Artificial Intelligence

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Artificial Intelligence - Fuzzy Logic

Systems
Fuzzy Logic Systems (FLS) produce acceptable but definite output in response to incomplete,
ambiguous, distorted, or inaccurate (fuzzy) input.

What is Fuzzy Logic?


Fuzzy Logic (FL) is a method of reasoning that resembles human reasoning. The approach of FL
imitates the way of decision making in humans that involves all intermediate possibilities between
digital values YES and NO.

The conventional logic block that a computer can understand takes precise input and produces a
definite output as TRUE or FALSE, which is equivalent to human’s YES or NO.

The inventor of fuzzy logic, Lotfi Zadeh, observed that unlike computers, the human decision
making includes a range of possibilities between YES and NO, such as −

CERTAINLY YES

POSSIBLY YES

CANNOT SAY

POSSIBLY NO

CERTAINLY NO

The fuzzy logic works on the levels of possibilities of input to achieve the definite output.

Implementation
 It can be implemented in systems with various sizes and capabilities ranging from small
micro-controllers to large, networked, workstation-based control systems.

 It can be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination of both.

Why Fuzzy Logic?


Fuzzy logic is useful for commercial and practical purposes.

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 It can control machines and consumer products.

 It may not give accurate reasoning, but acceptable reasoning.

 Fuzzy logic helps to deal with the uncertainty in engineering.

Fuzzy Logic Systems Architecture


It has four main parts as shown −

 Fuzzification Module − It transforms the system inputs, which are crisp numbers, into fuzzy
sets. It splits the input signal into five steps such as −

LP x is Large Positive

MP x is Medium Positive

S x is Small

MN x is Medium Negative

LN x is Large Negative

 Knowledge Base − It stores IF-THEN rules provided by experts.

 Inference Engine − It simulates the human reasoning process by making fuzzy inference
on the inputs and IF-THEN rules.

 Defuzzification Module − It transforms the fuzzy set obtained by the inference engine into
a crisp value.

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AI - Natural Language Processing
Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of communicating with an intelligent
systems using a natural language such as English.

Processing of Natural Language is required when you want an intelligent system like robot to
perform as per your instructions, when you want to hear decision from a dialogue based clinical
expert system, etc.

The field of NLP involves making computers to perform useful tasks with the natural languages
humans use. The input and output of an NLP system can be −

 Speech

 Written Text

Components of NLP
There are two components of NLP as given −

Natural Language Understanding (NLU)


Understanding involves the following tasks −

 Mapping the given input in natural language into useful representations.

 Analyzing different aspects of the language.


Natural Language Generation (NLG)
It is the process of producing meaningful phrases and sentences in the form of natural language
from some internal representation.

It involves −

 Text planning − It includes retrieving the relevant content from knowledge base.

 Sentence planning − It includes choosing required words, forming meaningful phrases,


setting tone of the sentence.

 Text Realization − It is mapping sentence plan into sentence structure.

The NLU is harder than NLG.

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Difficulties in NLU
NL has an extremely rich form and structure.

It is very ambiguous. There can be different levels of ambiguity −

 Lexical ambiguity − It is at very primitive level such as word-level.

 For example, treating the word “board” as noun or verb?

 Syntax Level ambiguity − A sentence can be parsed in different ways.

 For example, “He lifted the beetle with red cap.” − Did he use cap to lift the beetle or he lifted
a beetle that had red cap?

 Referential ambiguity − Referring to something using pronouns. For example, Rima went
to Gauri. She said, “I am tired.” − Exactly who is tired?

 One input can mean different meanings.

 Many inputs can mean the same thing.

NLP Terminology
 Phonology − It is study of organizing sound systematically.

 Morphology − It is a study of construction of words from primitive meaningful units.

 Morpheme − It is primitive unit of meaning in a language.

 Syntax − It refers to arranging words to make a sentence. It also involves determining the
structural role of words in the sentence and in phrases.

 Semantics − It is concerned with the meaning of words and how to combine words into
meaningful phrases and sentences.

 Pragmatics − It deals with using and understanding sentences in different situations and
how the interpretation of the sentence is affected.

 Discourse − It deals with how the immediately preceding sentence can affect the
interpretation of the next sentence.

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 World Knowledge − It includes the general knowledge about the world.

Steps in NLP
There are general five steps −

 Lexical Analysis − It involves identifying and analyzing the structure of words. Lexicon of a
language means the collection of words and phrases in a language. Lexical analysis is
dividing the whole chunk of txt into paragraphs, sentences, and words.

 Syntactic Analysis (Parsing) − It involves analysis of words in the sentence for grammar
and arranging words in a manner that shows the relationship among the words. The
sentence such as “The school goes to boy” is rejected by English syntactic analyzer.

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 Semantic Analysis − It draws the exact meaning or the dictionary meaning from the text.
The text is checked for meaningfulness. It is done by mapping syntactic structures and
objects in the task domain. The semantic analyzer disregards sentence such as “hot ice-
cream”.

 Discourse Integration − The meaning of any sentence depends upon the meaning of the
sentence just before it. In addition, it also brings about the meaning of immediately
succeeding sentence.

 Pragmatic Analysis − During this, what was said is re-interpreted on what it actually meant.
It involves deriving those aspects of language which require real world knowledge.

Artificial Intelligence - Expert Systems


Expert systems (ES) are one of the prominent research domains of AI. It is introduced by the
researchers at Stanford University, Computer Science Department.

What are Expert Systems?


The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex problems in a
particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence and expertise.

Characteristics of Expert Systems

 High performance

 Understandable

 Reliable

 Highly responsive

Capabilities of Expert Systems


The expert systems are capable of −

 Advising

 Instructing and assisting human in decision making

 Demonstrating

 Deriving a solution

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 Diagnosing

 Explaining

 Interpreting input

 Predicting results

 Justifying the conclusion

 Suggesting alternative options to a problem

They are incapable of −

 Substituting human decision makers

 Possessing human capabilities

 Producing accurate output for inadequate knowledge base

 Refining their own knowledge

Components of Expert Systems


The components of ES include −

 Knowledge Base

 Interface Engine

 User Interface

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Knowledge Base
It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge. Knowledge is required to exhibit
intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends upon the collection of highly accurate and
precise knowledge.

What is Knowledge?
The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and facts about the task
domain. Data, information, and past experience combined together are termed as knowledge.

Components of Knowledge Base


The knowledge base of an ES is a store of both, factual and heuristic knowledge.

 Factual Knowledge − It is the information widely accepted by the Knowledge Engineers


and scholars in the task domain.

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 Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one’s ability of evaluation,
and guessing.

Knowledge representation
It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the knowledge base. It is in the
form of IT-THEN-ELSE rules.

Knowledge Acquisition
The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality, completeness, and accuracy of
the information stored in the knowledge base.

The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and theKnowledge
Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with the qualities of empathy, quick learning, and
case analyzing skills.

He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and observing him at work,
etc. He then categorizes and organizes the information in a meaningful way, in the form of IF-
THEN-ELSE rules, to be used by interference machine. The knowledge engineer also monitors the
development of the ES.

Interface Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Interface Engine is essential in deducting a correct,
flawless solution.

In case of knowledge-based ES, the Interface Engine acquires and manipulates the knowledge
from the knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.

In case of rule based ES, it −

 Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule application.

 Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.

 Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.

To recommend a solution, the interface engine uses the following strategies −

 Forward Chaining

 Backward Chaining

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Forward Chaining
It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen next?”

Here, the interface engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and finally deduces the
outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them before concluding to a solution.

This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For example, prediction of
share market status as an effect of changes in interest rates.

Backward Chaining
With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the question, “Why this happened?”

On the basis of what has already happened, the interface engine tries to find out which conditions
could have happened in the past for this result. This strategy is followed for finding out cause or
reason. For example, diagnosis of blood cancer in humans.

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User Interface
User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It is generally Natural
Language Processing so as to be used by the user who is well-versed in the task domain. The user
of the ES need not be necessarily an expert in Artificial Intelligence.

It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The explanation may appear in
the following forms −

 Natural language displayed on screen.

 Verbal narrations in natural language.

 Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen.

The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.

Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface

 It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way.

 It should be designed to work for user’s existing or desired work practices.

 Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other way round.

 It should make efficient use of user input.

Expert Systems Limitations


No technology can offer easy and complete solution. Large systems are costly, require significant
development time, and computer resources. ESs have their limitations which include −

 Limitations of the technology

 Difficult knowledge acquisition

 ES are difficult to maintain

 High development costs

Applications of Expert System


The following table shows where ES can be applied.

Application Description

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Design Domain Camera lens design, automobile design.

Medical Domain Diagnosis Systems to deduce cause of disease from observed


data, conduction medical operations on humans.

Monitoring Systems Comparing data continuously with observed system or with


prescribed behavior such as leakage monitoring in long
petroleum pipeline.

Process Control Systems Controlling a physical process based on monitoring.

Knowledge Domain Finding out faults in vehicles, computers.

Finance/Commerce Detection of possible fraud, suspicious transactions, stock market


trading, Airline scheduling, cargo scheduling.

Expert System Technology


There are several levels of ES technologies available. Expert systems technologies include −

 Expert System Development Environment − The ES development environment includes


hardware and tools. They are −

o Workstations, minicomputers, mainframes.

o High level Symbolic Programming Languages such as LISt Programming (LISP)


and PROgrammation en LOGique (PROLOG).

o Large databases.

 Tools − They reduce the effort and cost involved in developing an expert system to large
extent.

o Powerful editors and debugging tools with multi-windows.

o They provide rapid prototyping

o Have Inbuilt definitions of model, knowledge representation, and inference design.

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 Shells − A shell is nothing but an expert system without knowledge base. A shell provides
the developers with knowledge acquisition, inference engine, user interface, and
explanation facility. For example, few shells are given below −

o Java Expert System Shell (JESS) that provides fully developed Java API for creating
an expert system.

Vidwan, a shell developed at the National Centre for Software Technology, Mumbai in 1993.
It enables knowledge encoding in the form of IF-THEN rules.

Artificial Intelligence - Robotics


Robotics is a domain in artificial intelligence that deals with the study of creating intelligent and
efficient robots.

What are Robots?


Robots are the artificial agents acting in real world environment.

Objective
Robots are aimed at manipulating the objects by perceiving, picking, moving, modifying the physical
properties of object, destroying it, or to have an effect thereby freeing manpower from doing
repetitive functions without getting bored, distracted, or exhausted.

What is Robotics?
Robotics is a branch of AI, which is composed of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,
and Computer Science for designing, construction, and application of robots.

Aspects of Robotics
 The robots have mechanical construction, form, or shape designed to accomplish a
particular task.

 They have electrical components which power and control the machinery.

 They contain some level of computer program that determines what, when and how a
robot does something.

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Difference in Robot System and Other AI Program
Here is the difference between the two −

AI Programs Robots

They usually operate in computer- They operate in real physical world


stimulated worlds.

The input to an AI program is in Inputs to robots is analog signal in the form of


symbols and rules. speech waveform or images

They need general purpose computers They need special hardware with sensors and
to operate on. effectors.

Robot Locomotion
Locomotion is the mechanism that makes a robot capable of moving in its environment. There are
various types of locomotions −

 Legged

 Wheeled

 Combination of Legged and Wheeled Locomotion

 Tracked slip/skid
Legged Locomotion
 This type of locomotion consumes more power while demonstrating walk, jump, trot, hop,
climb up or down, etc.

 It requires more number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is suited for rough as well
as smooth terrain where irregular or too smooth surface makes it consume more power for
a wheeled locomotion. It is little difficult to implement because of stability issues.

 It comes with the variety of one, two, four, and six legs. If a robot has multiple legs then leg
coordination is necessary for locomotion.

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The total number of possible gaits (a periodic sequence of lift and release events for each of the
total legs) a robot can travel depends upon the number of its legs.

If a robot has k legs, then the number of possible events N = (2k-1)!.

In case of a two-legged robot (k=2), the number of possible events is N = (2k-1)! = (2*2-1)! = 3! = 6.

Hence there are six possible different events −

 Lifting the Left leg

 Releasing the Left leg

 Lifting the Right leg

 Releasing the Right leg

 Lifting both the legs together

 Releasing both the legs together

In case of k=6 legs, there are 39916800 possible events. Hence the complexity of robots is directly
proportional to the number of legs.

Wheeled Locomotion
It requires fewer number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is little easy to implement as there
are less stability issues in case of more number of wheels. It is power efficient as compared to
legged locomotion.

 Standard wheel − Rotates around the wheel axle and around the contact

 Castor wheel − Rotates around the wheel axle and the offset steering joint.

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 Swedish 45° and Swedish 90° wheels − Omni-wheel, rotates around the contact point,
around the wheel axle, and around the rollers.

 Ball or spherical wheel − Omnidirectional wheel, technically difficult to implement.

Slip/Skid Locomotion
In this type, the vehicles use tracks as in a tank. The robot is steered by moving the tracks with
different speeds in the same or opposite direction. It offers stability because of large contact area of
track and ground.

Components of a Robot
Robots are constructed with the following −

 Power Supply − The robots are powered by batteries, solar power, hydraulic, or pneumatic
power sources.

 Actuators − They convert energy into movement.

 Electric motors (AC/DC) − They are required for rotational movement.

 Pneumatic Air Muscles − They contract almost 40% when air is sucked in them.

 Muscle Wires − They contract by 5% when electric current is passed through them.

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 Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors − Best for industrial robots.

 Sensors − They provide knowledge of real time information on the task environment.
Robots are equipped with vision sensors to be to compute the depth in the environment. A
tactile sensor imitates the mechanical properties of touch receptors of human fingertips.

Computer Vision
This is a technology of AI with which the robots can see. The computer vision plays vital role in the
domains of safety, security, health, access, and entertainment.

Computer vision automatically extracts, analyzes, and comprehends useful information from a
single image or an array of images. This process involves development of algorithms to accomplish
automatic visual comprehension.

Hardware of Computer Vision System


This involves −

 Image acquisition device such as camera

 a processor

 a software

 A display device for monitoring the system

 Accessories such as camera stands, cables, and connectors

Tasks of Computer Vision


 OCR − In the domain of computers, Optical Character Reader, a software to convert
scanned documents into editable text, which accompanies a scanner.

 Face Detection − Many state-of-the-art cameras come with this feature, which enables to
read the face and take the picture of that perfect expression. It is used to let a user access
the software on correct match.

 Object Recognition − They are installed in supermarkets, cameras, high-end cars such as
BMW, GM, and Volvo.

 Estimating Position − It is estimating position of an object with respect to camera as in


position of tumor in human’s body.

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Application Domains of Computer Vision
 Agriculture

 Autonomous vehicles

 Biometrics

 Character recognition

 Forensics, security, and surveillance

 Industrial quality inspection

 Face recognition

 Gesture analysis

 Geoscience

 Medical imagery

 Pollution monitoring

 Process control

 Remote sensing

 Robotics

 Transport

Applications of Robotics
The robotics has been instrumental in the various domains such as −

 Industries − Robots are used for handling material, cutting, welding, color coating, drilling,
polishing, etc.

 Military − Autonomous robots can reach inaccessible and hazardous zones during war. A
robot named Daksh, developed by Defense Research and Development Organization
(DRDO), is in function to destroy life-threatening objects safely.

 Medicine − The robots are capable of carrying out hundreds of clinical tests simultaneously,
rehabilitating permanently disabled people, and performing complex surgeries such as brain
tumors.

 Exploration − The robot rock climbers used for space exploration, underwater drones used
for ocean exploration are to name a few.

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 Entertainment − Disney’s engineers have created hundreds of robots for movie making.

Artificial Intelligence - Neural Networks


Yet another research area in AI, neural networks, is inspired from the natural neural network of
human nervous system.

What are Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)?


The inventor of the first neurocomputer, Dr. Robert Hecht-Nielsen, defines a neural network as −

"...a computing system made up of a number of simple, highly interconnected processing elements,
which process information by their dynamic state response to external inputs.”

Basic Structure of ANNs


The idea of ANNs is based on the belief that working of human brain by making the right
connections, can be imitated using silicon and wires as living neurons and dendrites.

The human brain is composed of 100 billion nerve cells called neurons. They are connected to
other thousand cells by Axons. Stimuli from external environment or inputs from sensory organs
are accepted by dendrites. These inputs create electric impulses, which quickly travel through the
neural network. A neuron can then send the message to other neuron to handle the issue or does
not send it forward.

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ANNs are composed of multiple nodes, which imitate biological neurons of human brain. The
neurons are connected by links and they interact with each other. The nodes can take input data
and perform simple operations on the data. The result of these operations is passed to other
neurons. The output at each node is called its activation or node value.

Artificial Intelligence - Terminology


Here is the list of frequently used terms in the domain of AI:

Term Meaning

Agent Agents are systems or software programs capable of


autonomous, purposeful and reasoning directed towards one or
more goals. They are also called assistants, brokers, bots, droids,
intelligent agents, and software agents.

Autonomous Robot Robot free from external control or influence and able to control
itself independently.

Backward Chaining Strategy of working backward for Reason/Cause of a problem.

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Blackboard It is the memory inside computer, which is used for
communication between the cooperating expert systems.

Environment It is the part of real or computational world inhabited by the agent.

Forward Chaining Strategy of working forward for conclusion/solution of a problem.

Heuristics It is the knowledge based on Trial-and-error, evaluations, and


experimentation.

Knowledge Engineering Acquiring knowledge from human experts and other resources.

Percepts It is the format in which the agent obtains information about the
environment.

Pruning Overriding unnecessary and irrelevant considerations in AI


systems.

Rule It is a format of representing knowledge base in Expert System. It


is in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE.

Shell A shell is a software that helps in designing inference engine,


knowledge base, and user interface of an expert system.

Task It is the goal the agent is tries to accomplish.

Turing Test A test developed by Allan Turing to test the intelligence of a


machine as compared to human intelligence.

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