Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence
Systems
Fuzzy Logic Systems (FLS) produce acceptable but definite output in response to incomplete,
ambiguous, distorted, or inaccurate (fuzzy) input.
The conventional logic block that a computer can understand takes precise input and produces a
definite output as TRUE or FALSE, which is equivalent to human’s YES or NO.
The inventor of fuzzy logic, Lotfi Zadeh, observed that unlike computers, the human decision
making includes a range of possibilities between YES and NO, such as −
CERTAINLY YES
POSSIBLY YES
CANNOT SAY
POSSIBLY NO
CERTAINLY NO
The fuzzy logic works on the levels of possibilities of input to achieve the definite output.
Implementation
It can be implemented in systems with various sizes and capabilities ranging from small
micro-controllers to large, networked, workstation-based control systems.
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It can control machines and consumer products.
Fuzzification Module − It transforms the system inputs, which are crisp numbers, into fuzzy
sets. It splits the input signal into five steps such as −
LP x is Large Positive
MP x is Medium Positive
S x is Small
MN x is Medium Negative
LN x is Large Negative
Inference Engine − It simulates the human reasoning process by making fuzzy inference
on the inputs and IF-THEN rules.
Defuzzification Module − It transforms the fuzzy set obtained by the inference engine into
a crisp value.
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AI - Natural Language Processing
Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of communicating with an intelligent
systems using a natural language such as English.
Processing of Natural Language is required when you want an intelligent system like robot to
perform as per your instructions, when you want to hear decision from a dialogue based clinical
expert system, etc.
The field of NLP involves making computers to perform useful tasks with the natural languages
humans use. The input and output of an NLP system can be −
Speech
Written Text
Components of NLP
There are two components of NLP as given −
It involves −
Text planning − It includes retrieving the relevant content from knowledge base.
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Difficulties in NLU
NL has an extremely rich form and structure.
For example, “He lifted the beetle with red cap.” − Did he use cap to lift the beetle or he lifted
a beetle that had red cap?
Referential ambiguity − Referring to something using pronouns. For example, Rima went
to Gauri. She said, “I am tired.” − Exactly who is tired?
NLP Terminology
Phonology − It is study of organizing sound systematically.
Syntax − It refers to arranging words to make a sentence. It also involves determining the
structural role of words in the sentence and in phrases.
Semantics − It is concerned with the meaning of words and how to combine words into
meaningful phrases and sentences.
Pragmatics − It deals with using and understanding sentences in different situations and
how the interpretation of the sentence is affected.
Discourse − It deals with how the immediately preceding sentence can affect the
interpretation of the next sentence.
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World Knowledge − It includes the general knowledge about the world.
Steps in NLP
There are general five steps −
Lexical Analysis − It involves identifying and analyzing the structure of words. Lexicon of a
language means the collection of words and phrases in a language. Lexical analysis is
dividing the whole chunk of txt into paragraphs, sentences, and words.
Syntactic Analysis (Parsing) − It involves analysis of words in the sentence for grammar
and arranging words in a manner that shows the relationship among the words. The
sentence such as “The school goes to boy” is rejected by English syntactic analyzer.
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Semantic Analysis − It draws the exact meaning or the dictionary meaning from the text.
The text is checked for meaningfulness. It is done by mapping syntactic structures and
objects in the task domain. The semantic analyzer disregards sentence such as “hot ice-
cream”.
Discourse Integration − The meaning of any sentence depends upon the meaning of the
sentence just before it. In addition, it also brings about the meaning of immediately
succeeding sentence.
Pragmatic Analysis − During this, what was said is re-interpreted on what it actually meant.
It involves deriving those aspects of language which require real world knowledge.
High performance
Understandable
Reliable
Highly responsive
Advising
Demonstrating
Deriving a solution
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Diagnosing
Explaining
Interpreting input
Predicting results
Knowledge Base
Interface Engine
User Interface
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Knowledge Base
It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge. Knowledge is required to exhibit
intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends upon the collection of highly accurate and
precise knowledge.
What is Knowledge?
The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and facts about the task
domain. Data, information, and past experience combined together are termed as knowledge.
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Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one’s ability of evaluation,
and guessing.
Knowledge representation
It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the knowledge base. It is in the
form of IT-THEN-ELSE rules.
Knowledge Acquisition
The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality, completeness, and accuracy of
the information stored in the knowledge base.
The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and theKnowledge
Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with the qualities of empathy, quick learning, and
case analyzing skills.
He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and observing him at work,
etc. He then categorizes and organizes the information in a meaningful way, in the form of IF-
THEN-ELSE rules, to be used by interference machine. The knowledge engineer also monitors the
development of the ES.
Interface Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Interface Engine is essential in deducting a correct,
flawless solution.
In case of knowledge-based ES, the Interface Engine acquires and manipulates the knowledge
from the knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.
Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule application.
Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.
Forward Chaining
Backward Chaining
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Forward Chaining
It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen next?”
Here, the interface engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and finally deduces the
outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them before concluding to a solution.
This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For example, prediction of
share market status as an effect of changes in interest rates.
Backward Chaining
With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the question, “Why this happened?”
On the basis of what has already happened, the interface engine tries to find out which conditions
could have happened in the past for this result. This strategy is followed for finding out cause or
reason. For example, diagnosis of blood cancer in humans.
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User Interface
User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It is generally Natural
Language Processing so as to be used by the user who is well-versed in the task domain. The user
of the ES need not be necessarily an expert in Artificial Intelligence.
It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The explanation may appear in
the following forms −
The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.
Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other way round.
Application Description
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Design Domain Camera lens design, automobile design.
o Large databases.
Tools − They reduce the effort and cost involved in developing an expert system to large
extent.
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Shells − A shell is nothing but an expert system without knowledge base. A shell provides
the developers with knowledge acquisition, inference engine, user interface, and
explanation facility. For example, few shells are given below −
o Java Expert System Shell (JESS) that provides fully developed Java API for creating
an expert system.
Vidwan, a shell developed at the National Centre for Software Technology, Mumbai in 1993.
It enables knowledge encoding in the form of IF-THEN rules.
Objective
Robots are aimed at manipulating the objects by perceiving, picking, moving, modifying the physical
properties of object, destroying it, or to have an effect thereby freeing manpower from doing
repetitive functions without getting bored, distracted, or exhausted.
What is Robotics?
Robotics is a branch of AI, which is composed of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,
and Computer Science for designing, construction, and application of robots.
Aspects of Robotics
The robots have mechanical construction, form, or shape designed to accomplish a
particular task.
They have electrical components which power and control the machinery.
They contain some level of computer program that determines what, when and how a
robot does something.
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Difference in Robot System and Other AI Program
Here is the difference between the two −
AI Programs Robots
They need general purpose computers They need special hardware with sensors and
to operate on. effectors.
Robot Locomotion
Locomotion is the mechanism that makes a robot capable of moving in its environment. There are
various types of locomotions −
Legged
Wheeled
Tracked slip/skid
Legged Locomotion
This type of locomotion consumes more power while demonstrating walk, jump, trot, hop,
climb up or down, etc.
It requires more number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is suited for rough as well
as smooth terrain where irregular or too smooth surface makes it consume more power for
a wheeled locomotion. It is little difficult to implement because of stability issues.
It comes with the variety of one, two, four, and six legs. If a robot has multiple legs then leg
coordination is necessary for locomotion.
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The total number of possible gaits (a periodic sequence of lift and release events for each of the
total legs) a robot can travel depends upon the number of its legs.
In case of a two-legged robot (k=2), the number of possible events is N = (2k-1)! = (2*2-1)! = 3! = 6.
In case of k=6 legs, there are 39916800 possible events. Hence the complexity of robots is directly
proportional to the number of legs.
Wheeled Locomotion
It requires fewer number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is little easy to implement as there
are less stability issues in case of more number of wheels. It is power efficient as compared to
legged locomotion.
Standard wheel − Rotates around the wheel axle and around the contact
Castor wheel − Rotates around the wheel axle and the offset steering joint.
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Swedish 45° and Swedish 90° wheels − Omni-wheel, rotates around the contact point,
around the wheel axle, and around the rollers.
Slip/Skid Locomotion
In this type, the vehicles use tracks as in a tank. The robot is steered by moving the tracks with
different speeds in the same or opposite direction. It offers stability because of large contact area of
track and ground.
Components of a Robot
Robots are constructed with the following −
Power Supply − The robots are powered by batteries, solar power, hydraulic, or pneumatic
power sources.
Pneumatic Air Muscles − They contract almost 40% when air is sucked in them.
Muscle Wires − They contract by 5% when electric current is passed through them.
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Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors − Best for industrial robots.
Sensors − They provide knowledge of real time information on the task environment.
Robots are equipped with vision sensors to be to compute the depth in the environment. A
tactile sensor imitates the mechanical properties of touch receptors of human fingertips.
Computer Vision
This is a technology of AI with which the robots can see. The computer vision plays vital role in the
domains of safety, security, health, access, and entertainment.
Computer vision automatically extracts, analyzes, and comprehends useful information from a
single image or an array of images. This process involves development of algorithms to accomplish
automatic visual comprehension.
a processor
a software
Face Detection − Many state-of-the-art cameras come with this feature, which enables to
read the face and take the picture of that perfect expression. It is used to let a user access
the software on correct match.
Object Recognition − They are installed in supermarkets, cameras, high-end cars such as
BMW, GM, and Volvo.
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Application Domains of Computer Vision
Agriculture
Autonomous vehicles
Biometrics
Character recognition
Face recognition
Gesture analysis
Geoscience
Medical imagery
Pollution monitoring
Process control
Remote sensing
Robotics
Transport
Applications of Robotics
The robotics has been instrumental in the various domains such as −
Industries − Robots are used for handling material, cutting, welding, color coating, drilling,
polishing, etc.
Military − Autonomous robots can reach inaccessible and hazardous zones during war. A
robot named Daksh, developed by Defense Research and Development Organization
(DRDO), is in function to destroy life-threatening objects safely.
Medicine − The robots are capable of carrying out hundreds of clinical tests simultaneously,
rehabilitating permanently disabled people, and performing complex surgeries such as brain
tumors.
Exploration − The robot rock climbers used for space exploration, underwater drones used
for ocean exploration are to name a few.
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Entertainment − Disney’s engineers have created hundreds of robots for movie making.
"...a computing system made up of a number of simple, highly interconnected processing elements,
which process information by their dynamic state response to external inputs.”
The human brain is composed of 100 billion nerve cells called neurons. They are connected to
other thousand cells by Axons. Stimuli from external environment or inputs from sensory organs
are accepted by dendrites. These inputs create electric impulses, which quickly travel through the
neural network. A neuron can then send the message to other neuron to handle the issue or does
not send it forward.
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ANNs are composed of multiple nodes, which imitate biological neurons of human brain. The
neurons are connected by links and they interact with each other. The nodes can take input data
and perform simple operations on the data. The result of these operations is passed to other
neurons. The output at each node is called its activation or node value.
Term Meaning
Autonomous Robot Robot free from external control or influence and able to control
itself independently.
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Blackboard It is the memory inside computer, which is used for
communication between the cooperating expert systems.
Knowledge Engineering Acquiring knowledge from human experts and other resources.
Percepts It is the format in which the agent obtains information about the
environment.
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