.
where;
S= Slant Range in m
λ =Wavelength in m
14 GHz (ESA/EUTELSAT-Modell)
Doppler Effect
• The Doppler effect in satellite communications is
the change in frequency of an electromagnetic
signal that results from the relative speed of the
satellite and the Earth terminal. When the
orbital parameters of a satellite are known,
Doppler shift can be used to determine the
position of the Earth terminal. When an Earth
terminal's position is known, Doppler shift can
be used to estimate the orbital parameters of a
satellite. When the satellite (or the Earth station)
is moving quickly, the Doppler effect is an
important consideration in satellite
communications
Atmospheric and Rain Attenuation
Rain Attenuation
• Rain is predominant loss element below
60GHz.
• Fog is shown has attenuation 0.1 g /m3
• The total link attenuation is the sum of the
losses due to slant range , the atmosphere,
precipitation and any additional losses(such
as scintillation etc.)
Climatic Zones
C
C
E
F
D K K
K D
E E K
M
E C N
P H E
H H P
H P P N
H P
C D
E E
D F M
D
E K
A
Atmospheric and Rain Attenuation
20 mm/h
Rain Attenuation
10 mm/h
100
Equatorial
Latitudes
Additional Attenuation
in dB
10
100
Ionospheric
Delay
1
Atmosph.
10 Medium Attenuation
Latitudes
1
Frequency in GHz
5
GHz
Ionospheric Losses
• Al lower frequencies (e.g 1.5 and 2.5 GHz)
ionospheric effect may be encountered,
particularly scintillation.
• The magnitude of these losses vary
considerably with the time of day and the
sunspot activity level (the affect the
ionosphere).
Ionospheric Losses
Ionospheric Losses
• All radio waves propagated over ionospheric paths
undergo energy losses before arriving at the receiving
site. As we discussed earlier, absorption in the
ionosphere and lower atmospheric levels account for
a large part of these energy losses.
• There are two other types of losses that also
significantly affect the ionospheric propagation of
radio waves. These losses are known as ground
reflection loss and free space loss.
• The combined effects of absorption, ground
reflection loss, and free space loss account for most of
the energy losses of radio transmissions propagated
by the ionosphere
7. Polarization
Contents
• Polarization
• Types of Polarization
• Antenna polarization
• Manual Polarization Switching
• Polarization of satellite signals
• Depolarization
• Cross polarization discrimination
• Ionospheric depolarization, rain & ice
depolarization
• XPD and Co-Polar Attenuation
• Ionospheric Effect
Polarization
• The polarization of an electromagnetic wave
is defined as the orientation of the electric
field vector. Recall that the electric field
vector is perpendicular to both the direction
of travel and the magnetic field vector.
• The polarization is described by the
geometric figure traced by the electric field
vector upon a stationary plane perpendicular
to the direction of propagation, as the wave
travels through that plane.
Cont…
Cont…
• Polarization is also describe as the "direction of
vibration" on the radio wave.
• It depends the orientation of elements of an antenna,
when you set elements vertical, it generates vertical-
polarized radio wave similarly when you set as
horizontal, it generates horizontal-polarized.
• In the case of YAGI antenna, the direction of
Electronic-Field is same as the direction of its
elements.
• Radio stations have to set as a same direction of
polarization for communication each other.
Types of Polarization
• An electromagnetic wave is frequently composed of
(or can be broken down into) two orthogonal. This
may be due to the arrangement of power input leads
to various points on a flat antenna, or due to an
interaction of active elements in an array, or many
other reasons.
• The geometric figure traced by the sum of the electric
field vectors over time is, in general, an ellipse as
shown in Figure 2. Under certain conditions the
ellipse may collapse into a straight line, in which case
the polarization is called linear.
Cont…
• In the other extreme, when the two components are
of equal magnitude and 900 out of phase, the ellipse
will become circular as shown in Figure 3. Thus linear
and circular polarization are the two special cases of
elliptical polarization. Linear polarization may be
further classified as being vertical, horizontal, or
slant.
Polarization and its types
Cont…
• Polarization makes the beam more concentrated
• FSS satellites use horizontal and vertical
polarization, whereas DBS satellites use left- and
right-hand circular polarization
• To use the channels that are available for satellite
broadcast as efficiently as possible, both horizontal
and vertical polarization (and left- and right-hand
circular polarization) can be applied simultaneously
per channel or frequency. In such cases the
frequency of one of the two is slightly altered, to
prevent possible interference
Cont…
• Horizontal and vertical transmissions will therefore
not interfere with each another because they are
differently polarized. This means twice as many
programs can be transmitted per satellite
• Consequently, via one and (almost) the same
frequency the satellite can broadcast both a
horizontal and a vertical polarized signal (H and V), or
a left- and right-hand circular polarized signal (LH
and RH).
Radio stations have to set as a same direction
of polarization for communication each other.
• When you try to hear the vertical-polarized
wave with horizontal- polarized antenna,
what will be happened? A theory tells it is
impossible to receive. In fact, although it is
possible, It becomes very difficult (very weak
less than -20dB ). This is due to:-
– The radio waves do not travels with pure-polarized
condition, and
– There is no real antenna that has pure-polarized
character. Anyway, you should to adjust the
polarization for better communication.
Is Circular Polarization better choice for
satellite?
• Circular-polarization (CP) is another choice when
you could not decide the polarization of your
choice.
• CP is the special style of polarization, the
direction of Electric-Field rotates one times par
one cycle.
• The CP antenna can receive both horizontal and
vertical polarized radio wave, even in the
direction of slant-polarized.
• CP is very popular technique for satellite
communication both commercial and amateur
satellite systems.
Antenna Polarization
• Table 1 shows the theoretical ratio of power
transmitted between antennas of different
polarization. These ratios are seldom fully
achieved due to effects such as reflection,
refraction, and other wave interactions, so
some practical ratios are also included.
Cont…
Cont…
• The sense of antenna polarization is defined from a
viewer positioned behind an antenna looking in the
direction of propagation. The polarization is specified
as a transmitting, not receiving antenna regardless of
intended use.
• We frequently use "hand rules" to describe the sense
of polarization. The sense is defined by which hand
would be used in order to point that thumb in the
direction of propagation and point the fingers of the
same hand in the direction of rotation of the E field
vector.
Cont…
• For example, referring to Figure 4, if your thumb is
pointed in the direction of propagation and the
rotation is counterclockwise looking in the direction of
travel, then you have left hand circular polarization.
• The polarization of a linearly polarized horn antenna
can be directly determined by the orientation of the
feed probe, which is in the direction of the E-field.
Cont…
• In general, a flat surface or sphere will reflect a
linearly polarized wave with the same polarization as
received. A horizontally polarized wave may get
extended range because of water and land surface
reflections, but signal cancellation will probably result
in "holes" in coverage. Reflections will reverse the
sense of circular polarization.
Cont…
• For a linearly polarized antenna, the radiation
pattern is taken both for a co-polarized and cross
polarized response.
• The polarization quality is expressed by the ratio
of these two responses. The ratio between the
responses must typically be great (30 dB or
greater) for an application such as cross
polarized jamming
• For general applications, the ratio indicates
system power loss due to polarization mismatch.
• For circularly polarized antennas, radiation
patterns are usually taken with a rotating linearly
polarized reference antenna.
Manual Polarization Switching
• The CP antenna reduces QSB so it might be better
for comfortable operation, but the CP antenna is
bigger and more complicated than the simple linear-
polarized antenna. Also the big and complicated
antenna will be expensive. 3dB loss will be a problem
with some limited conditions.
• There is another choice. Setup a pair of
vertical/Horizontal polarized independent antenna
and switch them at your shack. You select where
either is better during its pass. This is the theory of
"Divercity" reception
Polarization of satellite signal
• Applied for geo-stationary satellites
• “Horizontal”polarization = parallel to the
equatorial plane
• “Vertical”polarization = parallel to the Earth's axis
• Polarization angle at earth station
Pr =
λ 2
Ae = G (ϑ , ϕ ) [m ]
2
4π
• Aperture efficiency: ηa = Ae / A
A: physical area of antenna’s aperture, (m2)
Transmission losses
• Free Space Transmission [FSL]
– More to follow
• Feeder Losses [RFL]
– Between the receive antenna and the
receive proper
• Antenna Misalignment Losses [AML]
• Fixed Atmospheric & Ionospheric
Losses
– Absorption losses
– Depolarization losses
Power transfer between two antennas
1
Relative Gain
-1
0
0 90 180 270 360
Degrees
0 • Typical
relative
-5
directivity-
Isotropic gain, dB
-10
mask of
receiving
-15 antenna (Yagi
ant., TV dcm
-20
waves)
0
60
-60
180
120
-180
-120
COPOLAR
Phi
Relative gain (dB)
-20
-3dB
-30
-40
CROSSPOLAR
-50
0.1 1 10 100
Phi/Phi0
EIRP down
EIRP Up G/T ES
Gt
Pt
LNA / LNB
HPA / Transceiver
Transmit Earth Station
– Antenna Gain
– Power of Amplifier
Uplink
– Path Loss
– Rain Attenuation
Satellite
– G/T
– EIRP (Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power)
– Amplifier Characteristic
Downlink
– Path Loss
– Rain Attenuation
Receiving Earth Station
– Antenna Gain
– LNA /LNB Noise Temperature
– Other Equipment
Signal Power Calculation
Antenna Gain
G = η (Π * d / λ) 2 [dBi]
Where,
λ=C/f,
C = Speed of light
f = frequency of interest
η = efficiency of antenna (%),
d = diameter of antenna (m)
Signal Power Calculation
Antenna Beam width
θ 3dB = 70 * C / df [degrees]
Where,
C= 3x108 m/s (Velocity of Light)
EIRP
Is the effective radiated power from the
transmitting side and is the product of the
antenna gain and the transmitting power,
expressed as
Te = T1 + (T2/G1)
Where,
T1= Temperature of LNA
T2= Temperature of D/C
G1= Gain of LNA
Noise Temperature
Ts = Tant / Lf+(1-1/Lf)Tf
Where ,
Tant = Temperature of antenna
Lf = Feed Losses
Tf = Feed Temperature
Effective Temperature
Tsys = Ts + Te
• Being a first stage in the receiving chain, LNA is the
major factor for the System Temperature Calculation
• Lower the noise figure of LNA lower the system
temperature
• Antenna temperature depends on the elevation angle
from the earth station to satellite
G/T (Gain to System Noise Temperature)
– This is the Figure of merit of any receiving
system
– It is the ratio of gain of the system and
system noise temperature
C/N Downlink
(C/N)d = (EIRP)sat-(Path Loss)d+(G/T)e-K-Noise BW [dB]
C/N Total
– Eb/No Threshold
– Bit Error Rate (BER)
– Rain Attenuation
Bit Error Rate (BER)
– Why is it used? - To represent the amount of errors
occurring in a transmission
- To express the link quality
– What is it? - BER is an equipment characteristic
- BER is directly related to Eb/No
- BER improves as the Eb/No
gets larger
• Data links:
- BER threshold: 10-4
Carrier Parameters
• Performance:
– Typical Eb/No values for different FEC
TO
• Rain Margins
– Typically 99.60 % for Ku-Band
– Typically 99.96 % for C-Band
E/S
– Interference Type
– Sources of Interference
– Causes of Interference
Interference
Interference Type:
• Digital
• Spike
• Cross Polarization
• TDMA
• FM TV
• Intermodulation
• Unknown
Interference
Source of Interference:
•Neighboring Customer
•Adjacent Satellite
•Self-Customer
•Opposite Polarization
•Others
External Factors: 40.22%
Internal Factors: 59.78%
Interference
Causes of Interference:
•Human Error: 29.89%
•Equipment Error: 21.74%
•Adjacent Satellite: 16.85%
•Customer Cooperation: 8.15%
•Others: 23.37%
Internal Factors: 59.78%
Types of Interference
• FM
• Cross Polarization
• Digital
• CW
• Intermodulation
• Raised Noise Floor
• TV/FM
• TDMA
• Spikes & Unknown
FM Interference
70 MHz 6 GHz
FM Radio Signal
FM Interference
II
f (MHz) f (MHz)
70 88 90 108
f (MHz) f (GHz)
70 90 6.0 6.09
IF RF
FM Interference
III
Source:
IV
Cause:
• Poor Connection between BB and RF
equipment, so FM broadcast is induced into
the system and eventually transmitted to the
satellite.
• Poor quality accessory between BB and RF
• Poor grounding system
FM Interference
V
Prevention:
• Select accessories with standard specifications
• Good Earth Station installation
• Good grounding system
• Coordinate with PCNS to perform UAT and
interference checking when a new station is
installed
Cross Polarization Interfrence
Source:
• If XPD level of an uplink antenna is less than
30 dB, antenna will transmit both vertical and
horizontal polarizations
Cause:
• Poor antenna pointing
• Poor cross pole isolation
• Sudden change in the antenna pointing due to
mistake or storm
• Carrier uplink without performing proper UAT
with PCNS
Cross Polarization Interfrence
Prevention:
• Do not uplink the carrier without
performing UAT with PCNS
Source:
Cause:
• Transmission of wrong carrier frequency by the
user
• Unauthorized access
• Uplink CW for UAT before calling PCNS
• Equipment malfunction
Digital & CW Interference
Prevention:
• Verify U/L frequency before transponder
access
• Do not uplink un-modulated carrier (CW)
before PCNS directions
• Perform UAT
• Request PCNS if customer wants to uplink a
new carrier for special purpose at some vacant
slot
• Perform Preventive Maintenance periodically
Intermodulation Interference
Description:
• If more than one carrier are transmitted by a
single HPA, mixing or Intermodulation (IM)
processes take place
• This results in Intermodulation products which are
displaced from the carriers at multiples of the difference
frequencies
• The power level of the Intermodulation products are
dependent on the relative power level of the carrier and
the linearity of TWTA or SSPA
Intermodulation Interference
Description:
Cause:
• U/L power level of the each carrier is set so high that
the Intermodulation occurs
• U/L power level is increased without considering the
the possibility of intermodulation
• Increasing the U/L power without informing PCNS
Intermodulation Interference
Prevention:
• Verify the link budget of the station transmitting
more than one carrier before transponder access
• Aggregate input back-off for HPA or RFT at E/S
must be defined and informed to up linker
• Do not increase U/L power without informing
PCNS
• Do not operate with overused power
Raised Noise Floor
Source:
Cause:
• E/S equipment configuration was not set up
properly
• The gain of U/L equipment such as U/C or HPA
was not set suitably
• The U/L power is too high
Raised Noise Floor
Prevention:
• Use good E/S setup
• Set suitable gain of E/S equipment
• Do not increase the U/L power without informing
PCNS
• Verify uplink noise level at the output of HPA
before transponder access
Spike and Unknown
Description:
• Unpredictable Frequency, Bandwidth, Time
• Some of them may occur at out of assigned
transponder
Spike and Unknown
Cause:
• Most of them are caused by the U/L equipment
error (both base band and RF equipment)
• It does not affect all carriers transmitted by itself
Spike and Unknown
Investigation:
• Only RF equipment such as U/C, HPA, Transceiver
needs turning off
• Turning of Base band equipment such as Modem,
Exciter, Modulator cannot prove the source of
interference
Spike and Unknown
Prevention:
• Perform Preventive Maintenance periodically
• Operate all U/L equipment under suitable conditions as
directed by operational manual of the equipment
• Find out root cause if it disappeared with unknown reason
or equipment reset in order to perform prevention
Sources of Interference
• Co-Channel Interference
Wanted Carrier Unwanted Carrier
T x p 1 2 /1 2
T x p 2 2 /2 2
Sources of Interference
• TWTA Intermodulation
… ...
T x p 1 2 /1 2
Transponder Parameters
• Intermodulation (IM)
– What is it? - Potential source of noise
– Why does it exist? - Different signals are sent
simultaneously
SATELLITE SPACING
WANTED SIGNALS
UNWANTED SIGNALS
SATELLITE ANTENNA RADIO LINK
Sources of Interference
W H
1 -2
. . . O M U X
S a te llite d is h
3 -4
W H
S a t e llit e d is h
S a te llite d is h
S a te llite d is h
Sources of Interference
• Satellite:
– Co-Channel Interference • Earth Station:
– TWTA Intermodulation
– HPA Intermodulation
– Adjacent Satellite
Interference
– Adjacent Transponder • Outside:
Interference - “Multipath”
– Sun Interference
– Terrestrial Interference
• Path Losses:
– Up link thermal Noise
– Down link thermal Noise
11. Channel Characterization
Contents
• The sequence of signal processing and transmission
• Multiplexing & Multiple Access
• FDMA
• TDMA
• CDMA
• Comparison in TDMA, FDMA & CDMA
• Channel Coding & Modulation
• Channel Reservation
• Channel Coding
• Modulation Techniques
• The Baseband Eye Pattern
The Sequence of Signal Processing and Transmission
Transmission
Modulation Demodulation
Interleaver De-Interleaving
Multiplexing Demultiplexing
Encryption Decryption
Digitization Display
Signal processing and transmission
TDMA - TDM
FDMA - FDM
CDMA - CDM
FDMA
• Used extensively in the early
telephone and wireless multi-
user communication systems
• If a channel, such as a cable,
has a transmission bandwidth
W Hz, and individual users
require B Hz to achieve their
required information rate,
then the channel in theory
should be able to support W/B
users
• Near-Far problem
Frequency Division Multiple Access; FDMA
Uplink Downlink
Guard
Band
...
f1 f2 f3..... fM
f1 f2 f3 fM
Frequency
TDMA
• The basic principle behind time division multiplexing is
that the user has access to a modem operating at a
rate several times that required to support his own
data throughput, such that he can send his
information in a time slot that is shorter than his own
message transaction. Other users can then be
assigned similar time slots on the same channel.
Clearly if the data rate on the channel is
w bits/second, and each individual user requires only
b bits/second, then the system can support
w/b simultaneous users.
TDMA
Upli Downlink
nk
Guard
Time
...
t1 t2 t3..... tM
t1 T2 t3 tM
Time
Time Division Multiplexing
...
burst1 burst2 burst3 burstn
to Joe to Bill to Tim to who?
Upli Downlink
nk
CODE 1
CODE 2
CODE
CODE
. 3
c1 c2 c3..... cM
.
. M
CODE
Sprectrum Spreading with PN Sequence
f f f
PN-Sequence PN-Sequence
PN-Syn-
chronization
Sprectrum Spreading with PN Sequence
FDMA, TDMA, CDMA in bandwidth, power and time
time
time
t
power time
bandwidth
power
FDMA
bandwidth
power
TDMA
bandwidth
CDMA
Througput in TDMA, FDMA and CDMA
100
TDMA
Througput
in %
50
FDMA
CDMA
0
1 10 100
Number of users
Channel Coding & Modulation
Channel Reservation
Access Control
Pre-Assignment DAMA*
Polling Request
Rigorous Polling
Selective Polling Co-Channel Request Channel
Spread Spectru
d
d
Q 11
d
I 111
d d
Eb-No = d
-20 dB
QPSK
MSK (BT → ∞)
-40 dB
-60 dB
GMSK (BT = 0.3; employed in European GSM, e.g.)
-80 dB
Zustand "1"
→
state "1"
Augen-
öffnung
eye size
Zustand "0"
→
state “0"