Intertextuality

Intertextuality is the shaping of a text’s meaning by 2 Obligatory intertextuality

another text. Intertextual figures include: allusion,
quotation, calque, plagiarism, translation, pastiche and Obligatory intertextuality in when the writer deliberately
parody.[1][2][3] Intertextuality is a literary device that cre- invokes a comparison or association between two (or
ates an ‘interrelationship between texts’ and generates re- more) texts. Without this pre-understanding or success
lated understanding in separate works (“Intertextuality”, to ‘grasp the link’, the reader’s understanding of the text
2015). These references are made to influence that reader is regarded as inadequate (Fitzsimmons, 2013). Obliga-
and add layers of depth to a text, based on the readers’ tory intertextuality relies on the reading or understanding
prior knowledge and understanding. Intertextuality is a of a prior hypotext, before full comprehension of the hy-
literary discourse strategy (Gadavanij, n.d.) utilised by pertext can be achieved (Jacobmeyer, 1998).
writers in novels, poetry, theatre and even in non-written
texts (such as performances and digital media). Examples
of intertextuality are an author’s borrowing and transfor- 2.1 Examples of obligatory intertextuality
mation of a prior text, and a reader’s referencing of one
text in reading another. To understand the specific context and characterisation
Intertextuality does not require citing or referencing within Tom Stoppard’s ‘Rosencrantz and Guildenstern
punctuation (such as quotation marks) and is often mis- are Dead’, one must first be familiar with Shakespeare’s
taken for plagiarism (Ivanic, 1998). Intertextuality can be ‘Hamlet’ (Mitchell, n.d.). It is in Hamlet we first meet
produced in texts using a variety of functions including these characters as minor characters and, as the Rosen-
allusion, quotation and referencing (Hebel, 1989). How- crantz and Guildenstern plot unravels, specific scenes
ever, Intertextuality is not always intentional and can be from Hamlet are actually performed and viewed from a
utilised inadvertently. different perspective. This understanding of the hypo-
text Hamlet, gives deeper meaning to the pretext as many
The term “intertextuality” has, itself, been borrowed of the implicit themes from Rosencrantz and Guilden-
and transformed many times since it was coined by stern are more recognisable in Shakespeare’s Hamlet
poststructuralist Julia Kristeva in 1966. As philosopher (Comhrink, n.d.).
William Irwin wrote, the term “has come to have almost
as many meanings as users, from those faithful to Kris-
teva’s original vision to those who simply use it as a stylish
way of talking about allusion and influence.”[4]
3 Optional intertextuality
Optional intertextuality has a less vital impact on the sig-
nificance of the hypertext. It is a possible, but not essen-
1 Types of intertextuality tial, intertextual relationship that if recognized, the con-
nection will slightly shift the understanding of the text
(Fitzsimmons, 2013). Optional Intertextuality means it
Intertextuality and intertextual relationships can be sepa- is possible to find a connection to multiple texts of a sin-
rated into three types: obligatory, optional and acciden- gle phrase, or no connection at all (Ivanic, 1998). The
tal (Fitzsimmons, 2013). These variations depend on two intent of the writer when using optional intertextuality, is
key factors: the intention of the writer, and the signifi- to pay homage to the ‘original’ writers, or to reward those
cance of the reference. For example: poet William Blake who have read the hypotext. However, the reading of this
intentionally uses his knowledge of the Christian Bible hypotext is not necessary to the understanding of the hy-
and alludes to themes from this text using language such pertext.
as ‘thee’, ‘thou’ and ‘thy’ (Kliese, 2013). There are also
specific references to the ‘Lamb’ which are significant and
vital to the reader in order for them to understand the con- 3.1 Examples of optional intertextuality
texts and purpose of the poem (Kliese, 2013). The dis-
tinctions between these types and those differences be- The use of optional intertextuality may be something as
tween categories are not absolute and exclusive (Miola, simple as parallel characters or plotlines. For example,
2004) but instead, are manipulated in a way that allows J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series shares many similar-
them to co-exist within the same text. ities J. R. R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings trilogy. They

1
2 6 COMPETING TERMS

both apply the use of an aging wizard mentor (Professor text in question, but also the complex network of texts
Dumbledore and Gandalf) and a key friendship group is invoked in the reading process. –
formed to assist the protagonist (an innocent young boy) More recent post-structuralist theory, such as that formu-
on their arduous quest to defeat a powerful wizard and to lated in Daniela Caselli’s Beckett's Dantes: Intertextual-
destroy a powerful being (Keller, 2013). This connection ity in the Fiction and Criticism (MUP 2005), re-examines
is interesting and J.K. Rowling was most likely influenced “intertextuality” as a production within texts, rather than
by other fictional and fantasy novels. However, this link is as a series of relationships between different texts. Some
not vital to the understanding of the Harry Potter novels. postmodern theorists [7] like to talk about the relationship
between “intertextuality” and "hypertextuality"; intertex-
tuality makes each text a “living hell of hell on earth” [8]
4 Accidental intertextuality and part of a larger mosaic of texts, just as each hypertext
can be a web of links and part of the whole World-Wide
Web. Indeed, the World-Wide Web has been theorized as
Accidental intertextuality is when readers often connect
a unique realm of reciprocal intertextuality, in which no
a text with another text, cultural practice or a personal
particular text can claim centrality, yet the Web text even-
experience, without there being any tangible anchorpoint
tually produces an image of a community—the group of
within the original text (John Fitzsimmons). The writer
people who write and read the text using specific discur-
has no intention of making an intertextual reference and
sive strategies.[9]
it is completely upon the reader’s own prior knowledge
that these connections are made (Wöhrle, 2012). One can also make distinctions between the notions of
“intertext”, “hypertext” and “supertext”. Take for exam-
ple the Dictionary of the Khazars by Milorad Pavić. As an
4.1 Examples of accidental intertextuality intertext it employs quotations from the scriptures of the
Abrahamic religions. As a hypertext it consists of links
Often when reading a book or viewing a film a mem- to different articles within itself and also every individ-
ory will be triggered in the viewers’ mind. For example, ual trajectory of reading it. As a supertext it combines
when reading Herman Melville’s ‘Moby Dick’, a reader male and female versions of itself, as well as three mini-
may use their prior experiences to make a connection be- dictionaries in each of the versions.
tween the size of the whale and the size of the ship. An-
other reader could draw deep connections to the Bibilcal
allegory Jonah and the Whale, simply from the mention 6 Competing terms
of a man and a whale. Whilst it was not Melville’s in-
tention to create these links, the readers have made these
Some critics have complained that the ubiquity of
connections themselves.
the term “intertextuality” in postmodern criticism has
crowded out related terms and important nuances. Irwin
(227) laments that intertextuality has eclipsed allusion as
5 Intertextuality and poststruc- an object of literary study while lacking the latter term’s
clear definition.[10] Linda Hutcheon argues that exces-
turalism sive interest in intertextuality rejects the role of the au-
thor, because intertextuality can be found “in the eye of
Kristeva’s coinage of “intertextuality” represents an at- the beholder” and does not entail a communicator’s in-
tempt to synthesize Ferdinand de Saussure’s semiotics— tentions. By contrast, in A Theory of Parody Hutcheon
his study of how signs derive their meaning within the notes parody always features an author who actively en-
structure of a text—with Bakhtin’s dialogism—his ex- codes a text as an imitation with critical difference.[11]
amination of the multiple meanings, or “heteroglossia”, However, there have also been attempts at more closely
in each text (especially novels) and in each word.[5] For defining different types of intertextuality. The Australian
Kristeva,[6] “the notion of intertextuality replaces the no- media scholar John Fiske has made a distinction be-
tion of intersubjectivity” when we realize that meaning is tween what he labels 'vertical' and 'horizontal' intertex-
not transferred directly from writer to reader but instead tuality. Horizontal intertextuality denotes references that
is mediated through, or filtered by, “codes” imparted to are on the 'same level' i.e. when books make references
the writer and reader by other texts. For example, when to other books, whereas vertical intertextuality is found
we read James Joyce’s Ulysses we decode it as a modernist when, say, a book makes a reference to film or song or
literary experiment, or as a response to the epic tradition, vice versa. Similarly, Linguist Norman Fairclough dis-
or as part of some other conversation, or as part of all tinguishes between 'manifest intertextuality' and 'consti-
of these conversations at once. This intertextual view of tutive intertextuality.'[12] The former signifies intertex-
literature, as shown by Roland Barthes, supports the con- tual elements such as presupposition, negation, parody,
cept that the meaning of a text does not reside in the text, irony, etc. The latter signifies the interrelationship of
but is produced by the reader in relation not only to the discursive features in a text, such as structure, form,
 3

or genre. Constitutive Intertextuality is also referred Linell, recontextualization can be defined as the “dy-
to interdiscursivity,[13] though, generally interdiscursivity namic transfer-and-transformation of something from
refers to relations between larger formations of texts. one discourse/text-in-context … to another.”[15] Recon-
textualization can be relatively explicit—for example,
when one text directly quotes another—or relatively
7 Intertextuality and allusion implicit—as when the “same” generic meaning is reartic-
ulated across different texts.[16]
While intertextuality is a complex and multileveled liter- A number of scholars have observed that recontextual-
ary term, it is often confused with the more casual term ization can have important ideological and political con-
‘allusion’. Allusion is a passing or casual reference; an sequences. For instance, Adam Hodges has studied how
incidental mention of something, either directly or by White House officials recontextualized and altered a mil-
implication (“Plagiarism”, 2015). This means it is most itary general’s comments for political purposes, highlight-
closely linked to both obligatory and accidental intertex- ing favorable aspects of the general’s utterances while
tuality, as the ‘allusion’ made relies on the listener or downplaying the damaging aspects.[17] Rhetorical scholar
viewer knowing about the original source. It is also seen Jeanne Fahnestock has shown that when popular maga-
as accidental however, as they are normally phrases that zines recontextualize scientific research they enhance the
are so frequently or casually used, that the true signifi- uniqueness of the scientific findings and confer greater
cance of the words is not fully appreciated. Allusion is certainty on the reported facts.[18] Similarly, John Oddo
most often used in conversation, dialogue or metaphor. found that American reporters covering Colin Powell’s
For example “I was surprised his nose was not growing 2003 U.N. speech transformed Powell’s discourse as they
like Pinocchio’s.” This makes a reference to The Adven- recontextualized it, bestowing Powell’s allegations with
tures of Pinocchio, written by Carlo Collodi when the lit- greater certainty and warrantability and even adding new
tle wooden puppet lies (YourDictionary, 2015). If this evidence to support Powell’s claims.[19]
was obligatory intertextuality in a text, multiple refer- Oddo has also argued that recontextualization has
ences to this (or other novels of the same theme) would a future-oriented counterpoint, which he dubs
be used throughout the hypertext. “precontextualization.”[20] According to Oddo, pre-
contextualization is a form of anticipatory intertextuality
wherein “a text introduces and predicts elements of a
8 Intertextuality and plagiarism symbolic event that is yet to unfold.”[21] For example,
Oddo contends, American journalists anticipated and
“Intertextuality is an area of considerable ethical com- previewed Colin Powell’s U.N. address, drawing his
plexity” (Share, 2006). As intertextuality, by definition, future discourse into the normative present.
involves the (sometimes) purposeful use of other’s work
without proper citation, it is often mistaken for plagia-
rism. Plagiarism is the act of “using or closely imitat- 10 Examples and history
ing the language and thoughts of another author without
authorization-” (“Plagiarism”, 2015). Whilst this does
While the theoretical concept of intertextuality is asso-
seem to include intertextuality, the intention and purpose
ciated with post-modernism, the device itself is not new.
of using of another’s work, is what allows intertextuality
New Testament passages quote from the Old Testament
to be excluded from this definition. When using inter-
and Old Testament books such as Deuteronomy or the
textuality, it usually a small excerpt of a hypotext that as-
prophets refer to the events described in Exodus (for dis-
sists in the understanding of the new hypertext’s (Ivanic,
cussions on using 'intertextuality' to describe the use of
1998) original themes, characters or contexts. They use
the Old Testament in the New Testament, see Porter
a part of another text and change its meaning by placing
1997; Oropeza 2013). Whereas a redaction critic would
it in a different context (Jabri, 2004). This means that
use such intertextuality to argue for a particular order and
they are using other’s ideas to create or enhance their own
process of the authorship of the books in question, literary
new ideas, not simply plagiarising them. Intertextuality
criticism takes a synchronic view that deals with the texts
is based on the ‘creation of new ideas’, whilst plagiarism
in their final form, as an interconnected body of literature.
is often found in projects based on research to confirm
This interconnected body extends to later poems and
your ideas. “There is much difference between imitating
paintings that refer to Biblical narratives, just as other
a man and counterfeiting him” (Benjamin Franklin, n.d).
texts build networks around Greek and Roman Classical
history and mythology. Bullfinch’s 1855 work The Age
Of Fable served as an introduction to such an intertextual
9 Related concepts network; according to its author, it was intended "...for
the reader of English literature, of either sex, who wishes
Linguist Norman Fairclough states that “intertextuality to comprehend the allusions so frequently made by public
is a matter of recontextualization.”[14] According to Per speakers, lecturers, essayists, and poets...”.
4 11 REFERENCES

story of the "mad women in the attic" told from her

perspective.

• The Legend of Bagger Vance (1996) by Steven

Pressfield: A retelling of the Bhagavad Gita, set in
1931 during an epic golf game.

• Tortilla Flat (1935) by John Steinbeck: A retelling

of the Arthurian legends, set in Monterey, CA during
the interwar period.

• Mourning Becomes Electra (1931) by Eugene

O'Neill: A retelling of Aeschylus’ The Oresteia, set
in the post-American Civil War South.

11 References
[1] Gerard Genette (1997) Paratexts p.18

[2] Hallo, William W. (2010) The World’s Oldest Literature:

Studies in Sumerian Belles-Lettres p.608

[3] Cancogni, Annapaola (1985) The Mirage in the Mirror:

Nabokov’s Ada and Its French Pre-Texts pp.203-213
James Joyce's 1922 novel Ulysses bears an intertextual relation-
ship to Homer's Odyssey. [4] Irwin,2, October 2004, pp. 227–242, 228.

[5] Irwin, 228.

Even the nomenclature “new” and “old” (testament) re-
frames the real context that the Jewish Torah had been [6] Kristeva, Julia. Desire in Language: A Semiotic Ap-
usurped by followers of a new faith wishing to co-opt the proach to Literature and Art. New York: Columbia Uni-
original one. versity Press, 1980, p. 69.

Sometimes intertextuality is taken as plagiarism as in the [7] Gerard Genette, Palimpsests: literature in the second de-
case of Spanish writer Lucía Etxebarria whose poem col- gree, Channa Newman and Claude Doubinsky (trans.),
lection Estación de infierno (2001) was found to contain University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln NE and London.
metaphors and verses from Antonio Colinas. Etxebarria
[8] Kristeva, 66.
claimed that she admired him and applied intertextuality.
Some examples of intertextuality in literature include: [9] Mitra, Ananda (1999). “Characteristics of the
WWW Text: Tracing Discursive Strategies”. Jour-
nal of Computer-Mediated Communication 5 (1): 1.
• East of Eden (1952) by John Steinbeck: A retelling doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.1999.tb00330.x.
of the story of Genesis, set in the Salinas Valley of
Northern California. [10] Irwin, 227.

• Ulysses (1922) by James Joyce: A retelling of [11] Hutcheon, Linda. A Theory of Parody: The Teachings
Homer’s Odyssey, set in Dublin. of Twentieth-Century Art Forms. New York: Methuen,
1985.
• The Dead Fathers Club (2006) by Matt Haig: A
retelling of Shakespeare’s Hamlet, set in modern [12] Fairclough, Norman (1992). Discourse and Social
Change. Cambridge: Polity Press, 117.
England.
[13] Agger, Gunhild Intertextuality Revisited: Dialogues and
• A Thousand Acres (1991) by Jane Smiley: A
Negotiations in Media Studies. Canadian Journal of Aes-
retelling of Shakespeare’s King Lear, set in rural thetics, 4, 1999.
Iowa.
[14] Fairclough, Norman. Analysing Discourse: Textual Anal-
• Perelandra (1943) by C. S. Lewis: Another retelling ysis for Social Research. New York: Routledge, 2003, p.
of the story of Genesis, also leaning on Milton’s 51.
Paradise Lost, but set on the planet Venus.
[15] Linell, Per. “Discourse across boundaries: On recontex-
• Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) by Jean Rhys: A textual tualizations and the blending of voices in professional dis-
intervention on Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre, the course,” Text, 18, 1998, p. 154.
 5

[16] Oddo, John. Intertextuality and the 24-Hour News Cycle: • Linell, Per. “Discourse across boundaries: On re-
A Day in the Rhetorical Life of Colin Powell’s U.N. Ad- contextualizations and the blending of voices in pro-
dress. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, fessional discourse,” Text, 18, 1998, 143-157.
2014, p. 132-133.
• Oddo, John. Intertextuality and the 24-Hour News
[17] Hodges, Adam. “The Politics of Recontextualization:
Cycle: A Day in the Rhetorical Life of Colin Pow-
Discursive Competition over Claims of Iranian Involve-
ment in Iraq, " Discourse & Society, 19(4), 2008, 483-505. ell’s U.N. Address. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State
University Press, 2014.
[18] Fahnestock, Jeanne. “Accommodating Science: The
Rhetorical life of Scientific Facts,” Written Communica- • Oropeza, B.J. “Intertextuality.” In The Oxford En-
tion, 3(3), 1986, 275-296. cyclopedia of Biblical Interpretation. Steven L.
McKenzie, editor-in-chief. New York: Oxford Uni-
[19] Oddo, John. Intertextuality and the 24-Hour News Cycle:
versity Press, 2013, Vol. 1, 453-63.
A Day in the Rhetorical Life of Colin Powell’s U.N. Ad-
dress. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press,
• Pasco, Allan H. Allusion: A Literary Graft. 1994.
2014.
Charlottesville: Rookwood Press, 2002.
[20] Oddo, John. “Precontextualization and the Rhetoric of
Futurity: Foretelling Colin Powell’s U.N. Address on • Porter, Stanley E. “The Use of the Old Testament in
NBC News,” Discourse & Communication, 7(1), 2013, the New Testament: A Brief Comment on Method
25-53. and Terminology.” In Early Christian Interpretation
of the Scriptures of Israel: Investigations and Propos-
[21] Oddo, John. Intertextuality and the 24-Hour News Cycle:
als (eds. C. A. Evans and J. A. Sanders; JSNTSup
A Day in the Rhetorical Life of Colin Powell’s U.N. Ad-
14; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), 79-
dress. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press,
2014, p. 78. 96.

11.1 Works cited 12 Additional citations

• Agger, Gunhild Intertextuality Revisited: Dialogues
and Negotiations in Media Studies. Canadian Journal “Intertextuality”. (2015). Online Etymology Dic-
of Aesthetics, 4, 1999. tionary. Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.
reference.com/browse/intertextuality
• Fahnestock, Jeanne. “Accommodating Science: Comhrink, A. (n.d.). The matrix and the echo': Intertex-
The Rhetorical life of Scientific Facts,” Written tual re-modelling in Stoppard’s Rozencrantz and Guild-
Communication, 3(3), 1986, 275-296. cmstern are dead. Attie de Lxmge.
• Fairclough, Norman. Analysing Discourse: Textual Fitzsimmons, J. (2013). Romantic and contemporary po-
Analysis for Social Research. New York: Routledge, etry: readings. Retrieved from CQUniversity e-courses,
2003. LITR19049 - Romantic and Contemporary Poetry, http:
//moodle.cqu.edu.au
• Griffig, Thomas. Intertextualität in linguistischen
Fachaufsätzen des Englischen und Deutschen (Inter- Gadavanij, S. (n.d.). Intertextuality as Discourse Strat-
textuality in English and German Linguistic Research egy. School of Language and Communication
Articles). Frankfurt a.M. et al.: Lang, 2006. Hebel, J. U. (1989). Intertextuality, allusion, and quo-
tation: an international bibliography of critical studies.
• Hodges, Adam. “The Politics of Recontextualiza-
Greenwood Press.
tion: Discursive Competition over Claims of Iranian
Involvement in Iraq,” Discourse & Society, 19(4), Ivanic, R. (1998). Writing and identity: The discour-
2008, 483-505. sal construction of identity in academic. John Benjamins
Publishing Co. 1070 AN Amsterdam. The Netherlands
• Hutcheon, Linda. A Theory of Parody: The Teach-
ings of Twentieth-Century Art Forms. New York: Jabri, M. (2004). Change as shifting identities: a dialogic
Methuen, 1985. perspective. Journal of Organizational Change Manage-
ment, Vol. 17 Iss: 6.
• Irwin, William. ''Against Intertextuality''. Philoso- Jacobmeyer, H. (1998). Ever After: A study
phy and Literature, v28, Number 2, October 2004, in intertextuality. Carl Hanser Verlag, München.
pp. 227–242. Available at: http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/edoc/ia/eese/
• Kristeva, Julia. Desire in Language: A Semiotic Ap- artic98/jacobm/88_98.html
proach to Literature and Art. New York: Columbia Keller, E. (2013). Crafting a masterpiece: The genre mo-
University Press, 1980. saic of Harry Potter. MSC, Harrisonburg, VA 22807.
6 13 SEE ALSO

Available at: http://www.jmu.edu/evision/Volume10/

Keller.html
Kliese, M. (2013). Little Lamb analysis. CQUniver-
sity e-courses, LITR19049 - Romantic and Contempo-
rary Poetry.
Miola, R.S. (2004). Seven types of intertextuality.
Manchester University Press.
Mitchell, M (n.d.). Hamlet and Rosencrantz and
Guildenstern are Dead: Transformations and adapta-
tion. Sydney Studies Transformations and Adaptation, 39
Macquarie University.
“Plagiarism”. (2015). Online Etymology Dictionary.
Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.
com/browse/plagiarism
Share, P. (2006). Managing intertextuality – meaning,
plagiarism and power. Institute of Technology, Sligo Ab-
stract, 2nd International Plagiarism Conference.
The National Institute of Development Administration
(NIDA), Bangkok 10240, Thailand
Wöhrle, J. (2012). So many cross-references! Method-
ological reflections on the problem of intertextual re-
lationships and their significance for redaction criti-
cal analysis. Methodological Foundations-Redactional
Processes-Historical Insights, Walter de Gruyter.
YourDictionary. (2015), Examples of allusion. LoveTo-
Know Corp.

13 See also
• Literary theory
• Post-structuralism

• Semiotics

• Umberto Eco
• Meta

• Transmedia storytelling
• Honkadori

• Interdiscursivity
• The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of
Things
 7

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