12696 ตัวเล่ม PDF

GEOTHAI’2007
Proceedings of the International Conference on

Geology of Thailand:
Towards Sustainable Development and
Sufficiency Economy
21-22 November 2007

Bangkok, Thailand
Organized by:
Department of Mineral Resources
Department of Groundwater Resources
Department of Mineral Fuels
Department of Primary Industries and Mines
Miningthai Industry Council
Geological Society of Thailand
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON GEOTHAI’2007
Geology of Thailand: Towards Sustainable Development and Sufficiency Economy
21-22 November 2007
The Emerald Hotel, Bangkok, Thailand
Advisory Committee
Mr.Apichai Chvajarernpun
Mr.Satien Sukontapongpow
Mr.Worasart Apaipong
Editor-in -chief
Worawoot Tantiwanit
Editorial Board
Lertsin Raksaskulwong Pracha Kuttikul
Varavudh Suteethorn Jarin Tulyatid
Assanee Meesook Sommai Techwan
Srisopa Maranate Somboon Khositanont
Pol Chaodumrong Darunee Saisuttichai
Pirat Janyahan Preecha Saithong
Manop Raksaskulwong
Correspondence: Lertsin Raksaskulwong

Treasury: Surachai Siripongsatien
Registration and Reception: Sasirin Chitawongphan
Venue: Tawsaporn Nuchanong
Cover designed by: Kitti Khaowiset
ii
© Copyright 2007 Department of Mineral Resources
ISBN 978-974-226-428-4
Publications by Department of Mineral Resources,

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environments, Bangkok, THAILAND
TO ORDER PUBLICATIONS
Publications of the Department of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources and

Environments are available from the following source:
Department of Mineral Resources,
Rama VI road,
Bangkok 10400, Thailand
Fax. 66-2-6219531
www.dmr.go.th
Orders for publications should be accompanied by cheque or money order payable to the
Department of Mineral Resources.
DISCLAIMER
The views, opinions, and/or findings contained in this Proceedings are those of the author (s)
and should not be constructed as an official policy or decision of the Department of Mineral
Resources, unless so designed by other documentation.
TEXT CITATION
It is recommended that reference should be quoted in the following form:
Hanta, R., Ratanasathien, B., Satoshi,T., Kunimatsu, Y. and Nakaya, H. 2007. A depositional
environment of Late Miocene Mammalian fossil, Sop Mae Tham, Lampang province,
northern Thailand. in W. Tantiwanit (ed-in-chief), Proceedings of the International
Conference on Geology of Thailand: Towards Sustainable Development and
Sufficiency Economy. Bangkok, Thailand, 1-9.
iii
PREFACE
In recent years, an increasing number of people have paid closed attention to the
awareness of the global environmental change and the effects from such change. The over use
of natural resources and the fast growing development have been blamed for the deterioration
of the world’s environment. A large number of countries have now realized the situation and
are trying to reduce the rate of environmental decline.
In order to cope with such environmental problem the concept of sustainable use of
resources has been introduced over the past decade. The concept has a great impact to those
who used to be the “developers” who search for the world’s treasures and supplied them to the
“industrial developments”. The changing has resulted in the reorganizing of the Thai’s
governmental offices that related to natural resources.
Through the difficult times of keeping the earth’s environment, there is a light at the
end of the tunnel. His Majesty King Bhumibol of Thailand has long introduced the
“sufficiency economy” to the Thai people. The concept has been widely applied and more
successful cases have been reported. All his life, H.M. has put all his time and efforts to help
the people of Thailand. Thai people love him. In the year 2007 the Thai people are looking
forward to the anniversary of H.M. King Bhumibhol’s 80th birthday (5th December). The
anniversary would bring joy and happiness to all the Thai people not only in Thailand but
around the world.
The Department of Mineral Resources and co-organizers would like to take this
opportunity to organize the Geothai’2007 international conference on Geology of Thailand,
Toward Sustainable Development and Sufficiency Economy in Bangkok during 21–22
November 2007. We hope that our geological work can contribute to the better lives’ quality
of the people.
The conference provides a forum for geoscientists and engineers from several
countries to exchange ideas, opinions, and experiences which should bring about better
understanding in our earth and its environment. This will lead to minimize the loss of life,
property from natural disasters, to enhance and to protect of our quality of life.
I would like to express my sincere gratefulness to all delegates who contribute and
attend the conference. Finally, I wish to thanks to the Conference Organizing Committee and
all working groups who put their time and effort to make this conference possible and fruitful.
(Mr. Apichai Chvajarernpun)

Director General
iv
EDITORIAL NOTE
GEOTHAI’2007 International Conference on “Geology of Thailand: Towards

Sustainable Development and Sufficiency Economy” is being held in the Emerald Hotel,
Bangkok, Thailand from November, 21-22, 2007 to celebrate the auspicious occasion of His
Majesty the King’s 80th Birthday Anniversary 5th December 2007.
The conference provides a forum for geoscientists and engineers from 12 countries to
exchange ideas, opinions, and experiences which should bring better understanding in future
cooperation and research. Four keynote papers and a total of sixty three technical papers are
being presented orally. Twenty additional papers are being presents in poster form. A
technical exhibition is arranged to display the present technology, equipment, and services in
Thailand from both the government and private sectors.
In this proceedings, 59 full manuscripts and 19 abstracts covering various categories in

geology are published. It is noticeable that the list of papers is arranged in alphabetical order.
Format of all manuscripts and abstracts submitted are rearranged for uniformity and
consistency purposes. Editing on typographical and grammatical errors have been made where
necessary.
The editorial board wishes to thank all authors for their very informative and useful
manuscripts and to encourage all participants to take full advantage of this publication.
Worawoot Tantiwanit
Editor-in- chief
v
CONTENTS
page
Preface iv
Editorial note v
A Depositional Environment of Late Miocene Mammalian Fossil, Sop Mae Tham, 1-9
Lampang Province, Northern Thailand
Rattanaphorn Hanta, Benjavun Ratanasthien, Tanaka Satoshi,Yutaka Kunimatsu, Hideo Nakaya
A Preliminary Work on the Establishment of the Seismological Observation Network 10-16

By DMR in Major Active Faults of Thailand
Yoshihiro Sawada, Sakda Thammavitwas, Akira Kitazumi,Sitirug Limpisawad and
Wachirachai Sakapa
Additional Well Preserved Vertebrae of Phuwiangosaurus Sirindhornae from 17

the Type Locality (Phu Wiang, Changwat Khon Kaen)
Suravech Suteethorn, Jean Le Loeuff and Varavudh Suteethorn
Application of Electrical Imaging to Delineate Sinkhole at Ban Tung Nang Kaew, 18

Satun Province, Southern Thailand
Wachirachai Sakapa
Application of Resistivity Survey to Investigate Sinkhole and Karst Features in 19-24

Southern Thailand : a Case Study of Pakjam area
Kachentra Neawsuparp and Tanad Soisa
Arsenic Distribution in Ratchaburi Province: an Experimental Geochemical 25-29

Baseline Study
Jitisak Premmanee, Mookda Charusribandhu, Nikhom Chaiwongsaeng and
Chaloamporn Karnchanasathit
Australasian Cometary Impact, 0.8Ma Catastroloess Buried Alive Miocene, 30-43

Pliocene Faunas in Thailand and Central Australia, and Tektite-Bearing
Flood Deposits in NE. Thailand. New World’s Discovery Extinction Age in Thailand
(Indochina), and Australia Impact Fields
Sangad Bunopas, Paul Vella, Clive Burrett, Henry Fontaine, Shigeki Hada, Peter Haines,
Somboon Khositanont, Prathuang Chintasakul, Pol Chaodamrong, Punya Charusiri and
Kieren T. Howard
Coalbed Methane Potential Assessment Project in Thailand (Mae Tha , Mae La Mao , 44
and Mae Ra Mard Basins)
K. Wuttipong and J. Thawee
Communcative Planning: Stakeholder Networks as a Resource in Risk Management 45

Kaisa Schmidt-Thomé, Lic.Sc., Researcher,
Use of Soda-Lime-Silica Waste Glass as an Alternative Flux in Tradition Ceramics 46-53

Tarnkamol Tarvornpanich and Guilherme P. Souza
Devonian to Triassic Radiolarian Faunas from Northern and Northeastern Thailand 54-71
Doungrutai Saesaengseerung, Katsuo Sashida, Apsorn Sardsud
vi
page
Discovery of Permian Radiolarian Faunas from the Nakhon Sawan and Uthai Thani Areas, 72
Central Thailand
Doungrutai Saesaengseerung, Katsuo Sashida, Apsorn Sardsud and Surachet Poonpan
Diversity of Cenozoic Mammals in Thailand: Paleoenvironment and Age Updated 73-79

Yaowalak Chaimanee, Chotima Yamee, Pannipa Tian and Jean-Jacques Jaeger
Environmental Geology for Regional Planning in Geological Disaster Risk Reduces 80-86
(Case Study : Garut Regency, West Java, Indonesia)
Oki Oktariadi
Famennean (Upper Devonian) Conodonts from Mae Sariang, Northwestern Thailand 87-92
Norman M. Savage, Apsorn Sardsud and Petra Lutat
Geology and Genesis of Phu Thap Fah Gold Skarn Deposit, Northeastern Thailand: 93-95
Implications for Reduced Gold Skarn Formation and Mineral Exploration
Khin Zaw, Tongchai Rodmanee, Somboon Khositanont, Theeapongs Thanasuthipitak,
Somsak Ruamkid
Geology of the Udon Thani Potash (Sylvinite) Deposits with an Overview for 96-103
Development of a Sustainable Potassium Resource for Thailand
Keith S. Crosby
Geophysical Investigation of Hot Spring Sites in Kanchanaburi with Reference to 104-108

Local Tourism Development
Pham Huy Giao, Prinya Putthapiban, and Chanarop Vichalai
Geotourism and the Set-Up of Local Geolearning Network that could Lead to Business 109
Opportunity: A Preliminary Study in Phrae Province
Jarin Tulyatid
Heat Treatment of Sapphires from Ilakaka-Sakaraha, Madagascar 110-116

Krittaya Pattamalai and Rak Hansawek
Hydrochemical Balance of Brines in the Northeastern Thailand 117-124

Nuttapong Thancharoen1 and Sarunya Promkotra2
Integration of Geotechnical Engineering and Rainfall Data into Landslide Hazard Map 125-131
in Thailand
Suttisak Soralump and Wisut Chotikasathien
Is the Kuchinarai Group of the Khorat Plateau a good source of hydrocarbons? 132
Wanida Chantong and John Booth
KBr in Rock Salt Bed; The indicator of origin and deformation of Rock Salt Strata 133-140
Parkorn Suwanich
Khlong Marui and Ranong Fault Zones in Southern Thailand re-Activated by the 141-144
26 December 2004 Mw 9.3 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake?
H. Duerrast, S. Dangmuan and W. Lohawijarn
vii
page
Landform Associated with the Mahasarakham Formation, the Phu Thok Formation 145-150
and Salt Diapir in the Khorat Plateau, Northeastern Thailand
Denchok Monjai
Landslide Investigation and Hazard Mapping in Phuket Province 151-155

Wisut Chotikasathien and Suttisak Soralump
Landslide Prediction Model Using Remote Sensing, GIS and Field Geology: 156-168
A Case Study of Wang Chin District, Phrae Province, Northern Thailand.
Suree Teerarungsigul, Chongpan Chonglakmani and Friedrich Kuehn
Late Middle Permian Alatoconchid-Bearing Limestones from the South of the 169-176
Khao Khwang Platform, Central Thailand
Mongkol Udchachon, Chongpan Chonglakmani, Hamish Campbell and Nathawut Thanee
Middle Holocene Peat and Mollusk Shells from Ongkharak Area, Nakhon Nayok, 177-179
Central Thailand: Evidence of In Situ Deposits during a Marine Transgression Period
Wickanet Songtham, Poramita Phanwong, and Tosak Seelanan
Middle Triassic Radiolarians from Den Chai Area, Northern Thailand 180-186
Hathaithip Thassanapak, Chongpan Chonglakmani, Qinglai Feng, Jack Grant-Mackie
and Nathawut Thanee
Mineral Identification of Dickite, Pyrophyllite, and Associated Clay Minerals in 187-193

Saraburi and Nakhonnayok provinces, Thailand
Pramual Jenkunawat
Mineral Resources Development in Lao PDR 194-198

Chansavath Boupha and Kongkham Chanthavichith
Mineralisation Characteristics of the Long Chieng Track (LCT) Gold Deposit, Lao PDR 199-201
Takayuki Manaka, Khin Zaw and Sebastien Meffre
Aquifer Identification and Groundwater Use in Chiang Mai Basin 202

Adisai Charuratna
Modern Sea Floor Topography and Late Quaternary Seismic Stratigraphy of the 203-212
Upper Gulf of Thailand
Wichien Intasen, Rungsiroj Vongprommek, Precha Laochu
Morphotectonic Evidences Alongs the Ranong – Klong Marui Fault Zone, 213
Southern Thailand
Suwith Kosuwan , Preecha Saithong, Weerachat Wiwegwin,Wannaporn Punyawai
and Punya Charusiri
New and Old Hydrocarbon Plays in the Permo-Triassic Section of the 214
Khorat Plateau Basin, NE Thailand
John Booth and Wanida Chantong
New Tertiary Tectonics Model in Thailand 215

Surapol Thanomsap
viii
page
Overview and Current Status of the GEO (Global Earth Observation) Grid” 216-219
M. Matsuoka, S. Kodama, R. Nakamura, N. Yamamoto, H. Yamamoto, K. Iwao, T. T. Vu,
S. Tsuchida, and S. Sekiguchi
Paleoearthquake of the Si Sawat and Three Pagoda Fault Zone, Western Thailand 220
Suwith Kosuwan, Preecha Saithong, Weerachat Wiwakwin, and Ekkachai Keomart
Permian Limestones of Surat Thani Province, Peninsular Thailand 221-228

Fontaine Henri, Hoang Thi Than, Sirot Salyapongse, Varavudh Suteethorn and Daniel Vachard
Permian Lithostratigraphy of the Shan-Thai Terrane in Thailand: Reservoir of the 229-236

Kaeng Krachan and Ratburi Groups
Pol Chaodumrong, Wang Xiangdong and Shen Shuzhong
Petrochemistry of the Mae Ngao Basalts, Tha Song Yang, Tak, Thailand 237-241
P. Limtrakun, Y. Panjasawatwong, B. Phajuy, B. Srithai, Y. Vasasmith and W. Jintanavisetkul
Petrography and Geochemistry of the Chanthaburi-Trat Basalt, Thailand 242-250

Apichet Boonsoong
Petroleum Potential in Northern Andaman Sea, Thailand 251

Tananchai Mahattanachai, Potchara Auanlumme
Potash-Evaporite Deposits in Thailand 252-262

Parkorn Suwanich
Practical Identification of Rare Gem-Quality Taaffeite and Musgravite 263-265

Wilawan Atichat, Thanong Leelawatanasuk, Visut Pisutha-Arnond,Boontawee Sriprasert,
Pornsawat Wathanakul,Chakkaphan Sutthirat, Chaniya Somboon, Jirapit Jakkawanvibul,
Nalin Narudeesombat, Sureeporn Pumpang, Monrudee Thavornmongkolkith
and Namrawee Susawee
Preservation of 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami Deposits and Implications for Paleotsunami 266
Record on Andaman Sea Coast of Thailand –Preliminary Results
Witold Szczuciński
Processing of Rayong Mixed Feldspars for Ceramics 267-271

Chairoj Rattanakawin and Suraphol Phuvichit
R&D Activities of KIGAM for Sustainable Growth in Resources; Gas Hydrate, 272-273
Geothermal Energy, Groundwater
Kwang-Eun Kim
Regional Tectonic Setting and Seismicity of Thailand with Reference to Reservoir 274-287
Construction
Punya Charusiri, Brady P. Rhodes, Preecha Saithong, Suwith Kosuwan, Santi Pailopli,
Weerachat Wiwegwin, Veerote Doarerk, Chaiyan Hinthong and Supawan Klaipongpan
Relationship between the Mahasarakham Formation and High Terrace Gravels along 288-296
the Khon kaen-kalasin Provinces
Manop Raksaskulwong and Denckok Monjai
ix
page
Resistivity Surveys of Ranong – Khlong Marui Faults 297

Jarin Tulyatid, Pakawat Sriwangpon, Apichat Paiyarom and Wanwisa Boonsungnone
Responses to Territorial Effects of Natural Hazards and Climate Change - Examples 298-300
from the European Union
Philipp Schmidt-Thomé and Jaana Jarva
Shale Gas Development Opportunity in Thailand 301

Phumee Srisuwon
Site selection for Nuclear Facilities in Thailand from a (Geo)scientific Viewpoint 302-303
Helmut Duerrast
Spectroscopic Investigation of Bellataire and Iljin HPHT Treated Diamonds 304-312

Boontawee Sriprasert, Wilawan Atichat, Pornsawat Wathanakul, Visut Pisutha-Arnond,
Chakkaphan Sutthirat, Thanong Leelawattanasuk, Sunki Kim, Chedthawat Jakkawanvibul,
Sakrapee Saejoo, Patra Srithunayothin, Chotima Kunwisutthipan and Namrawee Susawee
Stratigraphy and Facies of Pyroclastic Rocks in the Abandoned Kaolin Mine, 313-318
Pak Fang Village, Muang Uttaradit District, Uttaradit Province, Northern Thailand
Y. Panjasawatwong, B. Srithai, J. Khanmanee, and K. Metprasopsan
Stratigraphy and Tectonic Evolution of Thailand 319-321

Pol Chaodumrong
Study on the Estimation of Strong Ground Motions – Case Study Using 322-325
Nam Ma Fault Earthquake
Akira Kitazumi, Suwith Kosuwan, Preecha Saithong, Weerachat Wiwegwin,
Burin Wechbunthung,Tirawat Boonyatee
Sustainable Perspectives for Thailand Gold Resources 326-330

Jitisak Premmanee and Nikhom Chaiwongsaeng
Tectonic Evolution of the Kampaengsaen Basin, Nakorn Pathom, Central Thailand 331-337
from PTTEP Seismic Data
Passakorn Pananont, Punya Charusiri and Prinya Putthapiban
The Ceratopsian Dinosaur Psittacosaurus in the Early Cretaceous of Southeast Asia: 338-343
A Review of Old and Recent Finds
Eric Buffetaut, Varavudh Suteethorn and Sasidhorn Khansubha
The Holostei Fish Record (Actinopterygii) from Thailand 344-348

Lionel Cavin, Uthumporn Deesri and Varavudh Suteethorn
The Mesozoic Fossil Record of Sharks in Thailand 349-354

Gilles Cuny, Varavudh Suteethorn, Suchada Kamha, Komsorn Lauprasert, Paladej Srisuk
and Eric Buffetaut.
The Origin of Hotsprings in Ranong Province, Southern Thailand 355-357

W. Lohawijarn, E. Sanmuang, P. Khoonphunnarai and H. Duerrast
x
page
The Stratigraphy of Ban Khao Wong Phra Chan Area, A Possible Western Flank of 358-361
another Tertiary Basin in Lower Central Thailand ?
Prinya Putthapiban, Somchai Pum-Im, Passakorn Pananont, Sutatcha Hongsresawat,
Patcharin Kosuwan and Sujintana Chompusri
Triassic Trackways from Thailand 362-363

Jean Le Loeuff, Tida Saenyamoon, Christel Souillat, Varavudh Suteethorn and Eric Buffetaut
Two-Dimensional Resistivity Inversion 364-366

Weerachai Siripunvaraporn, Songkhun Boonchaisuk and Chatchai Vachiratienchai
U-Pb Zircon Ages and Geochemical Characteristics of Lampang-Phrae Granites; 367-372

Implications for plate tectonic interpretation
Somboon Khositanont, Prayote Ounchanum, Yuenyong Panjasawatwong,
Theerapongs Thanasuthipitak and Khin Zaw
What Happens at the Northern End of the Shan-Thai Terrane; Where does It Go 373-377
from There?
Arthur J. Boucot
Geology and Mineralization of the Chatree Epithermal Au-Ag Deposit, 378-390

Phetchabun Province, Central Thailand
Ron James and Grace V. Cumming
Web Map Services on Geologic Resources of Thailand 391-398

Sompob Wongsomsak
Aspect of Oil Shale in Thailand 399-403

Damrong Khummongkol and Apiradee Suwannathong
Application of GIS for Visualization and Analysis with Geological Data 404-408
ESRI (Thailand)
Leakage DetectiON using a Dipole-Dipole Resistivity and Refraction Seismic Survey : 409-412
A Case History at Huai Tha Dam, Si Sa Ket province, Thailand
Noppadol Poomvises, Narucha Saengtong, Anchalee Kongsuk, Kampanart Kwansirikul,
Asita Chaisiri and Thera Isarakul
Preliminary seismic hazard assessment along Nan - Pua Fault, Nan Province, 413
northern Thailand: Evidence from remote sensing and geological syntheses
Punya Charusiri, Kitti Khaowiset, Preecha Saithong, Santi Pailoplee, Isao Takashima
xi
GEOTHAI’07 International Conference on
Geology of Thailand: Towards Sustainable Development
and Sufficiency Economy
A DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF LATE MIOCENE MAMMALIAN

FOSSIL, SOP MAE THAM, LAMPANG PROVINCE,
NORTHERN THAILAND
Rattanaphorn Hanta1, Benjavun Ratanasthien1, Tanaka Satoshi2,Yutaka Kunimatsu3, Hideo Nakaya4
1
Department of Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50202, Thailand; E-mail: rttnpn@yahoo.com
2
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Kyoto University of Education, Kyoto, 612-8522, Japan
3
Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Aichi, 484-8506, Japan
4
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, 890-0065 Japan
ABSTRACT
The mammalian fossils such as suid, tragulid, equid, and proboscidean were found from low hills, situated north
of Sop Mae Tham village, Soem Ngam district, Lampang province, northern Thailand. The lithostratigraphy was
described and fossil bones were studied for the depositional and preservational environments. The fossil bones
were sectioned for observing the mineralization under petrographic microscope. The sediment and fossil bone
samples were crushed and then analyzed by using x-ray diffractometry and x-ray fluorescence. The
lithostratigraphic study indicates sediment succession was of the floodplain deposits, evidenced from fine-grianed
channel fill, peaty swamp, mottling, calcrete, and desiccation crack. Sediment samples are composed of quartz,
muscovite, kaolinite, calcite, and plagioclase. The mammalian skeletons were broken and deposited by low
energy. From petrographic study, the fossil bones tissue was composed of crystalline apatite, calcite, siderite,
clay minerals, and quartz. The replacing minerals in bones were composed of apatite, calcite, siderite, clay
minerals, and quartz. These minerals indicate mildly alkali reducing environment during fossilization. The
dominant oxide compounds are CaO, P2O5, Fe2O3, and SiO2.
Key words: mammalian fossil, Neogene, paleoenvironment, northern Thailand
INTRODUCTION for this locality (Saegusa et al., 2000, Kunimatsu et al.,

2000, and Nakaya et al, 2002, 2007). In recent field
The mammalian fossils were discovered from several areas investigations, the mammalian fossil is relatively rarer than
in northern Thailand which are Neogene in age including of fish. The bone fragments and pharyngeal teeth of fish are
Mae Moh, Chiang Muan, Pong, Na Sai, Mae Soi, and Mae abundant. The turtle carapace fragments and crocodylia
Long. These localities have yielded a number of fossil taxa scute fragments and teeth are also found. This study aims to
(Ducrocq et al., 1994 and 1995; Saegusa et al., 2000 and reconstruct the sedimentary and preservational
2005; Nakaya et al., 2001, 2002; Chaimanee et al., 2003; environments.
Pickford et al., 2004; and Fukuchi et al., 2006, 2007). Sop
Mae Tham is one of these areas which yielded mammalian GEOLOGICAL SETTING
fossils (Kunimatsu et al., 2000 and Saegusa et al., 2000). A
number of fossil were collected by Thailand-Japan Sop Mae Tham is a village which located in Soem Ngam
Paleontological Expedition (TJPE) in 1999 (Kunimatsu et Sub-basin. It is located ca 40 km south of Lampang city.
al., 2000). The discovered fossils composed of teeth of large Soem Ngam sub-basin covers area ca. 140 square km. of
turtle, crocodile, bovid, suid, pharyngeal teeth of fish, and Soem Ngam district. The basin lays north-south direction. It
postcranial bone of artiodactyla and large mammal. The is 20 km in length and 12 km in width. The study area is ca
bone fragments belong to the testudine, quamata, and 2.0 km north of Sop Mae Tham village, southwest of the
crocodylia; cypriniformes and siluriformes. The teeth and basin. It is located at latitude N 18°01'46" to 18°02'08" N
fragments are of tetralophodont gomphotheres, rhinocerotid, and longitude E 99°08'50" to 99°09'20" (Fig. 2). The basin
hipparionin equids, suids, Propotamochoerus/ is floodplain and hilly, situated 220-340 m above mean sea
Hippopotamodon, and tragulids, Boselaphini bovids (Fig. level (Fig. 3).
1). This mammalian assemblage suggests a Late Miocene
1
Figure 1. Mammalian fossil of Sop Mae Tham, A) proboscidean,Tetralophodont gomphothere;
B) mouse deer, Tragulidae; and C) suid or wild pig, Propotamochoerus/ Hippopotamodon.
Previous investigations in this area began with the study of MATERIALS AND METHODS
Tertiary sediment in northern Thailand (Piyasin, 1972). He
found the coal layer exposed at Mae Soem stream. Then, The sediment samples were collected over specified rock
further investigations were made for coal exploration layers in successive order. 12 samples were collected from
(Traiyan and Jaita-Butra, 1991). Piyasin (1972) found approximately 11 meters thick succession. These samples
Viviparus sp. and ostracods in a thin bed of coal that crop were analyzed and the lithostratigarphic column of Sop Mae
out along Mae Soem stream. He proposed that it is Tham was constructed according to lithology and
comparable to Mae Moh Group according to the present of sedimentary structures. The fossil samples were selected to
Viviparus sp. and ostracods. The surrounding rocks are of make a polished for petrographic study. The sectioned face
Silurian-Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Permo-Triassic, were lapped by hand using four grade of fine carborundum
and Triassic in age, a detailed lithology shown in Figure 4. powder, 200F 400F, 600F, and 1000F abrasives. The lapped
For, the mammalian and vertebrate fossil they were known samples were finally polished by aluminium oxide. The x-
for years among the villagers. Until the year 1999, ray diffraction data of bulk analysis of sediment samples
systematic fossil collections were made by Thailand-Japan and fossil bone specimens were obtained using a MAC-
paleontological expedition (Kunimatsu et al., 2000). The M18XHF diffractometer. The analytical lamp generated
fossils were found in the area called “Phae Pla Kang”, a CuKα radiation at 18 kilowatts, 40 kilovolts, and 50
hilly area 2 km north of Sop Mae Tham village. milliamperes. The scanning speed was 4 degree per minute.
2
The scanning processed from 2-60 degree and 0.05 degree normalized to percent. The x-ray fluorescence (XRF) was
per step. The d-spacing reflection and intensity were used to determine major element concentrations by using
obtained during the automated analysis. The highest EDAX-DX95 with rhodium (Rh) x-ray source and
intensity of d-spacing reflection of each mineral was automated operating at 10 kilovolts and 150 microamperes.
selected to represent the proportion of the mineral in a The element concentrations were quantifying to percent
sample. The representing mineral intensities were weight of oxide by using EDAX-DXNstd software.
Figure 2. Topography of Soem-Ngam Sub-basin, high mountain range in the West and South,
hilly area at the foothill, and floodplain in the central. The study area shown in rectangular.
Figure 3. Hilly area, a fossil yielded locality, during dry season February 2007, looking SE.
3
Figure 4. The lithology of Soem-Ngma Sub-basin and nearby sub-basin. The Silurian-Devonian sedimentary rocks lie west and south
(modified from Buravas and Pitakpaivan, 1974; Charoenprawat et al., 1994).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The lithostratigraphic succession was constructed based on

the lithology and sedimentary structures. The depositional
Sedimentary Facies environment of the floodplain deposits throughout the
section (Fig. 5). It can be subdivided into five facies,
4
abandoned channel fills, A; peaty swamp, B; well-drained Facies B: medium bedded, 0.2 m thick, of fine to very fine
swamp, C; crevasse splay deposits, D; and well-drained sand with dark gray clay. The thickness of dark clay varies
swamp, E; from bottom to top (Fig. 5 and 6). from 0.1-1.0 meter. Therefore, facies B is possibly a
Facies A: Pebbly sand, coarse to medium sandstone 1.0 m paleosol sequence which deposit in the vegetated swamp.
thick, semi-consolidated, fining upward, conformably Facies C: Begin with thin layer, 0.2 m thick, of fine to very
overlying with clayey silt, clay 0.8 m thick, mottled reddish fine sand overlying with very thick bed of clay and clayey
brown with light gray, mainly light gray, fish pharyngeal silt, silt mottled reddish brown with light gray mainly
teeth and crocodile tooth (Fig. 7D) found in mottled clay. reddish brown, calcareous nodule contained, fish pharyngeal
Clay, thick bedded, 0.5 m thick, mottled light gray with teeth and distal end of tibia and humerus of artiodactyls
reddish brown, mainly light gray, calcareous nodule and (Fig. 7A and 6B).
burrow contained. containing nodule and burrow. These are
pedogenic features.
Figure 5. Lithostragraphy of Sop Mae Tham fossil locality which is of a floodplain depositional environment composed of five
subfacies, abandoned channel fills, A; peaty swamp, B; well-drained swamp, C; crevasse splay deposits, D; and well-drained swamp, E.
5
Facies D: A set of cyclicity of fine to very fine sand, 0.1-0.2
m thick, with fine lamination, ripples and mud crack, with
light gray clay and capped with caliche bed, 0.2 m thick.
Later, the periodic deposits of overbank flood or drape
deposit seen from the fine to very fine sand deposit. These
depositing sand show fine laminations and ripples and some
experience dried up period showing mud crack.
Facies E: Sequence of mottled reddish clay alternated with
light gray clay. Slightly mottled light gray at lower part,
conformably change to mottled reddish brown clay, nodule
contained, pharyngeal teeth abundant (Fig. 7C). In the upper
part, there is a cyclicity of mottled reddish brown with light
gray clay. Slickenside and plinthite are present. It is
distinctly a swamp deposit as shown by a thick sequence of
mottled reddish brown clay with periodic flood of fine
particle, light gray clay. The fine particles of flood is
possibly transported far from the river and of a distal margin
of the flood (Fig. 5 and 6).
Petrography
The fossilized bones are crystalline apatite in which dark

green, yellowish green, and yellowish brown in color (Fig.
8A-8C). The calcite crystallized disseminated throughout
the crystalline apatite (Fig. 8D) and in filled the bone pore
(Fig. 8B). Another feature of calcite is finely mineralized
which replace the crystalline apatite seen in white color
(Fig. 8E and 8F). The siderite is partially replaced the
Figure 6. Outcrop of Sop Mae Tham, ca 11 m in thickness, apatite (Fig. 8G) and also in filled the bone pore (Fig. 8A-
showing the five subfacies of floodplain deposits. 8C) shown in brown color. Detrital quartz and clay
minerals, kaolinite and illite, filled the bone pores and bone
cracks (Fig. 8E and 8H).
Figure 7. The fossil occurrences in Sop Mae Tham A) distal end of humerus found in situ B) pharyngeal teeth
C) vertebrate bone fragments, and D) crocodile tooth.
6
X-Ray Diffractometry (XRD) The mammalian bone, fish bone, and turtle carapace is
broken possibly either the broken before the deposition or
Four samples of fossilized bone show distinctly sharp of not well-preserved due to slow depositing rate of floodplain
calcite in SMTF-01 and SMTF-04 and relatively much deposit. The pharyngeal teeth of fish and crocodylia teeth
lower height in SMTF-02 and SMTF-03 at 2θ=29.5°. are well-preserved due to a small size. Both bone and teeth
Apatite is three-stepped peak, 32.05°, 33.25°, and 34.25° is preserved in the appropriated geochemical environment,
from highest and lowest peak, seen in SMTF-02 and SMTF- proper Eh-pH condition. Considering the mineral
03. Sideritic peak emerged at the same position with apatite, assemblage replaced in the fossilized bone is comprised of
but not stepped, in SMTF-01. Siderite of SMTF-04 shows apatite, calcite, and siderite. This mineral assemblage
overlapped peak with apatite at 32.05°. Quartz shown at presented the slightly basic and mildly reducing
26.75° is low sharp peak, except that of SMTF-03. Clay environment based on Eh-pH diagram of Krumbein and
mineral is detected in SMTF-02 and SMTF-03. Kaolinite Garrels (1952). The apatite and siderite are stable under
and plagioclase show in SMTF-02 developed at 11.0° and these conditions, near neutral soils pH 6.5-8 (Retallack,
28.2° respectively. Illite is found in SMTF-03 at 9.0° and 1997). Therefore, it can be concluded that the bones had
12.5° (Fig. 9). buried under this slightly alkali and reduced condition.
The mineral assemblage of the Sop Mae Tham section can
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) be divided into two interval, CaCO3 rich, facies D and E,
and poor, facies A, B, and C (Fig. 5). The higher amount of
The highest content in each bone specimen is CaO with CaCO3 in facies D and E probably the climate during the
relatively lower amount of P2O5, SiO2, and Fe2O3. Except deposition was drier than that of A and B, evaporation
the SMTF-04, Fe2O3 is higher than P2O5 and SiO2. These higher than precipitation. From the deposition of muscovite,
four dominant oxides are composition of apatite, CaPO4; kaolinite, and plagioclase in facies A, B, and C suggest the
calcite, CaCO3; siderite, FeCO3; and quartz, SiO2. The different of weathering stage. Therefore, these clay minerals
oxides of Ti, Mn, and Cr are minor compounds of the fossil were derived from different sources which were slight and
bones, as a replacing element. intense weathering. The muscovite and plagioclase indicate
slight weathering sources. Kaolinite indicates intense
INTERPRETATION OF weathering source which could be from Kuntan granite,
PALEOENVIRONMENT crop out north and northwest of the basin, and transported to
the area by Nam Mae Soem. No input of plagioclase in
The sedimentary environment is of flood plain deposit. The Facies C and D, but a high content of calcite. During the
organic-rich clay can be traced over a wide area and could deposition of facies D and E, the climate conditions is
be use as an index layer for stratigraphic correlation in the exposed longer dry than facies A and B, then higher content
area. The floodplain is rhythmically flooding which seen of calcite in facies D and E. A peaty swamp is rather acid
from a poorly sorting of pebbly sand, near river, and cross- conditions, therefore no calcite was deposited.
lamination in light gray clayey silt, relatively farther from
the river. The floodplain dried up and the clay exposed to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
subaerial cause a mud crack. The mottled reddish brown
clay indicate waterlogged swamp with seasonally dry. The R. Hanta thanks The Graduate School, Chiang Mai
lengthy period of waterlogged is the deposit of organic-rich University for the academic support. Thanks to Ms.
clay. The lithology show an association of channel-fill, Amaralak Foopatthanakamol, Ms. Yupa Thasod and Mr.
peaty swamp, mottling, calcrete, and desiccation cracks Jaroon Duangkrayom for their kind helps and Mr. Jamlong
which indicate a hot, tropical to semitropital, and seasonally Horsuwan for keen eye on collecting fossils in the field. Dr.
wet and dry climate (Miall, 1996). Akira Fukichi is appreciated for suggestions during
The paleoecology is based on the mammalian food. fieldwork. Ms. Hayashi Chie, Ms. Naito Shinobu, Ms. Miza
According to the hind gut mammal assemblage such as Irie, and Mr. Teiji Mikami are appreciated for assisting
horse, pigs, and proboscidean, need low-fibrous plant such during geochemical analysis in Kyoto University of
as bush. Another group is fore gut mammal composed Education. The Thailand Research Fund through the Royal
mainly of ruminant eating hi-fibrous plant such as grass. Golden Jubilee Ph.D. Program (Grant No. PHD/0136/2545)
The grassland developed on a large floodplain which R. Hanta and B. Ratanasthien, the Association of
dwelled by crocodile, fish, turtle, snake, and gastropod. The International Education, Japan (AIEJ) to R. Hanta, and the
fish and turtle are food of the crocodile. Therefore, the research fund from the Japan Society for the Promotion of
paleoecology is likely to be a shrub mixed with grassland on Science (#15570193) to Y. Kunimatsu supported this
huge floodplain. research.
7
Figure 8. Sectioned fossil bones under reflected-light microscope showing a recrytallized apatite, Ap, (yellowish green) partially
replaced by calcite, Cal (white) and siderite, Sid (brown), clay minerals, Clay. Scale = 0.08 mm.
8
Figure 9. Diffragtogram of bone samples showing dominant calcite (Ca), especially SMTF-01 and SMTF-04,
apatite (Ap), siderite (Sid), and quartz (Q) with clay minerals, kaolinite (Ka), plagioclase (Pl), and illite (I).
REFERENCES season of February 1999. Asian Paleoprimatology, 1: 115-

136.
Krumbein, W. C. and Garrels, R. M., 1952. Origin and
Buravas, S. and Pitakpaivan, K., 1974. Geological Map of
classification of chemical sediments in terms of Eh and
Changwat Uttaradit Quadrangle Scale 1:250,000. Geological
oxidation-reduction potentials. Journal of Geology, 60, 1-33.
Survey Division, Department of Mineral Resources,
Miall, A. D., 1996. The geology of fluvial deposits: sedimentary
Bangkok.
facies, basin analysis, and petroleum. Springer Publishing.
Chaimanee, Y., Jolly, D., Benammi, M., Tafforeau, P., Duzer, D.,
Berlin, xvi+582.
Moussa, J., and Jaeger, J. J., 2003. A Middle Miocene
Nakaya, H., Saegusa, H., Ratanasthien, B., Kunimatsu, Y. and
hominoid from Thailand and orangutan origins. Nature, 422:
Gentry, A., 2001. Neogene mammalian biostratigraphy in
61-65.
eastern Eurasia, The 2001 Annual Meeting of the
Charoenprawat, A., Chuaviroj, S., Hinthong, C. and
Palaeontological Society of Japan, Tokyo.
Chonglakmani, C., 1994. Geological Map of Changwat
Nakaya, H., Saegusa, H., Kunimatsu, Y., and Ratanasthien, B.,
Lampang Quadrangle Scale 1:250,000. Geological Survey
2002. Miocene mammalian faunas of northern Thailand and
Division, Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok.
their geological age. Primate Research, 18: 131-141.
Ducrocq, S., Chaimanee, Y., Suteethorn, V. and Jaeger, J.-J., 1994.
Pickford, M., Nakaya, H., Kunimatsu, Y., Saegusa, H., Fukuchi, A.,
Ages and paleoenvironment of Miocene mammalian faunas
and Ratanasthien, B., 2004. Age and taxonomic status of the
from Thailand. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Chiang Muan (Thailand) hominoids. C. R. Palevol, 3: 65-75.
Palaeoecology, 108: 149-163.
Piyasin, S., 1972. Geology of Lampang Sheet NE 47-7 Scale
Ducrocq, S., Chaimanee, Y., Suteethorn, V. and Jaeger, J.-J., 1995.
1:250,000. In: Department of Mineral Resources, Geological
Mammalian faunas and the ages of the continental Tertiary
Survey Division (Editor), pp. 98.
fossiliferous localities from Thailand. Journal of Southeast
Saegusa, H., Ratanasthien, B. and Nakaya, H., 2000. A new
Asian Earth Sciences, 12(1/2): 65-78.
Miocene mammalian locality, Mae Soi and the occurrence of
Fukuchi, A., Ratanasthien, B., Hanta, R. and Wongchai, N., 2006.
partial skeletons of rhinocerotids and gomphotheres from
A wild-pig fossil from the latest Middle-early Late Miocene
northern Thailand. Asian Paleoprimatology, 1: 137-147.
of Chiang Muan in northern Thailand. Journal of the
Saegusa, H., Thasod, Y. and Ratanasthien, B., 2005. Notes on
Geological Society of Japan, 112: IX-X.
Asian stegodontids. Quaternary International, 126-128: 31-
Fukuchi, A., Ratanasthien, B., Tanaka, S., Nagaoka, S. and Suzuki,
48.
S., 2007. Stratigraphy and sedimentary environment of late
Traiyan, A. and Jaita-butra, A., 1991. Investigation of Coal
Middle-early Late Miocene Chiang Muan Formation, Phayao
Geology in Soem Ngam Basin, Soem Ngam District,
Province, Thailand. Nature and Human Activities, 11: 1-15.
Lampang Province. In: Economic Geology Division,
Kunimatsu, Y., Saegusa, H., Nakaya, H., Ratanasthien, B.,
Department of Mineral Resources (Editor), pp. 27.
Nagaoka, S., and Tsubamoto, T., 2000. Field notes on the
fossil localities in northern Thailand visited during the field
9
A PRELIMINARY WORK ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE
SEISMOLOGICAL OBSERVATION NETWORK BY DMR
IN MAJOR ACTIVE FAULTS OF THAILAND
Yoshihiro Sawada 1, Sakda Thammavitwas 2, Akira Kitazumi 1,Sitirug Limpisawad 2 and Wachirachai Sakapa 2
1
JICA Senior Volunteer at Department of Mineral Resources
2
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
ABSTRACT
DMR (Department of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment) established the seismological
observation networks at major active fault zones to monitor seismic activities which would be associated with active faults. The
networks has been developed at four fault zones (FZ); southern part of Mae Hong Son & Moei FZ, Three Pagoda FZ, northern
part of Ranong FZ and Khlong Marui FZ. A triangle-shaped network has three observation points at apexes and each point is
equipped with a short-period & three components (2 horizontal and 1 vertical ones) transducer with a data-logger and a GPS
clock system. Lengths of sides of the networks are ranging from about 22 – 102 km and we are aiming to detect and locate
micro-earthquakes that occur inside and near the networks. Through preliminary analyses of seismic wave data at four active fault
zones, extremely high level activity of micro-earthquakes was not detected. In March 2007, however, there were small & local
seismic events outside the network in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province. Two events of them could be located by use of S – P times
obtained with DMR network and the epicenters were located shortly off the eastern coast of the province, in a northwest edge of
Gulf of Thailand. The epicentral area is almost same as that of the 2006 activity which was accompanied by the largest event of M
5.0 and is distributed along a line extended into north-east direction out of the Ranong Fault Zone.
Keywords: seismological observation, active fault, seismicity map
INTRODUCTION 2007). It is thought that occurrence of micro-earthquakes is

associated in active fault regions, but the systematic
After the occurrence of the 2004 December Sumatra seismological observation has not been conducted there. DMR
Earthquake, existences of many active faults having potentials (Department of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural
of future earthquake-generations were recognized afresh. Active Resources and Environment) has established the seismological
faults reaching 23 including possible ones are counted in observation networks at four major active fault zones (FZ); Mae
Thailand and they are distributed in regions ranging from North Hong Son & Moei FZ, Three Pagoda FZ, northern part of
via West to South Thailand (Fenton et al., 2003). Evaluations on Ranong FZ and Khlong Marui FZ to monitor micro-seismic
potential to generate future earthquakes have been discussed activities since 2006. These networks are expressed in this paper
mainly from view points of geological, geomorphic and as NW, W, SW and S representing the regions of Northwest,
stratigraphic investigations. The results indicate that many faults West, Southwest and South of Thailand, respectively.
are the potential sources of large earthquakes of Mw (moment According to the preliminary analyses of seismic wave data,
magnitude) 7 - 71/2 and recurrence intervals at 2 faults are extremely high level activity of micro-earthquakes at the four
estimated to be about 2,000 - 15,000 years (Fenton et al., 2003). fault zones was not detected by now. In March 2007, several
Occurrence of Mw 6.3 earthquake about 4,500 - 5,000 years ago seismic events were recorded at the SW network in Prachuap
was clarified along the Sri Sawat Fault (Songmuang et al., Khiri Khan Province and two events were located in northwest
10
Gulf of Thailand where is at almost same region of the May Each transducer is installed at three apexes of a triangle-shaped
2006 event. Another seismological observation network is network which has three sides ranging from about 22 – 102 km.
planned to be established in Chiang Mai region in 2008. Where, the network at the Mae Hong Son & Moei FZ has been
recently reconstructed into a small network having sides of 35 –
SEISMOLOGICAL OBSERVATION 45 km at south of Moei FZ. Newly reconstructed network is
NETWORK AND ITS COMPOSITION composed with 2 newly relocated points and a present NSL
point (not shown in Fig. 2). Those observation points were
Short-period type seismometers with frequency responsibility constructed at sites where are at low ground-noise levels;
range in about 25 Hz – 1 Hz are installed at 3 networks in the usually under 40 - 110 μkine (cm/sec) on vertical components at
NW, W and SW, and wide-period type ones with frequency nights unless human activities or traffics disturb. To obtain these
responsibility in about 25 Hz – 0.025 Hz at the S network. The low ground-noise levels in different conditions,
brief characteristics of them are given in Table 1. Each transducer-bases were constructed on ground surface, in
observation network is composed with three observation points shallow hole of 1 - 2 m depth or rather deep hole reaching
and each point is equipped with a three components (2 around 5 m according to geological and surrounding conditions
horizontal and 1 vertical) transducer with a data-logger, a at observation points. Transducer bases could be directly
battery and GPS clock system. Power supply for instruments is constructed on hard base rock on ground surfaces at most
maintained with AC power or DC power by battery according observation points.
to site condition. Solar panel is installed at S networks as a main Wave data registered with data-loggers at three networks in NW,
power or for a back-up during AC power trouble. Summary of W and SW are collected every one - two months, while those at
composition of observation facility is shown in figure 1 and the S network are recorded with data-loggers and the data are
distributions of four networks are represented in figure. 2. continuously transmitted to DMR using IP star transmission
system.
Table 1 Summary of characteristics of seismometers used for In case of occurrence of seismic event inside each net, it will be
seismological observation. possible to detect a smallest shallow event having magnitude of
Transducer CMG-6T-1 Trillium 40
around – 0.5, and to determine its location of a smallest event of
Velocity 2000 V/m/sec 1500 V/m/sec magnitude around 0.6 - 1.7, according to lengths of sides of
Responsibility
networks. Magnitude used herewith was tentatively estimated
Component 3 (2 H, 1 V) 3 (2 H, 1 V)
Frequency ca. 25 – 1 Hz ca. 25 – 0.025 Hz based on the following Watanabe’s formula (Watanabe 1971)
Responsibility which have been well used to determine magnitude of
Data Recorder Kelunji Echo Taurus Portable
Seismic Seismograph
micro-earthquakes in Japan;
Recorder 0.85 M – 2.50 = log Ar + 1.73 log r
Power DC 12 V DC 15 V
where, Ar is an amplitude of seismic wave in kine on vertical
Data Format SEED (usual) SEED (usual)
component
IP star (at South Net) and r an epicentral distance in km (under 200 km), respectively.
Vault GPS Antenna

Storage
Transducer
Data Logger
Battery
AC (when available)
Solar Cell
Base (main or back-up)
(at SW Net)
Figure 1 Schematic figure on composition of instruments at

seismological observation point. Seismic wave data is recorded
with a data logger at all observation points. Wave data at S
network is transmitted to DMR with IP star system..
11
Figure 2 Distribution of the 4 (four) seismological observation networks which were constructed at major fault zones. The names
are NW (Northwest) in Mae Hong Son Province, W (West) in Kanchanaburi Province, SW (Southwest) in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province and
S (South) in Surat Thani and Krabi Provinces from north to south in west region of Thailand. Each observation point in network is expressed
with abbreviated names; NW ; MLN, TSY and NSL, W ; KLM, TKS and TPP, SW ; PLU, HSY and NHY and S ; KYN, KSN and BSN
from north to south in each network. (N network was recently reconstructed into a small one located at the south side) Distribution of faults is
indicated in red bold lines. Epicenter means the epicenters of seismic events on March 9, 2007.
(USGS Website) and it is considered that many smaller events

LOCAL SEISMIC ACTIVITY IN THAILAND have occurred in various inland regions. However, we can well
SEEN FROM USGS HYPOCENTER DATA understand the state of seismic activity in wide region and
during long period based on USGS hypocenter data. Figure 3
The lowermost of earthquake-magnitude of hypocenters shows the hypocenter distributions in and around Thailand,
determined by USGS in Thailand regions is around M 4.1 using USGS data in January 1964 - July 2007 for hypocenter
12
data larger than magnitude 3 and with depths within 200 km. As Province in 1983. The seismic activity suddenly occurred in
well known, very frequent seismic activities are distributed April 1983 with the largest event of M 5.9 accompanying
along the north - northwest and the west - southwest regions several M 4 and 5 class events. Thereafter, M 4 class events
around Thailand. Large events of them including South took place sporadically in July and August in the year. Two
Sumatra region have caused damages in Thailand by ground events occurred in the same area in 1990, about 7 years later. All
shakings and tsunamis. When we see the inland seismic activity, seismic events in 1983 and 1990 are located in a small area with
there are three seismic activities; the first is the activities in diameter of several tens km and depths within around 40 km
North Thailand region, the second and third are local seismic (Fig. 4). After the activity in 1990, there is no event determined
activities that are concentrated in small areas in West Thailand by USGS by now.
and in the northwest edge of Gulf of Thailand as indicated with The seismic activity in the northwest Gulf of Thailand also
circles in figure 3. suddenly took place in September, 2006 showing M 4 class
As far as seen from USGS data, seismic activities in north events at first and the largest event of M 5.0 occurred in October.
region is not so frequent but steady and active occurrences of The epicentral area was limited in an area of several tens km
seismic events with magnitudes of around 3 – 4, sometimes 5 across and the depths were within 40 km (Figs 3 and 4). The
have been monitored by the nation wide seismological activity sharply decayed after the October event. Before and
observation of TMD (Thai Meteorological Department, TMD after the activities, no events are determined by USGS in this
Website). The local seismic activity in the west region is the region.
events which have taken place at middle of Kanchanaburi
Apr., July and Aug., 1983 Sep. and Oct., 2006

May and Nov., 1990 M 5.0 on Oct. 7, 2006
M 5.9 on Apr. 22, 1983
Fig.3 Seismicity map in and around Thailand using USGS hypocenter data in January 1, 1964- July 31, 2007. Hypocenter data larger than
magnitude 3 and with depths within 200 km are plotted in this figure. Steady seismic activity in the North Thailand and two local seismic events
in West Thailand and the northwest edge of Gulf of Thailand are detected. The two local activities are shown with open circles with the largest
events, respectively. (This seismicity map was drawn with SEIS-PC (Ishikawa and Nakamura, 1997).
13
Kanchanaburi Gulf of Thailand
1983 and 1990 2006
West East West East
Depth (km)
0 100 km 0 100 km
Figure 4 Depth distributions of seismic activities at Kanchanaburi Province and north -west edge of Gulf of Thailand..
However, small seismic events were detected on March 9, The wave forms obtained at 19:29 UTC at three observation
2007 with DMR’s network installed at SW in Prachuap Khiri points of NHY, HSY and PLU are shown in Fig. 5. Fairly clear
Khan Province. There are possibly several events having similar arrival times of P and S waves can be measured from these
waveforms but the number of earthquakes of which seismic seismograms. Estimation of the hypocenters is described in the
wave forms were well obtained at 3 observation points in this next item.
network was 2 events at 19:29 UTC and 23:09 UTC on the day.
NHY
HSY
PLU
March 09, 2007

19:29 UTC
19:30 19:31 UTC
Figure 5 Seismic wave records obtained at 19:29 UTC on March 9, 2007 at the SW network arranging the data from south
observation point to north one. Time interval is adjusted and the amplitude at each observation point is normalized with the value of its largest
amplitude. There is a time shift on vertical components at NHY and HSY points as indicated with a solid arrow due to software trouble.
DISCUSSION smaller earthquakes can not be determined by USGS in

Thailand region. Hence, to understand whether
The Kanchanaburi events have been interpreted to be closely micro-earthquakes still occur or not in this area and to
related to the construction of huge reservoirs in 1983 and 1984. investigate the relationship between seismic activity and fault
After the activity, there is no seismic event larger than M 4.1 but distribution, the precise seismological observations in this area
14
are very important. According to preliminary analyses of about 20 km off the coast of Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, in
seismic wave data observed in the W network, occurrence of the northwest edge of Gulf of Thailand. Depths of them can be
micro-earthquakes is not yet confirmed. estimated at around 30 km from the figure. Velocity-amplitude
Epicenters of 2 earthquakes registered at the SW network on magnitude tentatively estimated with Watanabe’s formula was
March 9, 2007 were estimated using S - P times at 3 around 3.7 for the event at 19:29 UTC and 3.5 at 23:09 UTC,
observation points; PLU, HSY and NHY. Value of 8 km/sec respectively. These epicenters are also very close to that of the
was tentatively used as the coefficient of Omori’s formula. The M 5.0 event on October 7, 2006 (Fig. 6).
results are shown in Fig. 6. Both events are closely located at
Oct. 7 2006
M 5.0
Figure 6 Epicenters of 2 earthquakes that were registered at 19:29 UTC and at 23:09 UTC on March 9, 2007 are indicated with small red
and blue circles with cross marks inside, respectively. Large red and blue circles are drawn using Omori’s coefficient (8 km/s) and S - P times at
3 observation points of the SW network. The epicenter of October 7, 2006 event is shown with a red-cross.
Figure 7 is the magnitude vs time diagram (M-T diagram) at the the northern part of Ranong Fault Zone is well developed. The
epicentral areas in Kanchanaburi (upper) and the Gulf of distribution of the fault system in the gulf has not been clear but
Thailand (lower). We can see from this figure that the both it is supposed that the fault would be in the same southwest -
seismic events suddenly commenced and sharply decayed after northeast trend in the gulf shortly off the coast as shown with
the last events. The earthquakes detected by DMR’s network on broken line in Figure 6. Hence, we consider that the 2006
March 9, 2007 are closely located near the 2006 activity. events and those in March, 2007 are the seismic activities along
However, the patterns of activities seen in the figure can not be the fault zone mainly based on the relationship between
interpreted as the mainshock - after-shock type mainly due to a geographical distributions of epicenters and fault system.
lack of data and due to small differences of magnitude values However, it is not clear whether the earthquakes on March,
among seismic events, and the earthquakes on March 9, 2007 2007 are parts of continuously occurring activities along the
can not be thought as aftershocks of the 2006 activity. The fault or of the episodic seismic activities in this region. The
region in Gulf of Thailand has been one of very low seismicity problem is also same as the events in Kanchanaburi. To
areas in Thailand and there was no seismic activity before the understand and investigate these subjects, the continuous and
2006 event in the USGS Catalogues. The events determined in precise seismological observations at fault zones are very
2006 were the first seismic activity in this region for USGS important.
Catalogues.
In the land area of this region, the Prachuap Khiri Khan Fault in
15
7 9, 2007. Two epicenters estimated are in a northwest edge
Kanchanaburi of Gulf of Thailand and are closely located to that of the M
M 5.9
6
5.0 event in 2006. Depths estimated are around 30 km and
Magnitude
5 velocity-amplitude magnitude tentatively estimated with

Watanabe’s formula are around 3.5 and 3.7.
4
4. The epicenters of seismic activity in 2006 and earthquakes
3 in March, 2007 are considered to distribute along an
extended line of the Prachuap Khiri Khan Fault in northern
70 80 90 00 part of Ranong Fault Zone.
Year 5. It is unknown whether the earthquakes observed in March,
6 Gulf of Thailand 2007 are parts of continuously occurring seismic activity or
M 5.0 episodic occurrences in this region.
Magnitude
5
6. Hypocenters have been determined by USGS for
4 earthquakes larger than about M 4.1 in Thailand region.
Further analyses of smaller seismic activities with
3
continuous and sensitive seismological observations in
fault zones are needed to clarify and to understand the
July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. seismic activities in fault zones.
2006
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Figure 7 Magnitude vs time diagram (M-T diagram) at the
epicentral areas in Kanchanaburi (upper)and northwest edge This paper was derived based on the seismological project at the
of Gulf of Thailand (lower). Department of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment. Authors gratefully appreciated Dr.
CONCLUSIONS Jarin Tulyatid for his useful. Sawada especially thanks Dr. Yuzo
Ishikawa for his close explanations and advices on usage of
Preliminary works based upon seismological observations at SEIS-PC software.
major fault zones in Thailand are drawn as outlined below.
1. Seismological observation networks have been installed in REFERENCES
major 4 fault zones (FZ); southern part of Mae Hong Son
& Moei FZ, Three Pagoda FZ, northern part of Ranong FZ Fenton, C.H., P. Charusuri and S. H. Wood (2003): Recent
and Khlong Marui FZ. Each network has three paleoseismic investigations in Northern and Western
seismological observation points and it is expected to Thailand, Annals of Geophysics, 46, 957-981.
determine hypocenter of micro-earthquake with magnitude Ishikawa, Y. and K. Nakamura (1997); SEIS-PC for Windows
of around 1 - 2 inside its triangle-shaped network. 95, Abstracts of the 1997 Joint Assembly of Earth and
2. According to the seismicity map in Thailand made from Planetary Science Societies, 78.
the USGS hypocenter data since January 1964 through Songmuang, R., P. Charusiri, M. Choowong, K. Won-In, I.
July 2007, two isolated local activities of which epicenters Takashima and S. Kosuwan (2007): Detecting active faults
were concentrated in small areas can be detected. They are using remote-sensing technique: A case study in the Sri
the 1983 and 1990 events in Kanchanaburi Province and Sawat area, Western Thailand, Science Asia, 33, 23-33.
the 2006 events northwestern edge of Gulf of Thailand. Watanabe, H (1971): Determination of earthquake magnitude at
Both of activities occur in low seismicity areas and ended regional distance in and around Japan, ZISIN: Journal of
showing concentrated occurrences within one day - two Seismological Society of Japan (in Japanese), 24, 189-200.
weeks and with sporadic occurrence-patterns at time Website
intervals of about 2 weeks, one - several months and about USGS (United States Geological Survey) Scientific Data;
7 years. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/
3. Through the seismological observations at the SW network, TMD (Thai Meteorological Department);
occurrence of local seismic activities is detected on March http://www.tmd.go.th/en/
16
ADDITIONAL WELL PRESERVED VERTEBRAE OF PHUWIANGOSAURUS

SIRINDHORNAE FROM THE TYPE LOCALITY
(PHU WIANG, CHANGWAT KHON KAEN)
Suravech Suteethorn1, Jean Le Loeuff2 and Varavudh Suteethorn3
1
Université de Montpellier 2, 34095 MONTPELLIER Cedex 5, France.
2
Musée des Dinosaures, 11260 Espéraza, France.
3
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
ABSTRACT
In 1993 two new sauropod vertebrae were found in Phu Wiang (Northeastern Thailand) at the type locality of
Phuwiangosaurus sirindhornae (Martin, Buffetaut and Suteethorn, 1994), eleven years after the type specimen was
excavated. The new material includes one dorsal and one caudal vertebrae, which are complete and very well preserved.
The size of these vertebrae, e.g. the height of the cranial articulation of the centrum, fit to those of the holotype vertebrae.
The dorsal vertebra shares the following characteristics of the posterior dorsal vertebrae of P. sirindhornae: unforked
neural spine; long diapophyses nearly reaching the level of the spine; hyposphene-hypantrum system present. The caudal
is similar to the anterior caudal vertebra of the type of P. sirindhornae, in which the centrum is slightly amphicoelous
and the transverse processes are situated at the base of the neural arch, at mid-length of the centrum. We consider that
these two new vertebrae belong to the same individual that the type material of P. sirindhornae. We regard them as the
paratype of Phuwiangosaurus sirindhornae, adding the following new synapomorphies: dorsal vertebra with short
neural spine; triangular process present at the distal end of the neural spine.
17
APPLICATION OF ELECTRICAL IMAGING TO DELINEATE SINKHOLE

AT BAN TUNG NANG KAEW, SATUN PROVINCE, SOUTHERN THAILAND
Wachirachai Sakapa
ABSTRACT
The great Sumatra earthquake on December 26, 2004 caused many sinkholes occurred in Satun Province, southern
Thailand. In Langu district, there were at least 6 sinkholes collapsed in the community area. One of these sinkhole is just
beneath a house.
The study area located at community and populated area of Ban Tung Nang Kaew. Geology of the area comprises of
Ordovician limestone and clastic sedimentary rocks exposed along small hill. Recent unconsolidated sediments cropped
out at flat area.
2-D Electrical Imaging (EI) applying dipole-dipole configuration with minimum spacing 5 meters and up to 15 meters is
employed to determine subsurface geology. The survey is conducted for a total of 35 traverse lines along E-W direction
and 1 base line on N-S across the sinkhole. Resistivity interpretation can divide underground soil and rock into 3 layers.
Top layer is lateritic soil with resistivity value range 50-1500 ohm-meter, thickness 2-12 meters. Second layer is wet soil
and weathered rock with resistivity range 5-50 ohm-meters and depth 2-12 meters. The third layer is interpreted as
massive limestone with resistivity more than 100 ohm-m in western part of study area while eastern part is interbedded
as clastic sedimentary rock with resistivity range 50-1500 ohm-meters. Resistivity value depicts that bedrock topography
is karst while discontinuity of resistivity value is interpreted as fault or fracture. The interpreted low resistivity area as
cavity is coincided well with drilling result.
18
APPLICATION OF RESISTIVITY SURVEY TO INVESTIGATE SINKHOLE

AND KARST FEATURES IN SOUTHERN THAILAND :
A CASE STUDY OF PAKJAM AREA
Kachentra Neawsuparp and Tanad Soisa
ABSTRACT
2D and 3D resistivity imaging can be used to identify buried sinkholes zone covered by karst terrain at Pakjam area, in
southern part of Thailand. Approximately 15m of regolith overlies karstified bedrock at this site. Drilling result shows
some of void containing with clay-filled in contact between regolith and limestone. Low resistivity (high conductivity)
anomalies appear to coincide with clay filled fracture zone. Resistivity survey work well in delineating filled sinkholes,
underlying weathered bedrock.
Keywords : Sinkhole, Resistivity, Image, Trung, Thailand.
INTRODUCTION higher-resolution imaging than that used in

conventional sinkhole mapping surveys. 2D resistivity
Sinkholes are depressions on the land surface caused by surveys clearly show the central depression as well as
water moving downward into cracks and passages in the resistivity contrasts between the cover sediments within
limestone below. Some sinkholes form slowly by solution and outside of the sinkhole
of the underlying carbonate rocks, other sinkholes develop A growing number of investigations are employing
as a result of the collapse of surface or near-surface resistivity survey to map these types of features. For
material. There are two basic types of sinkhole-forming example, Panno et al. (1994) used resistivity profiling to
collapses: 1) bedrock collapses, and 2) regolith collapses. identify sinkhole-prone areas in southern Illinois: high
Bedrock collapses are rare and generally occur due to resistivity zones correlated with air-filled cavities in the
enlargement of cave passages in limestone. The overburden that had formed over a bedrock conduit.
enlargement causes the roofs above the passages to Carpenter et al. (1998) used resistivity, GPR and EM
weaken and eventually collapse to create sinkholes. surveys to identify filled sinkholes that were probable
Regolith collapses are much more common than bedrock recharge points near Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Recently a
collapses and generally result from regolith falling into number of papers have used two-dimensional (2D)
openings in the underlying limestone. resistivity imaging to examine sinkholes and the
In the areas where the water table is above the regolith- underlying weathered, or epikarstal, bedrock (e.g. Labuda
bedrock contact, collapses often occur when the water and Baxter, 2001; Van Schoor, 2002; Zhou et al., 2002;
table drops below the regolith-bedrock contact, either Ahmed and Carpenter, 2003).
during droughts or during high-volume pumping. This study investigates the use of resistivity survey to
Physically, the collapses in this case are caused by loss of delineate filled or buried sinkholes to depths of about 25
supporting for the regolith arches that span openings in m at Pakjam area, Trung province. The ability of 2D and
the limestone. 3D electrical resistivity imaging of fractures, caves and
Karst features are one of the most widespread and often soil pipes associated with these filled sinkholes are also
under evaluated geologic hazards in carbonate terrains. examined.
Geologic maps are the principal tools for displaying and
conveying data important in understanding reasons for STUDY AREA
sinkhole distribution. Although hazards such as collapse
sinkholes cannot be completely prevented, geologic maps The study area is at Ban Pakjam in Huaiyod district,
that delineate karst features can be applied by policy Trung province. The investigation area covers about 1 sq
makers and the public to develop strategies to minimize or km. located between UTM 570000E-571000E and
avoid loss. 850000N-851000N as shown in figure 1. The area is
Resistivity techniques have been widely used to map covered by alluvium deposit (Qa) and around the area is
the locations of sinkholes in covered karst terrain. To Ordovician limestone (O) formed as high mountains. The
determine whether a sinkhole is a likely preferential collapsed sinkhole in this area is approximately 10m wide
channel for groundwater flow, however, requires and 3m deep at UTM 570315E /850430N.
19
Figure 1 The location map of Ban Pakjam area.
METHODOLOGY grid. These 2D images may still contain distortions and

artifacts of the modeling process. Values near the base of
The Pakjam area was selected to obtain detailed resistivity the section, for instance, often incorporate 3D effects or
cross-sections over known and suspected filled sinkholes. off-line information projected onto the section due to
The resistivity imaging was followed up with drillings, to lateral current spreading at wide electrode spacing.
verify the accuracy of the resistivity models. Resistivity Anomalies near the edge of models are also suspect since
surveys were performed with an automated multi- there are usually few data points available for the
electrode switching system (IRIS syscal R1 plus). The inversion in these areas. Different numbers of iterations
dipole-dipole array was chosen based on previous work with different inversion parameters are necessary to insure
that showed good resolution of epikarstal fracture and an anomaly near the edge is not a processing artifact.
caves with this configuration (e.g. Roth et al., 1999; Some of the inversion parameters that may be changed to
Labuda and Baxter, 2001). A total of 48 electrode test a solution’s robustness include damping factor,
positions with a dipole spacing of 5m were used. The raw flatness, filters and the initial model for the inversion
apparent resistivity dipole-dipole data were inverted and (Loke, 1998). Mesh sizes may also be changed. However,
interpreted using the rapid two-dimensional (2D) too many mesh elements results in a high degree of
resistivity inversion least squares method (program electrical equivalence, i.e. there are more unknowns than
RES2DINV, Ver. 3.3 [Loke, 1998]) to acquire a 2D “true” data points, thus very large uncertainties in cell
earth resistivity inversion solution, which is then color resistivities.
20
RESULT encountered clay-filled void at about depths of 8-12m and
14-16m (Fig. 4). Soft raveled soil was found at shallow in
2D resistivity surveys clearly show the central depression drillings confirming the karst potential and
as well as resistivity contrasts between the cover correspondence of the interpreted bedrock horizon from
sediments within and outside of the sinkhole. Clay-filled the geophysics and the direct drillings.
fractures and caves are represented as high-conductivity This example demonstrates the value of using shallow
(low resistivity) zone in the resistivity images. All of these geophysics to rapidly gather high-resolution subsurface
fractures are below the water table, so the low resistivities information in much greater detail than what can be
may be due to infilling by clay, or water within the obtained by a few drillings. The geophysics easily found a
fracture. Resistivity survey with a 5m dipole spacing, few high sinkhole potential anomalies that probably
however, does not provide sufficient resolution to would have not been detected by randomly placing
pinpoint their location except to within a few meters. drillings as is often done in the industry. The electrical
Figures 2 shows the example of inverted and resistivity resistivity method found at the first anomaly a significant
models made from dipole-dipole surveys with a 5m developing karst feature that almost certainly would have
electrode spacing in Pakjam area (line 12). In these been exacerbated by standing and infiltrating water in the
figures the filled sinkhole appears as a conductive (low overlying basin probably causing failure of the basin
resistivity) zone above a conductive “trough” in the through sinkhole development. As a result of the
bedrock, which may indicate an enlarged fracture and its geophysical investigation, the location, shape and design
alteration halo. of the basins is under review.
All of the interpreted sinkhole (void) under the surface The 2D surveys assume that all structures are infinitely
can be display as three zone as shown in figure 3. The long and perpendicular to the resistivity survey line.
resistivity data also found at about 15m along the profile a Because not all structures can be characterized in this
zone of deep weathering with more resistive bedrock manner and can be considerably more complex, 3D
pinching out and hints of a large probably saturated soil- surveys can be conducted.
filled void at least 5m below the surface. The pinch out The development of computer-controlled multi-electrode
zone probably represents a narrow weathered joint or resistivity survey systems and the development of
fracture between the two bedrock masses. resistivity modeling software (Loke and Barker, 1996)
Twelve of the anomalous features were identified on the have allowed for more cost-effective resistivity surveys
dipole-dipole survey lines (Fig. 3). The anomalies ranged and better representation of the subsurface. These surveys
from a very high resistance anomaly to a low resistance are typically referred to as Electrical Imaging surveys.
anomaly. The interpretation of the anomalies, ranged from Most resistivity surveys are collected as two-dimensional
possible void, to sands and gravels spanning the surveys. The modeling software also processes three-
soil/limestone interface, to lenses of coarse grain dimensional surveys. These factors allow data to be
sediments, to a clay filled void. collected and processed quickly, within a few hours, and
Drillings encountered relatively fresh bedrock at depths of as a result resistivity is becoming a more valuable tool in
about 30m, although an elongate clay-filled cave was subsurface investigations.
encountered by one of the drillings. Drilling PJ3 also
Drilling (PJ3) Potential sinkhole
Bedrock
Soft soil zone
Possible weathered zone
Figure 2 Resistivity image showing the location of drilling and interpreted sinkhole
21
Figure 3 The map of Pakjam area showing survey lines and interpreted sinkhole zones
Inverse modeling of the data in this study is performed resistivity. The results are displayed in figure 5 and are
using RES3-DINV (Loke, 1997) to produce a three- presented as vertical 2D slices along the following
dimensional resistivity model based on the apparent locations of the model.
resistivity data. Final data processing involves the In this paper, 3D resistivity surveys were successful at
generation of color-enhanced contour maps of the data two separate sites (Fig. 5 and 6). A low resistivity feature
using a two-dimensional mapping program. Resistivity is located in X-Z plane represent the N-S sinkhole zone.
models are presented in cross-section or 3D model blocks, In figure 5, the feature is consistent with a bedrock
with inline distance shown along the horizontal axis, fracture or a throat of a potential sinkhole feature. The 3D
depths, or elevation along the vertical axis. The resistivity survey has proven a valuable tool for mapping
geoelectrical model presents the electrical stratigraphy top of rock, potential voids, and sinkhole throats prior to
(electrostratigraphy) of the subsurface. collapse. In areas of very complex subsurface features the
Modeling software, RES3-DINV (Loke, 1997) and Voxler 3D resistivity survey can provide a better representation
(Golden software, 1997-2007), was utilized to convert the of the subsurface features.
measured apparent resistivities collected to modeled
22
Figure 4 Drilling result of hole PJ3 showing the core loss in voids
DISCUSSION The identified electric boundaries separating layers of

different resistivities may or may not coincide with
Resistivity works well to identify the base and outline of boundaries separating layers of different lithologic
sinkholes filled with dominantly coarse sediment (e.g. composition. These differences may result from the
sands, gravels, chert fragments). Sinkholes filled with gradational presentation of the electrostratigraphy.
clayey or silty soils, resistivity was much effective in Therefore, the electrostratigraphy can vary from the
delineating the subsurface structure of these sinkholes. geologic stratigraphy, and caution should be exercised
Resistivity at a dipole spacing of 5 m, however, when reviewing and interpreting the electrical profiles.
Anomalies, particularly from fractures are “smeared out”
in the resistivity images. A smaller dipole spacing with CONCLUSION
more measurement points may improve resolution of the
fractures. On the basis of our site inspections, our knowledge of the
Following the data collection and modeling, the area, and our integrated interpretation of the geophysical
electrostratigraphy information is used to interpret the data, we conclude that the tested section of interstate
potential subsurface stratigraphy of the traverses. In overlies two reactivated karstic sinkholes. The gradual,
general, dry materials have higher resistivity than similar but continual and visually detectable subsidence in the
wet materials because moisture increases their ability to study area and the sub-pavement voids, are attributed to
conduct electricity. This resistivity change, if indicated in the upward-propagating, piping-removal of embankment
the observed electrostratigraphy, can represent water table soil (i.e., washout of the fine-grained fraction of the
depths. Beneath the water table, clay-free silts and sands, embankment fill) through this sinkhole. As far as the sub-
and gravels will have a much higher resistivity than silts pavement voids are concerned, we believe that the
or clays under similar moisture condition because fine- grouting program has effectively stabilized the shallow
grained materials are better conductors. In the bedrock, subsurface in the short term. Long-term mitigation should
competent rock will have a high resistivity. Saturated involve the redirection of surface run-off waters away
fractured or weathered rock would show a much lower from the median in the distress area and the underlying
resistivity than the competent rock. Very high resistivities tunnel.
can indicate air filled voids.
23
N
Figure 5 3D resistivity image of survey line 1-14 in Pakjam area.
Figure 6 3D resistivity image of survey line 15-22 in Pakjam area.
REFERENCES Loke M.H. and Barker R.D., 1996, Practical techniques for 3-D
resistivity surveys and data inversion. Geophysical
Prospecting, 44, p. 499-523.
Ahmed, S. and Carpenter, P.J., 2003, Geophysical response of
Panno, S.V., Wiebel, C.P., Heigold, P.C., and Reed, P.C., 1994,
filled sinkholes, soil pipes and associated bedrock fractures
Formation of regolith collapse sinkholes in southern Illinois:
in thinly mantled karst, east-central Illinois. Environmental
Interpretation and identification of associated buried
Geology, 44, p. 705-716.
cavities: Environmental Geology, 23, p. 214-220.
Carpenter, P.J., Doll, W.E., and Kaufmann, R.D., 1998.
Roth, M.J.S., Mackey, J.R., Mackey, C., and Nyquist, J.E., 1999,
Geophysical character of buried sinkholes on the Oak
A case study of the reliability of multi-electrode earth
Ridge Reservation, Tennessee. Journal of Environmental
resistivity testing for geotechnical investigations in karst
and Engineering Geophysics, 3, p. 133-145.
terrains. in Beck, B.F., Pettit, A.J. and Herring, J.G.,
Golden software, 1997-2007., Voxler software program, Golden
Proceedings of the 7th Multidisciplinary Conference on
software Inc, Colorado.
Sinkholes and the Engineering and Environmental Impacts
Labuda, Z.T. and Baxter, C.A., 2001, Mapping karst conditions
of Karst, Balkema, p. 247-252.
using 2D and 3D resistivity imaging methods: in Powers,
RES2DINV and RES3DINV version 3.54 program., 2004,
M., Proceedings of the Symposium on the Application of
Geoelectrical Imaging geotomosoftware. Van Schoor, M.,
Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Problems,
2002, Detection of sinkholes using 2D electrical imaging:
Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society, CD-
Journal of Applied Geophysics, 50, p. 393-399.
ROM, Paper GTV-1
Zhou, W., Beck, B.F. and Adams, A.L., 2002, Selection of
Loke, M.H., 1997, RES2DINV ver. 3.3 for Windows 3.1, 95,
electrode array to map sinkhole risk areas in karst terranes
and NT, Advanced Geosciences, Inc., pp. 66.Reccelli-
using electrical resistivity tomography, in Proceedings of the
Snyder, H.L., Stahl, Beth. A., Leberfinger, Jeffrey, and
Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to
Warren, Jeffrey, 1999, Electrical Imaging: Method
Engineering and Environmental Problems, Environmental
forIdentifying Karst and Other Collapse Related Features
and Engineering Geophysical Society, CDROM, paper
Near Roadways, 50th Highway Geology Symposium,
13CAV4.
Roanoake, VA
Loke, M.H., 1998, RES2DINV version 3.3: Rapid 2D
Resistivity and IP inversion using the least-squares method.
Computer disk and manual, Penang, Malaysia.
24
ARSENIC DISTRIBUTION IN RATCHABURI PROVINCE:

AN EXPERIMENTAL GEOCHEMICAL BASELINE STUDY.
Jitisak Premmanee 1, Mookda Charusribandhu 2 Nikhom Chaiwongsaeng2 and
Chaloamporn Karnchanasathit2
1
Formerly: Bureau of Mineral Resources, DMR. Present address: Amanta Minerals Co., Ltd.
2
ABSTRACT
DMR has initiated an experimental baseline geochemical study, in an effort to outline natural contaminated areas of
hazardous elements such as arsenic, cadmium, lead etc. The purposes of this study are to understand the geochemical
background concerned elements in the environment and to construct guidelines of relevant fieldworks and laboratory
procedures. Ratchaburi province has been selected for this study, base on geological and geographical conditions.
Geological structures comprised of igneous and sedimentary rocks packages and some mineral deposits. Also,
Ratchaburi is composes of different topographical appearances: mountainous area to the west, flat in the middle and
flood plain to the east. The study employed basic exploration geochemical approaches via collecting surface water, soil
and stream/lake sediment samples throughout the province, resulting approximately 10 samples per square kilometers.
Analysis results of arsenic show, in general, similarity distribution in all sample media, higher values to the western part
of the province than to the east. This distribution pattern may relate to veins and greisens occurred in fractures within
the igneous rocks (mainly granite) and adjacent sedimentary rocks. Considering surface water sample analysis 175
samples (41%) are more than 10 ppb and 5 samples (1.2%) are more than 100 ppb. Arsenic ranges from 1 - 945 and 1 -
261 ppm, averaging 19.1 and 15.1 ppm in sediments and soil respectively. Initial combining those elevated level of
arsenic in surface water, sediments and soil gives some common areas, such as south of Amphoe Pak Tho and Amphoe
Ban Kha, northwest and west of Amphoe Suan Phueng. The follow-up works should concentrate on these areas in details,
Keywords: geochemical, hazardous elements, threshold, Ratchaburi
BACKGROUND INFORMATION. catchments and topography. The sampling was carried out
during dry season from January to March 2007 and some
Mineral Resources Analysis and Identification Division additional soil sampling in June 2007. Sediments and soil
and Bureau of Mineral Resources of the Department of samples were dried, homogenized and sieved through -2
Mineral Resources (DMR) has initiated an experimental mm or -10 micron size, while surface water samples were
baseline geochemical study, in an effort to outline natural split into two parts, acid treated(cation analysis) and
contaminated areas of hazardous elements such as arsenic, without for particular relevant analysis elements and
cadmium, lead etc. The purposes of this study are to compounds. The sediments and soil samples were then
understand the geochemical background levels of pulverized in the laboratory for digesting and analysis.
elements concerned in the environment and to construct
guidelines of relevant fieldworks and laboratory RESULT
procedures. If applicable, the output may help to outline
elevated level of hazardous elements in study area. Analysis (USEPA method 3050 for solid sample, method
Ratchaburi province has been selected for this study, base 3010 for water sample) results of arsenic show, in general,
on geological and geographical conditions. It covers similarity distribution in all sample media, higher values
approximately 5,200 square kilometers, and encompasses to the western part of the province than to the east (Fig. 1,
both igneous and sedimentary rocks packages and some 2 and 3). This distribution pattern may relate to veins and
mineral deposits, mainly tin and associated minerals. greisens occurred in fractures within the igneous rocks
Also, Ratchaburi is composes of different social and (mainly granite) and adjacent sedimentary rocks. These
topographical appearances: mountainous area to the west veins and greisens contain not only tin of commercial
with lower population density, relatively flat in the middle value but also sulfide minerals, such as pyrite (FeS2),
and flood plain to the east with higher population density. arsenopyrite (FeAsS) etc. When exposed to surface,
The study employed basic exploration geochemical arsenopyrite, mineralogically, contain about 46% arsenic,
approaches via collecting 426 surface water, 400 soil and will slowly oxidized converting the arsenic into oxides
489 stream/lake sediment samples throughout the that are more soluble in water, then leaching into the
province, resulting approximately 10 samples per square environment.
kilometers. Sample locations were based on drainage
25
Considering surface water sample analysis (Fig. 1), 175 (2004) who provides general level of arsenic in sediment
samples (41%) are more than 10 ppb (equivalent to ranging from 5 – 3,000 ppm with the higher levels
microgram per litre) and 5 samples (1.2%) are more than occurring in contaminated areas and in soil ranging from 1
100 ppb. So, large number of samples is over the - 40 ppm with mean values often around 5 mg/kg. Again,
guideline value of 10 ppb for drinking water given by it is very difficult to threshold the arsenic levels in
World Health Organization or WHO (WHO, 2001), but sediments and soil that may titled as contaminated areas
there is no guideline value for surface water. GreenFacts which pose health problems. The level that 10 times
(2004) provides that arsenic in rivers and lakes is higher than average in soil or 50 ppm, may take into
generally less than 10 ppb. Therefore, it is difficult to consideration for further studies (Fig. 2, 3).
threshold the arsenic values in surface water that may Initial combining those elevated levels of arsenic in
titled as contaminated areas which pose health problems. surface water, sediments and soil give some common
However, the areas that give arsenic value of 10 times areas (Fig. 4), such as south of Amphoe Pak Tho and
higher than the WHO guideline value or 100 ppb, may King Amphoe Ban Kha, northwest and west of Amphoe
take into consideration for further studies (Fig. 1). Suan Phueng. So, follow-up works should concentrate on
Arsenic ranges from 1 - 945 and 1 - 261 ppm (equivalent these areas in details, to verify and clarify this finding.
to milligram per kilogram), averaging 19.1 and 15.1 ppm Precaution measures may be initiated as well as studies on
in sediments and soil respectively (Table 1). These levels, impacts to local population.
relatively, can compare to the levels given by GreenFacts
Figure 1. Arsenic distribution in surface water, Ratchaburi province.
26
Table 1. Statistics of arsenic content in water, soil and sediments.
Statistics Water Soil Sediments

Number: sample1 426 400 489
Minimum <0.3 ppb <0.3 ppm 1.4 ppm
Maximum5 115.6 ppb 107.4 ppm 146.7 ppm
Average1 13.5 ppb 14.7 ppm 19.2 ppm
Standard Deviations4 16.5 13.7 18.4
Detection limit (DL) 0.3 ppb 0.3 ppm 0.3 ppm
Number: under DL 23 1 -
Number: Outliner 3 (155, 194, 422 ppb) 3 (183, 236, 261 ppm) 3 (178, 665, 945 ppm)
1
Calculated without duplicated samples and outliner
2
Calculated without outliner
Figure 2. Arsenic distribution in sediments, Ratchaburi province.
27
Figure 3. Arsenic distribution in soil, Ratchaburi province.
28
Figure 4. Elevated level of arsenic in Ratchaburi province.
REFERENCES:
GreenFacts, 2004: Scientific Facts on Arsenic, Level 2 Details,
accessed on 13 October 2007 at
http://www.greenfacts.org/en/arsenic/l-2 /arsenic-3.htm#0
WHO, 2001: Arsenic in Drinking Water, Fact Sheet No 210,
accessed on 13 October 2007 at
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/ fs210/en/
29
AUSTRALASIAN COMETARY IMPACT, 0.8MA(3) CATASTROLOESS BURIED

ALIVE MIOCENE(1), PLIOCENE(2) FAUNAS IN THAILAND AND CENTRAL
AUSTRALIA, AND TEKTITE-BEARING FLOOD DEPOSITS IN NE. THAILAND.
NEW WORLD’S DISCOVERY EXTINCTION AGE IN THAILAND
(INDOCHINA), AND AUSTRALIA IMPACT FIELDS(4)
Sangad Bunopas1, Paul Vella2, Clive Burrett4, Henry Fontaine1, Shigeki Hada3, Peter Haines4,
Somboon Khositanont1, Prathuang Chintasakul5, Pol Chaodamrong1, Punya Charusiri 6 and Kieren T. Howard4
1
2
Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand.
3
Geology Department., Research Institute for Higher Education, Kobe University,Japan
4
School of Earth Science & Centre for Mineral Deposit Research, University of Tasmania, Tasmania 7001, Australia
5
Rajabhat Nakon Ratchasima University, Nakon Ratchasima, Thailand
6
Department of Geology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
ABSTRACT
An impact model for tektites origin previously developed by authors including Wasson and Heins in 1993 covered the
area from Hainan, Vietnam, Laos, northeastern Thailand and Kampuchea. Glass and colleagues made detail account
from the Indian and the South Pacific Oceans cores and on land Asia, and previously pointed out that the impact source
must be in Indochina. The impact originated Australasian Tektite Strewn-Field and it tektites were known since 1962
from Thailand. Tektite origin has been thought as some kinds of impact, but most scientists thought cometary impact
would impossible.
Impact materials (DCIMs) at the Mun river, Ban Tha Chang and Chum Phuang, encouraging the authors’ confident on
the cometary impact, not only in Indochina as previously thought but also in Australia and in Kazakhstan to south
Siberia that contains similar tektite materials of the same age. The Cometary Impact, is a bold theory to deal with the
iternary of the unknown Australasian Comet. Cometary impact is new for scientist to make believe until 1994, the
Shoemaker- Levi 9 comet impact the Jupiter, they started to decline, accepting it could be to the earth, in the past.
Australasian Comet entered the Earth gravitation field, top left of the Earth magnetic field and near to the atmosphere
with hypervelocity speed from North-Northwest direction at a low angle through the fields and Impact the Earth. The
most severe destruction to the livings on Earth, spread over East Asia and Australia and caused other mass extinction
(of ancient elephants and other Miocene fuanas), was now known as ~0.8Ma Australasia Cometary Impact.
In Thailand, at Ban Tha Chang, east and west of river Mun, common DCIMs are tektites, burnt logs, rooted, and fell
trees, complete skeleton of extinct Stegodon sp. In other catastroloess river bedded sands, research on geochemistry
indicate reversal polarity. The impact study at mount Darwin in Tasmania found it belonged to Australia Impact Field in
the completion for a study of the Australasia Tektite Strewn-Field. Apart from at Nakhon Ratchasima (Khorat) some
mortality killing sites were in the Western (Bo Ploi, Kamphaegphet, Tak, Lom Sak, and the Central Plain (Bangkok,
Prathum Thani) of Thailand. Fossils found are ancient elephant, Stegodon; Elephas maximas and their extinct ancient
forms; sudden buried ancient fishes; sudden buried mollusks, a million more and many large forest dicotyledonous trees.
In central Australia, surplus Miocene fossils (9 Ma) museum of Dr. Peter Murray since 1988 have been known and
collected from a shallow covered killing place in the not very distant central Australian desert (ABC, Sunday,
28/1/2007). The fossils must have had been buried in the catastroloess of the Australasian Cometary’s Impact. In
Thailand, similar to Australia, faunas and floras thought to be extinct since Miocene or Pliocene, in fact they still living
and became extinct ~0.8Ma. Accurate catastrophic time can be obtained from many radiometric dating of Australasian
tektites that also marked the Australasian Cometary Impact, and a reversal scale (late Lower Quaternary). This
Buntharik Astrogeological Event may mark terrestrial Q1/Q2.
Key Words: Indochina and Australia Tektites, spherules, Killing Fields, catastroloess; Miocene fossils, mass extinction
INTRODUCTION Australia hitherto ascertained new conventional geological

and astrogeological knowledge. This impact may be the
A bold new ~0.8 MA Cometary Impact Theory inspired by very good news for active paleontologists on new extinct
tektites exploring lightening the exceptional new age of fossils over the World.
exploration and research on many DCIMs in Thailand and Commercial sandpits in Amphoe Chalerm Phrakiat,
30
Nakhon Ratchasima, regarded by most specializes as Uprooted wealth forest trees and extensive forest fires, at
ordinary Cenozoic deposits with Tertiary fossils containing ~08 Ma Australasian Comet almost entered the Earth
lignite near bottom. Bunopas in 1997 found the same atmosphere from and North-Northwest direction at a low
sandpits at Ban Tha Chang were from old river containing angle. It impact the Earth in Kazakhstan to southern
all the DCIMs (destructed and constructed impact Siberia, Indochina (South China, and Vietnam, southern
materials) and were of World important. He did not Laos, Northeast Thailand and Kampuchea) but the Coma
hesitated to shout out that sands (catastroloess) were and parts of the comet still go on an made a suicide impact
products of a cometary impact pene-contemporaneously at Mt Darwin in Tasmania in a book on “Australian
transported to a river channel (Bunopas et al., 1998, 1999). Cometary Impact of the Buntharik Event in the Indochina
The possible example model was when some impact from Field in Thailand” by Bunopas and Colleague (Bunopas et
the Shoemaker, life, to the Jupiter by NASA in 1975, with al., in press for 2008), and earlier (Bunopas, 1990, 1992;
splashed fire and dust to very high in the atmosphere. Bunopas et al., 1997, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005),
Tektites were thought to be some kinds of an unbearable shock and continuous dreadful sound like hell
extraterrestrial impact yielding for these strange material and mass mortality, mass killing of all lives in “Global
(Barnes, 1963-1971, Barnes and Pitakpaivan, 1962; Fireworks of Tektites”, microtektites, spherules, etc.;
O’Keefe (1967-1987), and many others. Tektites, continental spread forest fires of ancient forests, and
microtektites and spherule (Glass, 1970-1990, and abundant uprooted, nearly all felled trees; dust and éjecta
colleagues in references, Glass divided 4 tektite fields, splashed up, from JK red-beds into Upper Stratosphere to
namely Australasian field {less than 0.8Ma, Ivory Coast much over 100 km, collecting radioactive agents; darken
tektite field (1.1 Ma), Czechoslovakian field tektites (13.7 the sky, temperature reduced sharply, introduced the
Ma, Gentner et al., 1967) and North American field tektites advancing and occurring unbelievable more 0.8 MA
(~34Ma, Zahringer, 1963). Glaciation than ever; Many ten thousand years fallen
Ford (1988) after explored around Thailand was found became ~3m “Catastroloess” as badlands all over; buried
splash tektites are rich in the Khorat Plateau especially all mass mortality and mass extinction of Miocene
around Khon Kaen and compared them a similarity with elephants, mammals, mollusks, trees etc., and that some
those from Australia. Wasson (1991) get the relation of were unrecorded, and recorded the extinction since late
climate during the Pleistocene glaciation matching with his Miocene; reversal paleomagnetic from BTC sandpits,
exploration and new age from Buntharik, in place, on pene-contemporaneous alluvial river sands, represent
layered tektites, similar to Muong Nong tektites bought to reverse magnetic “Buntharik Astrogeological Event”. The
the DMR (Barnes and Pitakpaivan, 1962). Wasson also impact not only extended some mammals and reptiles
given an impact model for tektite origin and found only Miocene extinction record to ~0.8Ma, but Pliocene fishes
small dubious crater in Ubon Ratchathani on the area from at Lomsak and famous marine Neogene mollusks at
south China to Kampuchea, and he suggest a comet rather Prathum Thani and Bangkok. A mass killing site and huge
than meteor(s) or asteroid (s). collection of Miocene animals in Australia (ABC, 28/1/07)
At ~08 Ma Australasian Comet entered the Earth was expected to be buried in the catastroloess of this
gravity field and near the Earth atmosphere from and Australasian Cometary Impact of the Buntharik Event (in
North-Northwest direction at a low angle and Impact the brief).
Earth in Indochina (south China, and Vietnam, southern The Buntharik Astrogeological Event recorded for ~0.8 Ma
Laos, Northeast Thailand and Kampuchea but the Coma Cometary Impact at a calculated low angle from some
still go on an made a suicide impact at Mt Darwin in North-North-West, started the Indochina impact then
Tasmania in a book on Australian Cometary Impact of the traveled with the coma and ended at Mt Darwin in
Buntharik Event in the Indochina Field in Thailand by Tasmania.
Bunopas and Colleague (Bunopas et al., in press for 2007),
and earlier (Bunopas, 1990, 1992; Bunopas et al., 1997, TYPE STUDY AREAS OF COMETARY’S
1999a, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005). Guide by known IMPACT THEORY
distribution of layered tektites around Buntharik in Ubon
Ratchathani, Splashed fragments of layered tektites as far The type areas where the cometary’s impact has been in
as Buriram, mixed with splash tektite to Nakhon mind since Barnes, V.E. and Pitakpaivan, K. (1962)
Ratchasima (or Khorat), then only splash tektites to Khon discovery 12.5Kg tektite with layering in it, while small
Kaen and further west. A this time only the impact model ones in most upper parts of Thailand are much smaller to
for tektites origin developed by Wasson (1991) in the area over 100 gm and contain numerous pores, or streak sent to
from Hainan, Vietnam, Laos, northeastern Thailand and the Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) by local
Kampuchea, and suggesting a comet impact. The theory office. Tektites look much differ from seldom meteorite
developed after uncountable investigation and outstanding that is dull and rocky like. The must have different in
research works on tektites and microspherules of Glass, origin and tektites must have melting condition (Bunopas,
author of Introduction to Planetary Physics (Glass, 1982) 1990, 1992) from a catastrophic event. After exploration
and colleagues since 1970 or earlier, and more during 80th on tektite over all upper Thailand (Ford, 1888) and for
and 90th from materials on lands around the meridian from crater and layered tektites (Wasson, 1990, 1991; Wasson et
north America, Europe, north Africa and Asia and cores al., 1994; Fiské et al., (1996), and Xu et al., (1989) had a
under the seas and oceans from Gulf of Mexico, Indian extensive meeting in China, we still could not find any
ocean and West Pacific Ocean, and made the key facts and evident of a cometary’s impact theory. Until we visited the
references (Glass, 1990). sands quarry at Ban Tha Chang, Nakon Ratchasima, in
31
1997 (Bunopas et al., 1999). Others later known are into the atmosphere, fallen down and form layered beds,
Chumphuang, Koksoong, Sa-Auog, Bo Poi, and some hung up in the atmosphere for many thousand
Kampaengphet, Lomsak, Bangkok-Prathum Thani (Fig. years, probably >100,000). Tektites are melted impact
10AB) in regions mentioned earlier. terrestrial rocks, the process was immediately solidified
In central Australia, surplus Miocene fossils (9 Ma) and some splashed to solidify in the atmosphere. Tektites
museum of Dr. Peter Murray since 1988 have been known could not be artificial made, so far.
and collected from a shallow killing place in the not very The extraterrestrial bodies (comet) that brought in
distant desert (ABC, Sunday, 28/1/2007), The fossils (fig. radioactive from far outer space including Ir. They usually
8, 9AB) must had been buried in the catastroloess of the started the boundary clay that formed a layer immediately
Australasian Cometary’s Impact. The catastroloess can be ahead of extraterrestrial body or bodies in case known
tested by RAM (see in side). from the K/T boundary.
In the catastroloess, or unmelted éjecta minute fractions
BAN THA CHANG ANCIENT ALLUVIAL contain microtektites, microglasses, PDF’s of microglasses
RIVER SANDS, SUMMARY OF HOWARD, or minute quartz crystals, usually known as spherules.
These 3 categories are not expected in normal terrestrial
1999; HOWARD ET AL., 2000, 2003) origin loess. We call RAM for the test, from a laboratory
with modern equipments for such scarce elements. Only
The deposits at Ban Tha Chang and Chumpuang were RAM in loess, though many DCMs are known in places
likely formed over a short period of time by a series of but deficit in others, is quite insufficient to indicate the
flood pulses. Based on the paleomagnetic evidence, these catastroloess.
floods occurred within 0.0 12 to 0.165 million years of the At the Tasmania University, Inductively Coupled Plasma
0.8 million-year Australasian tektite producing impact Mass Spectometer (ICP-MS) and Instrumental Neutron
event. The unusual abundance of logs in the sand and Activation Analysis (INAA) are used for the BTC sands.
gravel facies indicates significant deforestation prior to The followings described RAM (Fig. 1).
flooding. Attempts to explain the deforestation as caused
by fire and one or several other normal mechanisms,
including landslides and hurricanes, are complicated by
both the scale of the deposits and the hiatus between the
deforestation and the floods. This hiatus is indicated by
insect burrows on the deposited logs. A mechanism of
storing felled trees on the flood plain is required, since
hurricanes and large landslides are usually associated with
floods that would be expected to rapidly deposit the trees.
The incompletely burnt logs, twigs, and wood fragments
are unlike those found after normal wildfires. The whole
charcoal logs formed under atypical conditions of reduced
oxygen, probably in debris piles on the ground after
deforestation. Other burning vegetation was extinguished
by the loss of oxygen and shows only partial scorching.
These assemblages of logs and the conditions under which
the felled trees were burnt appear consistent with the
expected products of the interplay between the blast and Figure 1. Rare-earth-element patterns in layered tektites from
thermal effects of large explosions on forests. Given the Southeast Asia and in splash-form tektites from Australia are
unresolvable. The tektite patterns are similar to those in post-
temporal and spatial association with the deposits the 0.8
Archean continental sediments such as the Cody, Wyoming
million years Australasian tektites producing impact event shale and the Luochuan loess from northern China.
is the most likely candidate. Continental sediments were the target materials
Locating and dating similar deposits in the region will melted to form tektites. (From Wasson, 1991).
define the extent of the deforestation and may also define
conclusively the nature of the disturbance mechanism. ATMOSPHERIC SETTING VELOCITY
CATASTROLOESS The only exception occurs on the Danang plateau with a
sand component of 11.46 per cent. The clay content varies
Catastroloess is as seen now were un-melted dusty sands from 31.56 to 33.56 per cent. Veerasak Udomchoke (1989)
from impact. Catastrophic loess or the first known describes up to 70 per cent sand and 30 per cent silt and
catastroloess that can be differentiated from normal clay in the “yellow” loess of the Khon Kaen area in
European loess has become the principle on the basic northeastern Thailand. Nutalaya et al. (1987) report that
fundamental living of mankind in Thailand and the “so called sand sheet deposits near Khon Kaen show
neighbourings in agriculture, buildings and roads etc., and characteristics of loess”. We find this reworked surficial
are the most illustrating materials on the existence of the catastroloess, and some were called wind-blown sands.
impact. All DCIMs in Thailand, are covered by these New analyses of samples taken during the IGCP 296
materials. meeting in the area (October 1990) in Mukdaharn Province
Catastroloess is the impact product from continental of northeastern Thailand, which were analysed in the
sediments and gravel beds as unmelted ejecta blown up laboratories of the Geological Survey in Bratislava and
32
Prague, Czechoslovakia (Minariková, pers. com.) contain (PDF’s) and cored grains that are indicative of impact
about 60 per cent sand, 10 to 15 per cent silt and 25 per induced shock metamorphism (Fig. 3). These PDF’s are
cent clay (Fig. 2). Graphic parameters (according to Folk generally spaced at less than 10µm intervals and represent
and Ward, 1957) indicate the following values: mean size the lower end of impact induced shock pressures that range
Mz varies from 5.33 to 5.48 (e.g. 0.22-0.24 mm), inclusive from around 10 to greater than 30 GPa.
graphic standard deviation 3.08 reflecting a very weakly Microspherules (typically l00µm) glasses in sands at Ban
sorted material, with graphic skewness around 0.60 Tha Chang and also Ratchaburi (west Thailand) are shown
showing a very positive asymmetry and graphic kurtosis to be of impact origin on the basis of their compositions
Ko that varies from 0.47 to 0.71, corresponding to a very and morphologies. These glasses are typically sub-
platykurtic distribution. The median Md oscillates between spherical to more irregular in form, to rarely teardrop
3.60 and 3.87 (0.07 to 0.08 mm) and is thus substantially shaped
coarser than the mean size Mz.
Figure 2. Comparison grain size of loessic sediments on the

Khorat Plateau Thailand (curve 1-3) with typical loess curve
from Central European loesses (4) (from Sibrava, 1993).
Figure 3. Glass, PDF in glass and quartz grain. (Howard, 1999).
END PRODUCT IN THE IMPACT FIELD,
CATASTROLOESS (UNMELTED EJECTA) FLOOD DEPOSITS
IN CHINA AND HIMALAYAN PENECONTEMPORANEOUS WITH ~0.8
MA TEKTITES FALL IN NE THAILAND:
Field evidence in the Khorat Plateau which contains IMPACT-INDUCED ENVIRONMENTAL
catastrophic loess with more powerful middle size fraction EFFECTS?
different property from European loess (Fig. 2), such
loesses are common in Australasia also even in Gobi in Another year latter Haines et al. (2004) re-explored and
China, and north China including the Luachuan Loess with further researched at Ban Tha Chang sanpits newly
common spherules (Wasson and Heins, 1993; Sulyapongse opened, adjacent to Pit 2 explored by Howard (1999);
and Pitakpaivan, 1999). The most important fact are they Howard et al., 2002) many years, and was closed by recent
buried tektites and other DCMs from the impact in worst flooding.
Thailand indicating they were immediately syn- and Although a crater is not yet identified, the Australasian
mainly post-tektites in origin in the same event. Thus they tektite strewn field provides evidence that a major impact
cannot be the impact rocks, but the un-melted ejecta layer cratering event took place in the Southeast Asian region at
from the impact rocks which were soils, gravels and ~ 0.8 Ma, just prior to the Brunhes/Matuyama geomagnetic
chiefly underlying Jurassic-Cretaceous redbeds in the polarity reversal (Haines et al., 2004). Paleomagnetic
Indochina impact field, especially at Buntharik a a evidence including reversed polarity in mud lens closely
suspected impact crater. associated with in situ tektites suggests that tektitebearing
flood deposits near Ban Ta Chang and Chum Phuang in
MICROSPHERULES, MICROTEKTITES, northeast Thailand are penecontemporaneous with the
MICROGLASSES, DPF OF impact event. The deposits include abundant organic
MICROGLASSEES OR QUARTZ debris, including whole tree trunks and mammal bones that
CRYSTALS, SHOCKED QUARTZ, preserved due to reducing conditions, which are also
responsible for the presence of abundant iron sulphides.
COESITE. Sedimentological observations suggest a series of major
flood events that are out of character with the modern
Appropriate target lithologies from which to form Quartz meandering river system to which they are related. The
grains in sands at Ban Tha Chang contain planar fractures deposits are consistent with the effects of regional
and, more importantly, planar deformation features deforestation, increased run off and erosion and other
33
environmental disruptions expected in the aftermath of a established at close to 0.8 Ma using 40Ar/39Ar dating
major impact event (Fig. 4). methods (Wang et al., 2003; Kunz et a., 1995; Yamei et al.,
2000). This age is independently corroborated by the
stratigraphic position of the deep-sea microtektite horizon,
which lies just below the Brunhes/Matuyama geomagnetic
polarity reversal (Lee and Wei, 2000; Schneider et al.,
1992) dated at ~ 0.78 Ma (Cande and Kent, 1995). It has
been variously calculated and the event occur 12-15 ka
(Ford, 1988) and 13-16.5ka (Lee and Wei, 2000) before the
reversal based on sedimentation rate estimates derived
from the thickness of sediment between the upper
Jaramillo boundary.and the Brunhes/Matuyama boundary
in several cores. On land, Australasian tektites are typically
found either lying on the modern land surface, or
embedded in sediments and soil that may be considerably
younger than their radiometric age. This so-called ‘tektite
Figure 4 Department of Mineral Resources 12.8 kg, official age paradox’ is explained by the fact that tektites are very
largest layered tektite from Ubon. It was contributed by resistant objects that can be reworked through multiple
Mr. Kaset Pitakpaivan. cycles of surficial processes (Shoemaker and Uhlherr,
1999; Koeberl and Glass, 2000). Thus, tektites by
Tektites are natural glass objects produced by the melting themselves only provide a oldest age limit for the deposits
of crustal material during large impact cratering events, in which they occur, and claims of tektites embedded in
and found in strewn fields generally distant from the sediments dating from the time of fall (e.g. Yamei et al.,
impact site (Glass, 1990; Koeberl, 1994). Australasian 200) have been widely criticized for lacking independent
tektites comprise the youngest and one of the largest age constraints (e.g. Koeberl and Glass, 2000). Previous
strewn fields. extending on land from southern China to authors (e.g. Howard et al., 2000) have suggested that
Australia, and are also represented by a microtektite some ancient flood deposits in Thailand may be related to
horizon in deep-sea cores from portions of the Indian, the ~ 0.8 Ma impact event, but poor age constraints made
Southern and Pacific Oceans, and seas around Southeast the claims speculative. Here we confirm the presence of in
Asia (Glass and Wu, 1993; Glass and Pizzuto, 1994; Glass, situ Australasian tektites within these deposits and use
Abstract no. 1092). At some ocean drilling sites near paleomagnetic and other evidence to provide independent
Southeast Asia, the microtektite horizon also contains minimum-age constraints.
coesite and shocked mineral grains further confirming an
impact cratering origin (Glass and Wu, 1993; Glass,
TEKTITE-BEARING FLOOD DEPOSITS
Abstract no. 1092). The source crater has not yet been
found, but many independent lines of evidence indicate
Tektite-bearing alluvial gravel and sand deposits are
that it is most likely situated on continental crust in or near
exposed in quarries excavated for construction materials
Southeast Asia or adjacent continental shelves (Glass,
near the village of Ban Tha Chang (15.018°N; 102.280°E)
1990; Koeberl, 1994; Glass and Wu, 1993; Glass and
and the town of Chum Phuang (l5.350°N; 102.745°E) in
Pizzuto, 1994; Glass, Abstract no. 1092; Ford, 1988;
NE Thailand (Howard et al., 2000; Howard et al., 2003
Schnetzler, 1992). Layered or Muong Nong-type tektites,
(Fig. 4). These locations are 61 km apart, but both sites are
generally considered to be of more proximal character than
situated close to the modern Mun River, and we consider
other types, are largely restricted to mainland Southeast
that the sediments are related to deposition within the
Asia and southern China (Koeberl, 1993; Ford, 1988;
ancestral Mun River system.
Schnetzler, 1992). Fiske et al. (1999) recognized a smaller
layered-only sub-field covering part of northeast Thailand,
Laos and western Vietnam. Spatial trends in microtektite TEKTITES IN THE OLD ALLUVIAL
abundance have been used to calculate crater diameter SANDS
estimates of 32- 114 km (Glass and Pizzuto, 1994), 90-116
km (Lee and Wu, 2000), and ~ 40 km (Glass, Abstract no. Several previous workers have reported tektites in the
1092). Whatever the case, impact craters in these size sand quarries at Ban Tha Chang (Charusiri et al., 2002;
ranges will have widespread environmental effects (Toon Sato, 2002). They indicate that tektites are often recovered
et al., 1997; Kring, 2003), and the national record of after water cannon operations, but such material is out of
Southeast Asia. There is, however, no strong evidence for stratigraphic context. We searched all measured
associated global climate change or mass extinction, for stratigraphic sections and adjacent exposures for tektites
example, High - resolution stable isotope data from deep- and were successful in locating four tektites in situ; one
sea cores (Wang et al., 2003) show no fluctuations beyond from unit A and two from unit B at Ban Tha Chang, and
background levels at this time. one from unit A at Chum Phuang (Figs. 5, 6). The
specimens from unit A have sharp broken edges and no
THE RADIOMETRIC AGE OF signs of fluvialabrasion (Fig. 6), while both from unit B
have clearly been abraded by prolonged fluvial action
AUSTRALASIAN TEKTITES
(Fig. 6). In the former, the sharp delicate broken edges
show evidence of light chemical etching indicating that
The radiometric age of Australasian tektites is well
34
breakage preceded burial and is not of modern origin. such as slumping, bioturbation or paleosol development.
Thin polished slices from the two tektites collected in unit Analyses were undertaken in the paleomagnetic
A (BTC1, CP1) were analyzed for major oxides using an laboratory at Hong Kong University (for analytical
electron-microprobe at the University of Tasmania. methods, see EPSL Online Background Dataset).
Averaged spot analyses give compositions closely Individual sub-samples of each layer produced acceptably
comparably to average indochinites. consistent results. Two layers (KH4, GW1), one each
from Ban Tha Chang and Chum Phuang, displayed a clear
reversed polaritysignal, while the others displayed either
normal or indeterminate polarity (Fig. 7). During
demagnetization, the reversed layers consistently revealed
a hard and stable remanence. In contrast, the normal
polarity intervals typically provided poor andsomewhat
erratic data carried by low-coercivity minerals. During the
high demagnetization field steps, one sample of normally
magnetized layer KH2 provided evidence that a high-
coercivity reverse polarity component may be present.
Figure 5 Field photograph of upper unit A exposed in a quarry

face near Chum Phuang. Figure (circled at left) gives scale and
stands at the position of a magnetically reversed mud lens
(GWI) just above a major log horizon. Tektite CPI was collected
from this stratigraphic level on the opposite side of the quarry.
(From Haines et al., 2004)
Figure 6 Australasian tektites collected in situ within sand and

gravel quarries. Scale bars = I cm. A. Fragment of large un-
Figure 7 Measured sections from sand quarries showing the
abraded splash.form tektite from unit A, Section I, Ban Tha position of paleomagnetic samples and collected tektites. The
Chang (BTCI). Center of tektite contains the relic of a large (-
polarity of magnetic remanence is indicated for each sample;
100 cm2) bubble. B. Broken un-abraded splash-form tektite samples with indeterminate polarity indicated by “1”. Measured
from unit A, Chum Phuang (CPI). C. Abraded layered tektite
sections were terminated at the top when material disturbed by
fragment from unit B, Section 2, Ban Tha Chang (BTC2). D.
mining was encountered. (From Haines et al., 2004).
Abraded splash-form tektite from the base of unit B, Ban Tha
Chang (BTC3). (From Haines et al., 2004).
Whatever the case, the mud layers that do show reversed
polarity must have experienced a reversed field at some
PALEOMAGNETIC STUDIES OF SAND
stage in their history and the close stratigraphic association
SECTION FROM THE PIT of an in situ tektite with one of these layers near the top of
unit A strongly suggests that at least part (and possibly all)
Paleomagnetic studies were carried out on oriented mud of unit A predates the start of the Bruhnes normal polarity
samples collected from unit A along three measured field state (i.e. pre-dates 0.78 Ma). If this is correct, then
quarry sections; two at Ban Tha Chang and one at A. the age of at least part of unit A can be constrained to the ~
Chum Phuang, east Khorat. 12- 16.5 ky interval between the impact event and the
After an extensive search of the sections, the sampled Brunhes-Matuyama reversal, and potentially could have
muds were carefully selected, being clay-rich and highly been much closer in time to the impact event.
cohesive (to survive spinning in the magnetometer) and
lacking any evidence of post depositional disturbance
35
Conclusions of Haines et al., 2004
Sedimentological characteristics suggest that unit A, and

its entrained organic debris, was deposited rapidly by high
magnitude floods. Combining paleomagnetic evidence
with the presence of tektites leads to the conclusion that
some or all of unit A was most likely deposited very soon
after the ~ 0.8 Ma tektite producing impact event in
Southeast Asia. As such, flooding may have been a direct
result of increased runoff following catastrophic
deforestation, as can be predicted for any large impact
event on or near land. Evidence for increased magnitude
floods after impact-induced deforestation has not
previously been reported in the literature.
Destructive and Constructive of Impact Materials (Dcims) Figure 9 Killing site in central Australia, with fossil bones in
In The Killing Sites, Most Extinct Included Those That catastroloess (dusty sands)
Have Been Regarded Miocene or Pliocene (Fig. 8)
Figure 8 Buried petrified burnt tree in the contemporaneous

mudflows and avalanches with gravels at south Korat at a
terrace at Ban Krok Duen Ha, near Museum. A splashed
tektite specimen was found embedded in the mudflow covering
the tree. The terrace gravels surround the tree and the area.
Impact surface were Pleistocene gravels.
Those were forest trees, were forest felled trees, mollusks

many uprooted and burnt. Miocene extinction of ancient
elephants, fishes. DMR investigated a fauna site
discovered by locals on the bank of River Mun at Ban Non
Sung, Khorat. The fossil assemblages collected from Ban
Khok Sung, Muang District, Nakhon Ratchasima are
abundant and diverse, consisting of Stegodon
(Stegodontidae), Babalus babalis (Bovidae), Axis Axis
Figure 10 A mammal bone; classified mammals bones in Dr
(Cervidae), Crocuta crocuta (Hyaenidae), Gavialis
Peter Murray Museum in central Australia, since 1988. ABC
gangeticus, turtles, fishes, plants, and abundant seeds. (28/1/2007) guided to his Local Museum of Miocene fossil
Most of which are complete specimens comprising parts of collection in central Australia, buried in sands in the desert.
skull, jaw, teeth, bone, antler, studied by Dr. Yaowalux
Chaimani and colleague, some are illustrated. body fell into the ocean and CO2 abruptly increased in the
Figure 9 indicates killing site in Australia and Miocene atmosphere as a result of the decay of a large number of
fossils (9 Ma) of known since 1988 by Dr. Peter Murray in dead plants and wildfire, both of which led to the
central Australia. A surplus Miocene fossils (9 Ma) greenhouse effect. Toon et al. (1981) considered that the
museum of Dr. Peter Murray since 1988 shows in figure 10. environment was cooled down during the earliest stage
after the occurrence of the catastrophic event by the dust
The Possible Killing Mechanisms and Other Factors in the atmosphere, and then became warm.
Involved May Be Summarized as Follows: iii) Poisoning by noxious chemicals (Hsü, 1980; Hsű et
al., 1981) killed many organisms, as a result of comets
i) A dust cloud caused by a large body impact may have falling into the ocean.
blocked off the sunlight, thus suppressing photosynthesis; iv) Suffocation occurred owing to the increase in CO2 in
the organisms finally died from a destroyed food chain atmosphere.
(Alvarez et al., 1979, 1980). v) There was an increase in cosmic radiation.
ii) Thermal stress occurred due to increased water vapour In addition to the above-mentioned almost
(Emiliani, 1980, 1981), especially if the large impact
36
contemporaneous factors, the disturbance of atmosphere,
the variation of pH and Eh in the world oceans, wildfire
and fireball could also occur during the interval between
boundary catastrophic events.
Xu et al., 1989 hold that the patterns and nature of mass
extinction vary at various stratigraphic boundaries. In
general, the disturbances caused by oscillations of the
Solar System through giant molecular clouds along the
galactic planes and spiral arms, and the possible
disturbance of the Oort cloud by a distant companion star
of the Sun could change the paleogeophysical fields and
the geodynamic state of the paleolithosphere of the Earth,
and also produce comet showers and periodic clustered
impacts on Earth. These multi-causal processes would
accelerate global tectonic motions, affect the sensitive
ecosystems and trigger off the stepwise mass extinctions.
Ultimately, the occurrence of a large body impact would
surely strike a severe blow to the vulnerable bio-
communities and wind up that chapter of the Earth’s
evolution. In addition to the evidence mentioned above,
paleogeomagnetic data are also of significance in causes
of the boundary catastrophic event. It is worth noting that
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary event corresponds with
the 29R which is established on the ocean floor and the Figure 11 Areas of, and mollusks near to the bottom of loessic
Lower Pleistocene-Middle Pleistocene boundary event soil of paddy field, at depth 3 m near Wat Suwan Pradit,
Prathum Thani, not far from Wat Jedi Hoi.
matches the change from the Matsuyama Magnetic
Reversal Stage to the Brunhes Magnetic Normal Stage.
The widespread wildfires lighted-up the areas and turned to
the most spectacular fireworks on earth (see above)
followed by continental wide forest fires. Quaternary
sudden global mass extinction of genera of Mastodon
genus, Zygolophodon (Sinomastodon) sp., and Stegodon
genus, Stegolophodon (Eostegodon) sp., and
?Deinotherium, and were buried in fine to medium flooded
sands in a few sandpits or sand mines at Ban Tha Chang in
east Khorat in the Northeast.
THE QUATERNARY FOSSIL MOLLUSCS

OF THAILAND
The Quaternary fossil molluscs were collected in the Figure 12 Fishes identified by Roberts and Jumnongthai, (1999).
Bangkok-Pathum Thani area and are all of Holocene age.
So far 80 mollusc species have been recorded by us. In the sulfides. Uprooted tree trunks up to 2 metres in diameter
Senanivate quarry At Wat Hoi (Fig. 11).Some following are often shattered, branchless, snapped, and burnt to the
photos of abundant Miocene spcies of Mollusks buried in core. Their presence in deposits throughout Thailand is
the ~0.8 Ma catastroloessic sands, from recent evidence of widespread burning. These suggested
exclavations, and degrading of lands of Wat Chedi Hoy, extensive wild-forest-fire which were reported bunt trees
and wat Bua Suwanpradit Prathum Thani adjaent to north or woods the whole of Southeast Asia.
of Bangkok were kind courtesy taken by Khun Watana 2) Ancient animals such as Mastodon, ancient species of
Tanstein, DMR. Some mollusks were identified by Piccoli today elephant, turtle, crocodiles and etc. all complete
et al. (1984). Figure 12 denotes catastroloess fallen and bodies suggesting a mass extinction event.
filled the lake, and killed all fishes while Swimming at Ban 3) Tektites rare splashed tektites from the pits but many
Bo Pla, Lom Sak, layered tektites in Ubon, 33 km east.
4) Microtektites, glasses, impact quartz and impact glasses
TEKTITES, MICROTEKTITES, etc.,
MICROGLASSES, MICOCRYSTALS, 5) Impact crater in Buntharik though it is still dubious.
MICROFRACTURE 6) Isotopic elements from INAA, ICP-MS measurements
in tektites from Thailand, China and recent study from Ban
In a brief conclusion we outline 7 obvious DCIMs from the Tha Chang sands.
impact as the followings: 7) Catastrophic sands represent debris and éjecta that
1) Nunerous extensive bunt felled trees, all root up and formed widespread sheet enclosed other DCIMs. This
most are petrified, lower levels contain abundant soot and name is proposed “Catastroloess”, for this impact sands
37
washed and catastrophic flooded as sands at Ban Tha mm would further limit the trajectory to a velocity on the
Chang (Howard, 1999) order of’ 7 km/s and an entry angle of only a few degrees
- a very shallow trajectory that would not produce any
TEKTITES IN AUSTRALIA ring waves. If the Indian Ocean tektites primary shape
was a slightly oblate spheroid, γs would be somewhat less,
New thought on tektites in Australia and the entry angle could be up to 5° or 10°. In either
case, the trajectory of the Indian Ocean tektite, assuming
The Australasia Tektite Strewn Field (Ford, 1988; Glass, it came from Southeast Asia, must have been shallow.
1990; Glass and Pizzutto, 1994; Wasson, 1991; Wasson et Such a trajectory would encounter sufficiently low
al., 1995) may had impact into 3 impact fields, on the stagnation-point pressure at termination of’ ablation to be
evident of tektites, in Kazakhstan (to southern Siberia), in compatible with the observed absence of ring waves and
Indochina and in Australia-Tasmania fields. After would also produce the deduced amount of ablation
thorough field works on tektites, examined tektite (Glass et al., 1996).
expedition from Vietnam (Izokh and An, 1988) and
tektites from southeast China and Hainan, it was found MT. DARWIN EXPEDITION AND
that that Muong Nong type tektite or layered tektite are RESEARCH IN TASMANIA
characteristic in the Indochina field. On the other hand
tektites in SE Australia-Tasmania exhibited more Howard (2005) studied geochemically and
temperature towards Darwin glass (Fig. 13), an impactite stratigraphically then summarized ancient flood sands at
glass scattered asymmetrically about Darwin crater, Ban Tha Chang (Howard, 1999, Howard et al., 2003) as
Tasmania (Fudali and Ford, 1979), possibly from the in that event of a great destructive catasthophic impact
coma part and ended the long journey landing of that transported immediately into river Mun (and other river in
unnamed comet to the Earth. Indochina and south east China –the writers).
Haines et al., (2004) immediately in the later year worked
downstream (northwards) to Chum Phuang found
reversed polarizing and intact nicely indicated fallen
while sedimentation of ancient flooded sands. In the same
year Howard started to make Mount Darwin expedition
(Howard, 2005).
Central Australia killing Field was an independent
research of Dr. Peter Murray since 1988, on the supported
of Australia State Geological Survey. This work was
being known to writers from ABC’s Catalyst of the
Australia Network TV on 28/1/2007 morning.
Darwin glass is an impact glass found in a strewn field
near Mt Darwin, western Tasmania, Australia. It has been
dated at 816 ± 7 ka by Ar-Ar methods. A 1.2 km circular
Figure 13. Darwin Glass (left) and Muong Nong tektite depression, named Darwin Crater (42˚18.39’S,
(right)showing the similarity of the coarse twisted flow 145˚39.41’E), has previously been suggested as the source
structure and vesicles in Univ. of Tasmania (Ford, 1988). crater for the glass. The structure sits in a remote valley in
SiluroDevonian (Eldon Group) quartzite and slate. Earlier
Other glasses that have been linked with tektites include geophysical investigations demonstrated that the structure
Darwin glass, Irghizites and Libyan desert glass. Darwin is an almost circular sediment-filled basin. The origin of
glass is found in Tasmania. It has a similar age to the this structure and its relationship to Darwin glass has long
Australasian tektites, but compositionally is unlike the been a subject of controversy.
latter. Darwin glass may be associated with a small The chemistry of the black Group 2 glass is also explained
nearby crater (Fudali and Ford, 1979). Irghizites are found as a mixture of quartzite and pelite due to the splash form
in the Zhamanshin impact structure in southern Siberia. shapes are formed by surface tension during aerial
They have compositions and ages similar to the transport. Increasing the distance of melt ejection will
Australasian tektites, but many are composite forms promote development of such shapes, and this is in turn
consisting of numerous droplets welded together. Libyan consistent with the preference for splash form shapes to be
Desert glass refers to silica-rich glass bodies found in the black. The expected lower viscosity of the black melt
Egyptian desert (Weeks et al., 1984). They have (based on SiO2 content) is also interpreted to have
sometimes been linked with tektites, but they do not have promoted the development of splashform shapes. Deriving
the typical splash shapes and they are composed primarily of black glass from the upper-most target rocks, close to
of silica (> 97%). the target-projectile interface, also aids in explaining the
Glass et al, 1996 considered ablated tektites from the evidence for preferential projectile contamination of some
central Indian Ocean were the australites from Port black Group 2 glass specimens. A vapour phase transfer
Campbell and Serpentine Lakes considering from ablation of projectile materials into the silicate melt may explain
and trajectory of these button tektites. the apparent transition metal/HSE paradox.
If the origin was somewhere in Southeast Asia, a surface The wide distribution and anomalously high abundance of
arc distance of -35° to 40° from the Indian Ocean tektite glass in the strewn field is explained as relating to ground
site, then the ballistic equations coupled with γs, 6.9 to 7.9
38
water infiltration of the target rocks along fractures and from Tasmania are rarely greater than 10 mm in diameter;
faults prior to impact. Surface swamps are interpreted to the largest from Hampton Station, Kalgoorlie, WA
have been present in the study area throughout the (Cleverly 1986), where approximately 22 000 were
Pleistocene, and thus were a likely feature of the pre- collected, was about 35 mm; and a large Muong Nong
impact environment. The abundance of water would have Tektite (lodged at the Department of Mineral Resources,
produced a highly volatile-charged target stratigraphy. Bangkok, Thailand) has a diameter of about 0.3 m and
This volatile enhancement is interpreted to have increased weighs several kilograms.
the explosiveness of the impact, and the efficiency of melt A model for the Australasian tektite field must
dispersal and ejection. incorporate explanations for Muong Nong types, discs,
dumb-bells, spheres, tear-drops and australite buttons. An
THE AUSTRALASIA TEKTITE- STREWN empirical model for the Australasian tektite field of
FIELDS WERE CONVINCED FROM LOW Ramsay J. Ford (1988) explains this distribution.
The Australasian strewn-field contains a radial sequence
ANGLE COMET PROJECTILE, AND of tektite shapes ranging from unmodified impactite
WITH NEW KNOWN 3 IMPACT FIELDS (Muong Nong type), through dumb-bells and discs
(thailandites, indochinites), and spheres (phillipinites,
Since the first scientific description of an Australasian billitonites, and javanites) to ablated button shapes
tektite by Charles Darwin (1844), there has been (australites). This sequence extends from a suspected
considerable speculation on their origin. The argument was impact area in northeast Kampuchea following an
initially clouded by the fortuitous occurrence of moldavites approximate southeasterly bearing to southeastern
in Europe and glass at Mt Darwin, Tasmania, along Australia and Tasmania.
approximately the same great circle, leading David et al. On the basis of chemical composition, Muong Nong
(1927) to propose an extra-terrestrial source to account for tektites belong to the Australasian tektite field but have
this distribution. This led ultimately to the appellation of many features apparently foreign to other members of the
‘glassy meteorites’ for tektites and speculation on a group. They were first recognized by Lacroix (1935) and
possible lunar source. are characterized by extreme irregularity of shape and size
However, with the availability of analytical data and ages (up to several kilograms) with no apparent aerodynamic
for lunar rocks, no good case could be made for a lunar modifications, as well as having coarse flow structures
source; indeed, as pointed out by Urey (1971) and King and flutings, numerous lateritic inclusions (probably
(1977) a terrestrial source had already been well- incorporated by impact of soft glass on a lateritic
established by Schwarcz (1962), Taylor (1969) and Taylor substrate) and containing relatively coarse remnant
and Kaye (1969). vesicles similar to a medium vesicular basalt. Muong
The correlation of tektites with source craters (Faul, 1966) Nong tektites have surface features like Darwin glass
- e.g. Ivory Coast tektites with Lake Bosumtwi (Schnetzler (Fig. 13), an impactite glass scattered asymmetrically
et al., 1966) -moldavites with the Ries crater (Storzer & about Darwin crater, Tasmania (Fudali & Ford, 1979).
Gentner 1970) and Irghzites with Zhamanshin crater
(Boüska et al., 1981), together with the presence of coesite AUSTRALIAN ~0.8MA COMETARY
(Walther, 1965; Glass et al., 1986), is good evidence for
IMPACT
terrestrial, impact origins of tektites.
The most likely mechanism that could produce a
Mistracking comet (name here, the Pleistocene
widespread shower of interplanetary debris is the deep-
Australasian Comet, the comet had gone forever at Mt
space disintegration of a comet and the subsequent
Darwin, was uncertain because of Nemensis or the Planet
collision of the fragments with the Earth (Wasson, 1991).
X theories – see Angier, 1985) that enter the Earth came on
Telescopic observations show that the probability is about
the west by heading very small angle (≥ 25˚) and after by
4% that a comet will fragment far from the Sun during a
gravitation it started somewhere like Kazakhstan field, then
single perihelion passage (Weissman, 1980). The
Indochina Field and at last on SE Australia-Tasmania with
mechanism that produces these fragmentation events is not
the coma of that unnamed comet ended at Mt. Darwin
understood, but, with rare exceptions, seems to be of
(Howard, 2005). On the slopes of Mount Darwin in
internal origin rather than produced by meteoroid impact
Tasmania there are bits of glass, resembling tektites, that
(Hughes, 1978). Such fragmentation events occur almost
may have been scattered over the ground by a small
anywhere in the inner solar system, pre- or postperihelion,
segment of the comic body that hit the ground. This could
far from or near to the Sun.
be something similar to great projectile bouncing that
The Australasian strewn-field, which is by far the largest
happened in Thailand in the Indochina impact field (Fig.
identified so far, is about 0.709 Ma old (Gentner et al.,
14, 15).
1969) and remarkable for the variety of tektite shapes
Here we (Bunopas et al., 2007; in press for 2008)
represented. The analytical data indicate a consistency in
concluded the Australasian Tektite Strewn Field was from
major components for all localities which, despite their
3 impact fields, the Kazakhstan (to southern Siberia), the
wide geographical distribution, suggest a common source.
Indochina and the Australia-Tasmania Impact Fields. The
Both Taylor (1969) and the present author have noted a
first field is only tentatively since the accessibility is
general increase in the specimen size from southern
negative, but the wide spreading of catastroloess in China
Australia, through Indonesia to South-East Asia in tektites
and the Himalayan areas with spherules (Li et al., 1992,
housed at the National Museum of Natural History,
Salyapongse and Pitakpaivan, 1999) made this field very
Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, USA. Tektites
39
likely, though we were aware that the loess in China was the surface may exceed 1800˚C and the fireballs of gas
very complicated. splashed up to the atmosphere may exceed 80 to 100 km.
This cometary impact took only a few days but the
٧ Enter direction duration of the effect may last several ten thousand years.
The Burirum and Indochina basalts generally may mark the
duration of the impact event or the Buntharik Event
(comparing with the astrological event mention by Xu et
al., 1989) was 0.8-0.65= 0.145 Myr. The accuracy of the
supposed event depend much of the accuracy on age dating
of the overlying basalt.
We notice that in the axial areas approximately from Ubon
Ratchathani - Srisaket to Nakhon Phanom to Moung Nong
to Danang and Hainan which were the direct impact areas,
no burnt trees were found excepting scarce burnt woods.
This perhaps temperature was too high and the burning
was too vigorously.
We may thus regard that in the impact areas we are likely
to find layered tektites, and seldom trees except burnt
woods, or charcoal, misunderstood for carbon dating, for
less than some ten thousands years, buried under
catastroloess.
CONCLUSION
We conclude the Australasian Cometay Impact at ~0.8Ma

LAST IMPACT (collision) that made the catastrophic destruction to one/third of the
World and revealed the truth of many destruction and
Figure 14 Indochina and Australia-Tasmania on the sphere,
with comet entered at low angle >25˚ from left ~330˚, (~NW),
construction impact materials.
and with coma impact Darwin Mt. in Tasmania. The impact started Global great shock waves, uprooted
ancient forest trees, unbearable shock and continuous
dreadful sound like hell and mass mortality, mass killing of
all lives in “Global Fireworks” of tektites, microtektites,
spherules, etc.; continental spread forest fires of Ancient
forests, and abundant uprooted, nearly all felled trees; dust
and éjecta splashed up, from JK red-beds into Upper
Stratosphere to near 100 km, collecting radioactive agents;
darken the sky, temperature reduced sharply, introduced
the advancing and occurring unbelievable more 0.8 Ma
Glaciation than ever; Many ten thousand years fallen
became ~3m Catastroloess as “Badlands” all over; buried
all mass mortality and Mass extinction of Miocene
elephants, mammals, mollusks, trees etc., and that some
were unrecorded, and recorded the extinction since late
Miocene; reversal paleomagnetic data from BTC sandpits,
pene-contemporaneous alluvial river sands, represent
reverse magnetic Buntharik Astrogeological Event.
The impact not only extended some mammals, and reptiles
Miocene extinction record to ~0.8Ma but fishes at Lomsak
and famous marine mollusks at Prathum Thani and
Figure 15. Low angle cometary impact from outer space Bangkok. A mass killing site and huge collection of
reached somewhere above Kazakhstan (to southern Siberia) and Miocene animals in Australia (ABC, 28/1/07) was
loosed the tail for the Kazakhstan Impact Field, and much in expected to be buried in the catastroloess of this
Indochina Impact Field, finally the coma part in Tasmania Australasian Cometary Impact of the Buntharik Event.
around the Mount Darwin. RAM, least DCIMs found from materials from the
Australasian ~ 0.8Ma Cometary Impact from Thailand, can
Member of comet when travels close to Earth and ready to be used to identify the catastroloess satisfactorily
land, impact the earth’s surface. The comet would reach anywhere, on top of western mountains of Thailand, on the
the surface from many hundreds of kilometer, travel with Himalayan plateau, even some Chinese loess at Gobi in
hypersonic speed velocity. Before or during reach the China, and north China including the Luachuan Loess with
ground it burst, or melted the ground (in Indochina were common spherules. Chinese Loess is complex mixing of
mainly Cretaceous red-beds) becoming bedded tektites, geological loess or activated by an extraterrestrial agent as
some fragmented were shooting to the air. Still unsolidified catastrophic loess from the impact of a comet. We
splashed to the atmosphere and solidified. Temperature at suspected and speculated that dinosaurs were buried in the
40
remnant of K/T catastroloess (red muddy sands) in the decade. The Australasian, Thai tektites are for the great
Gobi Desert. Dinosaurs seen and were hunting from lower length reviewed, and comparing with the known tektites
part of the muddy sands only. from older tektite strewn-fields, from publications of
The impact also the knowledge of the first presence of the outstanding contributors. Tektites gave the excellent dating
Malay-Thai Peninsula, the over 1000m uplifting and the and led to the hypothesis on the terrestrial impact from
more than the 2600m ‘Inthanon Epierogeny’ that reflect extraterrestrial object, especially comet(s) that produced
the last uplifting of the Himalayan to the present height, melted and un-melted impactites, projectiles and éjecta of
the uplifting of the Khorat Plateau, the diverted directions targets in one cratering event known now the catastroloess,
of major rivers, e.g., Mekong, Salawin, Yangtze etc., the the only real-time for half Global corretion.
Tanle Sap was deserted, before the impact. The mantle We thank and are apologized to Dr. Peter Murray for
plume in the Indochina before the impact and after the delivering his research without his permission, this was
impact causing Quaternary basaltic flows. The cause of the because we have made unsuccessful contact to him.
above tectonically changes must have had come principally
from the last juvenile of the Himalayan Extrusion, nearby REFERENCES
during late Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene sending late
Pliocene lignite to 1000m on the Western Ranges at Hod. Alvarez, W., 1986. Towards a theory of impact crises. EOS
Many paleontologists dated faunas and floras in this killing Trans. AGU, 67 (no. 35) 649, 653-655. 658.
sites as Miocene (9 Ma) or Pliocene (3 Ma), in spite of Angier, N. Reported by R. Burderi, B. and C.Gorman, 1985. Did
~0.8 Ma for the age of tektites mainly splash tektites from Comets Kill the Dinosaurs? Science Section, TIME, May,
1985, p. 50-61.
places and lately layered tektites from Buntharik, in Barnes, V.E. and Pitakpaivan, K. 1962: Origin of Indochinite
northeast Thailand (Wasson and Heins, 1993) given 770 ± tektites. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 48: p. 947-955
0.20 Ma, and never beyond 0.8 Ma in the Indian Ocean Brown, D. A., Campbell, K. S. W., and K. A. W. Crook. 1969.
(Glass, 1972, 1976, 1990), were accept for the Impact age. The Geologial of Australia and New Zealand. Pergamon
In central Australia, surplus Miocene fossils (9 Ma) Press, Sydney, London.
museum have been known and collected from a shallow Bunopas, S.; Wasson, J. T.; Vella, P.; Fontaine, H.; Hada, S.;
killing place in the not very distant desert. The fossils must Burrett, C.; Suphajanya, Th. and Kositanont, S. 1999a:
have had been buried in the catastroloess of the catastrophic loess, mass mortality and forest fires suggest
Australasian Cometary’s Impact. In Thailand, similar to that a Pleistocene cometary impact in Thailand caused the
Australasian tektite field. Journ. Geol. Soc. of Thailand,
Australia, faunas and floras thought to be extinct since 1999 (1): p. 1-17.
Miocene or Pliocene, in fact they still living and became Bunopas, S.; Wasson, J. T.; Vella, P.; Fontaine, H.; Hada, S.;
extinct ~0.8Ma. The question remains “World’s Burrett, C.; Suphajanya, Th. and Kositanont, S. 1999c:
stratigraphic dating Miocene (8Ma) and Pliocene (3Ma) Ancient analogs of burial alive extinction of the mastodons
faunal extinction, marked by last seen, were doubtfully in catastroloess in Thailand, and of the last dinosaurs (in
found buried in the World’s discovery Pleistocene eggs) in Gobi Desert: further on tektites. Symp. on Mineral,
(~0.8Ma) catastroloess (catastrophic loess) of the mass Energy and Water Resources of Thailand: Towards the year
killing from the Australasian Cometary Impact, in Thailand 2000, October 28-29 1999, Bangkok, Thailand: p. 168-177.
and Australia”. Bunopas, S.; Vella, P.; Fontaine, H.; Hada, S.; Burrett, C.;
Haines, P.; Kositanont, S. and K. T. Howard, 2001.
The theory of the cometary impact is not conformed to the Australasiian Tektites ans Catastrophic Products in Impact
Southeast Asia being the only centre of distribution of Ejecta Horizon from the Buntharik Events in Thailand. .
tektites, or even a group of meteors, and associated with Gondwana Res., v. 4 (4): 586.
glaciation. It is most likely or absolutely that the Bunopas, S.; P. Vella; S. Hada; H. Fontaine; C. Burrett; P.
Australasian Comet mistracking either by a planet x Haines; S. Khositanont and K. T. Howard, 2002.
theory, or a Nemensis theory, entered the Earth near the Australasian Tektites and catastrophic products enclosed in
North, impact the south Siberia, south China-Indochina impact ejecta horizon from the Buntharik Impact Event in
impact field, and Australia impact field, the coma collided Thailand on old surface gravel beds marked real-time Asian
to the surface at Mt. Darwin crater (1.2km) and Quaternary correlation. Ibid. p. 181-187.
Bunopas, S.; P. Vella; H. Fontaine; S. Hada; C. Burrett; P.
disappeared. Catastroloess covered the ring of fires from Haines; S. Potisat, Th. Wongwanich; P. Chaodamrong, K. T.
the Himalayan to New Zealand, the impact inherited the Howard and S. Khositanont, 2003. The Khorat Plateau Early
glaciation in northern Asia, Australia to New Zealand so Quaternary Vertical Uplifting After Long Cenozoic
the impact was not climatic. We did not understood also Cratonization of the Mesozoic Khorat Group, Its northeast
why there was no record of tektites all the way from south Tilting Diverted Mae Khong River Before the 0.8 Ma
Siberia to south China, perhaps they all buried under the Cometary Impact Catastroloess and The Overflowing Mid
catastroloess in remote areas. Pleistocene Burirum Basalt. 1st International Conference on
Paleontology of Southeast Asia. Mahasarakham University
Journal, vol. 22. Special Issue 2003.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Bunopas, S., P. Vella, H. Fontaine, S. Hada, C. Burrett, P.
Haines, Kieren T. Howard and S. Khositanont., 2005. Latest
We thank the Department of Mineral Resources, Pliocene to early M. Pleistocene Inthanon Epeirogenesis,
Geological Survey for kindly provide the transportations, 2.0-0.65 Ma, in north Thailand connecting to late Himalayan
geologists and helpers to the fields. extrusion continuum: An application of
The co-operation of the DMR after previous years of extraterrestrial/terrestrial real-time layer of catastroloess
research for tektites on the NE with the University of from Buntharik Cometary Impact Event (new). Proc. of the
Int. Conf. on Geology, Geotecnology and Mineral Resources
Tasmania, Australia and a little later with Res. Inst. of
Geophysics & Planetary Phys., UCLA, U, S. A. during last
41
of Indochina. GEOINDO 2005, Kosa Hotel, Khon Kaen, 28- Glass, B. P. and Heezen, B. C., 1967. Tektites and geomagnetic
30 Nov. 2005. reversals. Sci. Am., 33-38.
Chaimani, Yaovaluk, 2004. Fossils from Khok Soong and Ban Glass, B. P., Muenow, D. W. and Aggrey, K. E., 1986. Further
Tha Chang, Khorat. In: Numerous fossils in Paleontology of evidence for the impact origin of tektites. Meteoritics 21,
Thailand, in 114 years of the Department of Mineral 369-370.
Resources. (in Thai) Glass, B. P., D. R. Chapman and M. S. Prasad. 1996. Ablated
Charusiri, P., V. Daorerk, V. Krowchan, N. Klongsara, S. tektite from the central Indian Ocean. Meteoriltcs &
Kosuwan, V. Srirattanachatchawan, U. Santatiwongchat, Planetary Science 31, 365-369 (1996).
2003. Quaternary tektites and their sediment hosts at Ban Glass, B. P. and Wu, J. 1993. Coesite and shocked quartz
Thachang sand pit, Chaloem Prakiat, Nakhon Ratchasima, discovered in Australasian and North America microtectes
NE Thailand: stratigraphy and its ages, in: N. Mantajit (Ed.). layers. Geology 21: 435-438.
Proceedings of the Symposium on Geology of Thailand, Glass, B.P.. Australasian microtektites in the South China Sea:
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, 2002. p. 9. implications regarding the location and size of the source
Emiliani, C., Kraus, E. B., and Shoemaker, E. M., 1981. Sudden crater, Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. 34 (Abstract no. 1092).ng its
death at the end of the Mesozoic. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., source and relationship to the Brunhes/Matuyama geo-
55, 317. magnetic reversal. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Delaware, Newark.
Fiské, P. S.; Putthapiban, P. and Wasson, J. T. 1996: Excavation 210 pp
and analysis of layered tektites from Northeast Thailand: Haines, P. W., Howard, K. T., Burrett, C. F., Au, J., and Bunopas,
Results of 1994 field expedition. Meteoritics and Planet. Sci. S., 2002. Paleomagnetic evidence for flood deposits
31: 36-41. penecontemporaneous with ~0.8 Ma tektite fall in northeast
Fiskeé, P.S., CC. Schnetzler, J. McHone, K. K. Thailand: impact-induced environmental effects?: Geology
Chanthavaichith,I. Homsombath, T. Phouthakayalat, B. (under review).
Khenthavong, PT. Xuan, Layered tektites in Southeast Asia: Haines, P. W., K. T. Howard, J. R. Ali, C. F. Burrett, Sangad
field studies in centralLaos and Vietnam, Meteorit. Planet. Bunopas, 2004. Flood deposits penecontemporaneous with
Sci. 34 (1999) 757- 761. ~0.8 Ma tektite fall in NE Thailand: impact-induced
Fontaine, H., 1966. Decouverte de tectites sans formes figurees environmental effects? Earth and Planetary Science Letters
dans la province de Bien-Hoa. Archives Des Geologie du 225 (2004) 19-28.
Viet-Nam 9, 3-4. Hoke, Leonore and Hamish John Campbell, 1995 Active Mantle
Ford, R., J. 1988: An empirical model for the Australasian tektite Melting Beneath Thailand? International Conference on
field. Australian J. Earth Sci. 35: 483-490. Geology. Geotechnology and Mineral Resources of Indochina
French, B.M., 1998. Traces of Catastrophe: A Handbook of (Geo-Indo’95), 22-25 November 1995, KhonKaen, Thailand.
Shock-Metamorphic Effects in Terrestrial Meteorite Impact Hoke, Leonore and Hoang Huu Quy, 1995. Active matle proceeses
Structures. LPI beneath Vietnam. Journal of Geology, special issue, Series B,
Contribution No.954, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston. no. 5-6 (1995), 309-310
Fudali, R. F. and Ford, R. J., 1979. Darwin glass and Darwin Howard, K. T. 1999: Distal environmental effects of the 770ka
crater; a progress report. Meteorites, 14, 283-296 impact event. Unpublished Hons. Thesis at the University of
Futrell, D. S. 1986. Implication of welded breccia in Moung Tasmania, Australia. 175 pp.
Nong- type tektite. Nature, London. 319, 663-665. Howard, K.T.., S. Bunopas, (F. Burrett, P.W. Haines, M.D.
Futrell, D. S. and Wasson, J. T., 1993. A 10.8-kg layer (Muong- Norman, The 770 ka tektite producing impact event: evidence
Nong-type) tektite from Wenchang, Hainan, China. for distal environmental effects in NE Thailand, Lunar
Planet,, Sci. Conf. 31 (Abstract no. 1308).
Meteoritics 28, 136-137.
Howard, K.T., P.W. Haines. C.F. Burrett, J.R. Ali, S. Bunopas,
Gangadharam, E. W., et al., 1978. Tektites from Burma? A Sedimentology of 0.8 Ma log-bearing flood deposits in north-
suspected new tektite locality in Southeast Asia. Wata Geol. east Thailand and mechanisms for pre-tlood deforestation,
Newsletters of Geol. Soc. of Malaya, vol 4 (1), 13-17. Proceedings, 8th International Congress on Pacific Neogene
Geronimo, I. Di; R. Sanfilippo; N. Chalmanee. 2002. The Stratigraphy, Chang Mai, Thailand, 2003, pp. 49 -67.
Quaternary Fauna from Ban Pak Bo (Western Thailand). The Howard, K. T., 2004. Origin of Darwin Glass. Unpublished Ph.
Symp. on Geology of Thailand. 26-3 1 August 2002, D.. Thesis, University of Tasmania, Australia. 362 pp.
Bangkok, Thailand. Additional. Hsű, K., J., 1980 Terrestrial catastrophe caused by cometary
Glass, B.P., 1972, Australasian microtektites in deep-sea impact at end of Cretaceous. Nature, London, 285, 201-203.
sediments, in 1-layes, D.E., ed., Antarctic oceanology, II. Hsű, K., J. 1981 Origin of geochemical anomalies at
The Australasian-New Zealand sector: American Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary: Asteroid or cometary impact?
(ieophysical Union Antarctic Research Series, v. 19, p. 335- Oceanologica Acta, no. SP, 129-133
348. Izett, G. A.; Dalrymple, G. B. and Snee, L. W., 1991. 40Ar /
Glass, B. P., 1976. No evidence for 0.8-0.9 m.y. old australite 39Ar Age of Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary tektites from
layer in deep sea cores. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 77, 428-433. Haiti. Science, 252, 1539-1542.
Glass, B. P., 1979. Zhamanshin crater: possible source of Austral- Izett, G. A. and Obradovich J. D. 1992: Laser-fusion 40Ar/39Ar
Asian tektite (?). Geology, 1979. N. 7, p. 351-353. ages of Australian tektites (abstract). Luna Planet. Sci. 23:
Glass. B.P.. 1982b. Possible correlations between tektite events 593-594.
and climatic changes? Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap.. 190: 251- Izokh, E. P. and AN, L. D. 1988: The geological position of the
256. tektites and their significance for the Quaternary geology and
Glass. BR. 1986. No evidence for a 0.8-0.9 m.y. old micro- geomorphology of Vietnam. Aktual’ nie Voprosi Meteoritiki
australite layer in deep-sea cores. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. v Sibiri, Novosibirsk, “Nauka”, 1988., Translated on behalf
77.428-433. 1986. of J. O ‘Keefe by SCITRAN,, Santa Babara CA 93150.,
Glass, B. P. 1990: Tektites and microtektites: key fact and corrected by E. Izokh : pp. 31-57.
interferences. In: L. O. Nicolysen and W. U. Reimold (eds.), Kiang, Sia Hok, 1978. Tektites found on beach near Endau,
Cryptoexplosions and catastrophes in the Geological Record Jahore, peninsular Malaysia. Warta Geologi: Newsletter of
with a Special Focus on the Vredefort Structure. the Geol. Soc. Malaysia; 4 (5), 153- 155.
Tectonophysics, 171: 393-404. Koeberl C., 1994. Tektite origin by hypervelocity asteroid or
cometary impact: Target rocks, source craters and
42
mechanism. In Large Meteorite Impact and Planetary Schnetzler, C. C., 1992. Mechanism of Muong Nong-type tektite
Evolution (eds. B. O. Dressler, R. A. F. Grieve and V. L. formation and Speculation on the source of Australasian
Sharpton), pp. 133-151. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 293, tektites. Meteoritics 27, 154-164.
Boulder, Colorado. Schnetzler, C. C. Walter, L. S. and Marsh, J. G., 1988. Source of
Koenigswald G. H. R. v’on 1963. Tektite studies, VI. Rims, flow the Australasian tektite strewn field: a possible offshore
ridges, and flanges in Java tektites. Proc. K. Ned Akad. Wetens, impact site. Geophys. Res. Lett. 15, 357-360.
-Amsterdam, B66, 198-205. Schnetzler, CC., Mechanism of Muong Nong-type tektite for-
Kunz, J., Bollinger, K., Jessberger, E.K., 1995. Ages of Australasian mation and speculation on the source of Australasian tektites,
Tektites. Abstracts of the Lunar and Planetary Science Meteoritics 27 (1992) 154- 165
Conference, 26th, p. 809-810. Shaw, H. F. and Wasserburg, G. J., 1982. Age and provenance of
Lacroix, A., 1935 Les tectites de l’ Indohine des ces abords et celles the target materials tektites and possible the impactites as
de la Cote d’ Ivoire. Arch. Mus. nat. histoire nat., 6th ser. 12, inferred from Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr systematics. Earth. Planet.
151-170. Sci. Lett. 60, 155-177.
Lee, M.-Y., K.-Y. Wei, 2000. Australasian microtektites in the South Shoemaker, E.M., H.R. Uhlherr, 1999. Stratigraphic relations of
China Sea and the West Philippine Sea: implications for the australites in the Port Campbell embaynient, Victoria,
age, size, and location of the impact crater, Meteorit. Planet. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 34 (1999) 369-384.
Sci. 35 (2000) 1151-1155. Sibava, V., 1993. Quaternary Sequences in Southeast Asia and
Li, C.; Ouyang, Z.; Liu, D. and An, Z., 1991. Microtektites and glass their regional correlation. In: ESCAP Atlas of Stratigraphy
microspherules in Loess; Their discovery and implications XII., Quaternary Stratigraphy of Asia and the Pacific, IGCP
(abstract). INQUA Conference Beijing, p. 132. 296. Mineral Resources Development Series, No 62. United
Li, C.; Quyang, Z. 1992. The first discovery of Australasian-Asian Nations. pp. 1 -29.
microtektites in loess. 29th International Geological Congress. Stauffer, P. H., 1983. Phantom tektite localities of Borneo.
Abstract, vol. 3 (3). Kyoto, Japan. Aug.-3 Sept., 1992. II-12-4 Meteoritics 18 (1), 9-13.
O-9, p.650. Suttirat, C.; Charusiri, P.; Farrar, E. and Clark, A., H. 1994. New
Maloney, B.K., Howard, K.T., 2000. Tha Chang, Khorat Plateau, 40Ar/39Ar Geochrology and characteristics of some
Thailand: The stratigraphy and pollen content of sandpits 1 and Cenozoic basalts in Thailand. Proc. of Intern. Symposium on:
2. Geological Society of Thaliand Newsletter, 2-8 April,. Stratigraphic Correlation of Southeast Asia. 15-20 Nov.
McHone, J. F., Pitakpaivan, K., Bunopas, S., Angsuwatana, P., 1994. Bangkok, Thailand.
Supajanya, T. and Wasson, J. T. 1994: A search for tektite Toon, O. B., Pollack, J. B., Ackerman, T. P., Turco, R. P., Mckay,
related structure: An examination on SPOT sattelite images. C. P., & Liu, M. S., 1981. Evolution of an impact-generated
New Development Regarding KT Event and Other Catastrophe dust cloud and its effects on the atmosphere. Geol. Soc. Am.
in Earth History, 80-81. Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI) Spec. Pap.,190, 187-201.
Contribution No. 825. Toon, O., K. Zahnle, D. Morrision, R.P. Turco, C. Covey, 1997.
Nutalaya, P., P. Vella, S. Bunopas and V. Kaewyana, 1986. Environmental perturbations caused by the impacts of aste-
Quaternary processes in Thailand. In: Thiramongkol (ed.), roids and comets, Rev. Geophys. 35 (1997) 4 1-78.
Proceeding of the Workshop on Economic, Geology, Tectonics Turcotte, D. L., 1986. Fractals and fragmentation. J. Geophys.
Sedimentary Processes and Environmental of the Quaternary Res. 91, 192 1-1926.
of Southeast Asia. Pp. 23-33, Bangkok. Vella, P., Bunopas. S. and Kaewyana, W., 1987. A loess covered
O’Keefe, J. A., 1987. Zhamanshin and Aouelloul: craters produced alluvial gravel terrace near Chiangmai, Northern Thailand.
by impact of tektite-like glasses? Meteorites, 22, 219-228. Geological Society of Thailand Newsletter, 1987 (3), pp 29-
Parry, J. T., 1996: The high terrace gravels, Northeast Thailand- a 31.
revaluation and integrated theory of their origin. Z. Vozenin-Serra, C. and Prive-Gill, C.1989: Bois Plio-Pleistocenes
Geomorph. N. I. 42 (2): 145-175. du giselment du Saropee, Plateau de Khorat, est de la
Piccoli, G., Robba, E., Chonglakmani, C., Dheeradilok, P., Ingavat, Thailande. Rev. of Palaeobotany and palynology 60: 225-
R., 1984. Paleogene Tethyan and Neogene Indo-Pacific 254.
shallow benthic molluuscs: some thoughts. Jour. Geol. Soc. Wang, Y. and Sasajima, Sadao, (eds.) 1985. The new
Thailand. v. 7 (1), 13-18. development of loess studies in China. University of Shanxi,
Punpate, N.; S. Pailoplee; I. Takashima and P. Charusiri, 2005. Ages China, 208 pp. (in Chinese)
of layered Tektites and tektites bearing sediments in Buntharik Wasson, J. T., 1987. A multiple-impact origin of Southeast Asian
area, Ubonrathchathani, Northeast Thailand. Proc. of the Int. Tektites (Abstr.). Lunar Planet Sci. 18, 1062-1063.
Conference on Geology, Geotecnology and Mineral Resources Wasson, J. T., 1989. Climate and tektite origin (abstract).
of Indochina. GEOINDO 2005, Kosa Hotel, Khon Kaen, 28-30 Meteoritics 24, 337-338.
Nov. 2005. Wasson, J., T. 1991: Layered tektites: a multiple impact origin for
Remus, D., M. Webster and K. Kaewkan, 1993. Rift architure and the Australasian tektites. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 102: 95-
sedimentoly of the Phechabun Intermontane Basin, centra 109.
Thailand. J. Souteast Asian Earth Sci., 8, 421-432. Wasson, J. T. and Heins, W. A., 1993. Tektites and climate. J.
Roberts, T. R. and J. Jumnongthai. 1999. Miocene fishes from lake, Geophys. Res. 98, 3043-3052.
Phetchabun in North Central Thailand, with description of new Wasson, J. T., Phitakpaivan, K., Putthapiban, P., Sulyapongse, S.,
Taxa of Cyprinidae, Pangasiidae and Chandidae. Nat. Hist. Thathimthong, B., and McHorne, J. F. 1995: Field recovery
Bull. Siam Soc. 47: 153-189. of layered tektites in northeast Thailand: Evidence of a large
Salyapongse, S., Pitakpaivan, K., 1999. Older eolian evidences on scale melted sheet. J. Geophys. Res., 100: 14385-14390.
the Khorat Plateau. Journal of the Geological Society of Xu, Dao-Yi ; Zang, Quinwen; Sun, Yi-Yin; Yan, Zheng; Chai, Zi-
Thailand, 1, 18-26. Fang and He Jin-Wen, eds. 1989: Astrogeological events in
Saurin, E., 1935. Sur queiques gisement de tektites de l’ Indochine du China. Geological Publishing House, Beijing, China.
Sud. C. r. Acad. Sci. Paris 1935, v. 200, p. 246-248 Young, D. G., 1964. Stratigraphy and petrography of north-east
Schneider, D. A., Kent, D. V. and Mellow, G. A., 1992. A detailed Otago loess. N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys. 7, 839-63.
chronology of the Australasian impact event, the Brunes- Zahringer, J., 1963. K-Ar measurement of tektites. In: Radioactive
Matuyama geomagnetic polarity reversal, and global climate Dating. Int. Atom. Energy Agency, Vienna. 289-305.
change. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 111, 395-405.
43
COALBED METHANE POTENTIAL ASSESSMENT PROJECT IN

THAILAND (MAE THA , MAE LA MAO , AND MAE RA MARD BASINS)
Wuttipong K. and Thawee J.
Department of Mineral Fuels, Bangkok, Thailand
ABSTRACT
Coal is found in all parts of the country totaling 2,120 million tons (DMF, 2004) of reserves. It is a porous medium with
relatively low gas permeability and diffusivity. Though coal belongs to the family of reservoir rocks, it differs remarkably
from the conventional reservoir rocks in that the volume of gas, which it can store, is far beyond its pore volume
capacity. In fact the gas stored in coal is mainly adsorbed onto the pore large internal surface.
Responding to the government policy in term of sustainable energy, the Coalbed Methane (CBM) project was started in
2003. Three coal basins; Mae Tha , Mae La Mao and Mae Ra Mard basins , have been selected to evaluate CBM
potential. All of them are located in the northern part of Thailand and have been studied by the Department of Mineral
Fuels using own budget. The Mae Ra Mard Basin had been studied by the ATOP Technology Company while the Mae
Tha and Mae La Mao Basins were studied by academic institutes (the Suranaree Technology University and Chiang Mai
University). The drilling results are inclusive from 11 wells. Moreover, one basin in the southern Thailand namely Khian
sa has been awarded to SVS ENERGY RESOURCES., LTD.; the Thai petroleum company to select for CBM study since
July 2003. Four wells had been drilled but were not successful with relatively thin and split coal seams.
However, CBM is still hoped to be one of alternative source of energy to make more sustainable energy in Thailand. The
memorandum of understanding between the Department of Mineral Fuels (DMF) and the Defense Energy Department
(DED) has been signed to studies on CBM Project in Fang basin, Chiang Mai Province, in the Northern part of
Thailand. The objectives of the study are to determine the reserves, quality and to establish guideline for future
development of CBM in term of alternative energy.
44
COMMUNCATIVE PLANNING: STAKEHOLDER NETWORKS AS A

RESOURCE IN RISK MANAGEMENT
Kaisa Schmidt-Thomé, Lic.Sc., Researcher,
Centre for Urban and Regional Studies, Helsinki University of Technology, Box 9300, FI-02015 TKK, Finland,
E-mail : kaisa.schmidt-thome@tkk.fi
An increasing emphasis on communicative planning, also in risk management and in relation to management of natural
resources, has in broad terms two key motivations. On the one hand the communication process can add to the available
knowledge about the issue at hand. On the other hand it can raise commitment of the actors to the issue, i.e. empower the
various stakeholders engaged in the communication process.
Climate change is a great example of a "wicked problem" where multi-disciplinary, open debate is very welcome and
where both mitigation and adaptation require committed actors. The SEAREG project focused on sea level rise in the
Baltic Sea Region. In the project it became clear that the theoretical debates around the notion of networks and the so-
called actor-network theory (ANT) seem to resonate very well with the actual planning dilemmas and the challenges of
knowledge transfer between stakeholders. The presentation highlights how existing networks help to tackle sea-level rise
and, how climate change adaptation and sea level rise “recruit” new sets of actors into response networks. It is also
shown how a special emphasis on non-human entities (e.g. sewage systems or power plants) provides an innovative
element to mapping vulnerable networks facing climate impacts. Overall, the network perspective reveals missing links
in organisational and institutional structures that are relevant for planning and decision-making.
45
USE OF SODA-LIME-SILICA WASTE GLASS AS AN

ALTERNATIVE FLUX IN TRADITIONAL CERAMICS
Tarnkamol Tarvornpanich1 and Guilherme P. Souza2
1
Bureau of Value Added Industries, Department of Primary Industries and Mines, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
2
Federal University of São Carlos, Vitreous Materials Laboratory, São Carlos, SP 13560-950, Brazil
ABSTRACT
Use of soda-lime-silica (SLS) waste glass as partial replacement for natural fluxes (such as feldspars and nepheline syenite) in
whiteware formulations may strongly contribute to sustainable development of the traditional ceramics and glass industries,
save natural resources and also yield environmental benefits to the society. The present study deals with systematic additions of
SLS glass to a whiteware batch containing kaolinite clay, quartz filler, and nepheline syenite as the natural flux, aiming at the
investigation of mineralogical and microstructural changes on heating to commercial firing temperatures and their impact on
some physical properties. Results have shown that partial replacement leads to formation of additional mineralogical phases
such as plagioclase, wollastonite and cristobalite. This was followed by reduction of the firing temperatures needed to produce
whiteware bodies with suitable levels of density, porosity and shrinkage, thus confirming the feasibility of using SLS waste glass
in the whiteware industry.
Key words: soda-lime silica, whiteware, chemical composition, x-ray diffractometry
INTRODUCTION micro-composite of crystals embedded in a glass matrix. The

vitrification temperature of ceramic bodies containing SLS
Large volumes of waste container glass from bottle banks waste glass has been found to be lower than their counterparts
produced worldwide are currently land filled. Container glass containing solely natural fluxes, suggesting that the
consists mainly of silicon, sodium, and calcium oxides whiteware production would require less energy, and be
(referred to as soda-lime-silica, SLS glass) with other minor cheaper due to the use of recycled SLS glass (Watanabe and
components, such as aluminium and magnesium oxides. SLS Kato, 2001, Souza, et al., 2004). Successful optimisation of
waste glass is non-hazardous (Reindl, 2003) and its recycling firing schedules and properties in the final whiteware-based
can significantly reduce the consumption of natural raw product can only be achieved through a better understanding
materials yielding both economical and environmental of the reactions on firing ceramic bodies with the recycled
benefits. Since SLS glass is similar in chemical composition glass waste incorporated. Recently, Souza et al. (2004)
to natural fluxes used in the whitewares industry such as showed that SLS waste glass added to a commercial porcelain
feldspar and nepheline syenite, which have to be mined and stoneware formulation led to formation of some additional
refined, it is sensible to investigate its use as total or partial crystalline phases, such as plagioclase, as well as to those
replacement for these fluxes. The feldspar available in usually occurring in porcelains such as quartz, mullite and
Thailand is mostly that of sodium feldspar, whereas some glass. The mineralogical transformations taking place at the
high grade potassium feldspar has to be imported (DPIM, early stages of densification still remain, however, a subject
2005). The use of these minerals is often related to traditional of continuous scientific investigation (Tarvornpanich, et al.,
ceramics and glass making, and efforts are currently being in press 1, Tarvornpanich, et al., inpress 2).
placed to encourage the use of feldspars for advanced The aim of this study is to examine the densification
ceramics, which have a higher added value. In this direction, behaviour and mineralogical phase transformations on firing
the use of SLS waste glass for total or partial replacement for both waste-free and a series of SLS waste glass containing
natural fluxes in traditional ceramics is a very promising whiteware formulations and to correlate those to the
initiative. microstructures formed, aiming at the understanding of some
The potential of replacing natural fluxes by SLS waste glass basic microstructure-property relations.
has been increasingly reported in the literature (Youssef, et
al., 1998, Matteucci, et al., 2002, Tucci, et al., 2004, EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Tarvornpanich, 2006). In general terms, it was observed that
when the whiteware body is fired to a vitrified state, its The raw materials used were kaolin clay, quartz as a filler and
triaxial components (clay, filler and flux) react to form a nepheline syenite and colourless SLS waste container glass as
46
fluxing agents. The waste container glasses were crushed and introduced as aerosols into the plasma flame to produce
dry-milled into a powder using a porcelain mill and zirconia characteristic emission of the sought elements. The loss on
media. The particle size distributions of the raw materials as ignition was measured by calculating the wt% difference
determined by laser particle size analysis (LS130, Coulter between unfired samples and after firing 2h at 1000 ºC. Table
Electronics Ltd., Luton, UK) with addition of 1.0wt% 2 shows the chemical composition of the raw materials in the
deflocculant (Na-hexamethaphosphate) are shown in table 1. form of oxides together with the loss on ignition, revealing
Chemical analyses of the raw materials were determined that the SLS glass used is high in Na2O, CaO and SiO2 but
using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission almost free of Al2O3, whereas nepheline syenite is higher in
spectroscopy (ICP-AES Optima 3200 XL, Perkin-Elmer, K2O and Al2O3.
USA), where samples in the form of aqueous solutions were
Table 1. Particle size distribution of raw materials.
Kaolin clay Quartz Nepheline syenite SLS waste glass

Volume (%) less than
Particle diameter (µm)
10 1.46 190.50 1.54 11.27
25 3.47 223.20 3.79 24.41
50 7.87 260.50 10.49 52.48
75 16.38 307.40 21.39 116.60
90 119.50 359.00 35.57 186.30
Table 2. Chemical composition of raw materials (wt%).
Raw materials SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO Na2O K2O MgO TiO2 L.O.I.
Kaolin clay 49.34±0.20 34.72±0.20 0.26±0.02 0.10±0.02 0.27±0.02 2.98±0.02 0.28±0.02 <0.10 12.02±0.20
Quartz 99.80±0.40 <0.10 <0.10 0.10±0.02 0.20±0.02 0.60±0.02 <0.10 <0.10 0.20±0.20
Nepheline syenite 58.30±0.30 24.40±0.20 <0.10 0.70±0.02 7.00±0.08 8.40±0.08 <0.10 <0.10 1.10±0.20
SLS waste glass 73.96±0.30 0.96±0.02 <0.10 11.95±0.07 11.72±0.07 1.22±0.02 0.75±0.02 <0.10 -
L.O.I. = loss on ignition
Batches studied were categorized by a number indicating the mercury densitometer (Model P1210, Mettler-Toledo, Inc.,
amount of SLS waste glass substituting for nepheline syenite Hightstown, NY). The crystalline and glassy phases in the
(i.e. S0 for 0wt% SLS glass and 100wt% nepheline syenite; fired samples and raw materials were identified using XRD
S25 for 25wt% SLS glass and 75wt% nepheline syenite). The (Model PW 1730/10, Philips Electronic Instruments,
batch compositions, shown in table 3, were mixed and wet Mahwah, NJ) operating at 30 mA and 50 kV. XRD analyses
milled (50wt% solids) in a porcelain mill with zirconia of powdered samples and raw materials were carried out
grinding media for 6h at 80rpm. To disperse clay using CuKα radiation from 10° ≤ 2θ ≤ 70° at a scanning speed
agglomerates, the slurry was further milled for 30 minutes of 0.5 °/min. For SEM analysis of phase assemblages and
after adding 3 gm of deflocculant (Dispex N40, Allied morphology, samples were ground and polished (only the
Colloids, Ltd., Bradford, UK). The slurries were then passed samples fired ≥1000 °C were etched in 5% HF for 3 minutes),
through a 212 µm sieve, oven-dried overnight at 100 °C, and subsequently carbon or gold coated. Microstructures were
powdered in a porcelain mortar and pestle, and again passed examined by secondary electron imaging (SEI) in a Field
through a 212 µm sieve. The resulting powders were Emission Gun (FEI Sirion, Hillsboro, Oregon, USA) SEM.
moistened (10wt% water), hand granulated and uniaxially
pressed (~40 MPa) into 25 mm diameter discs. As-pressed, Table 3. Composition of batches (wt%).
dried pellets were fired at 600, 800, 1000, 1050, 1100, 1150,
1200, 1250 and 1400 °C, at a heating rate of 10 °C/min with a Raw materials S0 S25 S50 S75 S100
soaking time of 3h, and cooled to room temperature at 10 Kaolin clay 50 50 50 50 50
°C/min. The densification behaviour of the ceramic bodies Quartz 25 25 25 25 25
Nepheline syenite 25 18.75 12.5 6.25 -
was evaluated in terms of linear shrinkage, water absorption
SLS waste glass - 6.25 12.5 18.75 25
and bulk density. Linear shrinkage was determined by
measuring the percentage change in the diameter of the
pellets from the dried to the fired state using a Vernier RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
caliper. Water absorption of the fired pellets was determined
according to the British Standard EN 99 (1991), and bulk Figure 1 shows the variation of bulk density with firing
density was determined by mercury displacement using a temperature for fired specimens of all batches. Of the samples
fired at 600 °C those from batch S0 have the lowest bulk
47
Figure 1. Bulk density of as-fired specimens from all batches.
density, as the firing temperature is too low for vitrification. ceramics can arise from several sources (Carty, 2002). In the
Addition of SLS glass with coarser particle size distribution present study, the most likely cause is the expansion of gases
than nepheline syenite (Table 1) increased the bulk density of trapped from the early stages of firing. These gases are
specimens fired at 600 °C with increasing SLS up to a limit continuously released on firing, and also arise e.g. from
of 18.75wt% SLS glass (batch S75). Total replacement of kaolinite dehydroxylation (Lawrence, 1972) at ~550 °C.
nepheline syenite by SLS glass (S100) led to a decrease in However, as vitrification takes place the gases have to diffuse
bulk density, probably because finer nepheline syenite through the liquid phase, forming bubbles inside the body and
particles had been filling the voids generated by the packing blisters and open pores on its surface. A drawback of using
of coarser SLS particles (Reed, 1995). in samples S25-S75. SLS glass as replacement for feldspars is the fact that since
Further evidence supporting the more efficient particle SLS glass undergoes softening and leads to accelerated
packing suggested when SLS glass was added to the fluxing densification, gases formed on heating are more prone to be
system is that SLS glass has a density of ~2.50 gm/cm3, being trapped within the densified structure of the ceramic body,
lighter than nepheline syenite (density of ~2.60 gm/cm3), causing overfiring. This explains in part why higher SLS
therefore ruling out the effect of a denser component waste glass contents are prohibitive if one has to produce
increasing the density of the mix. The same behaviour holds high-firing temperature, high flux containing, fully densified
for samples fired at 800 °C, although S100 shows an increase whiteware such as electric porcelain or china. In this case, a
in bulk density, reaching that of S75. This effect can be combination of natural and waste glass flux is needed.
explained by the softening of the SLS glass particles above Water absorption values (Fig. 2) provide direct assessment of
Tg, which is ~570 ºC, leading to accelerated densification of the amount of open or interconnected porosity in the ceramic
the batches containing the waste glass. bodies (Ryan and Radford, 1987). Batches containing SLS
From 1000 to 1050 °C, specimens from the waste-free batch glass experience open pore closure (~0% water absorption)
(S0) revealed a substantial increase in bulk density from 1.80 after firing at 1100 °C, whereas S0 reaches that stage at 1200
to 2.35 gm/cm3, exceeding those of batches containing SLS °C. Figure 2 also shows that S25 reaches its minimum open
glass (1.85-2.32 gm/cm3). This increase in bulk density is in porosity after firing at 1150 °C, with very low water
line with the onset of nepheline syenite melting, giving a absorption values also after firing at 1100 and 1200 °C. This
viscous liquid which fills the pores of the ceramic body is technologically beneficial, as it allows production of
leading to vitrification (Iqbal, Lee, 2000). S0 reaches its whitewares fired over a broad range of temperatures.
maximum bulk density (2.41 gm/cm3) at 1100 °C, followed Moreover, as S25 attains its maximum bulk density value of
by the batches containing lower levels of SLS glass (2.40 2.40 gm/cm3 (comparable to S0, 2.41 gm/cm3) after firing at
gm/cm3 for S25, 2.38 gm/cm3 for S50, 2.31 gm/cm3 for S75 1100 °C, decreased firing temperatures may be used
and 2.21 gm/cm3 for S100). Therefore, although SLS glass commercially. Linear shrinkage values confirm that the
promotes accelerated densification, nepheline syenite is a batches containing SLS glass shrink faster than the standard
more powerful flux leading to denser ceramic bodies. porcelain composition S0 (Fig. 3). This is due to accelerated
Specimens of all batches fired at temperatures above 1100 °C densification until 1000 °C, above which melting of
experienced overfiring, as seen by the decrease in bulk nepheline syenite with progressive pore closure causes
density values. Porosity from overfiring in traditional
48
increased shrinkage until a maximum at 1100°C. After firing probably due to opposing effects of densification caused by
at higher firing temperatures, specimens of S25, S50, S75 and liquid formation and quartz particle dissolution, and bloating
S100 experience a significant decrease in linear shrinkage, caused by gas expansion.
caused by the expansion related to overfiring. Samples from
S0 had constant shrinkage after firing from 1100-1200°C,
Figure 2. Water absorption of as-fired specimens from all batches. The 1100-1200 ºC firing temperature range is shown in detail (inset).
Figure 3. Linear shrinkage of as-fired specimens from all batches.
XRD of S0 ceramic bodies after firing over a range of previous work on kaolinitic clays containing micaceous
temperatures from 600-1200 ºC is shown in figure 4. Quartz materials (Hajjaji et al., 2002). Above this firing temperature
is present at all firing temperatures, although the peak nepheline breaks down. Sanidine ((K,Na)AlSi3O8) crystallises
intensities decrease with increasing firing temperature due to from mixed feldspars between 600-800 ºC, but breaks down
its partial dissolution. Samples of S0 fired at 600 ºC reveal above 1000 ºC together with microcline. Mullite peaks appear
nepheline (NaAlSiO4) and microcline (KAlSi3O8) derived at firing temperatures above 1000 ºC, and at 1050 ºC an
from the nepheline syenite flux, and muscovite amorphous hump indicates the formation of substantial
(KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2) from the kaolin clay (raw materials). viscous liquid, which cooled to a glassy phase. Quartz,
The breakdown of muscovite was observed in the present mullite and glass are the only phases observed by XRD in S0
work for firing temperatures above 800 ºC, consistent with samples fired at higher temperatures.
49
Complete substitution of nepheline syenite for SLS glass as above (Fig. 5). The crystallisation of plagioclase in S100
fluxing agent led to formation of a plagioclase cannot be a direct result of the devitrification of SLS glass
((Ca,Na)(Al,Si)2Si2O8) in S100 samples fired at 800 ºC and particles (Putnis, 1992).
Figure 4. XRD of standard porcelain (S0) fired at 600-1200ºC.

(U α-quartz Microcline z Mullite { Muscovite ² Nepheline Sanidine)
Figure 5. XRD of SLS-based porcelain (S100) fired at 600-1200ºC.

(U α-quartz S Cristobalite z Mullite { Muscovite ¡ Plagioclase Wollastonite)
The source of alumina necessary to crystallise plagioclase is arises from devitrification of SLS glass at ~800 ºC-1000 ºC.
decomposed kaolinite, as the Al2O3 content in the initial SLS Wollastonite (CaSiO3) is present after firing at 1000 ºC and is
glass is <1wt% (Table 2). Therefore, reactions at the interface another phase which arises from SLS glass devitrification.
between partially melted SLS glass particles and meta- Also, mullite forms after firing at 1000 ºC, although the lower
kaolinite would be the most likely initiation site for relative intensity of the mullite peaks in S100 suggests that
plagioclase formation. Nepheline and microcline are absent in mullite crystallisation is modest when compared to S0. This
this composition, as well as sanidine after firing. Cristobalite is likely due to the lower alumina content in S100, as
50
nepheline syenite was totally replaced by SLS glass. Also, and nepheline syenite) were observed by XRD. It is worth
mullite and plagioclase compete for the alumina from noting that the partially SLS glass fluxed whiteware batches
decomposed kaolinite. Quartz, mullite and plagioclase persist (i.e. S25, S50 and S75) revealed a similar phase evolution
until 1200 ºC, although the decrease in their peak intensity from a qualitative standpoint, but differing quantitatively
indicates dissolution as the firing temperature is increased. according to the amount of SLS waste glass added.
The moderate amorphous hump present in all XRD traces of Mineralogical phases formed from the nepheline syenite flux
S100 results from the presence of the added SLS glass since and its interaction with clay and quartz are prominent in S25
the unfired state, thus making it difficult to identify glass and decrease in intensity (as seen in XRD peaks) with
derived from liquid formation on firing and subsequent increasing the amount of SLS glass substituted. In contrast,
cooling by this technique. Figure 6 shows XRD traces from phases crystallised from SLS glass, or from its interaction
S25 fired samples, showing the co-existence of phases with decomposed clay and quartz, are barely detected from
identified in S0 and S100. No new crystalline phases resulting S25 but become progressively more noticeable in batches
from interaction between both fluxing materials (SLS glass with higher SLS content.
Figure 6. XRD of S25 fired at 600-1200ºC.

(U α-quartz S Cristobalite Microcline z Mullite { Muscovite ² Nepheline ¡ Plagioclase Sanidine)
SEM investigation was performed after etching cross- microstructure contains features derived from both nepheline
sectioned and polished surfaces of fired samples. Figure 7 shows syenite (as in S0) and SLS glass (S100). When fired at the
SEM/SE images of S0 and S100 samples fired at 1100 ºC. The temperature giving the lowest porosity (1100 ºC), S25
overall microstructure of S0 fired at 1100 ºC (Fig. 7a-b) develops mostly mullite, plagioclase, and glass that also
comprises partially dissolved quartz particles with a solution enclosures partially dissolved quartz.
rim, clay-derived material (primary mullite, in agreement The concurrent crystallisation via devitrification in the waste
with XRD), and secondary mullite. Primary mullite is shown glass may hinder the sintering of glass particles to some
in detail in Figures 7(b). Primary mullite crystals are ~300- extent, and therefore promote early formation of pores which
400 nm long, whereas secondary mullite needles are 1-2 µm is expected to affect, at some level, technological properties
long. The fully SLS glass fluxed whiteware (S100) has a (e.g. water absorption, in the case of ceramic tiles) of
microstructure comprising mullite (mostly primary), whitewares made with SLS glass. Hence, the concurrent
plagioclase, partially dissolved quartz, cristobalite, and crystallisation in SLS glass added to whiteware batches has to
wollastonite embedded in the glass matrix. Plagioclase be investigated. Moreover, further studies regarding the
crystals have an elongated shape, ~1.0-1.5µm long and 100- availability of SLS waste glass in Thailand, the level of
300nm wide, as shown in Figure 7(c). Pores have been found contaminants which may produce unwanted colouring of the
to appear nearby rounded cristobalite crystals (Fig. 7d), and whiteware, the need for grinding glass cullet and its cost, and
may have developed as a consequence of local chemical the pursuit for strategies to promote social awareness about
variations during the crystallisation process. Figure 8 shows the importance of glass recycling are needed to provide the
an SEM/SE image of S25 fired at 1100 ºC. The general best outcomes from this emerging technology.
51
Figure 7. SEM/SE images of (a-b) standard whiteware (S0) fired at 1100 °C and (c-d) SLS glass-based
whiteware (S100) fired at 1100 ºC. (Q -quartz, R - solution rim, Pm – primary mullite,
Sm - secondary mullite, Pl - plagioclase, C - cristobalite, G - glass matrix)
Figure 8. SEM/SE image of whiteware containing 6.25% SLS waste glass and 18.75% nepheline syenite (S25) fired at 1100 °C.
(Q -quartz, Pl - plagioclase, Pm - primary mullite, G - glass matrix)
52
CONCLUSIONS Matteucci, F., Dondi, M. and Guarini, G., 2002, Effect of Soda-
Lime on Sintering and Technological Properties of
Porcelain Stoneware Tiles. Ceramics Intl., 28, p. 873-880.
The whiteware batch containing 6.25wt% SLS glass and Putnis, A., 1992, Introduction to Mineral Sciences. Cambridge
18.75wt% nepheline syenite (S25) reached 0% water University Press, Cambridge, 179 pp..
absorption (open pores closure) and a bulk density value of Reed, J.S., 1995, Principles of Ceramics Processing, Wiley &
2.40 gm/cm3 which is comparable with that of commercial Sons, New York, p.215-227.
porcelains fired at 1200 ºC. The best physical properties for Reindl, J., 2003, Reuse/Recycling of Glass Cullet for Non-
S25 were attained after firing at 1100 ºC, suggesting that this Container Uses. Dane County Department of Public
combination of composition/firing temperature may allow Works.
production of whitewares from cheaper raw materials and at http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/green/pubs/glass.pdf.
Ryan, W. and Radford, C., 1987, Whitewares Production,
lower temperatures so saving energy. This result confirms the
Testing and Quality Control, Pergamon Press, Oxford, p.
feasibility of using SLS waste glass as partial replacement for 224-225.
natural fluxes in the whiteware industry, and is well in line Souza, G.P., Rambaldi, E., Tucci, A., Esposito, L. and Lee,
with sustainable development efforts set worldwide from W.E., 2004, Microstructural Variations in Porcelain
economical and environmental standpoints. The Stoneware Tiles as a Function of Flux System. J. Am.
microstructures of fired specimens from batches containing Ceram. Soc., 87 [10], p. 1959-1966.
SLS glass comprises partially dissolved quartz, primary and Tarvornpanich, T., 2006, Recycled Colourless Soda-Lime-
secondary mullite, wollastonite, cristobalite and plagioclase. Silica Glass as an Alternative Flux in Whitewares, PhD
The commercial whiteware batch (S0), having insufficient Thesis, University of Sheffield.
CaO and Na2O (which are more abundant in SLS glass) to Tarvornpanich, T., Souza, G.P. and Lee, W.E., Microstructural
Evolution in Clay-Based Ceramics I: Single Components
form plagioclase, develops a microstructure of larger mullite and Binary Mixtures of Clay, Flux and Quart Filler. J. Am.
crystals and partially dissolved quartz, both embedded in the Ceram. Soc., submitted.
glass matrix. These different microstructures are expected to Tarvornpanich, T., Souza, G.P. and Lee, W.E., Microstructural
affect physical and mechanical properties of whitewares Evolution in Clay-Based Ceramics II: Ternary and
made with recycled SLS waste glass. Quaternary Mixtures of Clay, Flux and Quart Filler. J. Am.
Ceram. Soc., submitted.
REFERENCES Tucci, A., Esposito, L.,Rastelli, E., Palmonari, C. and
Rambaldi, E., 2004, "Use of Soda-Lime Scrap-Glass as a
Fluxing Agent in a Porcelain Stoneware Tile Mix", J.
Carty, W.M., 2002, Observation on the Glass Phase Composition in Euro. Ceram. Soc., 24 [1] 83-92 (2004).
Porcelains. Chem. Eng. Sci. Proc., 23 [2], p. 79-94.
Watanabe, O., and Kato, S., 2001, Vitrification Behaviour for
DPIM', 2005, Annual Report. Department of Primary Industries and
the Body Composed of Recycled Glass Bottle, Feldspar
Mines, Bangkok, Thailand.
and Clay", in Environmental Issues and Waste
Hajjaji, M., Kacim, S. and Boulmane, M., 2002, Mineralogy and
Management Technologies in the Ceramic and Nuclear
Firing Characteristics of a Clay from the Valley of Ourika
Industries VI, American Ceramic Society, Westerville,
(Morocco). Applied Clay Science, 21, p. 203-212.
Ohio, p.113-123.
Iqbal, Y. and Lee, W.E., 2000, Microstructural Evolution in Triaxial
Youssef, N.F., Abadir, M.F. and Shater, M.A.O., 1998,
Porcelain. J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 83 [12], p. 3121-3127.
"Utilization of Soda Glass (Cullet) in the Manufacture of
Lawrence, W.G., 1972, Ceramic Science for the Potter. Chilton
Wall and Floor Tiles", J. Euro. Ceram. Soc., 18 [12], p.
Book Company, Philadelphia, p. 55-58.
1721-1727.
53
DEVONIAN TO TRIASSIC RADIOLARIAN FAUNAS FROM NORTHERN

AND NORTHEASTERN THAILAND
Doungrutai Saesaengseerung1,2, Katsuo Sashida1, Apsorn Sardsud2
1
Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
2
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
ABSTRACT
Radiolarian biostratigraphy and lithostratigraphy of the Devonian to Triassic sequences have been undertaken in six
areas, the Mae Sariang, Mae Hong Son, Chiang Dao, Phrao, Nan, and Pak Chom-Loei areas in northern and
northeastern Thailand. Radiolarian-bearing rocks in these areas consist of various colored chert, siliceous shale,
calcareous shale and tuffaceous siliceous shale. Devonian to Triassic radiolarians recovered from seventeen sections were
studied to establish radiolarian biostratigraphy and to set up zonal schemes that will serve as paleontologic control in
deciphering the geologic/tectonic history of Thailand. Twelve Devonian to Triassic radiolarian zones are proposed in this
study; the Tlecerina sp.-Stigmosphaerostylus sp. Interval Zone, Trilonche sp. Interval Zone, Astroentactinian sp. Interval
Zone, Archocyrtium sp. Assemblage Zone, Follicucullus scholasticus Interval Zone, Neoalbaillella optima/Albaillella
levis Assemblage Zone, Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Interval Zone, Eptingium nakasekoi Interval Zone,
Triassocampe coronata Interval Zone, Triassocampe deweveri Interval Zone, Spine A2 Interval Zone, and Triortis
kretraensis dispiralis Assemblage Zone in ascending order. These radiolarian zones can be correlated with other
Devonian to Triassic radiolarian zones that were reported from several areas in the world. Based on our radiolarian
studies and accumulated paleobiogeographical data, the Palaeo-Tethys ocean probably existed between the Shan-Thai
and the Indochina terranes at least since the Early Devonian. The timing of collision between the Shan-Thai and
Indochina terranes thought to have been occurred later than early? Carnian (early Late Triassic).
Key words: Devonian, Permian, Triassic, radiolarians, biostratigraphy, northern Thailand.
INTRODUCTION events is still debatable. Therefore, the study of

radiolarians is a very important to know the tectonic
Recently, many micropaleontological investigations development of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic in Thailand.
clarified that Paleozoic and Mesozoic chert and other In May of 2004 and April of 2005, we undertook field
siliceous sedimentary rocks are widely distributed in survey in six areas of the Mae Sariang, Mae Hong Son,
Thailand, which are thought to have been deposited in the Chiang Dao, Phrao, Nan, and Pak Chom-Loei areas in
deep sea such in pelagic or hemipelagic environment (e.g., northern and northeastern Thailand to study the Plaeozoic
Sashida et al., 1993a, 1997, 1998, Kamata et al., 2002). In and Mesozoic radiolarian biostratigraphy (Fig. 1).
the modern understanding of the geotectonic of Southeast Fortunately, moderately to well-persevered Devonian to
Asia, it is widely accepted that Southeast Asia is Triassic radiolarians were recovered from the study
composed of several terranes or continental blocks sections. In this paper, we summarize the Devonian to
(Metcalfe, 1996 and others). Furthermore, the detailed Triassic radiolarian biostratigraphy established in those
biostratigraphic data of siliceous sedimentary rocks which areas and discuss the significance of their occurrence. Our
yield radiolarians are necessary to elucidate the tectonic paleontological results with synonym lists and systematic
development, terrane analysis and paleogeography in paleontology of radiolarians were already published in the
Southeast Asia. The origin of most of the continental thesis report of partial fulfillment of the requirements for
blocks is believed to be the northern margin of the Degree of Master of Science (Doctoral Program in the
Gondwanaland (e.g., Metcalfe, 1999). Then, the Earth Evolution Science of University of Tsukuba, Japan)
continental blocks were drifted away from Gondwanaland by Saesaengseerung (2006).
at different times. The Tethyian Ocean has been divided
into several stages, created by rift of continental blocks TECTONICS AND GEOLOGIC SETTING
and finally these continental blocks amalgamated to form OF THAILAND
the Asian Continent. Detailed age determinations based
mainly on the radiolarian biostratigraphy of pelagic and The mainland of Thailand consists of two principal
hemipelagic sediments have been used for the terrane continental blocks, the western Shan-Thai (Sibumasu or
analysis and for the understanding of the continental Sinoburmalaya) Block and the eastern Indochina Block
collisions and opening and/ or closing of the Palaeo-tethys (e.g., Bunopas, 1981, 1992; Metcalfe, 1999) (Fig. 1). The
ocean (e.g., Sashida et al., 1993a, 1995; Sashida and Igo, boundary between these blocks is marked by the Nan
1999; Kamata et al., 2002). However, the timing of these Suture (Nan-Uttaradit Suture). The Shan-Thai Block is an
54
elongate continental block trending north-south and its sponge spicules, foraminifers, and abundant radiolarian
basement consists of high-grade metamorphic rocks, tests (Figure 3A). Siliceous shale consists of clay minerals,
gneiss, and sedimentary rocks of Precambrian age. sponge spicules, and radiolarian tests. Tuffaceous
This Shan-Thai block characteristically includes Late siliceous shale consists of felsic tuff and intercalation of
Carboniferous to Early Permian glacial-marine diamictite thin layers of siliceous shale. Tuffaceous part is consisting
and Early Permian cool-water faunas that have been found of small amount of radiolarian tests, sponge spicules and
in the northwest Australia (e.g., Bunopas, 1981, 1992). angular detrital quartz in a fine-grained ash matrix.
The Shan-Thai Block has been removed from Siliceous shale layer is made up of clay-sized materials
northwestern Australian Gondwanaland after Early and contains radiolarian tests, and fine-grained detrital
Permian and collided with the Indochina Block in Late quartz. Moreover, the calcareous shale has abundant of
Triassic, and the closing of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean has thin-shelled bivalves and radiolarian tests, recovered only
occurred (e.g., Metcalfe, 1999). The Indochina Block is from the Mae Sariang area (Fig. 3B).
also an elongate stable block composed mainly of Based on the lithology, sedimentary structures and
Precambrian rocks with some Paleozoic shallow marine stratigraphy, the radiolarian-bearing rocks from the Mae
faunas and floras probably deposited in a warm climate Hong Son, Chiang Dao, Phrao, Nan and Pak Chom-Loei
(Metcalfe, 1988). This block is also believed to be the areas are thought to have been deposited in pelagic or
northern margin of Gondwanaland that drifted away from hemipelagic of the deep-sea environment. However,
Gondwanaland in the Devonian, during the opening of the lithological characters of several horizons of the rock
Palaeo-Tethys Ocean (Metcalfe, 1999). The geological sequence in the Mae Sariang area are slightly difference
framework of Thailand consists of seven longitudinal from the pelagic bedded chert, because they are
stratigraphic belts by Bunopas (1992), which are BS-1 to calcareous shale containing abundant of calcareous
BS-5 (Shan-Thai Block), and BI-6 to BI-7 (Indochina thin-shelled bivalves. As metioned earlier, the
Block) from west to east (Figure 1). The investigated area radiolarian-bearing rock in Mae Sariang area seems to
probably is within stratigraphic belts BS-2 to BI-6. The have been accumulated in the continental margin
stratigraphy of Paleozoic rocks distributed in northern compared with those rocks from the pelagic environment.
Thailand has been presented by several authors, e.g.,
Baum et al. (1970), Bunopas (1981, 1992), Hutchison DEVONIAN RADIOLARIAN
(1989), and others. BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
LITHOLOGY Early to Late Devonian radiolarians (Figure 4) were
recovered from the study sections in three areas; the Chiang
Radiolarian-bearing rocks in the Mae Sariang, Mae Hong Dao, Phrao, and Pak Chom-Loei areas. The Devonian
Son, Chiang Dao, Phrao, Nan, and Pak Chom-Loei areas radiolarian fauna was recovered from the Chiang Dao area,
consist of various colored chert, siliceous shale, sample nos. CD47-61 along the highway no. 107 (Chiang
calcareous shale and tuffaceous siliceous shale. Under Mai to Fang), about 106 km northeast of Chiang Mai city. In
microscopic observation, chert is mainly composed of
microcrystalline quartz associated with clay minerals,
Figure 1. (A) Seven Stratigraphic Belts (BS1-5, BI6, 7) of Thailand showing study localities. Basic map is from Bunopas (1992);
(B) Index map shows the study localities and the distribution of the Devonian, Permian and Triassic sedimentary rocks of northern
and northeastern Thailand. (Modified after the geological map of Thailand, DMR, 1999)
55
Figure 2. Correlation of seventeen stratigraphic columns with the Devonian-Triassic radiolarian zonation from the Mae Sariang,
Mae Hong Son, Chiang Dao, Phrao, Nan and Pak Chom-Loei areas, northern and northeastern Thailand.
56
1 1
1
2 2 0.5 mm
1 1
(A) (B)
Figure 3. (A) Dark gray chert (sample no. CD 9) from the Chiang Dao area; 1: Chert shows microcrystalline quartz with clay
minerals and abundant radiolarian tests. Some radiolarian tests have long conical shape which is similar to genus Triassocampe
(Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler, 1980) (microphotographs: un-crossed polar), 2: Its polished surface, scale bar: 1 cm; (B)
Calcareous shale (sample no. MSR 15) from the Mae Sariang area; 1: This thin-section shows radiolarian skeletons and band of
abundant thin-shelled bivalves (microphotographs: un-crossed polar), 2: The polished surface of sample no. MSR 15.
the Phrao area, the outcrop is located along the road no. 1150, 2. Trilonche sp. Interval Zone
Chiang Dao to Phrao, about 25 km west of Phrao city Definition: The base of this zone is the first occurrences
(sample nos. P27-31). In the Pak Chom-Loei area, four of Trilonche minax and the top is defined by the first
sections were selected for the detailed examination of appearance of Astroentactinia stella Nazarov (1975).
Devonian radiolarians; two sections are located about 25 km Other associated species are Trilonche vetusta (Hinde,
south of Pak-Chom city (sample nos. PC1-11) and other two 1899), Trilonche sp. A-G, T. dihelicis Wonganan and
sections are along the Khong River (sample nos. PC19-34). Caridroit (2005), T. vachardi Wonganan and Caridroit
(2005), Trilonche sp. cf. T. chiangdaoensis Wonganan and
Radiolarian zonation Caridroit (2005), T. palimbola (Foreman, 1963) and
others.
The Devonian strata in the study areas contain moderately to Occurrence: This zone is recognized in the Chiang Dao
well-preserved radiolarians that established four radiolarian and Pak Chom-Loei areas (sample nos. CD49-53 and
zonations. They are; the Early to Middle Devonian PC19-23).
radiolarian zone of the Tlecerina sp.- Stigmosphaerostylus sp. Age assignment: This zone can be correlated to the
Interval Zone, Middle to Late Devonian zone of the Trilonche minax assemblage (assemblage 7) from the
Trilonche sp. Interval Zone, and two Late Devonian zones Gamilaroi terrane in the New England Orogen, Eastern
of the Astroentactinia sp. Interval Zone and the Archocystium Australia (Aitchison et al., 1999) by having the Trilonche
sp. Assemblage Zone. minax that is an indicator of the late Givetian to lower
1. Tlecerina sp.- Stigmosphaerostylus sp. Interval Frasian. T. minax (considered herein as senior synonym of
Zone Entactinosphaera egindyensis Nazarov) is a characteristic
Definition: This zone is defined by abundant occurrence species of the Polyentactinia
of Tlecerina sp. and Stigmosphaerostylus sp. The base of circumretia-Entactinosphaera egindyensis assemblage of
this zone is defined by the occurrence of Tlecerina sp. and Nazarov (1988), which is assigned to late Givetian. The
Stigmosphaerostylus ornatus (Hinde, 1899) and the top by occurrence of Trilonche vetusta and T. palimbola indicates
the first occurrence of Trilonche minax (Hinde, 1899). Late Devonian (Frasnian to Famennian). Based on this
Occurrence: This zone is in the Chiang Dao and Pak faunal evidence, the present zone is estimated to Middle
Chom-Loei areas (sample nos. CD47-48 and PC 1-11). to Late Devonian (late Givetian to early Famennian).
Age assignment: The genus Tlecerina including species 3. Astroentactinia sp. Interval Zone
Tlecerina horrida Furutani was originally described from Definition: The base of this zone is marked by the first
the Lower or Middle Devonian from Japan (Furutani, 1983), appearance of Astroentactinia stella and the top is defined
and is a component of the Early to Middle Devonian (early by the first occurrence of Archocyrtium wonae Cheng
Emsian to Givetian) Strgmosphaerostylus horrida (1986). Associated species are Trilonche vetusta, T.
assemblage to Ceratokiscum regalinodus assemblage palimbola, Palaeoscenidium cladophorum Deflandre
(assemblage 1-6) in the Gamilaroi terrane, New England (1953), and Stigmosphaerostylus variospina (Won, 1983)
Orogen, Eastern Australia (Aitchison et al., 1999). Based on and others.
these several lines of faunal evidence, the present zone is Occurrence: This zone is represented by sample nos.
estimated to Early to Middle Devonian (Emsian? to CD54-61 (Chiang Dao area) and PC24-28 (Pak
Givetian). Chom-Loei area).
57
Figure 4. Devonian to Carboniferous radiolarians from the Chiang Dao, Phrao, and Pak Chom-Loei areas, Thailand. All figures
are scanning electronic micrographs. 1. Ceratoikiscum ? sp., 2-4. Palaeoscenidium cladophorum Deflandre, 5. Ceratoikiscum
bujugum Foreman, 6. Ceratoikiscum sp., 7. Ceratoikiscum sp. cf. C. delicatum Cheng, 8. Palaeoscenidium cladophorum Deflandre,
9. Circulaforma ? sp., 10. Tlecerina sp., 11. Pylentonema sp., 12. Ceratoikiscum planistellare Foreman, 13. Trilonche sp., 14.
Stigmosphaerostylus sp. B, 15. Archocyrtium sp. cf. A. venustum Cheng, 16. Archocyrtium sp. cf. A. effingi Kiessling and
Tragelehn, 17. Archocyrtium sp. A, 18. Archocyrtium sp. B, 19. Archocyrtium wonae Cheng, 20. Pylentonema sp. cf. P. racheboeufi
Gourmelon, 21. Polyentactinia sp., 22. Pylentonema sp. cf. P. mendax (Deflandre), 23. Stigmosphaerostylus sp. A, 24. Pylentonema
sp. cf. P. racheboeufi Gourmelon, 25. Trilonche davidi (Hinde), 26. Trilonche sp. F, 27. Trilonche sp. C, 28. Astroentactinia stellata
Nazarov, 29. Trilonche palimbola (Foreman), 30. Trilonche variospina (Won), 31. Trilonche sp. cf. T. echinata (Hinde), 32.
Stigmosphaerostylus sp. cf. S. hystricuosa (Aitchison), 33. Trilonche sp. cf. T. chiangdaoensis Wonganan and Caridroit, 34.
Trilonche vachardi Wonganan and Caridroit, 35. Trilonche sp. E, 36. Stigmosphaerostylus ornatus (Hinde), 37. Trilonche australis
(Aitchison), 38. Trilonche sp. B, 39. Trilonche palimbola (Foreman), 40. Trilonche hindea (Hinde), 41. Trilonche vetusta (Hinde),
42. Trilonche minax (Hinde), 43. Trilonche dihelicis Wonganan and Caridroit. Scale bars: 100 µm (A = 15-20, 24, 29-37; B = 10-14,
21-23, 25-28, 38-43; C = 1-9)
58
Age assignment: This Interval Zone is estimated to be the central Pyrenees, France (Gourmelon, 1987).
Late Devonian (Famennian) by the occurrence of
Astroentactinia stellata which has been reported from the Correlation of the proposed Devonian radiolarian
Late Devonian (Famennian) of Yunnan and Guangxi, zonations
South China (Wang et al., 2003). Associated radiolarian
species have been worldwide reported from the Late Aitchison et al. (1999) recognized 7 radiolarian
Devonian. assemblages in the Early to Middle Devonian (Emsian to
4. Archocyrtium sp. Assemblage Zone Givetian) biozonations from the Gamilaroi Terrane, New
Definition: This zone is defined by the co-occurrence of England Orogen, and eastern Australia. Among them,
Archocyrtium wonae Cheng (1986), A. riedeli Deflanfre, Stigmosphaerostylus horrida, Helenifore laticlavium,
Archocyrtium sp. cf. A. venustum Cheng (1986), Circulaforma admissarius, Helenifore pilosidiscus,
Archocyrtium sp. cf. A. effingi Kiessling and Tragelehn Protoholeciscus hindea, and Ceratokiscum regalinodus
(1994), Archocyrtium sp. A and B, Stigmosphaerostylus assemblages might be correlated to the Tlecerina sp.-
variospina (Won, 1983) and Astroentactinia multispinosus Stigmosphaerostylus sp. Interval Zone of this study.
(Won) and others. Moreover, the Trilonche minax assemblage of Aitchison et
Occurrence: This zone is recognized only in the Pak al. (1999) is the youngest assemblage within seven
Chom-Loei area along the Mae Khong River (sample nos. assemblages which are assigned to be Middle to Late
PC28-31 and PC32-34). Devonian (late Gavetian to early Frasnian). This Trilonche
Age assignment: The Archocyrtium sp. Assemblage Zone minax assemblage can be correlated to the lower part of
is estimated to Late Devonian (Famennian) by the the Trilonche sp. Interval Zone of this study by the
occurrence of Archocyrtium wonae which has been occurrence of T. minax (Fig. 5).
reported from Late Devonian (Famennian), Oklahoma, In addition, radiolarian fauna of the Trilonche sp. Zone
North America, Frankenwald, Germany, Xinjiang, Yunnan resembles Late Devonian (Frasnian to early Famennian)
and Guangxi, China (Cheng, 1986; Kiessling and Tragelehn, radiolarian faunas from northern Thailand (Wonganan and
1994; Wang et al., 2003). However, the age assignment of Caridroit, 2005) by having the same and related
this zone is probably continuous from the Late Devonian to radiolarian species; Trilonche vetusta, T. palimbola, T.
Early Carboniferous (Tournaisian) by the co-occurrence of dihelicis, T. vachardi, T. chiangdaoensis, and others. The
some radiolarians such as Stigmosphaerostylus variospina, Astroentactinia sp. Zone is estimated to be Late Devonian
Astroentactinia multispinosus, and Archocyrtium riedeli (Famennian) by the first appearance of Astroentactinia
Deflandre in this study that are also known from the stellata which has been reported from the Late Devonian
Tournaisian phosphatic nodules from Montagne Noire and
Figure 5. Correlation chart of the proposed Devonian radiolarian zones with the zones in Northern Thailand, Eastern Australia.
59
(Frasnian to Famennian) from northern Thailand (Sashida and others.
et al., 1998), southern Urals, Russia (Nazarov and Occurrence: Follicucullus scholasticus Interval Zone was
Ormiston, 1985), Western Australia (Aitchison, 1993), and recovered from the Mae Hong Son area (sample nos.
from the Famennian of Yunnan and Guangxi, South China MHS7-11) and Chiang Dao area (sample nos. CD30-32).
(Wang et al., 2003). Moreover, the Astroentactinia sp. Age assignment: Species component of this zone is quite
Interval Zone and the Archocyrtium sp. Assemblage Zone similar to that of the faunas reported in red bedded chert
can be correlated to Entactinia varispina assemblage of exposed near Ban Bo Rae, and in black siliceous shale
Sashida and Igo (1999), which has been assigned to be near Ban Sap Phu in the Srakaeo area, Eastern Thailand
Late Devonian (Famennian) to Early Carboniferous (Sashida et. al., 1997). Moreover, similar radiolarian
(Tournaisian) by co-occurring of the Stigmosphaerostylus fauna has been reported from Japan (e.g., Ishiga 1990),
variospina. Thailand and Malaysia (Sashida and Igo, 1999) and
Yao and Kuwahara (1999), Luo et al. (2002) and Wang et Oregon (Blome & Reed 1992). The age of this zone is
al. (2003) reported Paleozoic radiolarians from the estimated through the interval of the latest Middle to
Changning-Menglian Terranes in western Yunna and earliest Late Permian (Capitanian to Wuchiapigian) based
Guangxi, South China. These radiolarian faunas are rather on the occurrence of radiolarian species which are
similar to those from Australia (Nazarov and Ormiston, recorded from the Gauadalupian Lamar Limestone of
1983; Aitchison, 1993) and our study areas (Chiang Dao, Texas by Ormiston & Babcock (1979), and
Phrao and Pak Chom-Loei areas). This suggests that biostratigraphic study by Ishiga (1986).
oceanic sediments containing Devonian radiolarians which 2. Neoalbaillella optima/Albaillella levis
are distributed in Chiang Dao, Phrao and Pak Chom-Loei Assemblage Zone.
areas, Australia, and South China (Li and Wang, 1991; Wang, Definition: The base of this zone is marked by the first
1997; Yao and Kuwahara, 1999; Luo et al., 2002) probably appearance of Neoalbaillella optima and Albaillella levis
were deposited within the Palaeo-Tethys ocean in this time. however, the top of this zone can not be observed.
Radiolarian fauna of this zone is composed of diversified
PERMIAN RADIOLARIAN radiolarians such as Albaillella triangularis Ishiga, Kito
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY and Imoto (1982), Latentifistula texana Nazarov and
Ormiston (1985), Neoalbaillela ? sp. A and B,
Middle to Late Permian (Guadalupian to Lopingian) Triplanospongos musashiensis Sashida and Tonishi (1988),
radiolarians (Figure 6) were recovered from rock Nazarovella inflate Sashida and Tonishi (1986),
sequences in the Mae Hong Son and Chiang Dao areas. In Latentibifistula asperspongiosa Sashida and Tonishi
the Mae Hong Son area, two sections along the road of (1986), Helgleria mammilla, and others.
Ban Huai Mai Sang Nam village, about 25 km south of Occurrence: This zone is recognized in four sections
Mae Hong Son city (sample nos. MHS1-12 and from the Mae Hong Son and Chiang Dao areas (sample
MHS13-15) were selected and studied. In the Chiang Dao nos. MHS1-6, 12-15 and CD17-25, 28- 29).
area, Permian radiolarians were recovered from the Age assignment: This radiolarian zone rather resembles
section along the road, about 25 km north of Chiang Dao the Neoalbaillella optima and N. ornithoformis
city in Ban Huai Tin Tang village, Chiang Dao area assemblages reported from the bedded chert exposed at
(sample nos. CD1-32). Ban Huai Tin Tang, north of Chiang Dao (Sashida et. al,
2000). Related radiolarian fauna containing N.
Radiolarian zonation ornithoformis and N. optima has been reported from
Thailand and Malaysia (Sashida and Igo, 1999), and Japan
The Permian strata contain moderately to well-preserved (e.g., Ishiga 1990 and others).
radiolarians (Fig. 6). The Middle to Late Permian According to Ishiga (1990), the radiolarian zone is
radiolarian zones herein are called as the Follicucullus assigned to the Late Permian (Wuchiapigian to
scholasticus Interval Zone and the Neoalbaillella Changsingian).
optima/Albaillella levis Assemblage Zone.
1. Follicucullus scholasticus Interval Zone Correlation of the proposed Permian radiolarian
Definition: This zone is defined by the interval between zonations
the first occurrences of the nominal species Follicucullus
scholasticus Ormiston and Babcock (1979) in the base Ishiga (1990) recognized two kinds of assemblages for the
and the last occurrence of Neoalbaillella Middle to Late Permian; one with Follicuculus
optima/Albaillella levis Ishiga, Kito and Imoto (1982) in scholasticus m. I, and F. bipartitus- F. charveti
the top. This zone is characterized by the abundant assemblages in the Ultra-Tamba Terrane and Kurosegawa
occurrence of Helgleria mammilla (Sheng and Wang, Terrane, and the other, with F. scholasticus m. II in the
1985) associated with Nazarovella gracilis De Wever and Tamba-Mino Terrane, Japan. In this study, the
Coridroit (1984), Follicucullus ventricosus Ormiston and Follicuculus scholasticus Interval Zone can be correlated
Babcock (1979), F. porrectur Rudenko (1984), F. to the Middle to Late Permian radiolarian assemblages
orthogonus Coridroit and De Wever (1984), Follicucullus which were reported in Japan. The Neoalbaillella
sp. A and B, Pseudoalbaillella lomentaria Ishiga and optima/Albaillella levis Assemblage Zone in the present
Imoto (1980), Polyfistula novem Noble and Renne (1990), study also resembles the Neoalbaillella optima and N.
60
Figure 6. Permian radiolarians from the Mae Hong Son and Chiang Dao areas, northern Thailand. All figures are scanning
electronic micrographs. 1. Albaillella levis Ishiga, Kito and Imoto, 2. Albaillella triangularis Ishiga, Kito and Imoto, 3.
Pseudoalbaillella lomentaria Ishiga and Imoto, 4. Neoalbaillela optima Ishiga, Kito, and Imoto, 5. Neoalbaillela ? sp. A, 6.
Neoalbaillela ? sp. B, 7. Follicucullus scholasticus Ormiston and Babcock, 8. Follicucullus sp. A, 9. Follicucullus orthogonus
Coridroit and De Wever, 10. Follicucullus sp. B, 11. Follicucullus ventricosus Ormiston and Babcock, 12. Follicucullus porrectus
Rudenko, 13. Follicucullus ventricosus Ormiston and Babcock, 14, 15. Stigmosphaerostylus sp. C, 16. Copicyntra sp. A, 17.
Copicyntra sp. cf. C. akikawaensis Sashida and Tonishi, 18. Genus and species indeterminate, 19. Polyfistula sp. A, 20. Polyfistula
novem Noble and Renne, 21. Pseudospongprunum ? sp. B, 22. Copicyntra sp. cf. C. akikawaensis Sashida and Tonishi, 23.
Srakaeosphaera minuta Sashida, 24, 25. Hegleria mammilla (Sheng and Wang), 26. Tiborella ? sp., 27. Trilonche pseudocimelia
(Sashida and Tonishi), 28. Pseudospongprunum ? fontainei Sashida, 29. Pseudospongprunum ? sp. A, 30. Triplanospongos
musashiensis Sashida and Tonishi, 31. Foremanhelena triangular De Wever and Caridroit, 32. Latentifistula texana Nazarov and
Ormiston, 33. Nazarovella scalae Caridroit and De Wever, 34. Ishigaum trifustis De Wever and Coridroit, 35. Latentibifistula
asperspongiosa Sashida and Tonishi, 36. Praedeflandrella sp., 37. Nazarovella gracilis De Wever and Coridroit, 38. Nazarovella
inflate Sashida and Tonishi, 39. Incertae sedis, 40-42. Ishigaum ? sp., 43. Latentifistula sp., 44. Pseudotormentus sp. Scale bars:
100 µm (A = 36-44; B = 7-26, 30-35; C = 1-6, 27-29)
61
orthoformis Assemblage Zones in Late Permian scholasticus Interval zone in this study can be correlated
(Wuchiapigian to Changhsingian) by Ishiga (1990) (Fig. to Follicuculus scholasticus Zone (Blome and Reed,
7). 1992) which is assigned to the Middle to Late Permian
Wang et al. (1994) established eight radiolarian zones (Capitanian to Wuchiapigian). Besides, the Follicuculus
(Middle to Late Permian) from South China. The scholasticus and Neoalbaillella optima/Albaillela levis
Neoalbaillella optima-N. orthithoformis Zone zone can be correlated to the Hegleria mamifera and
(Wuchiapigian to Changhsingian) resembles the Follicucullus ventricosus Assemblage of the Late Permian
Neoalbaillella optima/Albaillela levis Zone in the our limestones in the Southern Urals, USSR and West Taxas,
zonation. Moreover, the Follicucullus scholasticus Zone USA (Nazarov and Ormiston, 1985) by the similar
in the Capitanian to Wuchiapigian of this study can be radiolarian occurrence such as Follicucullus ventricosus, F.
correlated to the Follicucullus sholasticus-F. Ventricosus scholasticus and Hegleria mamifera.
Zone. In additional, the Follicuculus scholasticus and
The Neoalbaillella optima and N. orthoformis Zones of Neoalbaillella optima/Albaillela levis zone in this study
Blome and Reed (1992) are the youngest zones of the can be correlated to the Follicuculus scholasticus,
Late Permian zonation which were proposed from the Neoalbaillella optima, and N. ornithoformis Assemblages
Oregon, USA. These Permian radiolarian zones can be which were reported from Thailand and Malaysia by
correlated to the Neoalbaillella optima/Albaillella levis Sashida and Igo (1999). The age assigned to Guadalupian
Assemblage Zone of this study. The Follicuculus to Lopingian in Permian (Capitanian to Changhsingian).
Figure 7. Correlation chart of the proposed Permian radiolarian zones with the zones in Southwest Japan,
South China, Oregon, USSR and West Taxas, and Thailand and Malaysia.
TRIASSIC RADIOLARIAN 26-27). Siliceous rocks in these sections contain Permian

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY and Triassic radiolarians. However, the boundary of
Permian and Triassic can not be observed due to soil cover.
Triassic radiolarians (Figures 8 and 9) were recovered In the Phrao area, all of the 11 samples (sample nos.
from the study sections in five areas; the Mae Sariang, P14-24) yielded poorly to moderately-preserved
Mae Hong Son, Chiang Dao, Phrao, and Nan areas from radiolarians. This locality is along the road no. 1001
west to east of North Thailand. In the Mae Sariang area, Chiang Mai to Phrao, about 15 km southern of Phrao city.
two sections along the roadside cliff about 7 km west of This section can not be assigned the zonation because the
Mae Sariang city near the Thai-Myanmar border (sample radiolarian species are low diversity. However, these
nos. MSR1-32) were studied. In the Mae Hong Son area, radiolarian fauna can be estimated to Middle Triassic by the
the Triassic radiolarian zones are established in three occurrence of Middle Triassic radiolarians;
sections, along the road about 25 km north of Mae Hong Pseudostylosphaera sp. cf. P. timorensis Sashida and Kamata
Son city (sample nos. MHS16-28). Two sections at Ban (1999), Pseudostylosphaera sp. cf. P. longispinosa Kozur and
Huai Tin Tang village, Chiang Dao area, are located about Mostler (1981), Cenosphaera igoi Sashida (2000),
25 km north of Chiang Dao city (sample nos. CD1-16, Triassospongosphaera mulitispinosa (Kozur and Mostler,
62
1979), Spine A1, and others. In the Nan area, the study and Nishimura, 1979). The radiolarian species of this zone
section is located along the road No. 1169 about 26 km includes Parasepsagon ? antiques (Sugiyama, 1992),
north of Nan city (samples nos. STS1-6). Eptingium nakasekoi, Annulotriassocampe campanilis
Kozur and Mostler (1994), Pseudotriassocampe sp., and
Triassic radiolarian zonation others.
Occurrence: The Triassocampe coronata Interval Zone is
1. Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Interval Zone recognized in the Mae Sariang, Mae Hong Son, Chiang
Definition: The beginning of this zone is defined by the Dao, and Phrao areas (sample nos. MSR4-5, 32,
first occurrence of Parentacinia nakatsugawaensis MHS17-18, and CD7-9).
Sashida (1983) and ending at the top by the first Age assignment: This zone is similar to the assemblages
occurrence of Eptingium nakasekoi Dumitica (1978a). that were reported from the Mae Sariang area,
The co-occurred species are Archaeosemantis sp. cf. A. northwestern Thailand (Kamata et. al., 2002), Ban Huai Tin
venusta Sashida (1983), Spongostephanidium sp. cf. S. Tang, northern Thailand (Sashida et. al., 2000), and
longisinosum Sashida (1991), and others. western Tethys (Kozur and Mostler, 1981, 1994), and can
Occurrence: This interval zone is recognized in the Mae be correlated to the TR 2B zone in central Japan
Sariang area ( sample no. MSR1) and Mae Hong Son area (Sugiyama, 1997). The age of this radiolarian zone is
( sample nos. MHS21-25). estimated to be Middle Triassic (Anisian).
Age assignment: Similar radiolarian fauna has been 4. Triassocampe deweveri Interval Zone
reported from the dark gray bedded chert exposed at Ban Definition: The base of this zone is defined by the first
Huai Tin Tang, north of Chiang Dao, northern appearance of the Triassocampe deweveri and the upper
Thailand (Sashida et. al, 2000), the Mae Sariang area limit is defined by the first occurrence of the Spine A2.
(Kamata et. al, 2002) and worldwide such as; the Kanto The associated species are T. nishimurai Kozur and
Mountains (Sashida, 1991), Mino areas in Japan Mostler (1994), Annulotriassocampe campanilis,
(Sugiyama, 1992 and 1997), and Oregon, USA (Blome Cenosphaera igoi Sashida, and others.
and Reed, 1992). The age of this zone is estimated as late Occurrence: This radiolarian zone is recognized in the
Olenekian to early Anisian on the basis of co-occurring Mae Sariang (samples nos. MSR6-7, 31), Mae Hong Son
conodont data in Japan (Sashida 1991; Sugiyama, 1992). (samples nos. MHS19-20), Chiang Dao (samples nos.
Furthermore, the present zone can be correlated to Late CD1-6), and Nan areas (samples nos. STS1-6).
Olenelian to early Anisian TR 1 (Parentactinia Age assignment: Species components of this radiolarian
nakatsugawaensis) Assemblage Zone by Sugiyama zone resemble those of the Triassocampe deweveri
(1997). Assemblage established by Yao (1982) in bedded chert
2. Eptingium nakasekoi Interval Zone sequences in the Mino Belt, Southwest Japan. A similar
Definition: The base of this zone is defined by the first radiolarian fauna is also known to occur in the Trat area,
appearance of the Eptingium nakasekoi and the top is Eastern Thailand (Sashida et al., 1997), the Far East of
defined by the fist appearance of the Triassocampe Russia (Bragin, 1991) and can be correlated to the TR 2C
coronata Bragin (1991). The following radiolarians are (Triassocampe deweveri Lower-occurrence Zone) Zone in
associated with Eptingium manfredi Dumitica (1978a), central Japan (Sugiyama, 1997). The age of this
Pseudostylosphera spinulosa (Nakaseko and Nishimura, radiolarian zone is assigned to be Middle Triassic (middle
1979), P. cocostyla compacta (Nakaseko and Nishimura, to upper Anisian) based on the age of associated
1979), P. timorensis Sashida and Kamata (1999), conodonts (Sugiyama, 1997).
Archaeospongoprunum bispinosum Kozur and Mostler 5. Spine A2 Interval Zone
(1981), and others. Definition: The base of zone is defined by the first
Occurrence: This radiolarian zone was set up in appearance of Spine A2 and the top is defined by the first
radiolarian-baring rocks of the Mae Sariang, Mae Hong occurrence of Tritortis kretaensis dispiralis (Kozur and
Son, Chiang Dao, and Phrao areas (sample nos. MSR2-3, Krahl, 1984). The associated radiolarian species are Spine
MHS16, 27, CD10-16, 27- 28 and P14-21). A1 and B, Pentaspongodiscus mesotriassicus Dumitrica
Age assignment: A similar radiolarian fauna is known to (1978b), Triassocampe deweveri, Parasepsagon ? antiques,
occur in the bedded chert exposed at Ban Huai Tin Tang, Annulotriassocampe campanilis, Pseudotriassocampe sp. cf.
northern Thailand (Sashida et. al., 2000), Trat area, P. gaetanii Kozur and Mostler (1994) and others.
eastern Thailand (Sashida et. al., 1997), Mae Sariang area, Occurrence: This Spine A2 Interval Zone is recognized
northwestern Thailand (Kamata et. al., 2002) and several only in Section I and II in the Mae Sariang area, and
areas in Japan (e.g., Sugiyama 1992, Sashida et. al, represented by samples nos. MSR8-9 and 30.
1993b). The age of this fauna is estimated to be Middle Age assignment: This zone is similar to the latest Anisian
Triassic (Anisian) based on the correlation with the TR 2A TR 3A (Spine A2 Lower-occurrence Zone) zone which
assemblage by the age of co-occurring conodont in Japan has been reported from Japan (Sugiyama, 1997).
(Sugiyama, 1997). Moreover, Falcispongus calcaneum (Spine A2) has been
3. Triassocampe coronata Interval Zone assigned to latest Anisian to early Ladinian by Dumitrica
Definition: The base of this zone is defined by the first (1982). Therefore, the age of this zone is estimated to be
appearance of the Triassocampe and the top is defined by Middle Triassic (latest Anisian).
the first appearance of Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko
63
Figure 8. Triassic radiolarians from the Mae Sariang, Mae Hong Son, Chiang Dao, Phrao, and Nan areas, northern Thailand. All
figures are scanning electronic micrographs. 1. Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Sashida, 2. Parentactinia sp., 3. Archaeosemantis
sp., 4. Archaeosemantis sp. cf. A. venusta Sashida, 5. Hozmadia ? sp., 6. Pseudotriassocampe hungarica Kozur and Mostler, 7.
Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura), 8. Triassocampe coronata Bragin, 9. Yeharaia annulata Nakaseko and
Nishimura, 10. Yeharaia sp. cf. Y. annulata Nakaseko and Nishimura, 11. Multisegmented Nassellaria gen. et sp. Indet B, 12.
Castrum perornatum Blome, 13. Triassocampae sp. cf. T. cylindrical Kozur and Mostler, 14. Triassocampe nishimurai Kozur and
Mostler, 15. Annulotriassocampe campanilis Kozur and Mostler, 16. Canoptum sp., 17. Triassocampe coronata Bragin, 18.
Pseudotriassocampe sp., 19. Pseudotriassocampe sp., 20. Annulotriassocampe campanilis Kozur and Mostler, 21.
Striatotriassocampe laeviannulata Kozur and Mostler, 22. Multisegmented Nassellaria gen. et sp. Indet A, 23. Triassocampe
deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura, 1979), 24. Triassocampe sp. cf. T. scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler, 25. Triassocampae
sp. cf. T. cylindrical Kozur and Mostler, 26. Eptingium manfredi Dumitrica, 27. Eptingium nakasekoi Kozur and Moster, 28.
Cryptostrphanidium ? megaspinosum Sashida and Kamata, 29. Cryptostephanidium ? sp. A, 30. Spongostephanidium japonicum
(Nakaseko and Nishimura), 31. Triassospongosphaera sp. A, 32. Spongostephanidium sp. A, 33. Hozmadia sp. A, 34. Paurinella sp.,
35. Paurinella curvata tenispinosa Kozur and Mostler, 36, 37. Paurinella balatonica Kozur and Mostler, 38. Katorella bifurcate
Kozur and Moslter, 39. Spongostephanidium sp. cf. S. longispinosum Sashida, 40. Spongostephanidium sp. cf. S. japonicum
(Nakaseko and Nishimura), 41. Spongostephanidium japonicum (Nakaseko and Nishimura), 42. Triassospongosphaera
multispinosa (Kozur and Mostler), 43. Astrocentrus sp., 44. Praegomberellus sp. cf. P. pulche Kozur and Mostler, 45. Rikivatella sp.
cf. R. nodosospinosa Kozur and Mostler, 46. Triassospongosphaera multispinosa (Kozur and Mostler), 47.
Archaeospongoprunum ? sp. A, 48. Paurinella trettoensis Kozur and Mostler, 49. Pentactinorbis sp., 50. Rikivatella sp. cf. R.
nodosospinosa Kozur and Mostler, 51. Praenanina veghae Kozur, 52. Cenosphaera igoi Sashida, 53. Praenanina veghae Kozur.
Scale bars: 100 µm (A = 50-53; B = 26-49; C = 1-25, 27-29)
64
Figure 9. Triassic radiolarians from the Mae Sariang, Mae Hong Son, Chiang Dao, Phrao, and Nan areas, northern Thailand. All
figures are scanning electronic micrographs. 1. Pseudostylosphaera sp. C, 2. Pseudostylosphaera cf. longispinosa Kozur and
Mostler, 3. Pseudostylosphaera cf. longispinosa Kozur and Mostler, 4, 5. Pseudostylosphaera sp. A, 6. Psedostylosphaera sp. cf. P.
gracilis Kozur and Mostler, 7. Pseudostylosphaera coccostyla compacta ( Nakaseko and Nishimura), 8. Spongstylus koppi (Lahm),
9. Spongstylus sp. A, 10. Pseudostylosphaera timorensis Sashida and Kamata, 11. Pseudostylosphaera coccostyla compacta (
Nakaseko and Nishimura), 12. Pseudostylosphaera spinulosa (Nakaseko and Nishimura), 13. Pseudostylosphaera spinulosa
(Nakaseko and Nishimura), 14. Pseudostylosphaera sp. B, 15. Pseudostylosphaera sp. C, 16. Paroertlispongus multispinosus Kozur
and Mostler, 17. Psedostylosphaera sp. cf. P. gracilis Kozur and Mostler, 18. Pseudostylosphaera sp. cf. P. hellenica (De Wever), 19.
Archaeospongoprunum mesotriassicum mesotriassicum Kozur and Mostler, 20. Archaeospongoprunum bispinosum Kozur and
Mostler, 21. Archaeospongoprunum mesotriassicum asymmetricum Kozur and Mostler, 22. Archaeospongoprunum mesotriassicum
mesotriassicum Kozur and Mostler, 23. Tiborella anisica Kozur and Mostler, 24, 46. Tiborella ? sp., 25. Pentaspongodiscus sp., 26.
Pentaspongodiscus mesotriassicus Dumitrica, 27. Tetrapaurinella tetrahedrica Kozur and Mostler, 28. Parasepsagon asymmetricus
praetetracanthus Kozur and Mostler, 29. Dumitricasphaera goestlingensis Kozur and Mostler, 30. Spine B, Dumitricasphaera sp. cf.
D. planustyla Lahm, 31. Falcispongus cuvispinus (Dumitrica), 32. Spine A2, Oertlispongus sp. cf. O. inaequispinosus Dumitrica,
Kozur and Mostler, 33. Spine A1, Paroertlispongus sp. cf. P. multispinosus Kozur and Mostler, 34. Tetrarchiplagia sp. cf. T.
compacta Sashida and Kamata, 35. Pentaspongodiscus cf. ruesti Kozur and Mostler, 36. Tritortis kretaensis dispiralis (Kozur and
Krahl), 37. Triortis sp., 38. Capnuchosphaera ? sp., 39. Tritoris sp. A, 40. Cotoma sp. cf. C. inedita Blome, 41. Pentaspongodiscus
mesotriassicus Dumitrica, 42. Praeobiculiformella karnica Kozur and Mostler, 43. Sarla ? sp., 44. Parasepsagon ? antiques
(Sugiyama), 45. Paurinella trettoensis Kozur and Mostler. Scale bars: 100 µm (A = 23-28, 35-41; B = 1-18, 42-46; C = 19-22, 29-34)
65
6. Triortis kretraensis dispiralis Assemblage Zone probably equivalent to the TR3B, TR4A, and TR4B Zones
Definition: The base of this zone is defined by the by the occurrence of common species (Sugiyama, 1997)
appearance of Tritortis kretaensis dispiralis, but the top of such as Triortis sp., T. kretaensis dispiralis, and others
this zone is uncertain because the upper limit cannot be (Fig. 10).
observed. The co-occurring radiolarians are Canotum sp., Kozur and Mostler (1994) investigated several sections in
Castrum perornatum Blome (1984), Dumitricasphaera Hungary, Italy and Austria with additional samples from
geostlingensis Kozur and Mostler (1979), Tetrarchiplagia other countries, and established the following Middle to
sp. cf. T. compacta Sashida and Kamata (1999), Tritoris Late Triassic (Anisian to Carnian) zones; Parasepsagon
sp., Capnuchosphaera sp., and others. robustus, Tetraspinocyrtis laevis, Spongosiicarmiger
Occurrence: This zone is recognized in the Mae Sariang italicus, Ladinocampe multiperforata, Mulleritortis
area, northwestern Thailand, and represented by samples cochleata, Tritortis kretaensis, and Tetraporobrachia
nos. MSR10-29. haeckeli Zones in ascending order. Based on their
Age assignment: Exempt the nominal species, the fauna definition, it is difficult to make precise correlation
of this zone yielded the following Middle to Late Triassic between radiolarian zones of Kozur and Mostler (1994)
radiolarians; Canotum sp., Castrum perornatum, and our study. However, the Spongosiicarmiger italicus
Dumitricasphaera, Tetrarchiplagia sp. cf. T. compacta, Zone is probably correlated to the Triassocampe deweveri,
Tritoris sp., Capnuchosphaera sp., Tritortis kretaensis Spine A2, and the lower part of the Triortis kretraensis
dispiralis, and others. Furthermore, the present zone might dispiralis Zones by the occurrence of diagnostic species.
have been correlated with the Tritortis kretaensis Zone which Therefore, the Triortis kretraensis dispiralis Assemblage
has been established in late Ladinian to early Carnian by Zone of this study might have been correlated to the
Kozur and Mostler (1994). Based on these chronological data, Ladinocampe multiperforata, Mulleritortis cochleata, and
the present zone is assigned to the Ladinian to early? Tritortis kretaensis Zones (Kozur and Mostler, 1994).
Carnian. Bragin (1991) studied Triassic radiolarians from siliceous
claystone and bedded chert units in Sikhote-Alyn,
Correlation of the proposed Triassic zonations Sakhalin and the Koryak Upland, and established six
zones from the Lower to Late Triassic. They are the
Sugiyama (1997) discriminated the following eighteen “Stylosphaera” fragilis, Hozmadia, Triassocampe
radiolarian zones (Triassic to Jurassic) in the Mino terrene, diordinis, T. deweveri, Sarla dispiralis, and T. nova Zones
Central Japan. Eleven radiolarian zones which are lower in ascending order. The Hozmadia Zone is correlated with
Olenekian to late Carnian age such as, the TR0 the lower part of the Eptingium nakasekoi Zone based on
(Follicucullus-Parentactinia Assemblage Zone), TR1 the stratigraphic position of the overlying zone. The
(Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Assemblage Zone), Triassocampe diordinis Zone is correlative with the upper
TR2A (Eptingium nakasekoi group Lowest-occurrence part of the Eptingium nakasekoi to Triassocampe coronata
Zone), TR2B (Triassocampe coronata group Zone because of the occurrence of Pseudostylosphaera sp.
Lowest-occurrence Zone), TR2C (Triassocampe deweveri and the absence of Triassocampe deweveri. The
Lowest-occurrence Zone), TR3A (Spine A2 Triassocampe deweveri Zone of Bragin (1991) is
Lowest-occurrence Zone), TR3B (Yeharaia elegans group correlative with Triassocampe deweveri Interval Zone to
Lowest-occurrence Zone), TR4A (Muelleritortis the lower part of the Triortis kretraensis dispiralis
cochletum Lowest-occurrence Zone), TR4B Assemblage Zone in this study since T. deweveri appears.
(Spongoserrula dehli Lowest-occurrence Zone), TR5A The Sarla dispiralis Zone can be correlated to the Triortis
(Capnuchosphaera Lowest-occurrence Zone), and TR5 kretraensis dispiralis Assemblage Zone in this study by
(Poulpus carcharus Lowest-occurrence Zone) Zones in the appearance of diagnostic species.
ascending order. The TR1 Zone is equivalent to the Sashida and Igo (1999) summarized the stratigraphic
present oldest Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Internal occurrences of the radiolarians and discussed
Zone based on the occurrence of characteristic species in paleobiogeographic and tectonic significance in Thailand
both zones. The Eptingium nakasekoi Interval Zone in this and Malaysia. They discrimenated following two Early to
study is correlated to the TR2A Zone by the first Middle Triassic radiolarian assemblages; the
appearance of Eptingium nakasekoi in the base and the Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis, and Eptingium manfredi
first occurrence of Triassocampe coronata in the top. The assemblages in stratigraphic order. The Parentactinia
Triassocampe coronata Interval Zone of the present nakatsugawaensis Interval Zone of this study can be
zonation can be correlated to the TR2B Zone by first correlated to the Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis
appearance of T. coronata in the base and T. deweveri in assemblage by Sashida and Igo (1999) with the nominal
the top of these zones. The TR2C resembles the species. The Eptingium nakasekoi, Triassocampe
Triassocampe deweveri Interval Zone of this study by the coronata, T. deweveri, and Spine A2 Interval Zones in the
base of these zones is defined by the first appearance of studied zonation can be correlated to the Eptingium
the nominal species T. deweveri and top is defined by manfredi
Spine A2. The Spine A2 Interval Zone in this study is assemblages (Sashida and Igo, 1999) by the occurrence of
correlative to the TR3A Zone of Sugiyama (1997) by the the Eptingium manfredi, Triassocampe deweveri,
first occurrence of Spine A2 in the base. The youngest Archaeosemantis sp., Triassocampe spp., and
Triortis kretraensis dispiralis Assemblage Zone is Pseudostylosphaera spinulosa.
66
Figure 10. Correlation chart of the proposed Triassic radiolarian zones with the zones in Japan, Hungary, Italy and Austria,
Sikhote-Alyn, Sakhalin and Koryak Upland, and Thailand and Malaysia.
PALEOGEOGRAPHIC SIGNIFICANCE 1999), South Urals, Russia (Nazarov and Ormiston, 1985).
However, this suggests that oceanic sediments containing
Recently, biostratigraphic and paleogeographic studies of Devonian radiolarians which are distributed in Chiang Dao,
microfossils such as radiolarians, conodonts, and Phrao and Pak Chom-Loei areas in this study, Australia and
foraminifers in Southeast Asia have been undertaken to America (Nazarov and Ormiston, 1983; Aitchison and Flood,
understand the development of the Palaeo-Tethys ocean 1990; Aitchison, 1993; Aitchison et al., 1999), South Urals,
during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic (e.g., Ampornmaha, Russia (Nazarov and Ormiston, 1985) and Southwest and
1995; Metcalfe, 1999; Metcalfe et al., 1999; Sashida and Southern China (Li and Wang, 1991; Wang, 1997; Yao and
Igo, 1999; Kamata et al., 2002; Fang et al., 2005). These Kuwahara, 1999; Luo et al., 2002) were probably deposited
studies have provided many data to infer the timing of within the same Palaeo-Tethys ocean. Most of the
rifting, collision, and amalgamation of the continental discovered radiolarian faunas from the localities mentioned
blocks. Moreover, the occurrence of Early Devonian to Late exhibit low latitude of Tethyan affinities (Metcalfe, 1999). In
Triassic radiolarian faunas in northern and northeastern additional, this wide Palaeo-Tethys ocean must have existed
Thailand in this study prove that these areas are a key to between the Shan-Thai and Indochina continental terranes at
understanding the origin, paleoposition and development of least since the Early Devonian by the discovery of Early
the Palaeo-Tethys ocean. Devonian radiolarian fauna from radiolarian-bearing rocks in
Early to Late Devonian radiolarian faunas were recovered this study (Fig. 11).
from the Chiang Dao, Phrao and Pak Chom-Loei areas in As shows in this study, the Middle Permian to Late Triassic
this study. Although these areas seem to lack some radiolarian faunas were recovered from several areas in
characteristic radiolarian faunas of this interval such as northern Thailand, such as, the Mae Sariang, Mae Hong
species of the genera Holoeciscus, Helenifore and Son, Chiang Dao, Phrao and Nan areas. These radiolarian
Protoalbaillela, among which only the Helenifore sp. has faunas are quite similar to those reported from Japan,
been reported from the Pai area (Sashida et al., 1993a). southern China, the Russian Far East, western North USA,
However, our radiolarian faunas indicate close faunal affinity Hungary, Italy, Austria, Sikhote-Alyn, Sakhalin and the
among Thailand and Australian faunas throughout this time. Koryak Upland, (Ishiga, 1990; Wang et al., 1994; Blome
Many forms, which were reported from Australia and world and Reed, 1992; Nazarov and Ormiston, 1985; Kozur and
wide, are common in the Chiang Dao, Phrao and Pak Mostler, 1994; Bragin, 1991). In the reconstructed
Chom-Loei areas, including Trilonche davidi (Hinde, 1899), paleogeographic map at Late Permian to Middle Triassic
T. hindea (Hinde, 1899), T. australis (Aitchison, 1993), T. time (Figure 12A), Japan, Russian Far East, and western
minax, T. vetusta, T. palimbola, Stigmosphaerostylus ornatus, North USA, which are located at middle to rather high
and others. In China, the similar Paleozoic radiolarian faunas latitude in northern hemisphere at present, their
from the Changning-Menglian Terranes in western Yunan radiolarian-bearing rocks are thought to have been
and Guangxi, South China also were established by Yao and deposited at a low latitude in the Panthalassa ocean (e.g.,
Kuwahara (1999), Luo et al. (2002) and Wang et al. (2003). Isozaki, 1997). However, the Permian to Triassic
According to Yao and Kuwahara (1999), the Devonian radiolarian-bearing rocks in Northern Thailand and
radiolarian fauna exhibit low diversity in each area compared southern China thought to have been deposited at a low
to northern Thailand in this study and those reported from latitude in Palaeo-Tethys ocean near and connected to the
Australia, America (Aitchison, 1993; Aitchison et al., Panthalassa ocean (Gatinsky and Hutchison, 1986; Sashida
67
and Igo, 1999; Metcalfe, 1999). This indicates that the and Indochina blocks is still debatable (Metcalfe, 1996) we
Palaeo-Tethys and Panthalassa oceans were probably believe firmly that it occurred later than early? Carnian
connected by seaways and shared the same oceanic (early Late Triassic) by the evidence of radiolarian
circulation system in Permian to Triassic time. Besides, occurrence in this study (Fig. 12B).
the exact timing of this collision between the Shan-Thai
Figure 11. Reconstruction of eastern Gondwana for the Early? to Late Devonian, showing the postulated positions of the East and
South-East Asian terranes, the distribution of land and the opening of the Palaeo-Tethys ocean at this time. NC, North China; SC,
South China; T, Tarim; I, Idochina-East Malaya-West Sumatra; QI, Qiangtang; L, Lhasa; S, Shan-Thai; WB, West Burma; WC,
Western Cimmerian Continent. (Modified after Metcalfe, 1999)
Figure 12. Palaeogeographical reconstructions of the Tethyan region for (A) Middle Permian-Middle Triassic, and (B) Late
Triassic, showing the relative positions of the East and South-East Asian terranes and the distribution of land and sea. SC, South
China; I, Indochina; EM, East Malaya; WS, West Sumatra; NC, North China; SI, Simao; S, Shan-Thai; WB, West Burma; QI,
Qiangtang; L, Lhasa; WC, Western Cimmerian Continent; SG, Songpan Ganzi. (Modified after Metcalfe, 1999)
Japanese government (Monbukagakusho) due to partially

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT providing the financial aid this research.
We wish to thank the Department of Mineral Resources,

Thailand, for accommodation for field survey in Thailand.
We would like to express my sincere thanks to University
of Tsukuba for all of laboratory support. Furthermore, we
would like to express a deep acknowledgement to the
68
REFERENCES ale sedinfelor, Institutul de Geologie si Geofizica, vol. 64, p.
27-38.
Dumitrica, P., 1978b: Triassic Palaeoscenidiidae and
Aitchison, J.C., 1993: Devonian (Frasnian) radiolarians from the
Entactiniidae from the Vicentinian Alps (Italy) and eastern
Gogo Formation, Carnning Basin, Western Australia.
Carpathians (Romania). Dari de seama ale sedinrelor,
Paläontographica, Abteilung A, Paläozoologie-Stratigraphie,
Institutul de Geologie si Geofizica, vol. 64, p. 39-59.
vol. 228, p. 105-128.
Dumitrica, P., 1982: Triassic Oertlispongidae (Radiolaria) from
Aitchison, J.C. and Flood, P., 1990: Early Carboniferous
eastern Carpathians and southern Alps. Dari de seama ale
radiolarian age constrain the timing of sedimentation within
sedinrelor, Institutul de Geologie si Geofizica, vol. 67, p.
the Aniwan terrane, New England Orogen, eastern Australia.
57-74.
Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Palaeontologie,
Dumitrica, P., Kozur, H. and Mostler, H., 1980: Contribution to
Abhandlung, vol. 89, p. 1-19.
the radiolarian fauna of the Middle Triassic of the Southern
Aitchison, J.C., Davis, A.M., Stratford, J.M.C. and Spiller, F.C.P.,
Alps. Geologishe Palaeontologishe Mitteilungen Innsbruck,
1999: Lower and Middle Devonian radiolarian biozonation
vol. 13, p. 49-88.
of the Gamilaroi terrane New England Orogen, eastern
Feng, Q., Malila K., Wonganan N., Chonglakmani C., Helmcke
Australia. Micropaleontology, vol. 45, no. 2, p. 138-162.
D., Ingavat-Helmcke R., and Caridroit M., 2005: Permian
Ampornmaha, A., 1995: Triassic carbonate rocks in the
and Triassic Radiolaria from Northwest Thailand:
Phatthalung area, Peninsular Thailand. Journal of Southeast
paleogeographical implications. Revue de
Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 11, no. 3, p.225-236.
micropaleontology, vol. 84, p. 237-255.
Bragin, N.J., 1991: Radiolaria and Lower Mesozoic units of the
Foreman, H.P., 1963: Upper Devonian Radiolaria from the
USSR east regions. Academiy of Sciences of the USSR, 469,
Huron Member of the Ohio Shale. Micropaleontology, vol.
122p. Nauka SSSR, Moscow. (in Russian)
9, no. 3, p. 267-304.
Baum, F., Braum, E., Hahn, L., Hess, A., Koch, K.E., Kruse, G.,
Furutani, H., 1983: Middle Palaeozoic Palaeoscenidiidae
Quarch, H. and Siebenhuner, M., 1970: On the geology of
(Radiolaria) from Mt. Yokokura, Shikoku, Japan. Part 1.
northern Thailand. Beiheft Geologisches Jahrbuch, vol. 102,
Transactions and Proceedings of the Palaeontological
p. 1-24.
Society of Japan (Nihon Koseibutsu Gakkai Hokohu Kiji)
Beljanckij, G.S. Nikitina, A.P. and Rudenko, V.S., 1984: O
new series, p. 96-116.
sebu-charskoj svite Primorja. In Novye dannye po detainoj
Gatinsky, Y.G. and Hutchison C.S., 1986: Cathaysia,
biostratigrafi fanerozoja Dainego Vostoka. DVO An SSSR,
Gondwanaland and the Paleotethys in the evolution of
p. 43-57.
continental Southeast Asia. Bulletin Geology Society of
Blome, C.D., 1984: Upper Triassic radiolarian and radiolarian
Malaysia, vol. 20, p. 179-199.
zonation from western North America. Bulletin of American
Gourmelon, F., 1987: Les Radiolaires tournaisiens des nodules
Paleontology, vol. 85, p. 1-88.
phosphates de la Montagne Noire et des Pyrenées centrals.
Blome, C.D. and Reed. K.M., 1992: Permian and Early (?)
Biostratigraphie du Paléozoїque, vol. 6, p. 194.
Triassic radiolarian faunas from the Grindstone terrane,
Hinde, G.J., 1899: On the Radiolaria in the Devonian rocks of
central Oregon. Journal of Paleontology, vol. 66, p.
New South Wales. Geological Society of London Quarterly
351-383.
Journal, vol. 55, p. 38-64.
Bunopas, S., 1981: Paleogeographic history of western Thailand
Hutchison, C.S., 1989: Geological evolution of South-East Asia, 368
and adjacent pasts of Southeast Asia-a plate tectonics
p. Ox-ford Science Publications, Oxford.
interpretation. PhD Thesis, Victoria University of
Ishiga, H., 1986: Late Carboniferous and Permian radiolarians
Wellington, New Zealand. Reprinted 1982 as Geological
biostratigraphy of southwest Japan. Journal of Geosciences,
Survey, Paper no. 5, 810 p. Department of Mineral
Osaka City University, vol. 29, p. 89-100.
Resources, Bangkok, Thailand,
Ishiga, H., 1990: Paleozoic radiolarians. In, Ichikawa, K. et al.,
Bunopas, S., 1992: Regional stratigraphic correlation in
eds., Pre-Cretaceous terranes of Japan. Nippon Insatsu
Thailand. In, Piancharoen, C. ed., Proceedings of a
Shuppann, Osaka.
National Conference on Geologic Resources of Thailand:
Ishiga, H., and Imoto, N., 1980: Some Permian radiolarians in
Potential for Future Development, Bangkok, Thailand, p.
the Tamba district, Southwest Japan, Earth Science (Chikyu
189-208.
Kagaku), vol. 31, p. 33-345.
Cheng, Y.N., 1986: Taxonomic studies on Upper Paleozoic
Ishiga, H., Kito, N., and Imoto, N., 1982: Late Permian
Radiolaria. National Museum of Nature Science, Special
radiolarian assemblages in the Tamba district and adjacent
Publication, vol. 1, p. 1-311.
area, southwest Japan. Earth Science (Chikyu Kagaku), vol.
Caridroit, M., and De Wever P., 1984: Discription de quelques
36, p. 10-22.
nouvelles espèces de Follicucullide et dÈntctinidae
Isozaki, Y., 1997: Permo-Triassic boundary superanoxia and
(Radiolaires polycyctines) du Permien du Japon, Geobios,
stratified superocean: Records from lost deep sea. Science,
vol. 17, p. 639-644.
vol. 276, p. 235-238
Deflandre, G., 1953: Radiolaries Fossiles. In, P.P. Grasse, ed.,
Kamata, Y., Sashida, K., Ueno, K., Hisada, K., Nakornsri, N.,
Traite de Zoologie, vol. 1, no. 2, p. 389-436. Masson, Paris,
and Charusiri, P., 2002: Triassic radiolarian faunas from the
France.
Mae Sariang area, northern Thailand and Their
De Wever, P. and Caridroit M., 1984: Description de quelques
Paleogeographic significance. Journal of Asian Earth
nouveaux Latentifistulidae (Radiolaries Polycystines)
Sciences, vol. 20, p. 491-506.
Paleozoic du Japon. Revue de Micropaléontologie, vol. 27,
Kiessling, W. and Tragelehn, H., 1994: Devonian radiolarian
p. 98-106.
faunas of conodont-dated localities in the Frankenwald
DMR, 1999: Geological map of Thailand. Scale 1:2,500,000.
(Northern Bavaria, Germany). Festchrift zum 60.
Published by Geological Survey, Department of Mineral
Geburstag von Erik Flügel, vol. 50, p. 219-255.
Resources, Bangkok, Thailand.
Kozur, H., and Mostler, H., 1979: Beiträge zur Erforschung der
Dumitrica, P., 1978a: Family Eptingiidae n. fam., extinct
mesozoishchen Radiolarien. Teil III: Die Oberfamilien
Nassellaria (Radiolaria) with sagittal ring. Dari de seama
Actinommacea Haeckel, 1862 emend. Artiscacea Haeckel,
69
1882, Multiarcusellacea nov. der Spumellaria und weitere biostratigraphic significance of siliceous microfossils of the
triassische Nassellaria. Geologische-Paläeontologische Permo-Triassic Redding section, eastern Klamath
Mitteilungen Innsbruck, vol. 9, p. 1-132. Mountains, California. Marine Micropaleontology, vol. 15,
Kozur, H., and Mostler, H., 1981: Beiträge zur Erforschung der p. 379-391.
mesozoischen Radiolarien. Teil IV: Thalassosphaeracea Ormiston, A., and Babcock, L., 1979: Follicucullus, new radiolarian
Haeckel, 1862, Hexastylacea Haekel, 1882 emend., genus from the Guadalupian (Permian) Lamar Limestone of
Petrusevskaja, 1979, Sponguracea Haeckel, 1862 emend. the Delaware Basin. Journal of Paleontology, vol. 53, no. 2, p.
und weitere Triassische Lithocycliacea, Trematodiscacea, 328-334.
Actinommacea und Nassellaria. Saesaengseerung, D., 2006: Devonian to Triassic radiolarian
Geologische-Paläeontologische Mitteilungen Innsbruck, vol. faunas from northern and northeastern Thailand. In partial
2, p. 147-275. fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Kozur, H. and Krahl, J., 1984: Erster Nachweis triassischer Science (Doctoral Program in Earth Evolution Science),
Radiolaria in der Ophyllit-Gruppe auf der Insel Kreta. 174 p., 16 pl. University of Tsukuba, Japan.
Neues Jaharbuch fur Geologie und Palaontologie, Sashida, K., 1983: Lower Triassic Radiolaria from the Kanto
Monatshefte, vol. 7 p. 400-404. Mountains, central Japan. Part 1. Palaeoscenidiidae.
Kozur, H. and Mostler, H., 1994: Anisian to Middle Carnian Transactions and Proceeding of the Palaeontological
radiolarian zonation and description of some stratigrahically Society of Japan, New Series 131, p. 168-176.
important radiolarians. Geologische-Palaeontologische Sashida, K., 1991: Early Triassic radiolarians from the Ogamata
Mittelungen Innsbruck, Sonderband, vol. 3, p. 39-255. Formation, Kanto Mountains, central Japan, Part 2. Transaction
Lahm, B., 1984: Spumellarienfaunen (Radiolaria) aus den and Proceedings of the Palaeontological Society of Japan, New
mitteltriassiischen Buchensteiner-Schichten von Reccoaro Series, vol. 161, p. 681-696.
(Norditalien) und den obertriassischen Reiflingerkalken von Sashida, K., and Tonishi, K., 1986: Upper Permian stauraxon
Grossreifling (Osterreichi) Systematik-Stratigraphi. polycystine Radiolaria from Itsukaichi, western part of
Munchner Geowissenshaftliche Abhadlungen, Reihe A, Tokyo Prefecture. Science Reports of the Institute of
Geologie und Palaontologie, vol. 1, 161 p. Geosicence, University of Tsukuba, B, vol. 6, p. 1-19.
Li, Y. and Wang, Y., 1991: Upper Devonian (Frasnian) Sashida, K., and Tonishi, K., 1988: Additional note on Upper
radiolarian fauna from the Liukian Formation, eastern and Permian radiolarian fauna from Itukaichi, western part of
southeastern Guangxi. Acta Micropaleotologica Sinica, vol. Tokyo prefecture, central Japan. Transaction and
8, no. 4, p. 395-440 (in Chinese with English description of Proceedings of the Palaeontological Society of Japan, New
new genus and species). Series, vol. 151, p. 523-542.
Luo, H., Aitchison, J.C. and Wang, Y.-J., 2002: Devonian (upper Sashida, K., and Igo, H., 1999: Occurrence and tectonic
Emsian-lower Givetian) radiolarians from the Tanhe significance of Paleozoic and Mesozoic radiolaria in
Formation, Nanning, Guangxi, southwest China. Thailand and Malaysia. In, Metcalfe, I., ed., Gondwana
Micropaleontology, vol. 48, supplement no. 1, p. 113-127. Dispersion and Asian Accretion, IGCP 321 Final Results
Metcalfe, I., 1988: Origin and assembly of South-east Asian Volume, p. 175-196. Balkema, Rotterdam.
continental terranes. In, Audley-Charles M.G. and Hallam, Sashida, K., Igo, H., Hisada, K., Nakornsri, N., and
A., eds., Gondwana and Tethys, p. 101-118. Special Ampornmaha, A., 1993a: Occurrence of paleozoic and early
Publication 37, London and Oxford, Geological Society mesozoic radiolaria in Thailand (preliminary report).
and Oxford University Press. Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 8, no. 1-4, p.
Metcalfe, I., 1996: Pre-Cretaceous evolution of SE Asian terranes, p. 97-108.
97-122. In, R. Hall and D. Blundel, eds., Tectonic evolution of Sashida. K., Nishimura, H., Igo, H., Kazama, S., and Kamata, Y.,
Southeast Asia, , p. 97-122. Geological Society Special 1993b. Triassic radiolarian faunas from Kiso-fukushima,
Publication no. 106. Kiso Mountains, central Japan. Science Reports of the
Metcalfe, I., 1999: Gondwana dispersion and Asian accretion; Institute of Geoscience, University of tsukuba, vol. 14, p.
An overview. In, I. Metcalfe, ed., Gondwana Dispersion 77-79.
and Asian Accretion. p. 9-28. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam. Sashida, K., Adachi, S., Igo, H., Koike, T., and Ibrahim, B.A.,
Metcalfe, I., Spiller, F. C. P., Liu, B., Wu, H., and Sashida, K., 1995: Middle and Late Permian radiolarians from the
1999: The Paleo-Tethys in Mainland East and Southeast Semanggol Formation, Northwest Peninsular Malaysia.
Asia: Contribution from radiolarian studies. In, I. Metcalfe, Transactions and Proceedings of the Palaeontological
ed., Gondwana Dispersion and Asian Accretion. A.A. Society of Japan, New Series, vol. 177, p. 43-58.
Balkema, Rotterdam, p. 259-281. Sashida, K., Igo, H., Adachi, S., Nakornsri, N., and
Nakaseko, K., Nishimura, A., 1979: Upper Triassic radiolaria Ampornmaha, A., 1997: Middle to Upper Permian and
from southwest Japan. Science Report of the College of Middle Triassic radiolarians from eastern Thailand. Science
General Education, Osaka University, vol. 28, p. 61-109. Reports of the Institute of Geoscience, University of tsukuba,
Nazarov, B.B., 1975: Radiolaria of the Lower-Middle Paleozoic B, vol. 18, p. 1-17.
of Kazakhstan. Academiya Nauk SSSR, Geologicheskii Sashida, K., Igo, H., Adachi, S., Ueno, K., Nakornsri, N. and
Institut, Trudy, vol. 275, p. 1-202. Nauka, Moscow. Sardsud, A., 1998: Late Paleozoic radiolarian faunas from
Nazarov, B.B., 1988: Paleozoic Radiolarian. Practical manual of northern and northeastern Thailand. Science Reports of the
microfauna of the USSR, Leningrad: Nedra, vol. 2, p. 232. Institute of Geoscience, University of tsukuba, B, vol. 19, p.
Nazarov, B.B., and Ormiston, A.R., 1983: A new superfamily of 1-17.
stauraxon polycystine Radiolaria from the Late Paleozoic of Sashida, K., Kamata, Y., Adachi, H., and Munasri, 1999: Middle
the Soviet Union and North America. Senckenbergiana Triassic radiolarians from west Timor, Indonesia. Journal of
Lethaea, vol. 64, p. 363-379. Palaeontology, vol. 73, p. 765-786.
Nazarov, B.B., and Ormiston A.R., 1985: Radiolarian from the Sashida, K., Igo, H., Adachi, S., Ueno, K., Kajiwara, Y.,
Late Paleozoic of the southern Urals, USSR and West Nakornsri, N., and Sardsud, A., 2000: Late Permian to
Texas, USA. Micropaleontology, vol. 31, no. 1, p. 1-54. Middle Triassic radiolarian faunas from northern Thailand.
Noble, P., and Renne, P., 1990: Paleoenvironmental and Journal of Paleontology, vol. 74, no. 5, p. 789-811.
70
Sheng, J., and Wang, Y., 1985: Fossil Radiolaria from Kufeng Wang, Y., Aitchison, J.C. and Luo, H., 2003: Devonian
Formation at Longtan Nanjing. Acta Palaeontological radiolarian faunas from South China. Micropaleontology,
Society of Japan, New Series, vol. 167, p. 1180-1223. vol. 49. no. 2, p. 127-145.
Sugiyama, K., 1992: Lower and Middle Triassic radiolarians Won, M.-Z, 1983: Radiolarien aus dem UnterKarbon des
from Mt. Kinkazan, Gifu Prefecture, central Japan. Rheinischen Schiefergebirges (Deutschland).
Transactions and Proceedings of the Palaeontological Palaentolographica Abt. A, vol. 182, p. 116-175. ( in
Society of Japan, New Series, vol. 167, p. 1180-1223. German)
Sugiyama, K., 1997: Triassic and Lower Jurassic radiolarian Wonganan, N. and Caridroit M., 2005: Middle and Upper
biostratigraphy in the siliceous claystone and bedded chert Devonian radiolarian faunas from Chiang Dao area, Chiang
units of the southeastern Mino Terrane, central Japan. Mai province, northern Thailand. Micropaleontology, vol.
Bulletin of the Mizunami Fossil Museum, vol. 24, p. 79-193. 51, no. 1, p. 39-57.
Wang, Y., 1997: An Upper Devonian (Famennian) radiolarian Yao, A., 1982: Middle Triassic to Early Jurassic radiolarians
fauna from carbonate rocks, northern Xinjiang. Acta from the Inuyama area, central Japan. Journal of
Micropalaeontologica Sinica, vol. 14, no. 2, p. 149-160. Geosciences, Osaka City University, vol. 25, p. 53-70.
Wang, Y., Cheng Y.-N., and Yang Q., 1994; Biostratigraphy and Yao, A. and Kuwahara, K., 1999: Paleozoic and Mesozoic
systematic of Permian radiolarians in China. Palaoworld, radiolarians from the Changning-Menglian Terrane,
vol. 4, p. 172-202. Western Yunnan, China. Biotic and Geological
Development of the Paleo-Tethys in China, vol. 182, p.
17-42.
71
GEOTHAI’07 International Conference on 72
DISCOVERY OF PERMIAN RADIOLARIAN FAUNAS FROM THE

NAKHON SAWAN AND UTHAI THANI AREAS, CENTRAL THAILAND
Doungrutai Saesaengseerung1, Katsuo Sashida1, Apsorn Sardsud2 and Surachet Poonpan2
1
Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
2
Department of Mineral Resources, Rama 6 Rd., Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
The mainland Thailand consists of two principal continental blocks, the western Shan-Thai and eastern Indochina blocks
(e.g., Bunopas, 1981 and 1992; Metcalfe, 1999). The boundary between these blocks is further represented by a Nan-
Uttradit suture zone. The Nakhon Sawan and Uthai Thani areas are geographically situated in the Chao Phraya Central
Plain, central part of Thailand and geologically belong to the Shan-Thai Block.
In April 2006, we conducted field studies along the road at the Nakhon Sawan and Uthai Thani provinces, central
Thailand. One of our purposes is to collect radiolarian-bearing rocks and associated fine-grained clastic rocks for
micropaleontological investigation. We fortunately discovered the poorly-preserved Permian radiolarian from five
localities in these areas. According to the previous study, these rock sequences were regarded as the Silurian to Devonian
based on the stratigraphic relationship among the underlying and overlying strata. Examined rock sequences are
composed of slightly-metamorphosed chert and fined-grained clastic rocks. Slump folds are commonly observed in the
strata. Chert shows laminations of a few millimeters in thickness and several quartz veins. Under the microscope, the
chert consists mainly of microcrystalline quartz associated with very fine clay minerals, abundant radiolarian tests and
few foraminifera. Some stratigraphic horizons contain angular detrital clastics. In addition, we have discriminated two
radiolarian assemblages from these rocks; the Pseudoalbaillella lomentaria and Follicucullus scholasticus assemblages
in ascending order. The Pseudoalbaillella lomentaria assemblage is characterized by the occurrence of Pseudoalbaillella
lomentaria, P. fusiformis and others. This radiolarian assemblage is estimated to be Early Permian (Artinskian), based on
correlation with the P. lomentaria zone by Ishiga (1990). The Follicucullus scholasticus assemblage is characterized by
Follicucullus scholasticus associated with F. ventricocus, F. porrectus, F. charveti, F. quadratavis, Latentifistula sp. and
others. It is estimated to be the interval of the upper Middle to lowermost Upper Permian (Capitanian to Wuchiapigian),
based on the study of Blome and Reed (1992). Concerning the depositional site of radiolarian-bearing rocks, we prefer
hemipelagic rather than pelagic environments because of the presence of detrital clastics, which may be deposited at the low
latitude of Paleotethys Ocean. Similar radiolarian fauna has been reported from Southwest Japan (Ishiga, 1990), South
China (Wang et al., 1994), and Oregon, USA (Blome and Reed, 1992). They suggest that Permian radiolarian faunas
were deposited at low latitudes (less than 30 in the both hemispheres) in Panthyalassa Oceans. This may indicate that the
Paleotethys and Panthyalassa Oceans were connected by seaways at this time and shared the same oceanic circulation
system (Gatinsky and Hutchison, 1986; Metcalfe, 1999; Sashida and Salyaponge, 2002).
Keywords: Permian, radiolarian, central Thailand, paleotethys.
REFERENCES
[1] S. Bunopas, Geological Survey Paper no. 5, 810 p. (1981)

[2] S. Bunopas, Proceedings of a National Conference on Geologic Resources of Thailand. 189-208 (1992)
[3] I. Metcalfe, Gondwana Dispersion and Asian Accretion. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, p. 259-281 (1999)
[4] H. Ishiga, Pre-Cretaceous terranes of Japan.(1990).
[5] C.D. Blome and K.M. Reed, Journal of Paleontology. 66, p. 351-383 (1992).
[6] Y. Wang, Y.-N Cheng and Q. Yang, Paleoworld. 4, p. 172-202 (1994).
[7] Y.G. Gatinshy and C.S. Hutchison, Bulletin Geology Society of Malay. 20, p. 179-199 (1986)
[8] K. Sashida and S. Salyaponge, Journal of Asian Earth. Sciences. 20, p. 691-701 (2002)
72
DIVERSITY OF CENOZOIC MAMMALS IN THAILAND:

PALEOENVIRONMENT AND AGE UPDATED
Yaowalak CHAIMANEE1, Chotima YAMEE1, Pannipa TIAN1 and Jean-Jacques JAEGER2
1
2
Biochronologie et Paléontologie Humaine, Université de Poitiers, 86022 Poitiers cedex France
ABSTRACT
Various mammalian fossils have been discovered from Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary sediments in the northern,
central, northeastern, and southern regions of the country as a result of our intensive investigations in Thailand. These
new discoveries play an important role in both taxonomy and evolution of mammals and also give indications about
paleoenvironments, climates, and biogeography. Furthermore, the discoveries provide new information about
Thailand's ancient biological diversity and are important for dating the deposits in which they were found. Knowing the
age of deposits improves the precision of stratigraphic correlations.
Key words: mammal, paleoenvironment, Thailand, Continental Tertiary
PALEOGENE AND NEOGENE MAMMALIAN (Chaimanee et al., 1997; Chaimanee et al., 2000),
FOSSILS IN THAILAND Wailekia orientale (Ducrocq et al., 1995),
Muangthanhinius siami (Marivaux et al., 2006);
Continental Tertiary basins in Thailand have provided Carnivores: Miacis thailandicus (Ducrocq et al., 1992)
numerous mammalian fossils. The oldest mammal Nimravus cf. intermedius and Hoplophoneus sp. (Peigné
locality in Thailand originates from Krabi basin, Krabi et al., 2000); rodent: Baluchimys krabiense (Marivaux et
Province, Peninsular Thailand and is of late Eocene age. al., 2000); suids: Egatochoerus jaegeri (Ducrocq, 1994),
Late Oligocene mammals have been recorded from Nong Siamochoerus banmarkensis (Ducrocq et al., 1998);
Ya Plong Basin, Phetchaburi Province in Central anthracotheriid: Siamotherium krabiense (Suteethorn et
Thailand. Several Middle Miocene mammals have been al., 1988), Anthracotherium chaimanei (Ducrocq, 1999),
discovered in the northern intermontane basins; Mae Anthacokeryx thailandicus (Ducrocq, 1999) and
Moh, Mae Teep, Li and Chiangmuan and late Miocene Bothriogenys orientalis (Ducrocq, 1999); tragulid:
mammals from Khorat sand pits in northeastern Archaeotragulus krabiensis and Krabimeryx primitivus
Thailand. Numerous Quaternary mammals have been (Metais et al., 2001) and helohyid: Progenitohyus
found mostly in caves and in some terrace deposits. thailandicus (Ducrocq et al., 1997).
The age of Krabi basin given by mammalian assemblage
Krabi Basin and magnetostratigraphic dating corresponds to the C13R
chron of the paleomagnetic time scale of Berggren et al.
Krabi basin is located in Krabi Province, Peninsular (1995), late Eocene of about 34 Ma (Benammi et al.,
Thailand and lies in a N-S direction following major 2001). The paleoenvironment of Krabi basin corresponds
geological trend of the area. The basin is bounded by to a tropical swamp with low seasonality.
Jurassic and Triassic rocks on the east and south, and by
Carboniferous and Permian rocks on the west and north- Nong Ya Plong Basin
west. Tertiary beds were generally identified by the
presence of thin beds of lignite or lignitic clay (Markiat Nong Ya Plong basin is located at Phetchaburi Province,
et al., 1984). The basin covers a surface of about 364 Central Thailand. The basin is a small isolated basin 6
km2. The sediments are composed of mudstones, shales, km wide and 15 km long. This locality yields many
carbonaceous clays and lignite seams. There is only one mammalian fossils such as rodents Fallomus ladakhensis
main lignite seam in the basin which is 15-20 m thick. (Marivaux et al., 2004), flying lemurs Dermotherium
The fossiliferous layers in Krabi coal mine are located in chimaera (Marivaux et al., 2006), fruit bat, rhinocerotids,
the carbonaceous clay and in the main lignite seam. The anthracotheres, mustelid carnivores Chaprongictis
fauna from Krabi coal mine consists of crocodiles, phetchaburiensis (Peigné et al., 2006). This fauna
colubrid snake (Rage et al., 1992), geoemydid turtles indicates a late Oligocene age and a tropical forest
(Claude et al., 2007). Mammals from Krabi basin are environment nearby a swamp.
represented by several new forms such as fruit bat
(Ducrocq et al., 1993); dermoptera: Dermotherium major
(Ducrocq et al., 1992); primates: Siamopithecus eocaenus
73
Mae Moh Basin 13.1 Ma, corresponding to the C5AAR chron of the
paleomagnetic time scale of Berggren et al. (1995). The
The Mae Moh coal mine is part of the Miocene paleoenvironment of MaeMoh basin corresponds to a
intermontane Mae Moh basin in northern Thailand. It tropical forest with a significative amount of temperate
represents the largest open coal mine of Thailand. Its floral elements.
stratigraphy has been divided established by Corsiri and
Crouch (1985) which subdivided it into three formations. ChiangMuan basin
The lowest unit is part of Huai King Formation and
consists of sandstones, claystones and conglomerates (15 Chiang Muan Basin is a small Tertiary basin located in
to 320 meters thick). The overlying Na Khaem Chiang Muan District of Payao Province. It is about 8 km
Formation, which is 300 to 420 meters thick, contains the wide and 25 km long. According to Strogen (1994),
main coal-bearing units, interbedded with claystones, Chiang Muan sedimentary sequence can be subdivided
mudstones and sandstones. Five coal zones (identified as into three formations, Chiang Muan Sandstone Formation,
S, R, Q, K and J coals from bottom to top of the Na Ban Sa Mudstone Formation, and Pha Lad Formation.
Khaem Formation) are present. These coal seams, Q and The Chiang Muan Sandstone Formation is composed of
K which have been and are still intensively excavated for fluviatile conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones and
mining, are rich in vertebrate fossils including mammals, mudstones. Deposition occurred in a subsiding faulted
turtles, fishes and crocodiles; they also yield invertebrate half-graben on a surface of eroded basement strata. The
fossils such as gastropods (Songtham et al., 2005), Ban Sa Mudstone Formation is composed of fluvio-
bivalves and plant remains such as wood, leaves and lacustrine, palustrine and swamp mudstone, siltstone,
charophytic algae (Soulié-Märsche et al., 1997). The limited sandstones and coals, deposited under a regime of
uppermost units are part of Huai Luang Formation, increased subsidence and sedimentation rates. The lower
comprising a sequence of red-brown and grey coal seam, which represents the main coal seam, is about
sandstones, mudstones and siltstones with occasional 10-20 m thick and the upper coal seams consists of 3-4
sandstones and conglomerates. It contains also the thin coal beds. The Pha Lad Formation marks a basin
uppermost coal seam (I coal seam). wide transgression of sheet flood, debris-flow and
The mammalian fossils have been predominantly floodplain conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone and limited
collected from the coal beds. But due to the intense mudstone. This formation was deposited above a major
mining activity and the concentration of that mining unconformity under a regime of decreased subsidence
activity in the center of the basin, where coal layers were rate.
thickest, very few mammalian remains have been Mammalian fauna found from the lower and the upper
recovered during the last twenty years. The fossil coal seams consists of hominoid primate, Khoratpithecus
remains mostly consisted of isolated fragments of large chiangmuanensis Chaimanee et al., 2003, large mammal
mammals; mainly proboscideans and rhinos. The thickest fossils such as mastodons (Tetralophodon), pigs
coal layers becoming exhausted, mining work moved (Propotamochoerus and Conohyus), and ruminants
towards the paleo-shores of the lacustrine basin where (Eotragus, Protragocerus, and Siamotragulus). On the
coal layers become thinner, but with an increasing basis of the fossil mammal assemblages found in the
abundance amount of fossil mammal remains, sometimes neighboring basins of northern Thailand, Ducrocq et al.
less fragmentary, especially in the Q and K coals beds. (1994) argued for late Early to Middle Miocene age for
However, large mammals discovered in Mae Moh are the Thai intermountain basins. Geological investigations
still scarce. Proboscideans are represented by two forms, suggest that these deposits are of Middle Miocene age and
Stegolophodon cf. latidens Tassy et al. 1992 and an obviously older than 10.6 Ma, in as much as the major
indetermined Gomphothere. Rhinos are represented by discontinuity that has affected the area is usually dated
cf. Gaindatherium sp., pigs by Conohyus thailandicus, about 11 Ma (Remus et al., 1993; Strogen, 1994).
deers by Stephanocemas cf. rucha Ginsburg and Concerning the Tertiary fossils, a major result concerns
Ukkakimapan, 1983, Amphicyonid carnivores by the discovery and description of Khoratpithecus
Maemohcyon potisati Peigné et al., 2006 and otters by chiangmuanensis This is the first time that an undisputed
Siamogale thailandica Ginsburg et al. 1983. Small ancestor of extant large-body ape has been discovered. It
mammals from this coal mine are rodents and delivers therefore many informations concerning the
insectivores (Chaimanee et al., in press). reconstruction of the common ancestor to all extant apes,
This sequence made by the three formations Asian and African, and about our own ancestors. The
characterizes the Mae Moh Group which rests absence of any corresponding fossil in Africa suggests
unconformably on marine Triassic limestones. The that they may have evolved elsewhere and perhaps in
magnetostratigraphy of the Na Khaem Formation which Southeast Asia, before migrating to Africa at about 11-8
includes the mammalian fossil layers has been Ma.
investigated and resulted in a very precise calibration. The paleoenvironment of Chiang Muan basin as indicated
According to Benammi et al. (2002), the mammalian by plant pollens corresponds to a tropical swamp forest in
bearing coal beds of Na Khaem Formation have been which one species of swamp tree, Syzygium widely
deposited between 13.5 and 12.1 Ma. The fossiliferous Q dominated the swamp forest. We also argumented that a
and K coal beds are precisely dated beween 13.3 and tropical vegetation corridor may have existed between
74
tropical Africa and Asia ~12 Ma ago. This corridor was gravels, with some clay lenses that are rich in organic
probably used as a dispersal way between Africa and matter, leaves and seeds. The lowermost part of that unit
Southeast Asia and explains also the resemblance between consists of gravel and reworked tektites that we collected
some extant plant taxa of African and Southeast Asian in-situ with abundant tree trunks. These tektites are related
rain forests. to the widespread tektites debris field that resulted from
Benammi et al. (2004), proposed a magnetostratigraphic an impact event dated at 0.8 Ma in northeastern Thailand
correlation of Ban Sa Formation with chron C5ABn– (Howard et al., 2003). In places, patches of top-soils can
C5n.2n, and an age of the fossil assemblage which is be observed above the upper sand unit, yielding pottery
Middle Miocene between 13.5 and 10 Ma. fragments, modern human skeletal remains and Holocene
mammals.
Khorat basin Biostratigraphic data derived from the mammalian fauna
of the lower sand layer from Somsak sand pit suggest a
Khorat sandpits are located along Mun River in Nakorn broad correlation with the upper Nagri to the lower Dhok
Ratchasima Province. Stratigraphic sections were studied Pathan Formations of the Siwaliks. This would indicate an
from two open sand pits in the area (Somsak sand pit, and age interval between 10 to 6 Ma. The Siwalik fossil
the Siam sand pit). Both pits were excavated to a level record has been precisely dated by paleomagnetic studies
extending about 20-30 m below the natural surface. We (Barry et al., 2002), so that the stratigraphic ranges of
also investigated the sediments from a bore hole made by Siwalik fossil species, based on first and last occurrences,
the Department of Mineral Resources next to Siam sand are precisely calibrated. Late Miocene localities in China
pit, about 500 m northeast of Somsak sand pit. The bore lack marine intercalations and volcanoclastic sediments,
hole reached 114 m and ended in an evaporitic layer. and are therefore dated solely on the basis of local
Below the top soil, the section displays two sand units, an mammal biostratigraphy. Compared to biostratigraphic
upper unit of yellowish sands (7.6 m thick) and the lower data from the Siwaliks (Barry et al., 2002), we can
unit of organic matter rich sands and gravels (51 m thick). propose a more precise time interval for the lower Somsak
These sandy units overlie a 50 m thick unit of red and sand unit. The first occurrence of Hipparion in the
grey clays, of late Mesozoic or early Cenozoic age, Siwaliks is now estimated at 10.7 Ma. The range of
attributed to the Phu Thok Formation. The evaporitic Deinotherium spp. in South Asia is dated between 12.9
layer at the bottom of the bore hole pertain to the Maha Ma for their first occurrence and 8 Ma for their last
Sarakham Formation. occurrence. The pig Hippopotamodon sivalense is
The lower, organic-rich sand unit yields most of the bracketed between 10.2 and 7.2 Ma. Anthracotheriids are
vertebrate fossils. These sands correspond to fluviatile represented in the Somsak sand pit by two taxa,
channel deposits with intense cross-bedding and contain Merycopotamus medioximus Lihoreau et al., 2004 and
fish, turtle and crocodile fossils. Organic-rich clay lenses, Microbunodon milaensis Lihoreau et al., 2004. The three
between 5 to 30 cm thick and rich in pollen, are rhinocerotids are known from Dhok Pathan Formation in
interbedded within these sands. Fossil tree trunks and the Siwaliks and the Shanxi red clays in China, indicating
wood fragments occur at multiple levels in that unit. The an age bracketed between 9 and 7 Ma (P.O. Antoine, pers.
mammalian fossils collected from this sand unit indicate a com.). The giant land turtle cf. Colossochelys atlas, which
late Miocene age for this level of the Somsak sand pit. is present in the Siwaliks since Chinji levels, disappears
They consist of hominoid primates, Khoratpithecus from Siwalik section at about 8 Ma (J. Head, pers. com.).
piriyai Chaimanee et al., 2004; Hipparion, remains of Using the concurrent ranges of Siwalik large mammals,
which are scanty and consist of a large and a small form; we can estimate the age of the fossiliferous level in the
the proboscideans Prodeinotherium and Deinotherium cf. Somsak sand pit as occurring between the first occurrence
indicum, Gomphotherium sp., Stegolophodon sp., and a of Hippopotamodon sivalense at 10.2 Ma and the last
primitive Stegodon; the rhinocerotids Chilotherium occurrence of Deinotherium spp. at 8 Ma. This interval is
palaeosinense, Brachypotherium perimense and similar to that indicated by the range of Merycopotamus
Alicornops complanatum; the pigs Hippopotamodon cf. medioximus (between 10.6 and 8.1 Ma) and M. milaensis
sivalense and Propotamochoerus cf. hysudricus; and the (between 10.3 and 9.2 Ma) in the Siwaliks. However, the
anthracotheres Merycopotamus medioximus and Siwaliks strata were deposited at more northern latitude
Microbunodon milaensis. Bovid and giraffid remains are than Khorat and did not belong to the same climatic and
also abundant. Two complete carapaces of the giant land vegetational province as Thailand. There is strong and
turtle cf. Colossochelys atlas were also collected. convincing evidence of increasing seasonality occurring
Bunopas et al. (1999) and Haines et al. (2004) have during late Miocene in the Siwaliks with a progressive
interpreted these deposits as being Quaternary in age, but increase in the abundance of C4 plants, starting at about
the abundant mammalian fauna displays no trace of 10 Ma (Morgan et al., 1994; Nelson, 2003).
reworking and clearly characterizes a late Miocene faunal Fossil wood (C. Vozenin-Serra, pers. com.) and pollen
assemblage. (Sépulchre, 2003) from the Somsak lower sand unit show
The upper sand unit, which shows an average thickness of that an evergreen tropical gallery-forest occurred in the
6-7 m, differs in color from the underlying sand unit and immediate vicinity, indicating a less seasonal climate than
rests unconformable on top of it. Sediments from the in the Siwaliks. Instead, the associated palynoflora
upper sand unit consist mostly of yellowish sands and suggests a wetter and more tropical environment during
75
the late Miocene at Somsak, similar to that of the late Late Miocene age (about 9-7 Ma), Chalermprakiet
middle Miocene Chiang Muan locality (Chaimanee et al., District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province (Chaimanee et al.,
2003). Pollen of tropical trees including Alchornea, 2004). It is clearly a relative of the Chiang Muan ape and
Bauhinia, Nauclea and Phyllantus have been recorded, is also a close relative of the extant orangutan, indicating
although hydromorphic plants such as Cyperaceae and that Thailand was a center of evolution for orangutan and
ferns dominate the pollen spectra, suggesting that large perhaps all other modern apes. The jaw has been found in
areas of the floodplain were covered by grassland. Some river channels deposits, associated to crocodile, fish and
fossils mammals, including the hominoid, pigs and fresh water turtles. Surprisingly, remains of a terrestrial
Deinotherium, also attest to the presence of a tropical giant turtle also known from India, Colossochelys, have
gallery-forest. Therefore, several mammal species that been also fossilized, probably washed out from the river
disappear from the Siwaliks sequence because of local strands during floods. Many bone and teeth fragments of
climatic changes may have survived longer in a more land mammals are associated and document a typical Late
southerly refuge. Thus, their last occurrence in Thailand Miocene South Asian fauna, with short necked
may have been more recent than the Siwalik record would Sivatherium-like extinct giraffes, rhinos, Dinotherium,
suggest. For these reasons, one should be extremely pigs, anthracotheres and antilopes. To interpret all these
careful concerning the biostratigraphic value of the last new data, it was also necessary to improve the dating of
occurrence ages of Siwalik mammal species for all these Tertiary basins. In the absence of marine deposits
calibration of the Thai biochronologic time-scale. Instead, and of volcanic rocks, we focused on the
data that are less dependent upon climatic changes should magnetostratigraphy of these deposits.
be used, such as the first occurrences of other mammalian
taxa. According to Barry et al. (2002), the earliest Khok Sung Sand pit
hippopotamid fossils to be recorded in Asia occur in the
Siwaliks at 5.9 Ma or possibly in an older layer dated at Khok Sung sand pit is situated in Nakorn Ratchasima
7.4 Ma. Hippopotamid remains have been recovered in Province, Northeastern Thailand. Concerning the
the lower sand unit at Somsak, but they are rare despite Pleistocene, a rich and diversified Middle Pleistocene
the fact that the habitat was very suitable for them. In mammalian fauna has been excavated from ancient river
addition, the exact stratigraphic provenance of these deposits at Khoksung sandpit in Nakon Ratchasima
hippos is unknown. If they come from the same level as Province which has delivered outstanding fossils like a
the hominoid, the hippos would indicate an age younger complete skull of a spotted hyaena which is presently
than 7.4 Ma. We interpret these data to suggest that these extinct in Asia (Chaimanee, 2006), several complete
Khorat hominoid deposits are older than 5.9 Ma, the age skulls of a long snouted gavial, a fish eating crocodile,
of the first occurrence of Merycopotamus dissimilis in the also extinct in Thailand. Associated to an extinct elephant,
Siwaliks, which is considered as the descendant of M. Stegodon and deers, buffalos, gaur and banteng remains, it
medioximus (Lihoreau, 2004), the only Merycopotamus represents the best preserved Middle Pleistocene fossil
species recorded from Somsak pit. This would limit the assemblage from Thailand. Usually these animal remains
possible age range of this fossiliferous lower Khorat sand are only documented from caves where their remains have
unit to a probable age range of 7.4 to 5.9 Ma. been fragmented by predators and by porcupines.
In addition, preliminary results of paleomagnetic data Therefore mostly isolated teeth are left in cave sediments.
indicate normal polarity for the upper part of the lower From such caves we have also discovered spotted hyaena
sand unit (M. Benammi, pers. com.). According to its in the Peninsula Thailand near Nakhon Si Thammarat
normal polarity, the lower sand unit could correspond to Province and in several other places in Northern Thailand,
at least 6 different normal periods, including C4 5n.2n where they are associated with remains of giant panda,
(10.9-9.9 Ma), 4An (9.05-8.7 Ma), 4n.2n (8.05-7.6 Ma), orangutans and many micromammals (Chaimanee, 1998).
4n.1n (7.5 Ma), 3Bn (7 Ma) and C3 An.1-2n (6.5-5.9 Ma). These fossils indicate that the climate and vegetation was
Sedimentary and/or paleomagnetic data do not allow us to rather different from today, with heavier rain fall and
favor one interval rather than another. But if we exclude more extended grassland areas at some periods. This
the earliest interval on the basis of biochronologic interpretation has been recently confirmed by the carbon
arguments already discussed previously, only 5 possible stables isotopes extracted from the teeth of these fossil
normal intervals remain, between 9.05 and 6 Ma, animals. Further work is going on actively to reconstruct
suggesting a median value of 7.5 Ma. Available the communities and the paleoenvironments of the
biochronologic data are unfortunately not constrained Pleistocene mammal communities in Thailand.
enough to exclude some of the possible correlations
between 9 and 6 Ma, if no hippos in that layer, or between CONCLUSIONS
7.4 and 5.9 Ma if hippos are present. Ongoing taxonomic
work on additional fossil mammal taxa, combined, with Fossil mammals are well represented for their
additional magnetostratigraphic analyses, may help to biochronological and paleoenvironmental contributions.
constrain more precisely the age of the hominoid-bearing Several Tertiary basins in Thailand have beeen precisely
stratum at Somsak sand pit. dated by combining biochronological data and
A nearly complete lower jaw of a more derived ape, magnetostratigraphical studies. There are two Paleogene
Khoratpithecus piriyai has been discovered in a sandpit of basins rich in mammalian fauna have been discovered,
76
Krabi basin of late Eocene age located in the Peninsular Thailand. In Anthropoid origins New Visions, C. F.
Thailand and Nong Ya Plong basin of late Oligocene age Ross and R. F. Kay, eds. (New York: Kluwer
in Central Thailand. There are several Neogene basins in Academic/Plenum Publishers), pp. 341-368.
Northern Thailand that have yielded rich mammalian Chaimanee, Y., 2006. Late Pleistocene vertebrate records
fauna, most of them being of middle Miocene age. from Southeast Asia. In Encycopedia of Quaternary,
Concerning the paleoenvironments, Thailand has always pp. 3189-3197. Elsevier.
remained in the tropical domain during the Tertiary. But Chaimanee, Y. & Jaeger, J.-J., 2000. Occurrence of
the tropical environments have considerably varied Hadromys humei (Rodentia: Muridae) during the
through time from rain forests to dry open grassland. Pleistocene in Thailand. J. Mammalogy 81 (3), 659-
Swamp and lake deposits are over represented due to the 665.
numerous Tertiary basins. But at some periods, temperate Chaimanee, Y., Suteethorn, V., Jaeger, J.-J. & Ducrocq,
floras appear to have been represented by a significant S., 1997. A new Late Eocene anthopoid primate from
percentage of taxa, as in the Mae Moh basin around 13.1- Thailand. Nature 385, 429-431.
13.2 Ma. Not only older localities as Krabi, but also Chaimanee, Y., Khansubha, S. & Jaeger, J.-J., 2000. A
younger localities as Chiang Muan, display a high tropical new lower jaw of Siamopithecus eocaenus from the
component. Climate dramatically changed during the ice Late Eocene of Thailand. C. R. Acad. Sci.323, 235-
ages in Pleistocene, where important latitudinal shifts 241.
occurred, some taxa of northern areas such as giant panda Chaimanee, Y., Jolly, D., Benammi, M., Tafforeau, P.,
and Hadromys humei (an Assam rat) moved southwards Duzer, D., Moussa, I. & Jaeger, J.-J., 2003. A new
until Thai-Malay border (Chaimanee & Jaeger, 2000). middle Miocene hominoid from Thailand and
Additional discoveries will allow tofill the gaps and bring orangutan origins. Nature 422, 61-65.
more detailed understanding of the diversity and history Chaimanee, Y., Suteethorn, V., Jintasakul, P.,
of Thai fossil mammals. From our data, Thailand appears Vidthayanon, C., Marandat, B. & Jaeger, J.-J., 2004.
clearly as a “paleo hot spot” of mammalian diversity. A new orang-utan relative from the Late Miocene of
Thailand. Nature 427, 439-441.
REFERENCES Claude, J., Suteethorn, V. & Tong, H., 2007. Turtles from
the late Eocene-early Oligocene of the Krabi basin
Antoine, P.-O., Ducrocq, S., Marivaux, L., Chaimanee, (Thailand). Soc. Geol. Fr. 178 (4), 305-316.
Y., Crochet, J.-Y., Jaeger, J.-J., and Welcomme, J.-L., Corsiri, R. & Crouch, A., 1985. Mae Moh Coal Deposit:
2003. Early rhinocerotids (Mammalia: Geologic Report. Thailand /Australia Lignite Mines
Perissodactyla) from South Asia and a review of the Development Project, Electricity Generating
Holarctic Paleogene rhinocerotid record. Can. J. Authority of Thailand 1, 448.
Earth Sci./Rev. Can. Sci. Terre 40, 365-374. Ducrocq, S., 1994. An Eocene peccary from Thailand and
Benammi, M., Chaimanee, Y., Jaeger, J.-J., Suteethorn, the biogeographical origins of the Artiodactyl family
V. & Ducrocq, S., 2001. Eocene Krabi basin Tayassuidae. Paleontology 37 (4), 765-779.
(southern Thailand): Paleontology and Ducrocq, S., 1994. The Palaeogene anthracotheres from
magnetostratigraphy. GSA Bull. 113 (2), 265-273. Thailand: palaeogeography and phylogeny. C. R.
Benammi, M., Urrutia-Fucugauchi, J., Alva-Valdivia, L. Acad. Sci. 318, II, 549-554.
M., Chaimanee, Y., Triamwichanon, S., and Jaeger, Ducrocq, S., 1999. The Late Eocene Anthracotheriidae
J.-J., 2002. Magnetostratigraphy of the Middle (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from Thailand.
Miocene continental sedimentary sequences of the Palaeontographica 252, 93-140.
Mae Moh basin in northern Thailand: evidence for Ducrocq, S., Aung Naing Soe, Aye Ko Aung, Benammi,
counterclockwise block rotation. Earth and Planetary M., Bo Bo, Chaimanee, Y., Thun Tun, Tin Thein &
Science Letters 204, 373-383. Jaeger, J.-J., 2000. A new anthracotheriid artiodactyl
Benammi, M., Chaimanee, Y., Urrutia-Fucugauchi, J., from Myanmar, and the relative ages of the Eocene
and Jaeger, J.-J., 2004. Magnetostratigraphy study of anthropoid primate-bearing localities of Thailand
the continental sedimentary sequence of the Chiang (Krabi) and Myanmar (Pondaung). J. Vert. Pal. 20
Muan basin, Northern Thailand; Implication for the (4), 755-760.
age of the first Miocene Hominoids from Thailand. Ducrocq, S., Buffetaut, E., Buffetaut-Tong, H., Helmcke-
International Geology Review 46, 646-654 (9). Ingavat, R., Jaeger, J.-J., Jongkanchanasoontorn, Y.
Bunopas, S., Wasson, J. T., Vella, P., Fontaine, H., Hada, & Suteethorn, V., 1992. A lower Tertiary vertebrate
S., Burrett, C., Suphajunya, T. & Khositanont, S., fauna from Krabi (South Thailand). N. Jb. Geol.
1999. Catastrophic loess, mass mortality and forest Palaont. Abh. 184 (1), 101-122.
fires suggest that a Pleistocene cometary impact in Ducrocq, S., Buffetaut, E., Buffetaut-Tong, H., Jaeger, J.-
Thailand caused the Australasian tektite field. J. J., Jongkanjanasoontorn, Y. & Suteethorn, V., 1992.
Geol. Soc. Thailand 1, 1-17. First fossil flying lemur: a dermopteran from the Late
Chaimanee, Y., 1998. Plio-Pleistocene rodents of Eocene of Thailand. Palaeontology 35 (2), 373-380.
Thailand. Thai Studies in Biodiversity, 3, 1-313. Ducrocq, S., Chaimanee, Y. & Jaeger, J.-J., 2006. New
Chaimanee, Y., 2004. Siamopithecus eocaenus, primates from the late Eocene of Thailand: a
anthropoid primate from the Late Eocene of Krabi,
77
contribution to primate diversity in the Paleogene of from the Late Eocene of the Krabi Basin (Thailand):
Asia. J. Hum. Evol. 51, 153-158. palaeobigeographic and biochronologic implications.
Ducrocq, S., Chaimanee, Y., Jaeger, J.-J. & Metais, G., Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Life
2006. A new ceratomorph (Perissodactyla, Science 331, 427-433.
Mammalia) from the Late Eocene of Southeast Asia. Marivaux, L., Chaimanee, Y., Tafforeau, P. & Jaeger, J.-
J. Vert. Pal. 26 (4), 1024-1027. J., 2006. New strepsirrhine primate from the late
Ducrocq, S., Chaimanee, Y., Suteethorn, V. & Jaeger, J.- Eocene of Peninsular Thailand (Krabi Basin). Amer.
J., 1997. First discovery of Helohyidae (Artiodactyla, J. Phys. Anthrop. 130 (4), 425-434.
Mammalia) in the Late Eocene of Thailand:a possible Marivaux, L., Bocat, L., Chaimanee, Y., Jaeger, J.-J.,
transitional form for Anthracotheriidae. C. R. Acad. Marandat, B., Srisuk, P., Tafforeau, P. & Yamee, C.,
Sci. 325, 367-372. 2006. Cynocephalid dermopterans from the
Ducrocq, S., Chaimanee, Y., Suteethorn, V. & Jaeger, J.- paleogene of South Asia (Thailand, Myanmar, and
J., 1998. The earliest known pig from the upper Pakistan): systematic, evolutionary and
Eocene of Thailand. Palaeontology 41 (Part 1), 147- paleobiogeographic implications. Zool. Scripta 35,
156. 395-420.
Ducrocq, S., Chaimanee, Y., Suteethorn, V. & Jaeger, J.- Markirt, T., Laoprapaipan, P., Jariyabhumi, O. &
J., 2003. Occurrence of the anthracotheriid Anupandhanant, P. (1984). Conf. on Applications of
Brachyodus (Artiodactyla, Mammalia) in the early Geology and the National Development,
Middle Miocene of Thailand. C. R. Palevol 2, 261– Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.
268. Métais, G., Chaimanee, Y., Jaeger, J.-J. & Ducrocq, S.,
Ducrocq, S., Jaeger, J.-J., Chaimanee, Y. & Suteethorn, 2001. New remains of primitive ruminants from
V., 1995. New primate from the Paleogene of Thailand: evidence of the early evolution of the
Thailand, and the biogeographical origin of Ruminantia in Asia. Zool. Scripta 30, 231-248.
anthropoids. J. Hum. Evol. 28, 477-485. Métais, G., Chaimanee, Y., Jaeger, J.-J. & Ducrocq, S.,
Ducrocq, S., Jaeger, J.-J. & Sigé, S., 1993. Un 2007. Eocene bunoselenodont Artiodactyla from
mégachiroptère dans l'Eocène supérieur de Thaïlande: southern Thailand and the early evolution of
Incidence dans la discussion phylogénique du groupe. Ruminantia in South Asia. Naturwissenschaften 94
N. Jb. Geol. Paläont.9, 561-576. (6), 493-498.
Ginsburg, L., Ingavat, R. & Tassy, P., 1983. Siamogale Morgan, M. E., Kingston, J. D. & Marino, B. D., 1994.
thailandica, Nouveau Mustelidae (Carnivora, Carbon isotope evidence for the emergence of C4
Mammalia) Néogène du Sud-Est asiatique. Bull. Soc. plants in the Neogene from Pakistan and Kenya.
Géol. France t. XXV, Série 7 (6), 953-956. Nature 367, 162-165.
Ginsburg, L. & Ukkakimaphan, Y., 1983. A new cervid Nelson, S. V., 2003. The extinction of Sivapithecus:
from the South Asia Miocene and the age of the faunal and environmental changes surrounding the
intramountainous basins of North Thailand. C. R. disappearence of a Miocene hominoid in the Siwaliks
Acad. Sci.297, Série II, 297-300. of Pakistan. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers.
Haines, P. W., Howard, K. T., Ali, J. R., Burrett, C. F. & Peigné, S., Chaimanee, Y., Jaeger, J.-J., Suteethorn, V. &
Bunopas, S., 2004. Flood deposits Ducrocq, S., 2000. Eocene nimravid carnivorans from
penecontemporaneous with ~0.8 Ma tektite fall in NE Thailand. J. Vert. Paleont. 20 (1), 157-163.
Thailand: impact-induced environmental effects? Peigné, S., Chaimanee, Y., Yamee, C., Tian, P. & Jaeger,
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 225, 19-28. J.-J., 2006. A new Amphicyonid (Mammalia,
Howard, K. T., Haines, P. W., Burrett, C., Ali, J. R. & Carnivora, Amphicyonidae) from the late middle
Bunopas, S., 2003. Sedimentology of 0.8 million year Miocene of northern Thailand and a review of the
old log-bearing flood deposits in Northeastern amphicyonine record in Asia. J. Asian Earth Sci. 26,
Thailand and mechanisms for pre-flood deforestation, 519-532.
8th International Congress on Pacific Neogene Peigné, S., Chaimanee, Y., Yamee, C., Srisuk, P.,
Stratigraphy, ChiangMai. Marandat, B. & Jaeger, J. J., 2006. A new member of
Lihoreau, F., Barry, J., Blondel., C. & Brunet, M., 2004. the Mustelida (Mammalia: Carnivora) from the
A new species of Anthracotheriidae, Merycopotamus Paleogene of southern Asia. J. Vert. Paleont. 26 (3),
medioximus nov. sp. from the Late Miocene of the 788-793.
Potwar Plateau, Pakistan. Palevol 3, 653-662. Rage, J.-C., Buffetaut, E., Buffetaut-Tong, H.,
Marivaux, L., Chaimanee, Y., Yamee, C., Srisuk, P. & Chaimanee, Y., Ducrocq, S., Jaeger, J.-J. &
Jaeger, J.-J., 2004. Discovery of Fallomus Suteethorn, V., 1992. A colubrid snake in the late
ladakhensis Nanda & Sahni, 1998 (Mammalia, Eocene of Thailand: The oldest known Colubridae
Rodentia, Diatomyidae) in the lignites of Nong Ya (Reptilia, Serpentes). C. R. Acad. Sci. 314, 1085-
Plong (Phetchaburi Province, Thailand): systematic, 1089.
biochronological and paleoenvironmental Remus, D., Webster, M. & Keawkan, K., 1993. Rift
implications. Geodiversitas 26, 493-507. architecture and sedimentology of the Phetchabun
Marivaux, L., Benammi, M., Ducrocq, S., Jaeger, J.-J. & intermontane basin, Central Thailand. J. SE Asian
Chaimanee, Y., 2000. A new baluchimyine rodent Earth Sci. 8, 321-432.
78
Sépulchre, P., 2003. Paléoenvironnements d'Asie du Sud- Strogen, D. M., 1994. The Chiang Muan Basin, a Tertiary
Est: Apports de l'analyse palynologique de deux sites sedimentary basin of Northern Thailand. Ph. D.,
Miocène de Thaïlande. DEA, Universit2 Montpellier University of London.
II. Suteethorn, V., Buffetaut, E., Helmcke-Ingavat, R.,
Songtham, W., Ugai, H., Imsamut, S., Maranate, S., Jaeger, J.-J. & Jongkanjanasoontorn, Y., 1988. Oldest
Tansathien, W., Meesook, A. & Saengsrichan, W., known Tertiary mammals from South East Asia:
2005. Middle Miocene Molluscan assemblages in Middle Eocene primate and anthracotheres from
Mae Moh basin, Lampang Province, Northern Thailand. N. Jb. Geol. Palaont.9, 563-570.
Thailand. ScienceAsia 31, 183-191. Tassy, P., Anupandhanant, P., Ginsburg, L., Mein, P.,
Soulie-Märsche, I., Gemayel, P., Chaimanee, Y., Ratanasathien, B. & Suteethorn, V., 1992. A new
Suteethorn, V., Jaeger, J.-J. & Ducrocq, S., 1997. Stegolophodon (Proboscidea, Mammalia) from the
Nitellopsis (Charophyta) from the Miocene of early Miocene of Northern Thailand. Geobios 25, 4,
northern Thailand. Alcheringa 21, 141-156. 511-523.
79
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY FOR REGIONAL PLANNING

IN GEOLOGICAL DISASTER RISK REDUCES
( CASE STUDY : GARUT REGENCY, WEST JAVA, INDONESIA)
Oki Oktariadi
oki@dgtl.esdm.go.id
ABSTRACT
Garut Regency which is located ini subduction zone, potentially has high risk of geological disaster. Because of its high
geological disaster risk, it is important to to formulate actions those can reduce disaster risk (mitigation). To formulate
the actions, it is necessity to identify subdistrict which have high risk level of geological disaster. Geological disaster
important in Garut Regency is earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides and vulcano eksplosif.
There are three geological disaster risk main factors : hazard factor, vulnerability factor, and capacity factor. Based on
analysis result in Garut Regency, there are 6 (six) subdistrict which have vulcanos eksplosif high risk level, those are
Cisurupan, Tarogong Kidul, Tarogong Kaler, Banyuresmi, Leles, and Cibiuk, 7 (seven) subdistrict which have landslides
high risk level, those are Singajaya, Cilawu, Bayongbong, Cigedug, Garut City, Karang Pawitan and Sucinaraja, 3
(three) subdistrict which have earthquakes high risk level, those are Cikelet, Pamempeuk and Cibalong, 5 (five)
subdistrict which have tsunami high risk level, those are Cibalong, Pameumpeuk, Cikelet, Pakenjeng, Mekarmukti and
Caringin.
A primary aim of this study is the application of the environmental geological recommendations for practical spatial
arrangement in geological Disaster risk areas. The maps indicate whether the land is high unhampered zone, Rather
high unhampered, moderate unhampered zone and low unhampered zone for particular uses. The unhampered zone aim
is unhampered in landuse determination and space organization. It is important to formulate actions those can reduce
disaster risk.
Keywords: environmental geology, disaster risk, land use, Indonesia
INTRODUCTION was also accompanied by tsunami, as a result hundreds of

shop and hotel in area of wisata Pangandaran knocked
Overview of the Case Study over by sump as high as about 2,5 metre. Hotel area and
that shop reside in about 150 metre of coast and on 12
Indonesia is an archipelago located at the conjunction of September 2007, several earthquakes reaching a
four tectonic plates (Eurasia, Pacific, Philippines and magnitute of 8.2 Richter scale struck the west coast of
Indo-Australian). The topography varies from Sumatera Island near Bengkulu province.
mountainous to long coastal zones. The country is The Garut Regency area was chosen as the focus of the
exposed to considerable threats from natural hazards such study because it faces various problems related to
as earthquake, landslides, volcanoes, floods and tsunamis. geological hazards. The main problem can be divided into
Communities are mostly at risk because of the lack of three categories, environmental, geohazards and land-use
awareness and capacity to cope with the disasters. On the planning. Several environmental problems occur in the
other hand, government capacity to protect the population Garut Regency. Besides those problems are subject to
from natural disasters is limited. As the communities can geohazards in the form of volcanic eruptions, landslides,
not depend solely on government actions to protect their earthquakes and tsunamis.
life, there is a need to improve their awareness and
capacity in order to make them safer from disaster. The Methodology
Jakarta big flood event in 2002, the catastrophic tsunami
event of 26th December 2004 which strike the coastal The steps to obtain a purpose are as follow;
areas in Aceh Province and Nias Island had been the Step 1. To formulate the value of factors and sub factors
driving force for enhancing the practice, One of the which will effect of geological disaster risk
disasters was a major earthquake in a scale of 5.9 Richter Step 2. To formulate the risk indicators from factors/sub-
on May 27th 2006, which claimed more than 5,500 lost of factors.
lives and destroyed approximately 500,000 houses, Step 3. To calculate the value of geological disaster risk
another disaster was a series of volcanic eruption in April factors ; hazard, vulnerability and capacity. We
- June 2006, Pangandaran earthquakes with strength presently describe how these should be done.
about 6,8 Richter scale which knock over area of Ciamis a. The value indicator standardization
80
b. Futher assessment using scoring method d. The analysis of the results combined the
involving factors, sub factors and geological disaster risk consisted of three
indicators categories namely: high risk, moderate risk
c. To calculate the value of disaster risk and low risk.
factors with same up all of the multiply.
Natural Geological
physical hazard
aspect analysis
Garut Structural vulnerability Geological Geological formulate

Regency physical analysis risk disaster risk disaster an action
Area aspect analysis category each to reduce
district area
Social and capacity

economic analysis
aspect
Figure 1. Framework of Geological Disater Risk
Step 4. After calculating the value risk disaster for each with the means for the effective disposal of our waste
subdistrict, can be making a thematic map are products. However, although the geological environment
compiled by environmental geology as a basis for provides us with the essential elements for human
recommendations as well as warnings with respect endeavour, it also generates some of the most potent
to hazard areas, these also contain an action to hazards to our existence in the form of earthquakes,
reduce of risk (Fig. 2). The result of analysis is the volcanoes, landslides, tsunamis and floods (Howari,
maps indicate whether the land is high 2003).
unhampered zone, Rather high unhampered, The methods for data selection and problem assessment
moderate unhampered zone and low unhampered used in the papers can be explained as follows:
zone.
The information contained in the individual Regional Geomorphological Setting
thematic maps is summarized in a so called
synthesis map. It is unavoidable that in some the Regionally, the geomorphology of Garut Regency can be
recommendations for landuse overlap, i.e. there divided into four landform units in the mainland.
will be conflicts of interest. In these cases, the map Coastal Plain : The palin is identified by its flat surface
provides an order of priority for landuse based on and an altitude ranging between 0 and 15 m a.m.s.l., a
the principles of environmental geology. Aspects width ranging between 7 and 20 km and associated beach
of resources management and future regional ridges, mangrove swamps and deltaic plain. The coastal
development trends are also considered. zone conditions reflect the importance of the resistence of
lithology, wave and sea currents and human impacts as
COMPILED BY ENVIRONMENTAL well. The coastal morphodynamic situasion is emphasized
GEOLOGY to show the type and physical properties of the lithology,
relief and shoreline characteristics.
Environmental geology is the interaction of humans with Volcanic Fan : The fan lies between Garut located at the
the geological environment. The geological environment foot of the Guntur mountains in the north Garut Area and
includes not only the physical constituents of the Earth - Papandayan Mountains in the centre Garut Area. The fan
its rocks, sediments, soils and fluids - but also the surface is composed of volcanic debris such as tuff conglomerate
of the Earth, its landforms, and in particular the processes and breccia that has already been strongly weathered to a
which operate to change it through time. This brownish color.
environment is both a resource and a hazard to human Undulated Hilly Area : The hills separate the coastal
development, and is essential to life. It provides us with plain in the north with the geology of that area is
water, industrial minerals, building materials and fuel. It dominanted by alluvial and transtisional deposits that
constrains the location and architecture of our urban consist of beach sand, mud flat and swamp deposits and
settlements and transport infrastructure. It provides us the volcanic ridges in the south. In some areas the hills
consist of limestone and igneous rock.
81
Land
Resources
Analysis
Geeological Area with

Resources Contruction
Aspect deposits
Water
Resources
Analysis
Environmental Recommendation
Garut Geological Geology for for Spatial
Regency Disaster Risk Reducing Arrangement
Area Geological Analysis Disaster Risk
Hazards Earthquakes
Aspect Landslides
Volcanoes
Tsunamis
Protection
Forest
Existing
Landuse
Non
Geological
Aspect
Government
Polices
Figure 2. Framework of Environmental Geology for Reducing Disaster Risk
Mountain Ridges : The mountains are located in the produced debris avalanches that have impacted lowland
southern part and consist of volcanic cones such as G. areas beyond the volcano. A sulfur-encrusted fumarole
Guntur and G. Papandayan. field occupies historically active Kawah Mas ("Golden
Guntur is a complex of several overlapping Crater"). After its first historical eruption in 1772, in
stratovolcanoes about 10 km NW of the city of Garut in which collapse of the NE flank produced a catastrophic
western Java. Young lava flows, the most recent of which debris avalanche that destroyed 40 villages and killed
was erupted in 1840, are visible on the flanks of the nearly 3000 persons, only small phreatic eruptions had
erosionally unmodified Gunung Guntur, which rises about occurred prior to an explosive eruption that began in
1550 m above the plain of Garut. Guntur is one of a group November 2002.
of younger cones constructed to the SW of an older
eroded group of volcanoes at the NE end of the complex. Rivers in Garut Regency
Guntur, whose name means "thunder," is the only
historically active center, with eruptions having been The main rivers such as the Cimanuk river, Cikaengan
recorded since the late-17th century. Although Guntur river, Cisanggiri river, Cilayu river and Cikandang river.
produced frequent explosive eruptions in the 19th century, The Cimanuk is the second longest river in West Java
making it one of the most active volcanoes of western after the Citarum, but it has the greatest catchment area
Java, it has not erupted since. (Table 1), 9,650 km²; the head of the river is located 180
Papandayan is a complex stratovolcano with four large km upstream, south of Garut. It flows through Quaternary
summit craters, the youngest of which was breached to the volcanics, Miocene and Quaternary sediments, and the
NE by collapse during a brief eruption in 1772 and alluvial plain of north West Java (Fig. 3).
contains active fumarole fields. The broad 1.1-km-wide,
flat-floored Alun-Alun crater truncates the summit of Tectonic Setting
Papandayan, and Gunung Puntang to the north gives the
volcano a twin-peaked appearance. Several episodes of The region Garut Regency West Java is an active
collapse have given the volcano an irregular profile and subduction zone and is well known for high seismicity.
82
Here the Australian plate subducts under the Eurusian Regional Geology
plate and the Sunda plate with clock wise rotation in NE
direction with a speed of 6 mm/year causing an oblique The Garut Regency forms part of the Sunda-arc group of
convergence. It results into high stress generation, which islands which are all of a similar geological age consisting
is released as earthquakes from time to time. The tectonics of Late-Tertiary and Quaternary limestone, sandstone and
in epi-central area of the 26 December 2004 earthquake is shale sediments. Tectonic uplift and volcanic activity,
further complicated as it is located at the junction of four which commenced in this period, is the result of a
plates, viz. Indian, Australian, Burma and Sunda (Fig. 3). subduction of part of the Pacific-plate beneath the Sunda-
North of the Sunda plate lies the Eurasian plate and their arc. This is still continuing and as a result soils derived
junction represents a continent–continent boundary, which from volcanic ash and debris cover much of the
makes the transmission of stress towards north difficult. landscape. It is also responsible for the rugged
In the epicentral zone of the present earthquake stress mountainous terrain in the southern part of, the island,
build up is further increased due to presence of a large which consists, mainly of uplifted and folded sediments,
number of ridges and fractures in the deformation zone, and also a continuous belt of active volcanoes, with
which are subducting under the Sunda plate along with uplifted sediments on their flanks, in the central zone. In
the Indian plate. The boundary between the Indian plate the north the terrain is flat consisting of recently emerged
and the Australian plate is a diffused zone (between coastal sediments.
dashed red lines in figure 3) and is part of the Central
Indian Ocean Deformation Zone. The central continuous GEOLOGICAL DISASTER RISK
red line between dashed red lines showing boundary
between the Indian plate and the Australian plate lies There are three geological disaster risk main factors :
approximately in the central part of deformation zone. The hazard factor, vulnerability factor, and capacity factor can
deformation zone is characterized by large earthquakes, be explained as follows:
east-west trending folds, thrusts, faults and fractures in
sediments. It also shows high heat flow indicating recent Geological Hazard Factors
subsurface tectonic activities in this section.
This study is interested in applying a method that is easy
to utilise by different end-users and flexible enough to be
applied in other places of the world. This study considers
the identification of the geological hazard zone. There are
certain geological hazards to civil engineering structures
to which the attention of the decision makers in landuse
and spatial arrangement must be drawn. The hazards may
differ from site to side and depend primarily on
geological, climatological, and morphological factors.
For the Garut Regency the following hazard were
determined on the basis of the geological conditions
above ; earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides and vulcanoes
eruptions (lahars)
Vulnerability Factors
Vulnerability as “the characteristics of a person or group

in terms of their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resirt,
and recorder from the impact of natural hazard”
(Awotona, 1997 : 28).
These characteristics were identified and collected for
each building within the potential geological hazard zone
together with data concerning the population, building use
and so forth. For further information on these factors, the
generation of the primary database, the coverages
digitized and the use of the Geographical Information
System.
Figure 3. Subduction and Earquakes potensial map in Capacity Factors

Indonesian Area (the red line).
Identification of factors that affect the Capacity of
geological data and thematic maps useful for the
mitigation of Garut Area provide strategic information
that enables local governments to identify, understand and
83
deal with a wide range of environmental conditions.
Understanding geological conditions and land use. The Human Vulnerability (HV) of each building is
Geological data can aid in finding and assessing critical calculated according to the following equation:
resources and determining the suitability of lands for all
type mitigation of hazards. The natural resources of the HV = BV x P (where P = Population).
lands as well as hazards to be avoided are included in the
data set in order to achieve sustainable development. Display of Building Vulnerability (BV) and Human
Vulnerability (HV)
Disaster Risk Catagory The spatial and temporal variation of building and human
vulnerability may be displayed in a GIS map form.
A. Methods of Analysis : Calculation of the vulnerability The database may also be used by various end-users and
of individual buildings within the hazard zone using a form a valuable tool for emergency planning, developing
multi criteria evaluation method. mitigation measures and insurance.
The data collected for each building and open space may
be divided into three categories:
B. Analysis of Results : Each analysis of results for kind
(a) quantitative (population, population density, number
of geological hazards are based on the interrelationship
of households);
between geological elements ;
(b) qualitative (condition, building surroundings, natural
environment, etc.) and Earthquakes : Garut Regency which is located in the
(c) descriptive (e.g. land use). Modified Marcelly Intencity IV – VII and potentially has
The qualitative data are used for the calculation of the high risk of earthquake disaster are located in Coastal
vulnerability of individual buildings. The first step is the Pameumpeuk Areas, because of its high earthquake
standardisation of the raw data collected using the disaster and olso high population. Based on analysis
following formula: result, there are 3 (three) subdistrict which have
earthquakes high risk level, those are Cikelet, Pamempeuk
Standardized score I = raw score I / maximum raw score and Cibalong.
Tsunamis : The run-up does not equal the tsunami height
Since the factors do not affect vulnerability equally, they on the shore and the run-up heights will show variation
have to be ranked according to their importance. The along the coastline due to several factors (Camfield,
criteria are arranged in order of importance and a weight 1994). Without taking into consideration the tsunami
factor is applied. The importance of the criteria is source and offshore bathymetry in order to be simple,
connected with the mitigation measures that may be taken. easy and realistic.
This is why the criteria that are concerned with the Since the run-up cannot be calculated, the safest option
condition of the house are higher in the range of for the identification of the potential inundation zone is to
importance than the criteria that relate to the location. define it as the area between the coastline and the contour
This is because it is felt that the condition of the house can of the highest recorded tsunami. Therefore in an area
change more easily and with less cost than its location. On where the highest recorded tsunami was 15 m, the
the other hand, reinforcement of buildings and protection inundation zone will be the area between the coastline and
with surrounding walls is easier and cheaper and may the 15 m contour. It is understood that the depth of water
protect the building from other types of natural disasters. during a tsunami will differ according to the ground
The vulnerability of each building (BV) in the natural elevation. Based on analysis result, there are 5 (five)
hazard zone is then calculated as follows: subdistrict which have tsunami high risk level, those are
Pameumpeuk, Pakenjeng, and Caringin.
BV = (7xa)+(6xb)+(5xc)+(4xd)+(3xe)+(2xf)+(1xg) Landslides : Large areas of the project area are threatened
Where: by landslides due to the nature, disposition and
(a) the standardised score that is related to the weathering of volcanic deposits, particularly at times of
material of the building; high precipitation. Frequenty mass movements of the
(b) the standardised score that is related to the row of sediments (landslides, mudflows, rockslides) occor
the building; predominantly during the rainy season; in most cases
(c) the standardised score that is related to the number fields and houses are damaged. This mainly affects the
of floors of the building; steep slopes but also gentle slopes with inclinations of
(d) the standardised score that is related to the around 15%. The cost in terms of human life cannot be
building surroundings; ignored. In many cases human activities are the decisive
(e) the standardised score that is related to the factor, acting as a trigger for the landslides (inappropriate
condition of the ground floor of the building; landuse, slope cuts, etc.). Based on analysis result, there
(f) the standardised score that is related to the are 7 (seven) subdistrict which have landslides high risk
presence of sea defense in front of the building level, those are Singajaya, Cilawu, Bayongbong, Cigedug,
and; Garut City, Karang Pawitan and Sucinaraja.
(g) the standardised score that is related to the width Lahars :Vulcanic ash deposited on sloping ground may
of the intertidal zone in front of the building. descend into the valleys as highly mobile mudflows when
84
accompanied by or shortly followed by precipitation. The ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGICAL
routes of these potential flows can be predicted and are RECOMENDATIONS
marked on the map. They are risk areas connected with
active volcanoes. Based on analysis result, there are 6 Geological disaster risk can be reduced by structural and
(six) subdistrict which have vulcanos eksplosif high risk non-structural measure, by the principle of reducing
level, those are Cisurupan, Tarogong Kidul, Tarogong vulnerability and increasing capacity. One of non-
Kaler, Banyuresmi, Leles, and Cibiuk. structural mitigation measure is spatial arrangement,
which is the focus of this study for environmental geology
The analysis of the results combined of the geological for geological disaster risk area.
disaster risk in Garut Regency (see figure 5) consist of To formulate the actions, it is necessity to identify
three categories namely: high risk areas (wilayah risiko subdistrict which have high risk level of geological
tinggi), moderate risk areas (wilayah risiko sedang) and disaster Risk and on the geological hazard map those
low risk areas (wilayah risiko rendah). areas are delineated which are affected by the hazards
High Risk Areas described above.
Based on analysis result, there are 19 subdistrict; Therefore, the study will continue to support the
Pamempeuk, , Pakenjeng, Mekarmukti, Caringin, preparation and updating of landuse maps for Garut
Singajaya, Cilawu, Bayongbong, Cigedug, Garut City, Regency and important surrounding districts, the
Karang Pawitan, Sucinaraja, Cisurupan, Tarogong Kidul, identification of sites for individual study, and the lands
Tarogong Kaler, Banyuresmi, Leles, and Cibiuk. protection areas.
Moderate Risk Areas
Based on analysis result, there are 11 subdistrict;
Sukawening, Karangtengah, Samarang, Pamulihan,
Cikajang, Banjarwangi, Pakenjeng, Cihurip, Cipeundeui,
Cikelet, and Cibalong,
Low Risk Areas
Based on analysis result, there are 11 subdistrict;
Limbangan, Malambong, Kertamanah, Cibatu,
Pasirwangi, Suaresmi, Talegong, Cisewu, Bumbulang,
Cisompet, and Singajaya.
Figure 6. Enviromnetal geology for Spatial Arrangement
The assessment of the physical condition of land is

possible by integrating the various geological elements.
One way to integrate various geological elements for
urban development is through land suitability maps that
are generated by using multiple overlays of geological,
resource, and hazard conditions. The land suitability maps
Figure 5. Geological Disaster Rik Map in Garut Regency.
85
present the limitations of land conditions for various types Amin, Mirna., Penataan Ruang Berbasis Mitigasi Bencana,
of urban development. The maps indicate whether the Buletin Tata ruang Januari-Februari 2005.
land is high unhampered zone (zona leluasa), Rather high Anon. 1981, Pengawasan Gunung Api dan Usaha
unhampered (zona cukup leluasa), moderate unhampered Penanggulangan Bahayanya. Direktorat Vulkanologi,
zone (zona kurang leluasa) and low unhampered zone Departemen Pertambangan dan Energi.
(zona tidak leluasa) for particular uses (Fig. 6). The Carter, W. Nick. 1991, Disaster Management: A Disaster
unhampered zone aim is unhampered in landuse Manager’s Handbook. Asian Development Bank, Manila.
determination and space organization. Coats, D. R., 1981, Environmental Geology, John Wiley.
The relationship between environmental geology and Davidson, Racheal A. 1997, An Urban Earthquake Disaster Risk
Index., Stanford: The John A. Blume Earthquke
policy planning can be seems based on 2 aspect : Engineering Center, Departement of Civil Engineering
a. Action to existing activity in high risk district with to Stanford University.
make an effort to reduce the value indicators.
Hawari,F., 2003, Environmental Geology, Definition, scope and
b. Risk disaster implication on spatial arrangement can Tools.
be done based on 2 step : (1) detail spatial Koesmono, M., 1976, Geological Map of the Sindangbarang &
arrangement in coastal Garut area and (2) detail Bantarwaru Quadrangels, Java, Scale 1 : 100.000,-
spatial arrangement in Garut Regency Area. Bandung (Direktorat Geologi).
Based on analysis from environmental geology to the Matthew R. Bennett and Peter Doyle, 1997, Environmental
purpose planning authorities should be warned that Geology: Geology and the Human Environment by. Hand-
infrastructural development should be avoided in these out from other sources and papers will be given as course
areas or considerable additional cost must be expected. progress.
Silitonga, P.H., 1973, Geeological Map of the Bandung
Quadrangle, Java,- geological Map of Indonesia, 1 :
REFERENCES 100.000; Bandung (Direktorat Geologi).
Akbar, N & Muziel., M., 1978, geological Map of the Garut- Varley, Ann, Disasters, Development and Environment. John
Pameungpeuk Quadrangle, West Java, 1 : 100.000,- Wiley & Sons, London (UK).
bandung (Direktorat geologi),-[Unpubl.]. VSI (Volcanological Survey of Indonesian), 1982, Bulletin of
Akbar, R., 1993, Sistem Informasi Geografis: Land Use The Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, Special Edition.
Accounting System, Jurnal Perencanaan Wilayah dan Kota, Berita berkala Vulkanologi No. 105.
No. 7.
86
FAMENNIAN (UPPER DEVONIAN) CONODONTS FROM MAE SARIANG,

NORTHWESTERN THAILAND
Norman M. SAVAGE1, Apsorn SARDSUD2 AND Petra LUTAT3
1
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Oregon, Oregon 97403, USA, E-mail : nmsavage@uoregon.edu
2
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok 10400, Thailand, E-mail : apsornsa@yahoo.com>
3
Palaeontological Research and Education Centre, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham 44150, Thailand
E-mail :petra.l@msu.ac.th
ABSTRACT
Upper Devonian conodonts have been described only rarely in Thailand. A roadside exposure southwest of the town of
Mae Sariang, northwestern Thailand, has yielded a fauna of Late Famennian (Upper Devonian) age conodonts assigned
herein to span the Lower to Middle expansa Zones. The species are mostly cosmopolitan but include the new species
Polygnathus sariangensis. The taxa suggest an off-shore pelagic palmatolepid-polygnathid biofacies. No brachiopods or
other megafossils have been observed. These conodonts of international interest for comparison with faunas in North
America, Europe, Siberia, China, Australia, Vietnam, Malaysia and elsewhere.
Keywords: Conodonts, northwestern Thailand, biostratigraphic
INTRODUCTION COMPARISONS
The Late Devonian conodonts described here were Conodonts from the Lower and Middle expansa Zones are
collected in northwestern Thailand in an area about 600 usually cosmopolitan and very similar faunas have been
km northwest of Bangkok (Fig. 1) and 20 km southwest described from many parts of the world, including
of the town of Mae Sariang at 18° 01’ 07”N, 97° 51’ 30”E Western and Central Europe (Ziegler and Sandberg, 1984
(Fig. 2). The fauna comes from an isolated roadside for numerous references; Wolska, 1967; Pölsler, 1969),
exposure. Other exposures of different Devonian ages are Italy (Perri and Spalletta, 1991), Morocco (Kaiser, et al.,
present at points along the road for several km but 2007), Turkey (Çapkinoğlu, 2000; 2005; Çapkinoğlu and
frequent faulting has frustrated efforts to collect a Gedik, 2000), USA (Ziegler and Sandberg, 1984, for
continuous sequence. Some of these exposures have numerous references), Canada (Johnston and Chatterton,
yielded conodonts that are highly deformed but the 2001), European and Asiatic Russia (Khalymbadzha,
collection described herein is relatively undeformed. 1981; Gagiev, 1995), China (Ji and Ziegler, 1993), the
Some preliminary mapping and collecting was done in the Indian Himalayas (Draganits et al., 2002), and Australia
area by Thai and German geologists during the years (Druce, 1976; Glenister and Klapper, 1966; Metzger,
1965-1971, although a map and paleontological lists were 1994). Apart from the new species Polygnathus
published much later (Hahn & Siebenhüner, 1982). The sariangensis, the only other taxon in the Thailand fauna
preliminary mapping was published at a scale of that is a surprise at this horizon is the anomalously low
1:250,000 and gives a general interpretation of the occurrence of Bispathodus aculeatus (as kindly noted by
stratigraphy and structure but no faunas were illustrated. Thomas Becker, personal communication). However, this
The road has changed since that time and the present taxon is only represented in the fauna by a one element
horizon and fauna was not included by the earlier (Figure 4. 26-27) and is not totally unknown at this
workers. A lower but more extended Upper Devonian horizon, being recorded by Çapkinoğlu (2000, p. 95,
section was described by Savage, Sardsud and Buggisch Table 2) as a single specimen at the lowest bed in the
(2006) from an area 350 km farther south near the town of Middle expansa Zone in northwestern Turkey section.
Thong Pha Phum. That section spans the Frasnian- Otherwise the association of the taxa Palmatolepis
Famennian boundary and the paper included stable gracilis gracilis Sandberg and Ziegler, 1979,
isotope results. The Frasnian-Famennian boundary may Palmatolepis gracilis sigmoidalis Ziegler, 1962,
also be present in the Mae Sariang area but repeated visits Polygnathus styriacus Ziegler, 1957, Bispathodus stabilis
to the roadside exposures and minor expeditions into the (Branson and Mehl, 1934), Palmatolepis perlobata
adjacent jungle and river bed have failed to locate a maxima Müller, 1956, Branmehla fissilis (Branson and
promising section. Mehl, 1934), Palmatolepis schindewolfi Müller, 1956, and
Pseudopolygnathus marburgensis marburgensis Bischoff
and Ziegler, 1956, is frequent in these globally
widespread areas. Less common numerically but usually
87
present are Mehlina strigosa Branson and Mehl, 1934, fauna occurs at or close to the boundary between the
Polygnathus granulosus Branson and Mehl, 1934, Lower and Middle expansa Zones. All the listed taxa are
Branmehla suprema (Ziegler, 1962), Polygnathus glaber present in their range charts apart from the new taxon.
glaber Ulrich and Bassler, 1926, Polygnathus prehassi These taxa occurring at the Mae Sariang locality suggest
Schäfer, 1976, Polygnathus communis communis Branson an off-shore pelagic palmatolepid-polygnathid biofacies.
and Mehl 1934, and Bispathodus aculeatus (Branson and No brachiopods or other megafossils have been observed.
Mehl 1934). The ranges shown by Ziegler and Sandberg,
1984, p. 182, 183 support the view that this Thailand
Figure 1—Location of the Mae Sariang field Figure 2—Fossil locality 20 km southwest of Mae Sariang,
area in northwestern Thailand. northwestern Thailand.
CONCLUSIONS The importance of this study, in addition to the

biostratigraphic value of conodonts providing a time-
The fauna is cosmopolitan and mostly comprises taxa frame for geological mapping in Thailand, is that Upper
common in North America, Europe, Turkey, Siberia, Devonian conodonts have been described only rarely in
China, Southeast Asia and Australia. Only Polygnathus Thailand and none of these taxa has been recorded there
sariangensis is considered a new taxon but this is previously. They are of thus of some international interest
extremely rare as is often the case with new taxa in for comparison with conodonts in North America, Europe,
cosmopolitan faunas. The P1 elements are more abundant Siberia, China, Australia, Vietnam and elsewhere.
than ramiform elements making reconstruction of the
apparatuses impracticable. The apparatuses of some of SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY
the taxa have been reconstructed by Metzger (1994) from
the Canning Basin Virgin Hills Formation, Western The specimen numbers are those of the University of
Australia, and the Bactrian Mountain Pilot Shale, Nevada, Oregon Paleontology Collection (UOPS).
and it is possible these ramiform elements may be
recognized in our collection if additional material were Genus BISPATHODUS Müller, 1962
available. Type species.—Spathodus spinulicostatus E. R. Branson,
The age ranges of taxa known from elsewhere leave little 1934.
doubt that this fauna is of expansa Zone age and most BISPATHODUS ACULEATUS aff. ANTEPOSICORNIS
likely spans the boundary of the Lower expansa and (Scott, 1961)
Middle expansa Zones. Figures 4.25-4.27
88
Discussion.—This taxon is represented by a single P1 Material. — Figured specimen P1 element UOPS 255,
element that is unusual in having a markedly downcurved and 9 other P1 elements.
aboral margin and thus may be a new species or
subspecies. The presence of accessory denticles and a Genus MEHLINA Youngquist, 1945
basal cavity that does not extend close to the posterior of Type species.—Mehlina irregularis = M. gradata
the unit suggests a form of Bispathodus that belongs to the Youngquist, 1945
aculeatus branch as defined by Ziegler, Sandberg and MEHLINA STRIGOSA (Branson and Mehl, 1934)
Austin, 1974. Figures 4.19-4.21
Material.—Figured specimen P1 element UOPS 273. No Spathodus strigosus BRANSON AND MEHL, 1934, p.
other specimens. 187, pl. `17, fig. 17.
Discussion.—These P1 specimens have subequal and
BISPATHODUS STABILIS (Branson and Mehl, 1934) confluent denticles. The short basal slit occurs on the
Figures 3.10-3.15 aboral edge just posterior to the point where the basal
Spathodus stabilis BRANSON AND MEHL, 1934, p. margin profile becomes gently concave. The species is
188, pl. 17, fig. 20. cosmopolitan and appears to range from the Frasnian up
to at least the Middle expansa Zone of the Famennian.
Discussion.—Bispathodus stabilis has a slightly The distinction between M. strigosa and M. gradata
asymmetrical posteriorly pointed lanceolate platform Youngquist, 1945, is unclear but the former is the name
slightly longer than the free blade. The platform has steep commonly used this high in the Famennian, although
smooth flanks and bears a strongly denticulate carina Johnston and Chatterton, 2001, have identified both taxa
which extends anteriorly as a single row of denticles on in the late Famennian of Canada and have discussed some
the blade. Aborally the large basal cavity reaches the differences.
posterior platform tip and thus fits the concept of Material —Figured specimens P1 elements UOPS 269-
Morphotype 2 of Ziegler, Sandberg and Austin (1974). 270, and 15 other P1 elements.
The taxon is known widely elsewhere including North
America, Europe, China and Vietnam. It ranges from the Genus PALMATOLEPIS Ulrich and Bassler, 1926
Lower expansa Zone to the Lower Carboniferous. Type species.—Palmatolepis perlobata ULRICH AND
Material.—Figured specimens P1 elements UOPS 253- BASSLER, 1926
254, and 144 other P1 elements.
PALMATOLEPIS GRACILIS GRACILIS Branson and
Genus BRANMEHLA Hass, 1959 Mehl, 1934
Type species.—Spathodus inornatus Branson and Mehl, Figures 3.4-3.9
1934. Palmatolepis gracilis BRANSON AND MEHL, 1934, p.
BRANMEHLA FISSILIS (Branson and Mehl, 1934) 238, pl. 18, fig.8.
Figures 4.15-4.18 Palmatolepis gracilis gracilis SANDBERG AND
Spathodus fissilis BRANSON AND MEHL, 1934, p. 185, ZIEGLER, 1979, p. 177, pl. 1, figs.1-2.
pl. 17, fig.10, 11.
Discussion.—These P1 elements have a straight blade, Discussion.—This subspecies of Palmatolepis gracilis is
denticles that are equal in height except for those posterior characterized by its short triangular platform with a raised
of the basal cavity, and a basal cavity that is rim, and a long, straight blade bearing numerous stout,
asymmetrical. Thus they appear to belong to Branmehla subequal denticles. Smaller denticles are present on the
fissilis, which is known elsewhere (Ziegler and Sandberg, platform extending from a large central node to the
1984; Perri and Spalletta, 1991) from the Lower to Upper posterior tip. A basal cavity underlies all of the platform
expansa zones. including its extension along the first third of the blade.
Material.—Figured specimens P1 elements UOPS 267- The subspecies ranges from the Upper rhomboidea Zone
268, and 79 other P1 elements. to the end of the Famennian. It is known widely
elsewhere including North America, Europe, Australia,
BRANMEHLA SUPREMA (Ziegler, 1962) China, and Vietnam.
Figures 3.16, 3.17 Material.—Figured specimens P1 elements UOPS 251-
Spathognathodus supremus ZIEGLER, 1962, p. 114, pl. 252, and 220 other P1 elements
13, figs. 20-26.
Branmehla suprema PERRI AND SPALLETA, 1991, p. PALMATOLEPIS GRACILIS SIGMOIDALIS Ziegler,
60, figs. 4-5 1962
Figures 5.12-5.20
Discussion.—The species is characterized by a blade that Palmatolepis deflectens sigmoidalis n.subsp. ZIEGLER,
is distinctly bent posteriorly and an asymmetrical basal 1962, p. 56, pl. 3, figs. 24-28.
cavity located near the posterior end of the unit below the Palmatolepis gracilis sigmoidalis Ziegler. SANDBERG
bend in the blade. The species is known to range from the AND ZIEGLER, 1979, p. 178, pl. 1, figs.3-5.
Upper expansa Zone to the Middle praesulcata Zone.
89
Discussion.—This subspecies of Palmatolepis gracilis is ranging and extends from the Upper crepida to the Upper
much like Palmatolepis gracilis gracilis with a similar expansa Zones.
short triangular platform and raised rim, but differs in Material.—Figured specimens P1 elements UOPS 261-
possessing a curved and slightly twisted blade bearing 264, and 63 other P1 elements.
compressed denticles that are a little inclined posteriorly.
A large central node is present on the anterior of the Genus POLYGNATHUS Hinde, 1879
platform and several small denticles extend to the Type species.—Polygnathus dubius Hinde, 1879.
posterior tip. The subspecies is known widely elsewhere
including Europe, North America, Australia, China and POLYGNATHUS COMMUNIS COMMUNIS Branson
Vietnam, and ranges from the Upper trachytera Zone to and Mehl, 1934
the end of the Famennian. Figures 4.10-4.12
Material.—Figured specimens P1 elements UOPS 278- Polygnathus communis communis BRANSON AND
280, and 186 other P1 elements. MEHL, p. 293, pl.24, figs. 1-4.
PALMATOLEPIS PERLOBATA MAXIMA Müller, Discussion.—There are only 4 of these P1 elements in the
1956 collection. These have the characteristic smooth oral
Figures 3.1-1.3 platform margins, a strong carina, and a blade about equal
Palmatolepis (Palmatolepis) maxima n. sp. MÜLLER, to the platform in length. Aborally there is a sharp
1956, p. 29, pl. 9, figs.37-40. posterior keel and a distinct oval pit where the lower blade
meets the platform. The taxon is cosmopolitan and is
Discussion.—The P1 elements of this subspecies in the known to range from the Middle crepida Zone to the Late
Mae Sariang fauna agree closely with the type material Tournaisian.
from Germany, with the shagreen oral surface, gently Material.—Figured specimen P1 element UOPS 265, and
sigmoidal carina, and small but distinct outer lobe that 3 other P1 elements.
bears a very faint secondary carina reflected by a
matching secondary keel aborally. The comparison can POLYGNATHUS GLABER GLABER Ulrich and
also be made with the excellent material described by Bassler, 1926
Metzger (1994) from the Canning Basin Virgin Hills Figures 5.6-5.8
Formation, Western Australia, which includes a full Polygnathus glaber ULRICH AND BASSLER, 1926, p.
apparatus reconstruction. Metzger’s valuable work could 46, pl. 7, fig. 13.
be a help in any attempt to describe ramiform elements in Polygnathus glaber glaber Ulrich and Bassler.
the Thailand fauna but the relative paucity of ramiform METZGER, 1994, p. 639, figs. 20.1-20.21.
elements in our collection, and the presence of other
Palmatolepis taxa, makes that a fruitless task at this time Discussion.—The Mae Sariang P1 specimens vary from
unless better balanced collections of faunas from this some with platform margins that reach the posterior tip of
horizon can be found locally. the carina to others, such as the figured specimen, where
The subspecies is known widely elsewhere including the carina and keel extend posterior of the platform. In all
Europe, North America, Australia and China, and appears the specimens the keel is well developed along the whole
to range from the Upper marginifera to the Lower aboral length of the platform, unlike P1 specimens of Po.
expansa Zones. communis communis where the keel is almost absent for a
Material.—Figured specimen P1 element UOPS 250, and third of the distance posteriorly from the basal cavity.
127 other P1 elements. The latter taxon also differs in having convex thick oral
platform margins rather than the thinner and more
PALMATOLEPIS SCHINDEWOLFI Müller, 1956 flattened oral platform margins of Po. glaber glaber. This
Figures 4.1-4.9 is another taxon that Metzger (1994) has reconstructed
Palmatolepis (Palmatolepis) schindewolfi MÜLLER, with the full apparatus and described and illustrated so
1956, pl. 8, figs. 22-31, pl. 9, fig.31. admirably from the Canning Basin Virgin Hills Formation
of Western Australia.
Discussion.—This species is characterized by a P1 The taxon is known elsewhere from North America,
element with the general features of the Palmatolepis Europe, China, Australia and Vietnam, and appears to
perloba group but with a relatively smooth or shagreen range from the Lower rhomboidea Zone to the Middle
oral surface and nodes only developed on the inner lobe of expansa Zone
mature specimens. There is barely any development of an Material.—Figured specimen P1 element UOPS 276, plus
oral lobe secondary carina but an aboral secondary carina 8 other P1 elements.
is present. The full apparatus has been described and
illustrated by Metzger, 1994, from the Canning Basin POLYGNATHUS GRANULOSUS Branson and Mehl,
Virgin Hills Formation, Western Australia, and from the 1934
Bactrian Mountain Pilot Shale, Nevada. The species is Figures 4.13, 4.14, 5.1-5.5
known widely elsewhere including Europe, North Polygnathus granulosa BRANSON AND MEHL, 1934,
America, Australia, China and Vietnam. It is long- p. 246, pl.20, figs. 21, 23.
90
1976 in its subrectangular platform outline and shorter
Discussion.—The Mae Sariang specimens are anterior free blade.
characterized by a platform that is subovate in outline but Material.—Only 4 specimens comprising figured
with a bluntly pointed posterior tip. One side of the specimen P1 element UOPS 271 (holotype, figures 4, 22,
platform may have a slightly concave outline just anterior 4.23, 5.21); P1 element UOPS 281 (paratype, figure 5.22);
of the tip. The platform is flat with an oral surface that is P1 element UOPS 282 (paratype, figure 5.23); P1 element
finely nodose posteriorly but with coarser nodes UOPS 283 (paratype, figure 5.24, 5.25).
anteriorly. The oral carina arises about one third the
distance from the posterior and strengthens anteriorly. POLYGNATHUS STYRIACUS Ziegler, 1957
The free blade is about half the length of the platform. Figures 3.18-3.25
The aboral platform is smooth apart from a narrow keel Polygnathus styriacus ZIEGLER, In FLÜGEL AND
with a very small pit at about mid length. ZIEGLER, 1957, p. 47, pl. 1, figs. 11-12.
Polygnathus granulosus is widely known elsewhere
including North America, Europe, and China. It is a long- Discussion.—The Mae Sariang specimens are very typical
ranging species, known from the Lower trachytera Zone of the German type material and occurrences elsewhere in
to the Upper expansa Zone. Europe, North America and South China. The anterior of
Material.—Figured specimen P1 element UOPS 266, and the platform is bent downward along a line somewhat
5 other P1 elements. oblique to the blade. This anterior part of the oral
platform surface is relatively smooth whereas the longer
POLYGNATHUS PREHASSI Schäfer, 1976 posterior part bears numerous irregular nodes. The blade
Figures 5.9-5.11 is about one third of the unit length. The aboral surface
Polygnathus prehassi SCHÄFER, 1976, p. 145, pl. 1, figs. bears a very small pit at about one third the platform
8-10. length. Polygnathus styriacus is the most abundant taxon
in the fauna. It is widely known elsewhere including
Discussion.—The Mae Sariang P1 specimens have Europe, North America and China, and ranges from the
anteriorly and posteriorly tapering platforms, and free Lower postera to the Upper expansa Zones.
blades higher and longer than in the new species Material.—Figured specimens P1 elements UOPS 256-
Polygnathus sariangensis. The holotype of Po. prehassi 258, and 344 other P1 elements.
has a short free blade and a continuous median carina
flanked by several rows of nodes, the innermost of which Genus PSEUDOPOLYGNATHUS Branson and Mehl,
flank the carina and diverge anteriorly just as in the Mae 1934
Sariang specimens. Ji and Ziegler (1993, p. 83) Type species.—Pseudopolygnathus primus BRANSON
distinguish Po. prehassi from Po. margaritatus Schäfer, AND MEHL, 1934.
1976, mostly by the absence in the former of a basal
cavity. However, the original diagnosis of the species PSEUDOPOLYGNATHUS MARBURGENSIS
(Schäfer, 1976, p. 145) states that the species may have a MARBURGENSIS Bischoff and Ziegler, 1956
small basal slit. The Mae Sariang specimens are very Figures 3.26-3.29, 4.24, 4.25
close to the German type material in all features, Pseudopolygnathus marburgensis BISCHOFF AND
including a small, narrow basal cavity. ZIEGLER, 1956, p. 162, pl. 9, figs. 11-13.
The species is known elsewhere from Europe, North
America and China, and ranges from the middle part of Discussion.—This subspecies is characterized by a P1
the Lower expansa Zone to the middle part of the Upper element with a coarsely nodose slightly asymmetrical
expansa Zone (Ziegler and Sandberg, 1984). triangular oral platform that is more extended on the inner
side. The free blade is about half the unit length and bears
Material.—Figured P1 element UOPS 277 and 5 other P1 about 7-9 strong denticles. The basal cavity is widely
elements. expanded anteriorly and extends to the narrow posterior
platform tip. The taxon is widely known elsewhere
POLYGNATHUS SARIANGENSIS n. sp. including Europe, North America and China, and ranges
Figures 4.22, 4.23, 5.21-5.25 from the Lower to Upper expansa Zones.
Diagnosis.—Polygnathus with P1 element platform Material.—Figured specimens P1 elements UOPS 259-
outline subrectangular and bearing 6 or more adcarinal 260, 272, and 45 other P1 elements.
rows of nodes splaying outward anteriorly. Lateral profile
arched. Free blade very short, barely extending anterior of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the platform. Basal pit a very short slit anterior of
midlength. Partial financial support for field work from the
Geological Survey Division, Department of Mineral
Discussion.—The P1 element differs from that of Resources, Bangkok, Thailand, and the Palaeontological
Polygnathus margaritatus Schäfer, 1976, Polygnathus Research and Education Centre, Mahasarakham
hassi Helms, 1961, and Polygnathus prehassi Schäfer, University, Thailand, is gratefully acknowledged. The
91
research field assistants and drivers from those institutions Muller, K.J., 1956. Zur Kenntnis der Conodonten-Fauna des
assisted in collecting samples. europäischen Devons, 1; Die Gattung Palmatolepis.
Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft
Abhandlungen, 494, 70 p.
REFERENCES Sandberg, C.A. and Ziegler, W., 1979. Taxonomy and biofacies
of important conodonts of Late Devonian stryriacus-Zone,
Bischoff G. and Ziegler, W., 1956. Das Alter der “Urfer United States and Germany, Geologica et Paleontologica,
Schichten” im Marburger Hinterland nach Conodonten. 13:173-212.
Notizblatt des Hessischen Landesamtes für Savage, N.M., Sardsud, A. and Buggisch, W., 2006. Late
Bodenforschung, 84, 138-169. Devonian conodonts and the global Frasnian-Famennian
Banson, E.R. and Mehl, M.G., 1934. Conodonts of the Grassy extinction event, Thong Pha Phum, western Thailand.
Creek Shale of Missouri. University of Missouri Studies, Paleoworld, 15 (2006) 171-184, Elsevier.
8:171-259. Ziegler, W., 1957. Die Gliederung des Oberdevons und
Capkinoglu, S., 2000. Late Devonian (Famennian) conodonts Unterkarbons am Steinberg westlich von Graz mit
from Denizioyu, Gebze, Kocaeli, northwestern Turkey. Conodonten. In, FLÜGEL, H. AND ZIEGLER, W. 1957.
Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, 9:91-112. Mitteilungen des naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins der
Hahn, L. and Siebenhuner, M., 1982. Explanatory notes Steiermark, 87:25-60.
(Paleontology) on the geological maps of northern and Ziegler, W., 1962. Taxonomie und Phylogenie oberdevonischer
western Thailand 1:250,000. Bundesanstalt für Conodonten und ihre stratigraphische Bedeutung.
Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, 3-76, Hannover 1982. Abhandlungen des Hessischen Landesamtes fűr
Metzger, R.A., 1994. Multielement reconstructions of Bodenforschung, 38, 166 p.
Palmatolepis and Polygnathus (Upper Devonian, Ziegler, W. and Sandberg, C.A., 1984. Palmatolepis-based
Famennian) from the Canning Basin, Australia, and revision of upper part of standard Late Devonian conodont
Bactrian Mountain, Nevada. Journal of Paleontology, zonation. In Clark, D.L. (ed.). Conodont biofacies and
68:617-647. provincialism. Geological Society of America Special
Paper, 196:179-194.
92
GEOLOGY AND GENESIS OF PHU THAP FAH GOLD SKARN DEPOSIT,

NORTHEASTERN THAILAND: IMPLICATIONS FOR REDUCED GOLD
SKARN FORMATION AND MINERAL EXPLORATION
Khin Zaw1, Tongchai Rodmanee2, Somboon Khositanont2, Theeapongs Thanasuthipitak3, Somsak Ruamkid4
1
CODES ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits, University of Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia. E-mail:
Khin.Zaw@utas.edu.au
2
3
Department of Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
4
Tongkah Habour PCL/Tungkum Limited, 323 Moo 1, Ban-Tid-Tor, Na-arn, Muang, Loei 42000, Thailand
ABSTRACT
The Phu Thap Fah gold skarn deposit is located in Loei Province, Northeastern Thailand. The deposit is hosted in the
Permian sedimentary sequence consisting of crystalline limestone and siltstone intruded by Triassic granodiorite and
microdiorite dikes. The deposit contains measured and indicated gold reserves of 407,000 tonnes at 3.54 g/t Au and
747,000 tonnes at 7.97 g/t Au. The skarn mineralogy is characterised by early development of andraditic garnet-
clinopyroxene skarn followed by retrograde alteration and mineralisation. The retrograde skarn assemblages consist of
amphiboles, epidote, chlorite, carbonate and quartz. Gold occurs as electrum, gold-bismuth and gold-bismuth-telluride
association and majority of gold is confined to the massive pyrrhotite and pyrite with chalcopyrite in the retrograde
zone.
Keywords: Gold, Reduced skarn, Ferropyrosmalite, Pyrrhotite, Phu Thap Fah, Loei Belt, Thailand
INTRODUCTION MS U-Pb zircon age of 221 + 2 Ma) (Fig. 2) (Rodmanee,

2000; Khin Zaw et al., 2006).
The Phu Thap Fah gold skarn deposit is located in Loei
Province, Northeastern Thailand (Fig. 1). The deposit
contains measured and indicated gold reserves of 407,000
tonnes at 3.54 g/t Au and 747,000 tonnes at 7.97 g/t Au.
EXPLORATION HISTORY
United Nations explored in the Loei area during 1963-
1966 involving geological prospecting, pitting, trenching
and exploratory drilling. Department of Mineral Re-
sources (DMR) also conducted regional stream sediment
sampling, airborne magnetic survey and mapping of
1:100,000 scale in 1966-1988. Tungkum Limited was
granted the right to explore in 1992 in the Loei area and
undertook rock chip, soil sampling and ground geophysi-
cal survey and later drilling delineated the Phu Thap Fah
deposit.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The deposit is hosted in the Permian sedimentary se-
quence consisting of shale, crystalline limestone, muddy
sandstone, carbonaceous siltstone and shale intruded by
Early Triassic granodiorite (LA ICP MS U-Pb zircon age Figure 1. Location of Phu Thap Fah gold skarn deposit in
of 245 + 3 Ma) and Late Triassic adesitic dikes (LA ICP northern Thailand.
93
The Late Triassic andesitic dyke cross-cuts the mineral-
ised skarn zone suggesting skarn formation and gold min-
eralisation probably occurred during the Middle Triassic.
Figure 3. Skarn and ore mineral paragenesis of the

Phu Thap Fah deposit, Loei Province, Thailand.
Figure 2. Geological map of the Phu Thap Fah deposit,
Loei Province, Thailand. PRELIMINARY FLUID INCLUSION
DATA
SKARN AND ORE MINERAL
PARAGENESIS Preliminary fluid inclusion studies of quartz in the retro-
grade Au-rich pyrrhotite zone indicate two types of fluid
The skarn and ore mineral paragenesis of the Phu Thap inclusions: aqueous two-phase (liquid-vapour) inclusions
Fah deposit is shown in Fig. 3. Clinopyroxene, garnet and and multi-phase (Daughter minerals, vapour and liquid)
inclusions (Fig. 4). Homogenisation and freezing tempera-
quartz form as prograde assemblages, followed by amphi-
tures of two-phase, liquid-vapour inclusions yielded 184
bole, chlorite, epidote, quartz and carbonates as retrograde to 281oC and salinities of 2 to 13.9 wt % NaCl equiv.
assemblages. Sulphides (chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, Homogenisation and freezing temperatures of the salt-
arsenopyrite), gold, bismuth, bismuth-tellurites predomi- bearing fluid inclusions yielded 198 to 270oC and salini-
nantly occurred during the retrograde stage. Gold forms as ties of 35.9 to 41.5 wt % NaCl equiv. Laser Raman spec-
electrum, gold-bismuth and gold-bismuth-telluride asso- troscopic studies of fluid inclusions indicate presence of
ciation and majority of gold is confined to the massive significant gaseous components (approximately 13 mole
pyrrhotite and pyrite with chalcopyrite in the retrograde % CO2, 22 mole % N2 and 65 mole % CH4) and some in-
clusions contain only CH4.
zone.
It is also identified the presence of ferropyrosmalite min-
eral ([Fe, Mn]8Si6O15(OH, Cl)10) by Laser Raman spec-
SULPHUR ISOTOPES troscopy. The ferropyrosmalite daughter mineral are
commonly found in copper-gold and lead-zinc-silver de-
The δ34S composition of pyrite (n=30) and pyrrhotite posits of the Cloncurry District, NW Queensland, Austra-
(n=3) displays a wide range from -8.0 to 6.48 ‰ at the lia and many other iron oxide copper-gold deposits (Dong
Phu Thap Fah deposit suggesting a mixed sulphur sources and Pollard, 1997). The discovery of ferropyrosmalite at
(e.g., magmatic and sedimentary sulphur). The negative Phu Thap Fah may be the first recognition of the mineral
in the gold skarn system. Saline fluid inclusions at Phu
sulphur isotope values as low as -8.0 ‰ can be interpreted
Thap Fah are indicative of magmatic source. Both pre-
to have been derived from a sedimentary source such as liminary fluid inclusions and sulphur isotope data imply
muddy sandstone, carbonaceous siltstone and shale in the that gold in the Phu Thap Fah deposit was likely deposited
host sequence. This interpretation is also consistent with during the retrograde stage due to redox change by the
the presence of N2 and CH4 in the fluid inclusions which mixing and interaction of magmatic fluids and the host
can be also sourced from the host carbonaceous shale and carbonaceous sedimentary rocks.
siltstone (see below).
94
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A
We thank Tungkum Limited for support during field
work. Special thanks are due to Terry Mernagh from Geo-
science Australia for assisting in Laser Raman analysis of
fluid inclusions.
REFERENCES
Dong, G, Pollard, P.J., 1997, Identification of ferropyrosmalite
by Laser Raman microprobe in fluid inclusions from metal-
liferous deposits in the Cloncurry District, NW Queensland,
Australia: Mineralogical Magazine, v. 61, p. 291-293.
10 um Khin Zaw, Rodmanee T., Thanasuthipitak, T., Ruamkid S.,
2006. Mineralogy and paragenesis of Phu Thap Fah de-
B S1 posit, northeast Thailand: implication for reduced gold
skarn formation: 18th Australian Earth Sciences Conven-
tion (AESC), 2-6 July, 2006, Melbourne, CD-ROM.
Rodmanee, T., 2000, Genetic model of Phu Thap Fah gold de-
posit, Ban Huai Phuk Amphoe Wang Saphung, Changwat
S3 Loei: MSc thesis (unpublished), Chiang Mai University,
Chiang Mai, Thailand.
S2
L
Figure 4. Photomicrographs showing fluid inclusion

characteristics of the Phu Thap Fah deposit, Loei Province,
Thailand. A. Cathodoluminescence image of a growth-zoned
quartz crystal from gold-bearing retrograde stage which hosts
primary fluid inclusions. B. Daughter mineral-bearing fluid
inclusions from the growth-zoned quartz. S1= A prismatic
ferropyrosmalite mineral identified by Laser Raman
spectroscopy. S2 = A large cube NaCl halite crystal.
S3 = unidentified mineral. L = Liquid. V = Vapour.
CONCLUSIONS
Phu Thap Fah deposit is located in Loei Province of
Northeast Thailand. The deposit is hosted in Permian
sedimentary sequence and related to Triassic magmatism.
Both prograde and retrograde skarn assemblages occurred
as proximal exoskarn assemblages.
Gold+bismuth+tellurium mineralisation is dominantly as-
sociated with retrograde reduced pyrrhotite-rich massive
sulphide and quartz veins. The presence of carbonaceous
shale and siltstone in the host package is critical to form
the reduced skarn assemblages. Reduced gold skarn sys-
tem should be considered as an important exploration tar-
get in the Loei Fold Belt as well as in SE Asia region.
95
GEOLOGY OF THE UDON THANI POTASH (SYLVINITE) DEPOSITS

WITH AN OVERVIEW FOR DEVELOPMENT OF A SUSTAINABLE
POTASSIUM RESOURCE FOR THAILAND
Keith S. Crosby
Manager, Technical and Engineering Department, Asia Pacific Potash Corporation, Ltd.
ABSTRACT
An exploration program conducted by Asia Pacific Resources Ltd. during the 1990s delineated two adjacent deposits,
Udon South and Udon North containing sylvinite-type potash in the province of Udon Thani, Thailand. An extensive
exploration program that included drilling, 2D and 3D-seismic provided a database of sufficient quality and distribution
to develop Canadian National Instrument 43-101 and Australian JORC compliant resource and reserve estimates. The
Udon deposits are unique within the Khorat Plateau as they present a mineable seam of sylvite (KCl) mineralization that
is comparable in grade and purity of any global potash deposit.
A recent geology model and resource estimation conducted for the Udon South potash deposit confirmed total sylvinite
resources of 294 million tones with weighted average grade of 22.9% K2O and average thickness of 2.3 meters. This is
sufficient reserves to produce 2 Mtpa of KCl product during a mine-life of 22-years. In addition, a geological model and
resource study conducted for the Udon North potash deposit estimated a resource of 665 million tones sylvinite with
average weighted grade 17.1% K2O with average thickness of 12.0 meters. These resources are sufficient to provide
Thailand with much needed potassium (K) fertilizer for generations.
This paper provides an overview of the exploration and geology of the Udon Thani potash (sylvinite) resource. Also
included is a discussion on the potential to develop a long-term, sustainable resource of potassium (K) that will bring
self-sufficiency to Thailand in the potassium ingredient of fertilizer while satisfying the King’s concept of providing a
“sufficient economy” within the agricultural community of the country.
Keywords: Potash, Udon Thani, sylvinite, sustainable resource, sufficient economy ;
INTRODUCTION provided key analytical data used for resource modeling

estimation.
Asia Pacific Potash Corporation, Ltd. was awarded a By 2000, the Udon North sylvinite deposit was explored
potash concession located in the northeastern province of with 92 boreholes and 300 line-kilometers of 2D-seismic.
Udon Thani, Thailand in 1984. The original concession In addition, several boreholes were drilled and seismic
totaled 2,330 square kilometers, with the objective of lines surveyed for reconnaissance purposes within the
exploring, developing and marketing a commercial original concession area.
deposit of sylvinite-type potash rock. Since exploration This extensive collection of geological information has
was initiated in 1993, two sylvinite potash deposits, provided for resource delineation and geological modeling
described as Udon South and Udon North were delineated that is necessary to understand one of the world’s most
approximately 15 and 10-kilometers respectfully southeast unique potash (sylvinite) deposits. Feasibility studies have
of the capital city of Udon Thani (Fig. 1). confirmed the mine ability and economic viability of the
During a five-year period APPC completed 169 Udon South potash (KCl) resource. The next phase is
exploration and reconnaissance boreholes, and over 550 approval for mine development that will take Thailand
line-kilometers of 2D-seismic surveys to delineate the closer to recognizing the country’s potential of becoming
Udon South and Udon North sylvinite deposits. By 1998, self-sufficient in its fertilizer N-P-K requirements.
the resource boundary of the Udon South sylvinite deposit
was delineated with 63-boreholes, 250 line-kilometers of REGIONAL GEOLOGY
2D-seismic and 2 square kilometers of 3D-seismic
surveys. During the period 1996 to 1998, field and The late-Cretaceous age Udon sylvinite deposits are
laboratory programs were implemented to collect an array located in the province of Udon Thani, Thailand.
of hydrogeological data from local formation aquifers and Northeast Thailand covers approximately 150,000 square
geotechnical data from surface soil and shallow to deep kilometers that contains a broad circular-shaped
formation rock for geotechnical testing and synclinorium called the Khorat Plateau. The so-called
geomechanical modeling. In support of the exploration plateau forms a block-like platform that extends across the
programs, extensive geochemical assay programs
96
Figure 1. Location map showing Khorat Plateau with index of Udon sylvinite deposits.
boundary of Thailand into central and southern Laos, During the Early Tertiary Himalayan Orogeny, sub-crops
western Cambodia and western Vietnam. of Permian and Triassic strata were in part inverted that
The Khorat Plateau is positioned within the Indochina caused uplifting of the Khorat Plateau. Topograhically the
Block of Southeast Asia that contains thick sedimentary Khorat Plateau sits approximately 100 to 200 meters
rock ranging in age from late Cambrian to Recent above mean sea level. A typical stratigraphic section of
(Sattayarak et al, 1989). The Phu Phan Uplift or the Maha Sarakham Formation in the Udon Thani area is
anticlinorium separates the Khorat Plateau into the about 500 meters in thickness.
southern Khorat and the northern Sakon Nakhon evaporite
basins. The two basins cover an area nearly 60,000 square GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF THE UDON
kilometers as identified within the Thailand border. SYLVINITE DEPOSITS
Bunopas and Vella (1992) suggest that the Khorat and
Sakon Nakhon Basins resulted from late tectonic General Stratigraphy of the Udon Potash Deposits
relaxation or extension during late Triassic age that
followed the Triassic collision between Shan-Thai and the Two potash deposits with sylvite (KCl) mineralogy are
Indochina microplates. Triassic age tectonics created half preserved upon a shelf-like structure referred to here as
and full graben basins that filled with sediments. Middle the Udon Morphological High located within the
Triassic to early Cretaceous age fluvial and lacustrine southwestern corner of the Sakon Nakhon Basin (Crosby
silici-clastic facies of the Khorat Group filled the Khorat 2005). Over the Udon Morphological High, the Maha
graben basin with polymicritic conglomerates, sandstones, Sarakham Formation retains a consistent range in
siltstone, shale, mudstone and micritic limestone. stratigraphic thickness of 400 to 500 meters. The
Within the Khorat Plateau, an unnamed group containing formation thickness however exceeds 800m down slope
late-Cretaceous age sediments of the Maha Sarakham towards the center of the Sakon Nakhon Basin.
Formation unconformably overlies the Khorat Group. The The Maha Sarakham Formation unconformably overlies
evaporate-bearing Maha Sarakham Formation occurs only the early Cretaceous-age Khok Kruat Formation of the
within the Khorat and Sakon Nakhon Evaporite Basins. Khorat Group. There is a sharp change in depositional
An accumulated thickness of over 1000 meters of environments that marks the end of the consistent
evaporite and clastic sediments were deposited within the continental clastic sediments of the Khok Kruat with a
basin center. marine evaporite depositional environment that dominants
97
the Maha Sarakham Formation. The Maha Sarakham The Udon South and North potash deposits are
however, also retains a thick succession of sili-clastic red characterized by a Lower Salt member that is comprised
beds comprising of claystone and mudstone referred to as of 10 lithostratigraphic units. There are no
the Lower, Middle and Upper Clastics members. These lithostratigraphic facies changes between the Udon South
members in turn are intercalated with thick evaporite and Udon North sylvinite deposits, because in essence,
strata referred to as the Lower, Middle and Upper Salt they are the same deposit. Mineralogies and lithologies
members (Hite and Japakasetr, 1979). Potash are consistent and correlatable across each deposit.
mineralization occurs only within the upper third of the However, most units do show short lateral discontinuity as
Lower Salt member. result of epigenetic and diagenetic events. The
One or more members of the Maha Sarakham Formation lithostratigraphic units of the Udon South and North
and/or lithostratigraphic units from the Lower Salt potash deposits are described in detail in (Crosby, 2005).
member may be missing as a result of non-deposition, Following is a brief description of the primary
post-depositional erosion, late burial stage dissolution, lithostratigraphic units of the Lower Salt member that
congruent alteration by meteoric waters and localized salt represent a future mining horizon at Udon South.
halokinetics. Figure 2 provides range and average
thickness of lithostratigraphic units within the Maha
Sarakham Formation at Udon South.
Figure 2. Typical stratigraphy of Udon South sylvinite deposit showing range and average thickness of lithostratigraphic units.
Lithostratigraphic Units of the Mining Horizon a period of regression from marine to a continental
depositional environment. On a local basis the upper
Residual Bed unit (RBU): The Lower Salt member of the contact of the Lower Salt member is characterized by the
Maha Sarakham Formation is overlain by greenish grey Residual Bed unit (RBU) or cap rock that represents a
claystone and reddish brown mudstones of the Lower period of either very early dissolution of salt strata as a
Clastics member. The stratigraphic succession represents result of ponding of fresher water and/or late stage burial
98
dissolution. The thickness of the residual bed across the to 7.1m as result of localized removal of upper strata, with
Udon deposits is highly variable with absence of unit to 1 an average thickness of 2.1 meters.
meter in thickness, and average thickness of about 10 In general, the unit is thinly laminated to medium banded
centimeters. with barren halite, providing evidence of cyclical, primary
The residuum composition of the RBU represents the precipitation. The bedding exhibited within the SOT is
chemistry of the insoluble fraction of the leached halite normally undisturbed and halokinesis flow angles are
and sylvinite strata. The residuum includes remnants of rarely observed except along flanks of moderate anticlines
illite and chlorite clays, gypsum or anhydrite, boron, and rim synclines.
quartz, mica and feldspar. The bed is typically light to
dark grey or greenish grey, friable and non-competent. Intervening Middle Halite unit (IMH): The Intervening
The most distinct property of the RBU is the thinly Middle Halite unit was intersected in only seven
laminated or varved-like nature of the interval that exploration boreholes within the Udon South and Udon
probably resulted from sporadic episodes of dissolution North deposits. The IMH is characterized by barren, fine
and variable composition of the dissolved strata. Only to medium-grained, colorless halite locally interbanded
twenty per cent of the boreholes cored within the Udon with low-grade, colorless to orange sylvinite. Four
South contained the RBU. intersections within the Udon South contained a thickness
The thickness of the RBU is probably proportional to the range of 0.1 to 4.9 meters.
thickness and volume of salts dissolved during early post-
depositional erosion and/or subsequent period of late stage Udon Sylvinite Ore Type unit (UOT): The lowermost
burial dissolution from descending fresher waters from sylvinite unit described as the Udon Sylvinite Ore Type
overlying clastic sediments. This resulted with removal of unit is distinctly secondary and typical of other localized
variable thickness of the Upper Halite Cover unit and sylvinite pods observed within the Khorat Plateau. The
more rarely the Somboon Sylvinite Ore Type unit. Similar sylvite and halite mineral fractions are both characterized
residual beds occur in many other global marine evaporite by colorless (translucent to transparent), light grey, to
deposits (Crosby, 1991 and Hoffman and Crosby, 1987). milky white coloration. There is an absence of dark
coloration normally typified by the presence of iron oxide,
Upper Halite Cover unit (UHC): The Upper Halite carbonaceous or clay impurities. Grain size is highly
Cover unit or “roof beam” is comprised of argillaceous to heterogeneous, ranging from fine to coarse-grain (<0.5 to
clean, barren halite. Locally halite is inter-banded or 10mm), rarely 40mm, and average about 2 to 3
bedded with low-grade sylvinite. The UHC is millimeters.
characterized by its multi-colored beds of brown, orange- The UOT is especially characterized by the low
brown, milky white, colorless (translucent) to grey hues. concentration of less than 1% of miscellaneous insoluble
Grain size is also variable from very fine to medium- and soluble material represented by minute inclusions of
grained (<0.5 – 10mm). The halite is relatively clean, illite clay or borate mineralization (boracite, hilgardite),
averaging 3 to 4% insoluble material. with trace amounts of quartz, Mg-Fe chlorite and
Only two of the 63 resource delineation boreholes did not dolomite. On a rare and local basis, the UOT is
intersect the UHC unit and these were located over interbanded with near barren halite several centimeters in
structural highs. Thickness of the UHC is proportional to thickness. Locally there are gradual increases in
the degree of post-depositional erosion, and early or late magnesium near the bottom contact with underlying
stage dissolution of the interval. Consequently, the carnallitite.
apparent thickness of the UHC has a variable range of The apparent thickness range is 0.3 to 11.8m, with
0.2m to 16.5m and average 3.8 meters. Bedding average thickness of 2.6meters. The bedding gradient is
characteristics vary from thinly laminated (<6mm) to variable across the deposit but averages less than 15
medium bedded (200-600mm) multi-colored halite, degrees.
sylvinite and clay beds.
The bedding gradient is primarily flat lying from zero to Intervening Floor Halite unit (IFH): The Intervening
10 degrees. However gradients of 50 to 60 degrees can be Floor Halite unit is present over only 20 per cent of the
observed where boreholes are located along flanks of Udon South deposit. This barren halite interval is
moderate anticlines or rim synclines. localized over a structural rim synclinal depression along
the north sector of the deposit as result of congruent
Somboon Sylvinite Ore Type unit (SOT): The Somboon alteration of carnallitite. Where present, the unit will act
Sylvinite Ore Type is characterized by distinct brick red, as floor beam material of a mine. The IFH is characterized
orange to dark brown sylvite within a colorless to milky by colorless, light grey, fine to medium-grained, barren
white halite matrix. Typically the SOT sylvinite is very halite with localized inter-bands of sylvinite. The IFH is
fine-grained (<0.5mm) to fine-grained (<5mm), with primarily barren of carnallite, although disseminated
average grain size of both sylvite and halite mineral secondary sylvite mineralization can occur as grains or
fractions approximately <1.0 millimeter. patches of less than 5 to 10 per cent of rock volume.
The SOT contains an average concentration of Similar to the CHU, the bedding gradient of the IFH is
miscellaneous insoluble and soluble minerals of about 1.5 normally flat-lying from zero to <15 degrees. The unit
per cent. The unit demonstrates variable thickness of 0.3
99
retains a variable thickness range of 0.4m to 9.1m with an MINERALOGY OF THE UDON POTASH
average thickness of 3.7 meters. DEPOSITS
Carnallitite Horizon unit (CHU): The Carnallitite The Udon South and Udon North potash deposits contain
Horizon unit is characterized by an admixture of variable two potassium evaporite minerals, sylvite and carnallite.
colorless, milky white, pink, orange to purple hues of the The mineral sylvite (KCl) occurs as an admixture with the
mineral carnallite and a colorless to milky white halite mineral halite (NaCl) as a matrix to form the rock
matrix. Carnallite mineralization is primarily sylvinite. Variable although low concentrations of illite-
microcrystalline to very fine-grained occurring as type clay, vermicularite, Mg-Fe chlorite, hematite,
irregular patches along halite grain crevices. The halite anhydrite, quartz, dolomite and borate minerals including
matrix is much coarser than the carnallite fraction as boracite, hilgardite and szaibelyite make up the primary
medium to very coarse-grained, a property that results in a miscellaneous insoluble and soluble material within the
distinct granular and friable texture and easy dissolution. sylvinite beds.
The CHU is also characterized by the highly variable The mineral carnallite (KMgCl3.6H2O) occurs as an
concentration of carnallite mineralization both laterally admixture with the mineral halite (NaCl) as a matrix to
and vertically. Assay and visual observation indicate the form the rock carnallitite. Minor concentrations of sylvite,
upper 10m of the unit may contains less than 10% or borate minerals and anhydrite occur within the carnallitite
greater than 80% carnallite mineralization with a beds.
corresponding percentage of halite. Other soluble and
insoluble minerals such as sylvite, borates, anhydrite or Udon Morphological High and Related Structures
clay rarely exceed 1 to 2%. In the upper 5m of the CHU
the average carnallite mineral content is 50 to 55 per cent. Potash in the form of sylvinite and carnallitite are
The thickest interval of the CHU, 67.5 meters, was cored preserved within the Udon South and Udon North
within the Udon South deposit however there were also deposits over a flat to undulating platform like basement
boreholes with no carnallitite intersection. Total thickness feature referred to as the Udon Morphological High
of the CHU was rarely cored although 2D-seismic (Crosby, 2005). As determined by 2D-seismic and drill
provides a good indication of thickness. Where present, holes, the complex dominants the southwestern corner of
the CHU has a highly variable thickness range of 6.4 to the Sakon Nakhon basin near the city of Udon Thani and
67.5m with an average of 22.6 m. covers an area of approximately 250 km2 (Fig. 3). The
gravimetric basement contains fine-grained clastic
Figure 3. Regional geology showing location of Udon South and Udon North sylvinite deposits
within the Sakhon Nakhon evaporate basin.
100
sediments of the early Cretaceous age Khorat Group at episode of salt dissolution during or after deposition of the
stratigraphic elevations of 100 to 200 meters over the Upper Clastics probably resulted in the differential
majority of the Sakon Nakhon basin. loading necessary to initiate salt flowage. These events
The western and southern boundary of the Udon formed the rim synclines, anticlines and domes
Morphological High is determined by the Sakon Nakhon throughout the Khorat Plateau. The various stages or
Basin boundary that is defined by the tectonically induced degree of diagenesis however, appear to have been less
highlands of the Phu Phan Range. Within five kilometers extensive over the Udon Morphological High. Depending
of the Phu Phan Range, seismic indicates flat-lying on degree and type of diagenetic event, potash in the form
basement strata of the Khok Kruat Formation overlain by of carnallitite and more rarely secondary and primary
positive, on-lapping bedding of Maha Sarakham sylvinite remain. Within the Udon South and potentially
Formation strata where gradients of nearly 25 degrees within the North deposit, continuous, lenses of mineable
occur and elevations to top surface of the Lower Salt sylvinite-type potash are preserved as a potential
member rise to within 50 meters of surface. potassium resource for the Kingdom of Thailand and its
Over the Udon Morphological High, the Khok Kruat neighbors.
basement is flat to gently undulating, with no seismic or
drilling evidence of stratigraphic displacement. Depth to SYLVINITE RESOURCES AND
the Khok Kruat basement is typically 550 to 600 meters. RESERVES
Sediments representing all lithostratigraphic intervals of
the Maha Sarakham Formation are present within the Resources
Udon deposits. This is an important characteristic feature
over the Udon Morphological High, as it may reflect in Udon South resource estimates were recently conducted in
part circumstances that helped preserve the sylvinite compliance with Canadian NI 43-101 and Australian
resource. Code (JORC 2004) requirements. Using 2D-seam models,
The exploration program also delineated numerous salt total estimated sylvinite resources within a new geology
structures that are common throughout the Khorat Plateau. model having a “zero edge” perimeter is 294 million
These include broad, gentle anticlines that characterize the tones. Average thickness is 2.3m with a weighted average
western sector of the Udon South sylvinite deposit and grade of 22.9% K2O. Measured and indicated resources
narrow, moderately dipping anticlines that characterize total 239 Mt with average thickness of 3.1m and grade of
the Udon North deposit. Several anticlines rise to within 23.4% K2O (Mining Associates Pty Ltd., 2007). The 2007
100 meters of surface with crests one kilometer in width. resource estimate and historic reserve estimates indicate
The Udon North potash deposit is best described as a sufficient resource and reserves for an approximate 22-
series of oval-like rim synclines or depressions bordered year mine life with production targets of 3.0 Mtpa ROM
by low to moderate anticlines with variable width. One mine output, ramping up to 6.0 Mtpa ROM mine output
primary syncline is 4-km across with the deepest elevation by year six.
point to the top of Lower Salt at 230 meters. In 2002, APPC also contracted a geological and resource
The southern and eastern perimeter of the Udon estimation modeling study for the Udon North deposit in
Morphological High is characterized by steep gradient compliance with Canadian NI 43-10. The resource study
relief commencing at the stratigraphic level of the Middle estimated a total of 665 million tone of inferred and
Clastics member down to the Khok Kruat Formation or indicated resources with an average thickness of 12.0 m
recognized basement seismic reflector. Seismic surveys and a weighted average grade of 17.1% K2O within a
confirm additional structural relief towards the basin delineated sylvinite boundary of about 40 square
center of over 150 meters to the top of the Khok Kruat kilometers (MRDI, 2002). Assuming similar mine design
basement where depth exceeds 750 meters. and extraction rates as Udon South, the Udon North
Simultaneously, structural elevations to top of the Lower sylvinite deposit potentially contains sufficient resources
Salt member increase from typical depths of 150 to 350 for a mine life of over 40-years.
meters over the Udon South and North deposits to over
450 meters in an easterly direction. This indicates a Reserves
deepening at the Lower Salt member horizon of about 200
meters towards basin center. The ore reserve estimation for Udon South is calculated
The structural depressions present towards the basin from those portions of the resource believed mineable and
center are probably the result of several diagenetic events planned for extraction. The reserve boundary covers an
including sediment compaction at the Khorat Group level, area of approximately 25 square kilometers. Measured
outward flowage of salt as result of increased compaction and indicated resources become proven and probable
and loading from overlying sediments and weak tectonic reserves respectfully. Inferred resources are not included
movement along the Phu Phan Uplift. It is apparent that as as reserves and therefore are exempt from mine planning.
salt flowed outward in a radial-like pattern, synclinal The latest feasibility mine plan conducted in 2003
depressions were formed and rimmed by structural highs provided for a mineable reserve of 118 Mt of sylvinite ore
in the form of salt anticlines and domes. with an average ROM grade of 23.4% K2O. Total reserves
Contemporaneous movement during deposition of the include 49 Mt of proven reserves at 24.4% K2O and 69 Mt
total Maha Sarakham succession, especially a late stage of probable reserves at 23.9% K2O.
101
The mining plan achieves an overall projected recovery of and 2004, even though the population share remained
54.9% of the total in-place mineable sylvinite ore. The constant at one-third. The slow pace of change has held
remaining reserves were left as pillar, roof and floor beam back poverty reduction. Northeast rice farmers account for
support to retain mine stability and keep mine over half of the Thailand poor and one in two Northeast
convergence and surface subsidence to a minimum. families rely on migration and remittances to increase
As a result of higher structural complexity in the incomes. Of the more blatant disparities is the expenditure
southwestern region of the deposit, resources are gap between the Northeast and other regions in
designated as inferred and are not incorporated in the channeling public resources. In 2003 the Northeast
mine plan. There remains potential for inferred resources obtained one-third less than the Center region of Thailand
to be upgraded to “indicated” resource and subsequently and 27% less than the North and South regions (NESDB
to reserve status with additional 3D-sesimic and/or and World Bank, 2005).
underground delineation drilling. Several of the positive socio-economic impacts of a
A mining feasibility study with reserve estimation has not potash mine include: distribution of royalties and
been conducted for the Udon North deposit. corporate taxes to national, provincial, affected sub-
district and other sub-district governments; employment,
POTENTIAL FOR A SUFFICIENT procurement and income; job training; and business
ECONOMY IN POTASSIUM development. The additional injected money from such a
project will not only be used for economic developments
His Majesty King Bhumibol of Thailand has introduced in different levels of society but will also introduce a
the concept of “sufficient economy” to the Thai people. continuing stream of money circulation in other sectors
The concept has been widely applied and is successful in such as the retail business, etc. This multiplier effect will
many areas. However, it is still possible for Thailand to induce further economic growth for the benefit of the
benefit more from its own natural mineral resources in a people of Udon Thani province. Mine employment and
sustainable manner. procurement will generate not only positive direct benefits
An excellent example of a mineral resource that could be on the local economy but also significant indirect and
developed to sustain and indeed improve upon a sufficient induced benefits. For example, much of the expenditure
economy for Thailand is potash. It cannot be said that for the mine will flow through Udon Thani suppliers and
Thailand has an overuse of this natural mineral resource. create some indirect employment, although given the poor
In fact there is no development of this natural resource industrial base of the region goods are more likely to be
sector in Thailand. Currently Thailand does not have a brought in from other regions of the country. In addition,
potash mining or processing industry. Thailand is the operation phase of the mine will procure materials,
primarily dependent upon the import of potassium to meet power, fuel and equipment. Although much of the
its fertilizer requirements and imports approximately procured goods will necessarily come from outside Udon
400,000 tone/annum of potassium fertilizer for its Thani province, the funds will flow through local
agricultural needs. This is unnecessary, because Thailand suppliers creating positive indirect employment and
does possess one of the few economic global potash income. Perhaps one of the more positive social benefits
deposits that could be used to develop a sustainable will be the return of skilled residents from employment
potassium source for its agricultural industry for outside the area, including labor migrants, new direct
generations as well as improve the social-economic hires and economic migrants.
conditions of the Thai people. Singularly, the Udon South potash project has the
APPC has explored and delineated large resources and potential to provide the Kingdom of Thailand with a
reserves of potash in the form of high-grade “sylvinite” sustainable potassium resource that can reverse its
rock in the Northeastern province of Udon Thani. Once a dependence on imported potassium fertilizer products and
mine is developed, the dependence on foreign potash create a sufficiency economy in potassium. This will
products could be quickly reversed. Within two years of contribute to improved equality and quality of lives
development, the Udon South mine could supply 100% of especially for residents in Northeastern Thailand.
Thailand’s potassium requirements in the form of the
potassium (K) fraction of a typical N-P-K fertilizer, SUMMARY
making Thailand self-sufficient in its potassium
requirements. Thailand, and in particular the Province of Udon Thani is
The province of Udon Thani has one of the most poor fortunate to possess a unique geological regime that
economies and high unemployment records of Thailand. includes large resources of high-grade, sylvinite-type
Despite progress being made in poverty reduction, potash. Asia Pacific Potash Corporation, Ltd. has spent
regional disparities remain large in the Northeast. 14-years conducting exploration, geological and
Substantial reduction in overall poverty has been environmental studies, potash (sylvinite) resource
witnessed in Thailand, including the Northeast however delineation, and multiple feasibility studies required for
the Northeast is still home to 50% of the poor in Thailand. the eventual development of the Udon South and Udon
The average individual income in the Northeast is only North potash deposits.
one-third that of Bangkok. The Northeast contribution to The development of the Udon sylvinite deposits could
Thailand’s GDP fell from 16% to only 9% between 1970 play an important role not only towards improving the
102
social economic conditions of the province and in Malaysia, Haad Yai, Thailand, 8-10 September 1983, Tech
particular the Tambons that cover the resource but also Paper 1, p. 307-322.
reverse the Kingdom’s current dependency on foreign Crosby, K., 1991. An overview of the Saskatchewan potash
imports of potassium-type fertilizer and industrial-grade industry. In: Conference Proceedings of the 27th Forum on
the Geology of Industrial Minerals.
potassium products. A sustainable potash mining industry Crosby, K., 2005. An overview of geology and resources of the
in which Thailand could lead all of Asia for many APPC Udon potash (sylvinite) deposits, Udon Thani
generations is in reach. However the concept of province, Thailand. International Conference on Geology,
developing underground mines, in this case for potash Geotechnology and Mineral Resources of Indochina
appears to remain an enigma. There remains the need for (GEOINDO ’05), 28-30 November 2005.
better understanding and appreciation of a unique Crosby, K., 2007. Integration of rock mechanics and geology
geological regime that Northeast Thailand is blessed and when designing the Udon south sylvinite mine. The First
the will of Thai people to adopt an underground mining Thailand Rock Mechanics Symposium (Thai Rock 2007),
project. The Udon South Potash Project has the potential 13-14 September 2007.
Hite, R.J., 1974. Evaporite deposits of the Khorat plateau,
to end Thailand’s dependence on potassium-type fertilizer northeastern Thailand. In: Coogan, A.H., ed. Fourth
imports while promoting a sustainable and sufficient Symposium on Salt, Vol. 1, p. 135-146.
economy in the fertilizer industry sector. Simultaneously, Hite, R.J. and Japakasetr, T., 1979. Potash deposits of the Khorat
the project could improve the social-economic conditions plateau, Thailand and Laos. Econ. Geol., Vol. 74, No.2, p.
of a region poor in most natural resources but retaining a 448-458.
very unique mineral resource in the form of sylvinite Hoffman, S., Crosby, K. and Irvine, J. 1987. A lithogeochemical
(potash). approach to stratigraphical problems at the Millstream
potash deposit, New Brunswick, Canada. Journal of
Geochemical Exploration, 28 (1987), p. 103-117.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS MiningAssociates Pty Ltd., 2007. APPC Udon south resource
update. APPC Internal Document.
I am grateful to Asia Pacific Potash Corporation, Ltd. for MRDI, 2002. Mineral resource estimation for the Udon potash
encouragement to publish this paper. I wish to thank Mr. field, Udon Thani concession, Thailand. APPC Internal
Chatchawan Boontongloan for his geological modeling Document.
and Ms. Sitsaya Bunmanut for assisting with the Sonnenfeld, P., 1984. Brines and evaporites. Academic Press,
manuscript. Inc., New York.
SRK Consulting Ltd., 2003. APPC Udon potash project, mining
study – Udon south, 6Mt/a ROM. APPC Internal
REFERENCES Document.
Suwanich, P., 1986. Potash and rock salt in Thailand. In:
Braitsch, O., 1971. Salt deposits their origin and composition. Nonmetallic Minerals Bulletin No.2, Economic Geology
Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg. Division, DMR, Thailand.
Bunopas, S. and Vella, P., 1983. Tectonic and geologic NESDB and World Bank, 2005. The Thailand northeast
evolution of Thailand. In: Nutalaya, P. (ed.) Proc. Of the economic development report.
Workshop on Stratigraphic Correlation of Thailand and
103
GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION OF HOT SPRING SITES IN

KANCHANABURI WITH REFERENCE TO LOCAL TOURISM
DEVELOPMENT
Pham Huy Giao1, Prinya Putthapiban2, and Chanarop Vichalai1
1
GEPG Program, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) Pathumthani, Thailand
2
Department of Physics, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
ABSTRACT
Hot spring sites and their underneath geothermal groundwater system are valuable natural resources for geothermal
utilization and tourism industry. An investigation of hot spring site is always required in the first phase for development
of the concerned area, especially for location of drilling boreholes. In this paper, results of a joint geophysical survey by
the AIT and Mahidol research teams at two hot spring sites in Kanchanaburi province of Thailand using electric imaging
technique are presented. To account for the effect of an uneven topography, an inverse analysis using smoothness-
constrained, least-squares method was employed for inversion of resistivity data. The geophysical survey results
obtained could help indicate the potential areas to be drilled for hot water extraction. Developments of two investigated
hot spring sites, e.g., Wangkanai and Hindat, can be helpful to promote the local tourism industry.
Keywords: hot spring, electrical imaging, tourism
INTRODUCTION successfully based on the field experiences of the

geologist in charge. However, the geologist frequently
Thermal springs in Thailand are commonly associated faces the following difficulties in making his or her
with the granitic terrains, in vicinity of lineaments that can decisions as follows, (i) how far the new location will be
potentially be active faults (Charusiri et al., 2000). Many from the existing spring?; (ii) on which side of the stream
such as those in Kanchanaburi province (Hindat), have along that a few springs have surfaced, on the same side
become well-known touristic spots and consequently play or on the other side?; (iii) in which direction the new
an important role in the local tourist industry. Besides the borehole can be placed, more on the upward direction
mentioned economic significance, nowadays the toward the hill or more downward toward the valley?. The
investigation of the hot springs is also of interest to those chance for a borehole to miss the required target, either in
studying the tectonic sensitivity of this western area of term of the flow rate or higher temperature, is not low at
Thailand. As a matter of fact, at the time of the earthquake all as the active fault that brings the hot water to the
and the followed tsunami in the Indian Ocean on 26 surface is quite steep in a hard granitic terrain. On one
December 2004, it was observed that the temperatures of hand, it is quite possible to drill the borehole on the other
hot springs along Three Pagodas Faults abruptly side of that fault and consequently the borehole will miss
increased. For example, the temperature at the Hindat hot the main flowing hot water body, having a small flow
spring increased and water became milky at rate. On the other hand, even the borehole could be placed
approximately 8 a.m. in that morning. on the correct dipping side of the fault if it is placed too
Furthermore, a surface water well located at Paktho far from the fault, it can only trap the water in the ruptured
district, the southeastern end of the over 350 kms long, zone surrounding the main fault that does not have high
Three Pagoda Fault zone was experienced the same temperature as expected.
temperature change and was noticed increasing to 48°C Geophysical methods can certainly assist the geologist in
on 28 December 2004. It is unfortunate that there was no locating the new borehole location, either directly or
record of such water temperature prior to 28 December. indirectly. From our long-accumulated experiences, it is
The temperature had then dropped at the rate of 2°C per better to use the indirect approach of geophysical
day and took approximately nine days to bring the water exploration, that the geophysical methods are used to
temperature back to room temperature of that period, locate the active fault first and to identify its extension
29°C. Similar changes in temperature and other physical and dipping directions. The geologist then can integrate
parameters have frequently been observed at many hot the geophysical information with other to make the final
spring locations. decision.
One of the main objectives when investigating a hot In this study electric imaging (EI) was proposed and
spring site is to drill additional boreholes to trap more hot applied by a joint team of researchers and graduate
water from a deeper depth. This task can be done students from the Asian Institute of Technology and
Mahidol University, Kanchanburi Campus. A review of
104
electric imaging technique can be seen in Giao et al. being kept constant in one scan and gradually increased
(2002). The main feature of this technique is that the from one scan to another until the maximum spacing is
subsurface along the survey line is repeatedly scanned by achieved. The EI survey using the dipole-dipole array is
a certain type of electrode configuration, e.g., Wenner, illustrated in Fig. 1.
Schlumberger or dipole-dipole, with the electrode spacing
Moving dipole-dipole
d=10m, n=1
A B M N
O
The 1st scan
d=20m, n=1 O'
The 2nd scan
d=100m, n=1
The 10th scan
Distance (m)
0 50 100 150 200 250
0
Pseudepth (m)
20
40
60 Pseudosection of apparent resitivity obtained by various scans
80
Figure 1 Electric imaging survey using the dipole-dipole array.
Many geotechnical and geo-environmental problems that spring has temperature and minerals content lower than
could be solved by means of the electric imaging those of the first type of the hot spring model.
technique are reported, e.g., investigation of landslides Most of the Kanchanaburi hot springs are commonly
and septic tank pollution (Loke, 2007); mapping of located along the lines of Three Pagodas Fault and lower
industrial waste deposits and buried quarry (Ogilvy et al., number of hot springs along the lines of Sri Swat Fault
1999); salt intrusion mapping (Abdul et al., 2002); (Fig. 3). These two major active faults are interpreted by
characterization of soft clays and monitoring of the DMR to run from Myanmar to the middle of the Chao
ground improvement process (Giao et al., 2002, 2003); Phraya basin, however, the new evidence suggested that
archeological investigation of anomalous zones in the the southern continuation of the active Three Pagoda
walls of ancient architectural structures for restoration and Fault, at least one major branch is located at Paktho
preservation (Cardarelli et al., 2001); determination of district, Ratchaburi province, and extend farther to the
seasonal change of groundwater table (Fikos et al., 2002), gulf of Thailand. In March 1959, a quake on the Three
geotechnical characterization of soft clay deposits; Pagodas Fault produced a 300 meters long, 2 meters wide
assessment of the unsaturated soil volume due to the plant and 1.5 meters deep ravine on the ground. In April 1983,
water uptake (Tabbagh et al., 2002); detection of an earthquake of 5.8 magnitude on the Richter Scale,
sinkholes (Van Schoor, 2002) and so on. apparently occurred on the Si Sawat Fault, leaving a crack
on the earth more than 4 kilometers in length, and moved
CONCEPTUAL MODELS OF HOT entire blocks of rock in opposite directions. The
SPRINGS IN THAILAND Department of Meteorology of Thailand recorded and
located the epicenters of earthquakes six times during
According to reports from the Department of Mineral 1983-1988 at Si Sawat and Thong Pha Phum districts with
Resources of Thailand (DMR) (2004), the following two magnitude of 4.1-4.5 on the Richter Scale (see Fig. 3).
types of hot springs are commonly accepted as shown in
Fig. 2., i.e., (i) the hot spring directly related to or coming ELECTRIC IMAGING SURVEY AT
from an igneous rock fracture (Fig. 2a) and (ii) the hot WANGANAI HOT SPRING
spring found in a rock layer (which can be a sedimentary
rock) overlying a granitic basement (Fig. 2b): in this Wangkanai hot spring site is found at the Wat Wangkanai
model the hot water is coming from a thermal aquifer, Tayikaram temple, which has the coordinate of
which can also store the geothermal water flowing up 13°58'2.38"N and 99°38'18.81"E. The temple is more
from the underlying granitic basement. This type of hot than 100 years old and has operated hot water baths for
long time. Since 1997, the water supply from the limited
105
Ground Surface number of existing wells has not met the demands, so the
Hot Spring temple is plans to drill some more hot groundwater wells
Infiltration to solve this problem.
Infiltration
Within the survey area at Wat Wangkanai Tayikaram
Sediment temple site, there are five hot springs well as shown in
figure 4. At this site, the hot water looks clear and has low
Hot Water Flow in concentrations of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, no
Percolation the Rock Fracture sulfur smell and no algae. The temperature of hot water is
(≈180 °C) about 39-40oC. As the water cannot flow by itself, the
depth ≥1,000 m submerged pumps were installed in the dug well to pump
Igneous Rock
the hot water up in to the pipe system connected to the
baths. Based on a recently drilled borehole, 32 m deep
A (DGR, 2007), the water table is found at 9 m deep, the
flow rate is 22 m3/hr, the dissolved iron is 0.14 mg/l,
High Temperature Source dissolved chloride is 11 mg/l, hardness is 660 mg/l and
(≈250 °C) depth ≥3,000 m total dissolved solid (TDR) is 691 mg/l.
Ground Surface
Hot Spring
Infiltration
Infiltration
Sediment
Hot Water Reservoir
Limestone with fracture
(≈125-160 °C)
depth ≥1,000 m
Igneous Rock
B High Temperature Source
(≈250 °C) depth ≥3,000 m
Figure 2 Hot Spring Models (a) High temperature (>70°C) and

high mineral content; (b) Medium to low temperature (<60°C)
and low mineral content. modified from DMR, 2004):
Figure 4 Wat Wangkanai Tayikaram temple site

and layout of the EI survey line.
A 2-D EI survey was performed at Wat Wangkanai

Tayikaram temple site, using the Syscal R1+ equipment
and a 48-electrode cable system. The EI line is of 235m
long, oriented SW-NE (Fig. 5). The minimum electrode
spacing was 5 m, which gradually increased to 10, 15, 20,
Hindat hot spring 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70 and 75 m.
The results of the EI survey are shown in a pseudo-section
Wat Wangkanai with the mark of 0 m at the SW end and the mark of 235
m at the NE end (Fig. 5). The existing hot water wells are
located at around the mark of 0 m. Beneath the segment of
Paktho district, this survey line one can observe a low resistivity anomaly
Rachaburi province from to 2 to 6 Ω.m , which is interpreted as the thermal
water storing reservoir with high conductivity due to its
high mineral contents (DGR, 2007). The water table at the
9-m depth could be observed on the resistivity
pseudosection. The resistivity zone of about 65 Ωm,
underlying the above mentioned very low resistivity layer
Figure 3 Map illustrates study site locations may help to indicate that the hot water travels through this
(based on DMR, 2004). layer via narrow fractures, which can be connected to a
fault with high temperature water below.
106
Drilled hot water wells
NE Distance (m) SW
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
0
Depth (m)
-10
-20
-30
-40
Wenner array Unit electrode spacing 5.00 m.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
15
17
20
25
30
35
45
50
65
Resistivity in Ohm.m
Figure 5 Results of the EI survey at Wat Wangkanai hot spring
ELECTRIC IMAGING SURVEY AT of this survey line from 0 m to 70 m one can observe a
HINDAT HOT SPRING low resistivity anomaly down to 5 Ωm, which is
interpreted as the thermal water storing reservoir channel
Hindat hot spring site is located at Ban Kuymang, which with high conductivity due to its high mineral contents. in
has the coordinates of 14°37'31.40"N and 98°43'28.17"E. Fig. 7b, there is observed a high resistivity anomaly from
This hot spring was discovered by the Japanese military 500 to 1700 Ωm is present at the middle of pseudosection
during World War II and it was used to serve the Japanese (from the marks 70 m and 120 m), which can be implied
military camp. Nowadays, this hot spring is operated and as the weathered and fresh igneous rock. For the survey
managed by the Hindat Local Administration Office for line 2 at Hindat the EI results are shown in figure 6b, in
tourism industry. which one can observe a high resistivity zone in the range
According to DMR (2007), the results of the physical and of 400 to 1800 Ωm, which is underlain by a zone of low
chemical properties for the Hindat hot spring are as resistivity zone down to 60 Ωm.
follows: pH is 7.36, temperature of hot water is about
40°C, and the amount of fluoride concentration in the hot CONCLUSION
water is 1.6 ppm.
Hot spring sites are valuable natural resources for
geothermal utilization and tourism industry in
Kanchanaburi. The joint geophysical survey by the AIT
and Mahidol research teams at two hot spring sites, Wat
Wangkanai Tayikaram temple and Hin Dat hotspring, in
Kanchanaburi province using electric imaging technique
has shown the clear subsurface geology and imaged the
high potential spots and their depths for hot water
extraction and for thermal monitoring purposes. Future
developments of the above two investigated hot spring
sites can be beneficial in promoting the local tourism
industry
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The field work was conducted with the supports from the
Asia-Link Bridge project, Asian Institute of Technology
and Mahidol University, Kanchanaburi Campus. The
participation and contributions of the graduate students of
Figure 6 Hindat hot spring site and layout of the EI survey
lines.
the Geosystem Exploration and Petroleum
Geoengineering (GEPG) program of AIT in implementing
The EI survey procedure is mainly similar to that carried the field works are appreciated.
out at Wangkanai site. The lines are oriented NE-SW (Fig.
6). The EI results from two survey lines at Hindat are
shown in Fig. 7a-b. For the survey line 1 the hot spring is
located at the mark of 60 m (Fig. 7a), beneath the segment
107
Hot spring
NE Distance (m) SW
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
0
Depth (m)
-10
-20
-30
-40
A
5
25
30
45
60
75
100
125
175
225
275
325
425
525
700
900
1300
1700
NE Distance (m)
SW
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
0
Depth (m)
-10
-20
-30
-40
B
5
25
30
45
60
75
100
125
175
225
275
325
425
525
700
900
1300
1700
Figure 7 (a) EI results of Hindat hot spring for the survey line 1. (b) EI results of Hindat hot spring for the survey line 2.
REFERENCES Griffiths D. H., Turnbull J. and Olayinka A. I., 1990. Two-

dimensional resistivity mapping with a computer-
controlled array. First Break, 8(4), 121-129.
Samsudin, A.R. Baharuddin, B., Mustapa, M. and Soed, S.,
DMR (2004), www.dmr.go.th
(2002) Geophysical mapping of saltwater intrusion in the
Loke M.H. (2007). www.geoelectrical.com
Kerpan coastal area, Bulletin of the Geological Society of
Noel M. and Walker R., 1990. Development of an electrical
Malaysia, No. 45, 135 – 138.
resistivity tomography system for imaging archeological
Cardarelli, E., Godio, A, Marrone, C., Morelli, G., Sambuelli,
structures. Archaeometry ’90, Eds. E. Pernicka and G. A.
L., Santarato, G., Socco, L.V., Guo Ton Jin, (2001).
Wagner, Birkhauser, Basel, 767-776.
‘Geophysical survey on the vault of Scarsella of the
Ogilvy, R.D., Meldrum, P.I., and Chambers, J.E., (1999)
S.Giovanni Baptistery in Florence’, Proceedings of the
Imaging of industrial waste deposits and buried quarry
International Millennium Congress Archi 2000, Bethlehem,
geometry by 3D resistivity tomography: European Journal
2001, Vol.1, Section Ib 10.
of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics, 3, 103–
Charusiri P., Chaturongkawanich S., Takashima L., Kosuwan S.,
113.
Won-in K and Ngo Ngoc Cat N. N. (2000), Application of
Packham, G. H. (1993). Platetectonics and the development of
Geothermal Resources of Thailand, Vietnam and Myanmar
sedimentary basins of the dextral regime in westem
to Tectonic Settings, Proc. World Geothermal Congress
southeast Asia. Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences.
2000, Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan, May 28-June 10, 2000.
Vol. 8, pp. 497-511.
DGR (2007), www.dgr.go.th
Phuong N. H. (1991). Probabilistic assessment of earthquake
Fikos I., Vargemezis G., Tsokas G. N., P. Hatzidimitriou, G.
hazard in Vietnam based on seismotectonic regionalization,
Dimopoulos (2002). Diachronic study of Free aquifers
Tectonophysics, Vol. 198, pp. 81-93.
using the method of electric tomography:A case study in
Raksaskulwong, M (1999). Geothermal energy development and
Northern Greece. European Journal of environmental and
utilization in Thailand; in NEDO (ed.), Proceedings of Asia
Engineering Geophysics , 7, 185-193.
Geothermal Symposium, New Energy and Industrial
Giao P. H., J. H. Kim and S. G. Chung (2002), Application of
Technology Development Organization (NEDO), Tokyo,
Engineering Geophysics in Investigation of the Pusan Clays
Japan, p.70-86.
with reference to Reclamation Projects, the European
Reynolds J. M., 1997. An introduction to applied and
Journal of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics,
environmental geophysics. JohnWiley & Sons.
Vol. 7 (3): 201-218
Tabbagh A., Michot D., Benderitter Y., Dorigny A.,; Nicoullaud
Giao P. H., S. G. Chung, D. Y. Kim and H. Tanaka (2003).
B., King D., (2002). Spatial and temporal monitoring of
Electric Imaging and Laboratory Electric Resistivity
soil water content with an irrigated corn crop cover using
Testing for Geotechnical Investigation of Pusan Clays,
surface electrical resistivity tomography Water Resour.
Journal of Applied Geophysics, 52 (4): 157-175, Elsevier.
Res. Vol. 39, No. 5
Griffiths D. H. and Barker R. D., 1993. Two-dimensional
Van Schoor, M., 2002, Detection of sinkholes using 2D
resistivity imaging and modeling in areas of complex
electrical imaging: Journal of Applied Geophysics, 50,
geology. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 29, 211-226.
393-399.
108
GEOTOURISM AND THE SET-UP OF LOCAL GEOLEARNING NETWORK

THAT COULD LEAD TO BUSINESS OPPORTUNITY: A PRELIMINARY
STUDY IN PHRAE PROVINCE
Jarin Tulyatid
ABSTRACT
Geotourism generally involves geosites, geotourist guides and the local communities. The concept of geotourism may
vary among geoscientists, business groups and general public, and is usually considered at different levels, which are,
global, national and local, according to different groups of tourist. Geopark has been introduced by UNESCO as a tool
for geoconservation and geosite management. The Geopark can be divided into three levels, which are: world, country
and local geoparks. To achieve the “Geopark” label, certain criteria must be met. Such criteria mainly include: the site
of geological importance; with participation of local people; sustainable management of geological resources and sites.
A large number of countries, i.e., China, Germany, England, USA, etc., are among the first groups who actively play
important roles in setting up of the world’s “Geopark” in their countries. These countries usually have fantastic
landforms of geological importance with long and fascinating history telling the relationship between human settlement
and its natural resources. However, the setting up of geopark is still very difficult and need to put in a lot of time and
efforts, apart from the fascinating landform and places. In order to be a successful, the central government must take this
geoconservation matter as a national issue, which is very difficult to do in many countries.
While the rest of the world are competing on the development of the world geopark, a number of local communities
throughout Thailand are still looking for places where they can use to teach students on geology and its related
environment. The problem arose immediately after the new standard on science lesson for pre-university level has been
issued by the Education Ministry in 2001. The new science lesson has now included extensive matters on earth science.
The subject is somewhat new to teachers across the nation. The majority of these science teachers have absolutely no
idea on how to develop geo-related sites in their own localities. As a result, students end up learning about rocks and
minerals by looking at pictures on the books provided.
It is therefore urgent to develop our local geosites but geoparks for teaching our children. The local people should
establish several geosites in their provinclai areas for geo-related education and conservation. They may then combine
such geosites with other tourists’ attractions of the area to set up a geotour route for both local students and visitors.
This paper presents the development of geotourism route for Phrae Province. The route has been tested and it was a very
successful one. Now it is encouraged that local offices and organizations shall step up for further development of the
geotourism of other provinces. These geosite networks will soon be connected and represent a nationwide geotourism
sites.
109
HEAT TREATMENT OF SAPPHIRES FROM

ILAKAKA-SAKARAHA, MADAGASCAR
Krittaya Pattamalai and Rak Hansawek
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok 10400, Thailand, E-mail: toey_geol@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
About 270 sapphire roughs from the deposit at Ilakaka-Sakaraha, Madagascar were sorted into 7 groups, based on their
hues of pink, blue, violet, purple, white, yellow and green. The specimens were examined in detail for their
characteristics. Heating under an oxidizing atmosphere was conducted on the samples at temperatures in step
increments (i.e. 800, 1000, 1200, 1400 and 1600 degrees Celsius), each step with one hour soaking time, after which
changes in the characteristics of the stones were examined. Results of this study show that the blue tinge in the Purple
and Pink samples could be reduced by heating at 1000O to 1400OC; the dark tone of the Blue samples improved by
heating at 800O-1200OC; a blue hue was induced in the milky sapphire samples when the stones were subjected to heat in
the range 1400O-1600OC; and the yellow hue of the Yellow samples could be enhanced at 1200O-1600OC; a yellow tinge
could also be induced in the green group by heating at 1200O-1600OC. The turbidity of zircon inclusions and tension
disc fractures surrounding zircon or any other mineral inclusion can be used as a criterion for identifying heat treated
sapphires.
Key words: Sapphire, Heat treatment, Ilakaka-Sakaraha, Madagasgar
INTRODUCTION bedrock of the area. The Ilakaka-Sakaraha yield consists

of blue sapphire making up about 20%, pink sapphire
Heat treatment is an important technique for improving 80% and a tiny fraction of other fancy colors (Hansawek
the color and clarity of corundum and is a popular method 2001).
accepted and adopted by the international gems trade.
Heating stimulates the inherent crystallographic reactions
within the gemstone, leading to stable and permanent
changes that stem from the gem’s own natural
characteristics, which enhance the attractiveness of the
treated gemstone. Today the sale of heat-treated ruby and
sapphire is no longer regarded as an unethical or
deceptive practice.
The Ilakaka-Sakaraha sapphire deposit is located about (Ilakaka)
210 kilometers northeast of Tulear in the southwestern (Sakaraha)
Madagascar. It extends from the south of the Isalo
National Park near the town of Sakahara (Sakaraha) up to (Tulear)
Ilakaka (Fig. 1) (Milisenda et al., 2001). It is where,
according to Hansawek 2001, large deposits of pink, blue
and other fancy-colored sapphires were discovered in late
1998. It has been found that after heat treatment, the blue
Ilakaka-Sakaraha sapphires take on an appearance similar
to Sri Lankan sapphires. As a result, gem dealers from
many countries including Thailand have turned to
Ilakaka-Sakaraha as a new source for sapphire raw
materials. Sapphires in Ilakaka-Sakaraha are generally
found in placer deposits, some of which having high river
terrace land forms.
Placer mining at Ilakaka-Sakaraha is generally confined to
the gem-bearing gravel bed, a layer having a thickness Figure 1 Location map of Ilakaka-Sakaraha area,
normally of about 0.5 to 1.5 m; although up to 3 to 5 m southwestern Madagascar (Milisenda et al., 2001).
thickness is sometimes found. These layers are usually
situated at 0.5-5.0 m from the surface; however, some can
be buried as deep as 21 m. Triassic sandstone forms the
110
PURPOSE OF STUDY 2) Classification
The sample roughs were sorted into 7 groups based on the

This study aims to investigate the sapphire specimens
hues observed under day light lamp as follows:
from Ilakaka-Sakaraha for their gemological properties,
1. Pink Group, consisting of Purplish pink, Light purplish
internal characteristics and the efftects of heat treatment
pink, Light orangey pink and Very light purplish
upon them. Changes of these characteristics occurring at
pink.
different heating temperatures were examined and
2. Purple Group, consisting of Purple, Pinkish purple
documented. Through this work, the study team seeks to
and brownish purple.
establish criteria for identifying heat treated sapphires as
3. Blue Group, consisting of Very dark blue, Dark blue,
well as to gain knowledge of effective heat treatment
Medium blue, Light blue, and Very light blue.
methods for Ilakaka-Sakaraha sapphires.
4. Violet Group, consisting of Dark violet, Medium violet
and Light violet, some stones of this group can
STUDY METHOD exhibit color-change effect.
5. White Group, consisting of Colorless, Very light
1) Literature survey of previous works related to this bluish white, and Very light yellowish white.
study; 6. Yellow Group, consisting of Light orangey yellow
2) Classifying the specimens based on color appearance, and Light yellow.
and selecting suitable samples for thermal treatment; 7. Green Group, consisting of Light yellowish green
3) Cutting and polishing the samples along directions and Medium bluish green.
perpendicular and parallel to the c-axis;
4) Determining physical and optical properties such as 3) Physical and Optical properties
refractive index (RI), birefringence, specific gravity (SG),
and fluorescence under short wave (SW, 254 nm) and Gemological properties of the samples, including specific
long wave (LW, 365 nm); gravity (SG), refractive index (RI), birefringence, and
5) Observing internal characteristics of the samples, fluorescence, were measured and their respective values
determining mineral inclusions and taking before-and- found to be 3.96-4.02, ne = 1.760-1.764 / no = 1.768-
after treatment photographs for comparison; 1.772, and 0.008. These values fall within the normal
6) Measuring absorption spectra of the samples before range for corundum. Most of the pink, violet and purple
heat treatment; sapphires showed moderate to strong pink to orange
7) Semi-quantitative analysis of trace element contents fluorescence under LWUV suggesting their having a
(total Fe2O3, TiO2, Cr2O3, V2O3 and Ga2O3); metamorphic-type origin with a low iron suit rather than
8) Performing step-heat treatment in an electric furnace at the high iron suit of a basaltic-type origin.
800O, 1000O, 1200O, 1400O and 1600O C, employing one
hour soaking time for each step; 4) Internal Characteristics
9) Observing internal characteristics and absorption
spectra of the heated samples after each heating step; The Pink and Purple groups contained a variety of mineral
10) Discussion, summary and reporting inclusions. Among these, the most commonly included
mineral is zircon which typically occurs as well-formed,
Equipment: somewhat rounded, stubby or elongated crystals up to 80
micrometers (µm) in size, existing as single inclusions or
• Hitachi UV-VIS-NIR (model U4001) and Perkin- as clusters with or without tension discs or cracks. Other
Elmer FTIR Spectrophotometers (model Paragon mineral inclusions were: Rutile, occurring as rounded,
1000) black to dark brown, short prismatic crystals and long
• EDAX Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence needles; Mica, as colorless and green plate like crystals;
Spectrometer (model DX-95) and Monazite, as small, rounded particles. No color zones
• Renishaw Laser Raman Spectroscopy 1000 were found in the pink and purple sapphires.
• Lindberg Electric Furnace (model 59256-E6) The pink and blue groups were observed to have
fingerprints (healed fractures) and white dust or minute
PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES particles.
The blue and violet groups displayed mineral inclusions
1) Visual appearance and crystal habits such as zircon, rutile, apatite and calcite. In addition,
healed fractures (fingerprints) were also noticed, together
The 275 Ilakaka-Sakaraha corundum roughs employed in with rutile needles which were oriented in 3 directions
this study displayed a wide variety of hues and tones, and intersecting at 60o/120o angles, as well as white dust
having sizes from 3 to 8 millimeters and weights from 0.5 with a milky color.
to 3.0 carats. Most were water-worn stones having
irregular shapes (anhedral crystals) with a few showing
recognizable crystal forms. Habits ranged from barrel-
shaped, hexagonal, pyramid, to tabular and bipyramid.
111
EFFECTS OF HEAT TREATMENT ON 1600OC. For sapphires having the color-change property,
COLOR APPEARANCE after having been heated to purple, their color transition
effect would be either reduced or obliterated entirely.
To avoid contamination materials, the specimens must be
carefully prepared in the same manner as preparation for 4) Yellow group
trace-element analysis. Residual iron stains or secondary
silicates may have coated the stone surface or stuck within It is known that the orangey yellow coloration in most
the cracks and, if not removed, could produce undesirable orangey and light yellow sapphires tend to increase when
color effects on the treated specimens. To remove these the stones are subjected to heat in an oxidizing
surface contaminants, the samples must be soaked in HF atmosphere. In this study, the yellow hue of the samples
acid for 1 to 2 days and then washed thoroughly with was observed to deepen at 1200O-1600OC (Fig.5).
water. The cleaned specimens are placed in an alumina
crucible for heating in pre-determined conditions. 5) Green Group
The samples were heated under oxidizing atmosphere at 5
different temperatures for 1 hour at each step, making a The bluish cast was reduced by heating at 1200O-1600OC,
total of 5 heatings (at 800O, 1000O, 1200O, 1400O and resulting in a green hue with a more pronounced yellow
1600OC). tinge (Fig.4).
1) Pink and purple groups EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT ON

INTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS
It has been known that the purplish color cast in ruby and
pink sapphire can be minimized by heating in an This study reveals that most of the internal features within
oxidizing atmosphere. the samples remained unaltered by heating at 800OC for
In this study, the purplish color cast in the Pink sapphire one hour. Further heating at higher temperatures,
samples was reduced by heat at 1000O-1400OC (Fig.2). however, would cause some internal characteristics,
However, for the stone with milky appearance further mainly the inclusions, to begin changing. These internal
heating at 1600 OC would cause the purplish cast to changes are described below:
reappear. As for the very light to light pink type, the
purplish color cast was lightened at 800O-1000OC and 1) Zircon In their original state before heating, some
further heating at 1200O-1400OC produced no additional samples contained zircon inclusions in the forms of single
improvement. crystals and crystal clusters with minute tension cracks.
The hue of the Purple sapphires tended towards pink Some of these zircon inclusions showed no visible
when the stones were subjected to heat. At 1000OC, their alterations after heating at 800OC to 1600OC. In general,
purple hue began to turn pink (Fig.3). The change became under low-temperature heating, zircon inclusions in the
more marked, resulting in a purer pink, at temperatures form of single crystals showed greater stability than their
beyond 1000OC. cluster-type counterparts. Some zircon crystals, however,
showed the development of slight tension cracks
2) Blue and White groups surrounding them after having been heated up to 1000OC.
With heating resumed at higher temperatures, these
The changes induced by heat within the blue and white tension cracks would expand and thermal decomposition
groups varied, depending on the nature of the inclusions would ensue, resulting in turbidity surrounding the
present in their matrices. At 800O-1200OC, the hue of the inclusions. The development of tension cracks was
blue type faded to a lighter blue, while that of the probably due to the differential expansion rates between
colorless type showed no changes. For the blue and very the zircon inclusions and the host sapphire. At 1600OC,
light bluish white samples having white dust (milky) some of the zircon crystals showed partial alteration or
inclusions, their coloration began to change towards a decomposition resulting in a whitish cloudy (turbid)
more saturated blue at 1400OC which deepened further at appearance (Fig. 6). Before heat treatment, the cluster-
1600OC (Fig. 4). type inclusions generally occurred together with minor
tension cracks. These cracks would develop more distinct
3) Violet group tension disc surrounding the zircons after heating at
higher temperatures (Fig. 7). Some of the zircon crystals
Among the medium violet samples selected for heat in cluster form would begin to change their appearances
treatment, there were stones with and without color- when the samples were heated to 1200OC. It should be
change property. Stones with this property are those that noted that the appearance of this phase change (turbidity)
show a color transition from bluish violet under and the tension disc fractures surrounding the zircon
fluorescent light to purplish violet under incandescent inclusions can provide a useful criterion for detecting
light. Heating this sample group at 800O to 1400OC caused heat-treatment on their host sapphire since such a phase
a reduction of the blue color cast, resulting in a more change is not present in unheated stones.
purplish hue. In one particular stone within this group,
caused the bluish cast to reappear further heating at
112
2) Rutile Rutile inclusions occur either as black to dark 3) Mica Mica inclusions underwent partial alteration, or
brown crystals or as thin, long needles known as rutile appeared slightly turbid, and were accompanied by minute
needles (silk). The black to dark brown crystals would tension cracks after heating at 1000OC. The turbility and
change their color to orange together with slight tension discs fracture was more pronounced with
development of tension cracks after heat treatment at increased decomposition after their host sapphire was
800OC. Re-heated at higher temperatures, the rutile reheated at 1400O-1600OC.
crystals would assume a bright orange color having
pronounced tension cracks. The rutile needles displayed 4) Monazite Only two occurrences of mozanite were
no changes at 800O-1400OC heat, but resumed heating at found among the samples, one being an inclusion
1600OC would result in partial dissolution of the needles, associated with a zircon cluster and another, an isolated
leading to an appearance of dot-like or hyphen-like crystal. The monazite inclusion within the zircon cluster
patterns known as dotted needles or resorbed rutile silk. showed slight decomposition after step-heating up to
Rutile needles in some stones were found to dissolve 1600OC. The isolated crystal, however, was quite stable; it
completely in the host sapphire after heating at 1600OC. was unaffected by heat up to 1600OC.
Unheated Heated 1200°C
Heated 800°C Heated 1400°C
Heated 1000°C Heated 1600°C
Figure 2. The purplish color cast in the Pink sapphire samples was reduced by heat at 1000O-1400OC.
Unheated Heated 800OC Heated 1000OC
Figure 3. The hue of the Purple sapphires tended towards pink when the stones were heated at 1000OC
Unheated Heated 800°C Heated 1000°C
Heated 1200°C Heated 1400°C Heated 1600°C
Figure 4. Blue, white and green groups (Top row: Very dark blue, Dark blue, Medium blue, Light blue, Light blue with
milky; Bottom row: Very light blue, Very light blue with milky, Colorless, Very light bluish white with milky
(2 samples) and Medium bluish green) were faded to lighter blue after 800O-1200OC heat, while that of the
colorless type showed no changes. For the blue and white samples having milky inclusions, their coloration
began to change towards a more saturated blue at 1400OC which deepened further at 1600OC
113
Unheated Heated 1200OC Heated 1600OC
Figure 5. The yellow hue of samples depend at 1200° C – 1600 ° C
Unheated Heated 1400OC 6) Fingerprints Also known as healed fractures or cracks,

fingerprints are often found in both unheated and heated
sapphires. In this study, fingerprints in some samples were
observed to have developed after the host sapphire had
been heated at 800O-1200OC, and tended to become more
expansive at higher heating temperatures.
Heated 800OC Heated 1600OC UV-VIS-NIR SPECTRA

The color of ruby and sapphire is related directly to the
absorption of visible light. Accordingly, measuring the
UV-VIS-NIR absorption spectra of the samples before
and after heating should provide important information on
the cause of color and color change induced by heat
treatment. In this investigation, all of the observed spectra
Figure 6. Most zircon inclusions were still unchanged after showed absorption peaks due to Cr3+ at 405-410, 555-558
the step-heating from 800OC to 1600OC except the
crystal in circle began to alter with slight
and 693 nm. Additional peaks due to iron at 388 nm
development of tension crack after heating up to (Fe3+) and 450 nm (Fe3+/Fe3+ ion pair) were also observed
1400OC. When re-heating up to 1600OC, it was in some samples both before and after heat treatment.
obviously altered into whitish, cloudy appearance The red hue of ruby and pink sapphire is due to the
(turbid) with well developed tension crack presence of Cr3+ in the corundum lattice. Belyaev (1980)
surrounding it. cited in Haeger (2001) documented the absorptions of Cr3+
peaks at 405-410, 555-560 and 692-693 nm. As pointed out
Unheated Heated 1400OC by Hansawek (2001), Cr3+ is an independent coloring
element and does not influence the valence of the other
trace elements. It is also not possible to change the
content and valence of Cr3+ in the corundum lattice by
simple heating. Hence absorption intensities due to Cr3+
are likely to be the same both before and after heating
(if the spectra are measured at exactly the same positions
on both occasions). Therefore by subtracting the “after
heating” spectra from that of “before heating”, the
Heated 1000OC Heated 1600OC
absorption spectra caused by Cr3+ should cancel out
completely. The remaining spectra (residue) should reflect
the absorption of visible light and should reveal the cause
of color change resulting from heating (Fig. 8).
TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSIS USING

EDXRF
Figure 7. A zircon clusters was still unchanged after heating
Samples representing the typical color variation of each
at 800OC. The tension discs began to develop after
re-heating to 1000OC. After re-heating from
group were analysed for their trace element content such
1400OC to 1600OC, these tension discs became more as Cr2O3, V2O3, Fe2O3 (total), TiO2, and Ga2O3 in weight
obvious. %. Analysis of the measurements is shown below.
1) Chromium concentrations within the Pink and Purple

5) Milky or white dust zone In general this type of groups as well as Violet with color-change group range
inclusion would become less distinct when the host stone from 0.012-0.125 weight %, which were higher than those
was heated at 1600OC. But their presence in the blue and in the other groups. In the White, Blue, Yellow and Green
violet groups would induce a blue color in the host stone groups, their chromium contents were below detection
when it is heated at 1600OC. limit (<0.005 weight %).
114
2) Vanadium was found with distinctly higher average 4) Titanium content was highest in the Blue group
concentrations in the Violet with color-change groups (averaging about 0.040 weight % TiO2) and lowest in the
than that of the ‘without color-change’ groups (about Yellow and Green groups (averaging about 0.008-0.009
0.020 weight % V2O3 and 0.014 weight % V2O3 weight % TiO2). The samples with a milky white
respectively). In the Pink and Purple groups, vanadium component (i.e. extremely light blue and very light bluish
concentration averaged 0.010–0.011 weight % V2O3 while types) averaged about 0.046 and 0.032 weight % TiO2
the Green, Yellow and White groups showed the lowest respectively. These sapphires may be heated to develop a
(averaging about 0.006-007 weight % V2O3) blue coloration depending on the amounts and proper
ratios between titanium and iron present in the host
3) Iron occurred in highest concentrations within the material. Titanium cannot produce a blue coloration in
Green group, averaging about 0.548 weight % Fe2O3. It corundum unless it occurs in combination with iron as the
has the least presence in the White group, averaging about Fe2+/Ti4+ intervalence charge transfer (Haeger, 2001,
0.045 weight %. The average iron concentrations in the Nassau, 1984 and Themelis, 1992).
yellow, blue, violet without color-change and pink groups
are 0.104-0.146 weight %. The Yellow group showed an 5) Gallium concentrations in the Pink, purple, blue with
average iron content of as low as 0.104 weight %. The color-change and violet sapphire groups averaged at about
0.009-0.013 weight % Ga2O3. The Blue without color-
change group showed the highest gallium content
(averaging about 0.015 weight % Ga2O3) while that of the
Green group was below detection limit (<0.005 weight %).
Unheated 800OC 1600OC
CONCLUSIONS
Cr3+ Unheated
Cr3+ 555 nm 1) Most of the pink, purple and violet sapphires employed
410 nm H 800OC
in this study displayed clean and homogeneous matrices
H 1600OC
without color zoning. Zircon was the most common
(A)
mineral inclusion which occurred as single crytals or as
cluster of inclusions with or without tension discs or
cracks. Other mineral inclusions were rutile (occurring as
crystals or needles), mica (colorless and green varieties)
and monazite. Internal features found were healed
Unheat - Heat 800OC fractures or fingerprints and white dust or minute
Color Unheat - Heat 1600OC particles.
center
450 nm 2) In general, heating at 1000O-1200OC for 1 hour was
sufficient to reduce the blue overcast color, and firing at
these temperatures was less likely to damage the stones.
As for the milky samples - due to the presence of rutile
needles or dust - the blue color reappeared after the
(B) samples were re-heated at 1600OC.
3) The whitish, cloudy appearance (turbidity) of zircon

inclusion and distinct tension disc fracture surrounding an
Figure 8. The UV-VIS-NIR absorption spectra of the light
orangey pink sapphire sample in o-ray
inclusion can be used as a detection criterion for
(A) The spectra of before (light orangey pink, determining whether a stone has been heat treated. The
unheat) and after heat treatment at 800OC (pale said appearance is unique to heated stones and not
pink) and at 1600OC (pale pink) observed in unheated ones.
(B) The remaining spectra after subtraction of
before and after heat-treatment at 800OC and 4) The UV-VIS-NIR spectra showed absorption peaks due
1600OC show a typical absorption pattern to Cr3+ at 401-412, 553-560 and 692-693 nm in o-ray.
commonly observed in yellow Sri Lanka sapphire Additional peaks due to iron at 385-388 nm (Fe3+) and
which are known to be caused by color centers. 449-450 nm (Fe3+/Fe3+ pairs in o-ray) were observed in
After heating at 800OC the yellow hue was removed
because the heating destroyed this color center.
some samples both before and after heat treatment.
Spectra of some samples did not show peaks of Fe3+ and
Fe3+/Fe3+ pairs due to their low Fe content. The remaining
yellow hue of this group of stone was thus caused not by (residue) spectra of the Medium violet sapphires after
the low concentration of iron, but rather by the presence subtraction revealed a board band with peaks at 580 and
of color centers (Haeger, 2001). 735 nm, which were due to the presence of Fe2+/Ti4+
IVCT. These ions were responsible for the removal of the
blue tinge by heating. The residual spectra of Light yellow
115
sapphires after subtraction showed a typical absorption REFERENCES
pattern commonly observed in Sri Lankan yellow
sapphires which are known to have been caused by color Haeger, T., 2001. High Temperature Treatment of Natural
centers. Corundum, Proceedings of the International
Workshop on Material Characterization by Solid State
5) Based on EDXRF analysis, the Pink, Purple and Violet Spectroscopy, 4-10 April 2001, Minerals of Vietnam,
with color-change groups contained higher percentages of Hanoi, Vietnam, 2001.
chromium than those found in other groups. The average Hansawek, R., 2001. Potential of Malagasy Gems and
Investment Opportunities, Proceedings of Seminar on
vanadium concentration in ‘color-change’ sapphires was Malagacy Gems: New Prospects for the Gems
significantly higher than that in sapphires without color- Industry, 15 February 2001, Department of Mineral
change. The Blue group was found to have the highest Resources, Bangkok, Thailand, second publishing,
titanium content. The iron content of the green group is 2001, p.107-114 (Thai language).
the highest while the yellow group show only 0.1 weight % Milisenda, C., Henn, U., and Hem, J., 2001. New gemstone
Fe2O3. So that this minute concentration could not have occurrences in the south-west of Madagascar, Journal
produced a distinct yellow in the Ilakaka-Sakaraha of Gemmology, v.27, no.7, p.385-394.
sapphires. Accordingly, the yellow hue was most likely Nassau, K., 1984. Gemstone enhancement, Butterworths,
due to the presence of color centers. London.
Themelis, T., 1992. Heat Treatment of Ruby and Sapphire,
Gemlab Inc.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to the following for their
assistance and collaboration: Mr Boontavee Sriprasert of
Mineral Resources Analysis Division, Department of
Mineral Resources for his EDXRF analyses of Fe2O3,
TiO2, Cr2O3, V2O3 and Ga2O3; Associate Professor Dr
Visut Pisutha-Arnond, Assistant Professor Sompop
Vedchakanchana and Dr Chakkaphan Sutthirat of the
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science,
Chulalongkorn University for their helpful suggestions;
the Gems and Jewelry Institute of Thailand for allowing
access to their Raman spectral analysis machine and
inclusion photographing equipment; and the Department
of Mineral Resources for their kind support and
encouragement throughout the project.
116
HYDROCHEMICAL BALANCE OF BRINES

IN THE NORTHEASTERN THAILAND
Nuttapong Thancharoen1 and Sarunya Promkotra2
1
Graduate School, Department of Geotechnology, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002 Thailand
2
Ground Water Research Center, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002 Thailand
E-mail: 1nuttapong_geokku@yahoo.com, 2sarunya@kku.ac.th
ABSTRACT
Salt industries for producing solar and evaporated salts from natural brines were regional investigated in the Northeast,
Thailand. The brine samples were randomly collected from 5 provinces: Nakhon Ratchasima, Maha Sarakham, Udon
Thani, Sakon Nakhon and Nong Khai. The collecting brine was 32 samples sampling in the year 2005 and 2006.
Hydrochemical parameters and also chemical compositions of major elements of brines were examined. Hydrochemical
facies of brines were generally Na-Cl type. However, only one area in Ban Phon Palai, King Amphoe Pra Thong Kham,
Nakhon Ratchasima indicated the different analytical results from others which were Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 and Na-Mg-Cl
type. The typical facies of brines depended on the hydrogeochemistry and hydrodynamics of each regional area. The
Na/Cl ratios (in mg/L) of brines collecting in 2005 and 2006 were approximately 0.647 and 0.561, respectively. The
analytical results in 2005 were more closed to the Na/Cl ratio of 0.65 in pure crystals of halite than the results in the
year 2006. Moreover, the chemical composition relationships of Ca/(SO4+HCO3), K/Cl and other parameters were able
to correlate to the Na/Cl ratios. The Ca/(SO42-+ HCO3-) ratio was represented the dissolution of most brines in 2005 and
some in 2006. These dissolutions significantly came from meteoric water and geological characteristic of aquifers.
According to the K/Cl ratio, the result was concluded to the dilution of brines. Furthermore, nitrate (NO3-) ion was
exposed to the contamination in brines if the amount of nitrate was greater than 45 mg/L. The Saturation Index was
indicated to the chemical stability and behavior of brines. Mostly, walls of salt dome were assumable deposition of
anhydrite precipitated on well screens and packed outside with clay or some sediments. The anhydrite Saturation Index
presented the supersaturated condition when the TDS values were greater than 250,000 mg/L.
Keywords: hydrochemistry, hydrochemical facies, brines, saturation index (S.I.)
INTRODUCTION This study attended on the variation of hydrogeochemical

compositions of brines in the Northeastern part of
Salt industries in the Northeast of Thailand mostly can be Thailand. According to changing the hydrogeochemical
separated for two types of processes: solar and evaporated balance of brines, the effect can evaluate the genesis of
salts, which can be produced from underground natural sinkholes in the near future. These studying will keep
brines. Solar salts can be manufacturing by the succession following by time all seasons and maintain the analysis
of the sun. Also evaporating of the water on salt ponds, many years. The distribution of ions in natural brines
salt solutions are increasingly concentrated, and depends on many variety factors, such as hydrogeology,
abundance salts crystallizing on the ground floors. Solar dissolution of salts, ground water flow and also human
salts are lower cost than the mining solution. Solar salt activities. These dispersal ions are different in each
fields in the Northeast of Thailand (Fig. 1a-b) mostly regional area, due to the environmental constitution and
begin to produce salts in winter season and continue to changing in geochemical characteristics.
summer to the next year, which are very high season of
evaporation rates and low rainfall. Another salt process is GEOLOGICAL SETTING
boiling or evaporating of the natural brines by heat (Fig.
2a-c). This process can be accomplished at home as a Northeast of Thailand is a part of the Khorat Plateau,
“local salt industry”, which is currently extensive in the located within the Indochina block of Eastern in Thailand.
Northeast, Thailand. Evaporated salt productions can be This Plateau contains 2 basins, Khorat and Sakon Nakhon
generated all year round. Both solar salt and evaporated Basins. Both basins consist thick sedimentary rocks
salt production are very important for salt productivity of ranging in the age from late Cambrian to present
the local community. Salt industries were generated in (Sattayarak et al., 1989). Stratigraphic sequences of the
several provinces in the Northeast of Thailand, where are Khorat Plateau generally presents into three majors. There
Nakhon Ratchasima, Maha Sarakham, Udon Thani, Sakon are Khorat Group, Triassic Pre-Khorat, and Post Variscan
Nakhon and Nong Khai province. Upper Paleozoic (Pradidtan, 1995). The Khorat Group
117
(a) (b)
Figure 1a-b The solar salt field in Ban Sam Rong, Amphoe Non Thai, Nakhon Ratchasima province
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2a-c Evaporated salt field in Ban Khok Phra, Amphoe Kantharawichai, Maha Sarakham province.
consists 9 rock formations, there are Phu Tok Formation, square kilometers, respectively. Moreover, Satarugsa et
Maha Sarakham Formation, Khok Kruat Formation, Phu al. (2005) had studied the Maha Sarakham Formation
Phan Formation, Sao Khua Formation, Phra Wihan boundary emergences in Khorat and Sakon Nakhon
Formation, Phu Kradung Formation, Nam Phong Basins, which analyzed from 2D seismic data. The new
Formation, and Huai Hin Lat Formation (Sattayarak and boundary of Maha Sarakham Formation covers an area of
Polachan, 1990). General of these formations contain the 45,944 square kilometers. The rock salts were exhibited
red to reddish brown sandstone, siltstone, shale and about 25,620 square kilometers in the Khorat basin and
conglomerate. These sedimentary rocks were deposited in about 20,323 square kilometers in the Sakon Nakhon
a continental environment. Exceptively, Maha Sarakham basin.
Formation was deposited in marine environment
difference from most formations. It consisted of clay, STUDY AREAS
claystone and evaporite minerals (Department of
Groundwater Resources, 2001). The evaporite minerals Rock salts were mainly found in two regions in the
from the Maha Sarakham Formation were extentively Northeast, Thailand, which called the North and South
exploded and dispersed around the Khorat and Sakon basin (Figure 3). The North basin consisted of Sakon
Nakhon basins. Hite and Japakasetr (1979) studied the Nakhon-Udon Thani Basin; otherwise, the South basin
stratigraphy of Maha Sarakham Formation. Their study was composed of Khorat Basin. Brines aquifers in Sakon
results were presented the thick continental siliciclastic Nakhon-Udon Thani Basin were typically found in the
red beds of claystone and mudstone. Furthermore, these shallow level, approximately 40-70 meters. However,
red beds were intercalated with evaporite strata and brines in Khorat Basin flowed in deep brine aquifers,
described as the Upper, Middle and Lower Salts. roughly 70-220 meters.
Simplified lithostratigraphic section of the Maha Salt industries in Sakon Nakhon, Udon Thani and Khorat
Sarakham Formation is shown in Figure 3. Basin were regional investigated to study the chemical
The Maha Sarakham Formation covers an area of 50,000 compositions of brines and compared to evaluation and
square kilometers around the Northeast of Thailand, distribution of the chemical composition in the area of
whereas the areas of rock salt were found about 33,000 interest. The samples were randomly collected from 5
square kilometers in Khorat basin and approximately areas: Nakhon Ratchasima, Maha Sarakham, Udon Thani,
17,000 square kilometers in Sakon Nakhon basin Sakon Nakhon and Nong Khai provinces. The 32 of brine
(Sattayarak, 1985; Suwanich, 1995; Piyasin, 1995; Racey samples are collected in each area, as shown in Table 1.
et al., 1996; Sattayarak et al., 1998). Contrastively from
Keith (2005), rock salts disperse within the Khorat and
Sakon Nakhon Basins covering around 36,000 and 20,000
118
1. Sakon Nakhon
Basin
2. Khorat
Basin
Figure 3 Rock salts dispersed in the Southern Khorat Basin and the Northern Sakon Nakhon Basin (www.dmr.go.th).
METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS and HCO3-. All major cations were analyzed by Atomic
Absorption Spectrometry (AAS). Other major anions, Cl-,
Twenty two brine samples were collected in both solar NO3- and SO42- were measured by Flow Injection Analysis
salt and evaporated salt production areas during October System (FIAS). Moreover, HCO3- was examined by
2005, and the 20 samples of brines were collected to both titration. The analytical results were shown in Table 2 and 3.
local salt industries in 2006. The collected samples in Hydrochemical diagrams were interpreted in combination
2006 were decided in the same stations and would be of distribution parameters. The relationship of different
sampling supplement more samples. The parameters of hydrochemical water types was first evaluated
EC (electrical conductivity), pH, temperature and hydrochemical distributions of brines (Bassett and
O
Baume’ were measured in the fields or study areas. The Bentlay, 1982). The Piper diagram can present a large
measured results were shown in Table 1. The brine number of analyses in trilinear diagrams (Lloys and
samples were brought and analyzed in the geochemical Heathcote, 1985). Graphical plots can be achieved by
laboratory at Department of Geotechnology, Faculty of AquaChem computing software program (Waterloo
Technology, Khon Kaen University. The examinations of Hydrogeologic, Inc., 1999).
the major ion were Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl-, NO3-, SO42-
Table 1 Location sites for all study areas illustrates physical properties of brine compared along with both years in 2005 and 2006.
Remark: * Sample in October, 2006 only ** Sample in October, 2005 and 2006 Remark: ** no sampling and no parameter measured
119
Table 2 Analytical results of major ion of brine collecting in Table 3 Analytical results of major ion of brines collecting in
October 2005. (The number of samples represented the location October 2006. (The number of samples represented the location
sites for the study areas in Table 1) sites for the study areas in Table 1)
o
Piper diagrams of brines were indicated in Figure 4a-b. anhydrite/pH, Baume’/TDS, NO3-/EC and
o + -
The X-Y plots allowed a preliminary assessment of Baume’/(Na /Cl ). These plots were shown in Figure 5-
hydrochemical parameters. Relationships of 12
hydrochemical parameter ratios were considered in pair of
ions as Na+/Cl-, K+/Cl-, Ca2+/(SO42-+HCO3-), Ca2+/SO42-,
The anhydrite Saturation Index (S.I.)/TDS, S.I. of
Ban Phon
Palai Na-Cl
Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3
Na-Mg-Cl
(a) (b)
Figure 4 Trilinear diagrams of brines in (a) 2005 and (b) 2006, which all hydrochemical facies indicated the Na-Cl type, except
Ban Phon Palai, King Amphoe Pra Thong Kham, Nakhon Ratchasima province, showing Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 and Na-Mg-Cl,
respectively.
120
7,000 1,000
Brines in 2005 1:1
Brines in 2005
Brines in 2006
6,000 Brines in 2006
800
5,000
Na+ (meq l -1)
600
K+ (meq l-1)
4,000
400
3,000
200
2,000
2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,0 0
-
Cl - (meq l -1) 1,000 10,00
- -1
Cl (meq l )
Figure 5 Relationship of sodium ion to chloride ion of all brines
(2005 and 2006). The results in 2005 showed that the distribution
Figure 6 Semi-logarithmic dilution diagram of all brines
closed to the 1:1 ratio line. However, the results in 2006 dispersed
(2005 and 2006) relating to potassium and chloride ions.
far from the 1:1 ratio line.
350
0.6
Brines in 2005 Brines in 2005

300 Brines in 2006
Brines in 2006 0.5
250 0.4
NO3 (meq l )
-1
200 0.3
-1
150 0.2
100 0.1
0
50
1:1 300.0 350.0 400.0 450.0 500.0 550.0 600.0 650.0 700.0 750.0
-1
EC (mS cm )
-
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Figure 8 Relationship of EC and nitrate of all brines
2- - -1
(2005 and 2006) showing high concentration of nitrate
SO 4 + HCO 3 (meq l )
of brines in 2005 more than 2006.
Figure 7 Relationship of sulphate+bicarbonate and calcium ions
of all brines (2005 and 2006) showing simple dissolution of the
1:1 ratio.
121
1.5
1.50
Brines in 2005
Brines in 2005
Brines in 2006
1 Brines in 2006 1.00
Saturation Index (Anhydrite)

0.5 0.50
Saturation Index
(Anhydrite)
0.00
0
-0.50
-0.5
-1.00
-1
-1.50
-1.5
-2.00
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
-2
pH
100,000 1,000,000
TDS (mg l-1)

Figure 9 Anhydrite Saturation index (S.I.) of brines (in 2005 and Figure 10 Anhydrite Saturation index (S.I.) of brines (in
2006) as a function of TDS (total dissolved solid). 2005 and 2006) as a function of pH
1.50
Brines in 2005
Brines in 2006 29.00
1.00 Brines in 2005
27.00 Brines in 2006
Saturation Index (Anhydrite)
0.50
25.00
Baume'
0.00 23.00
21.00
O
-0.50
19.00
-1.00
17.00
-1.50 15.00
100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000
-1
-2.00 TSD (mg l )
15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00
O
Temperature ( C)
Figure 11 Relationship between temperature (oC) and Saturation Figure 12 Relationship between oBaume’ and TDS (total
Index (S.I.) of anhydrite of brines in 2005 and 2006. dissolved solid) of brines in 2005 and 2006.
DISCUSSIONS The results and evidences from the chemical composition

analysis of brines could be defined salt dissolution. These
Hydrogeochemical compositions of brines were the main evidences are;
key to evaluate the dissolution of salt (rock salts). If rock 1. Hydrochemical facies (Figure 4) were generally the Na-
salts are highly soluble, the extensive dissolution will Cl type. However, brines from Ban Pon Palai, King
continually occur. Groundwater which contact to rock Amphoe Phra Thong Kham, Nakhon Ratchasima,
salts will dissolve some salts. For this reason, brines sampling in October, 2005 and 2006 (sample No. 2 in
within salt domes are lead to undersaturated solution. Table 1) can be indicated the Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 and Na-
Thus, prediction and possibility of sinkhole could Mg-Cl facies, respectively, and both differed from the
probably happen. others. Ions of calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+) and
bicarbonate (HCO3-) in brines may dissolve from the
122
aquifer of sediments and meteoric water. Furthermore, the loose the equilibrium condition. Thus, brines will proceed
X-Y plots of the ion ratios were considered for salt to undersaturation. Groundwater saturated with dissolved
dissolved determination. substances is prone to depositing some of the solute load
2. The ratio of Na/Cl (Figure 5), most chloride (Cl-) ions on abstraction, causing incrustation and clogging of
are more abundant than sodium (Na+) ions, which are the pipework.
simple dissolution. Moreover, the Na/Cl ratio of brines
was closed to the ratio of the pure crystal halite (0.65), 4
Brines-Oct 2005
except the Na/Cl ratio of brine from Ban Pon Palai, King
3
Amphoe Phra Thong Kham, Nakhon Ratchasima which Brines-Oct 2006
differed from others. The relationships between of brines 2 Brines-Jan 2006
both years were shown in Figure 13.
1 GW-Oct 2005
GW-Jan 2006
SI (Anhydrite)
1.00 0
0.90 Brines-Khorat Basin 0.65 -1
0.80 Brines-Sakon Nakhon Basin
-2
0.70
0.65
Na/Cl (2006)
0.60 -3
0.50 -4
0.40 Ban Phon Palai,
Nakon Ratchasima
-5
0.30
-6
0.20
1 10 100 1000 10000 1E+05 1E+06
0.10
0.00 TDS (mg l -1 )

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Na/Cl (2005)
Figure 14 Anhydrite Saturation Index as a function of TDS of
Figure 13 Relationships of the Na/Cl ratio between brines in brines and groundwater (Remark: The analytical results of
2005 and 2006. The ratio of brine from Ban Pon Palai, King groundwater were complimentary from Ground Water
Amphoe Phra Thong Kham, Nakhon Ratchasima differed Research Center, Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen
from other. University, Thailand).
3. The K/Cl ratio (Figure 6), was represented the dilution Various methods of representing the degree of saturation
of brines. The diagram was shown an enhancement in of water with respect to a mineral have been used, the
potassium ions along with chloride ions for several brines, most useful of which are saturation percentage, defined
which was recognized to ion exchange occurring in the by (Lloyd et al., 1985)
aquifer. Saturation percentage = IAP x 100 per cent -----[1]
4. The Ca/(SO42-+ HCO3-) ratio (Figure 7) were
Ksp
represented the dissolution in most brines in 2005 and
some brines in 2006, significantly came from dissolution
of meteoric water and geological characteristic of an And saturation index defined by
aquifer.
Saturation index = log (IPA) -----[2]
5. The ratio between EC and nitrate (NO3-) ion (Figure 8)
was shown the contamination of brines. The nitrate ions Ksp
were defined to dissolve more increasingly in 2005 than
Where IAP is ion activity product
2006, which might indicate more the dilution by rain in
and Ksp is solubility product equilibrium.
2006. Nitrates may be harmful to human beings if they are
contaminated in ground water over 45 mg/L.
Furthermore, the S.I. (anhydrite) was relatively considered
6. The Saturation Index (S.I.) was indicated of chemical
with pH (Figure 10) and temperature (oC) (Figure 11).
stability and behavior of brines (Figure 9) and
The results of these could be indicated to the ranging
groundwater (Figure 14) encountered in anhydrite.
value as 5.4 to 6.8 of pH and 28.5 to 34.0 of degree
Mostly, walls of salt dome were assumable deposition of
Celsius (oC), respectively.
anhydrite precipitates on well screens, and packed outside
7. The ratio of TSD (total dissolved solid) and oBaume’
with clay or some sediments. The positive S.I. value
(Figure 12) was indicated the group of brines, which the
represented supersaturated solution which referred
length of the tendency of both values shown a simple
directly to brines. If the TDS (total dissolved solid) values
progression. Mostly, the ranging value of TSD and
were roughly less than 250,000 mg/L, all brines might
123
Baume’ were indicated as 250,000 to 320,000 mg/L and Keith, S. 2005, Overview of the Geology and Resources of the
22.0 to 26.0, respectively. APPC Udon Potash (Sylvinite) Deposits, Udon Thani
Province, Thailand. Inter. Conf. on Geol., Geotechnology
and Mineral Resources of Indochina (GEOINDO 2005),
CONCLUSIONS Khon Kaen, Thailand, p. 283-299.
Lloyd, J. W. and Heathcote, J. A. 1985, Natural Inorganic
Hydrochemical facies of brines were generally Na-Cl. Hydrochemistry in Relation to Groundwater. Clarendon
Some area in Nakhon Ratchasima showed the type of Na- Press, Oxford, UK.
Ca-Cl-HCO3 and Na-Mg-Cl, which collected in 2005 and Mouret, C. 1994, Geological history of NE Thailand since the
2006, respectively. The difference of hydrochemical Carboniferous: Relations with Indochina and the
facies depended on the hydrogeology of the brine Carboniferous to early Cenozoic evolution model. Proc.
Internat. Sympos. On Stratigraphic Correlation of
aquifers. The Na/Cl ratios of brines were similar to the
Southeast Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 132-158.
ratios of the pure crystal of halite, which is 0.65. The Piyasin, S. 1995. The hydrocarbon potentail of Khorat Plateau.
characteristic ionic ratio, Na/Cl and Ca/(SO4+ HCO3) Inter. Conf. on Geol., Geotechnology and Mineral
identified the evidence of undersaturation of brines which Resources of Indochina, Khon Kaen, Thailand, p. 551-562.
deviated from the 1:1 ratio, and dissolved in other Pradidtan, S. 1995, Petroleum exploration in Northeast Thailand:
solutions through aquifers, such as natural groundwater. The Revealed results and it’s potential. Inter. Conf. on
Sediments packed around the salt dome might collapse Geol., Resources, Khon Kaen, Thailand, p. 590-599.
into the cavities and interfere to the chemical Racey, A., Love, M. A., Canham, A. C., Goodall, J. G. S.,
compositions of brines and groundwater. Furthermore, the Polachan, A., and Jones, P.D. 1996, Stratigraphiy and
reservoir potentail of the Mesozoic Khorat Group,
K/Cl ratio could be correlated to the characteristic ionic
Northeastern Thailand, Part I: Stratigraphy and
ratios of Na/Cl. The Saturation Index will announce the ssedimentary evoloution. Journal of Petroleum Geology,
dilution of brines and also the undersaturation of 19, p. 5-40.
groundwater by the TDS value. Satarugsa, P., Youngmee, W., and Meesawat, S. 2005. New
Regional Boundary of Maha Sarakham Formation in the
REFERENCES Northeastern Thailand: Results from 2D Seismic Mapping.
Inter. Conf. on Geol., Geotechnology and Mineral
Bassett, R. L. and Bentley, M. E. 1982, Geochemistry and Resources of Indochina (GEOINDO 2005), Khon Kaen,
Hydro dynamics of Deep Formation Brines in the Palo Thailand, p. 212-220.
Duro and Dalhart Basins. J. Hydrology, 59, Texas, U.S., p. Sattayarak, N. 1985, Review of the continental Mesozoic
331-372. stratigraphy of Thailand. in P. Nutalaya (Ed), Proc.
Department of Groundwater Resources. 2001, Geology of Workshop on Stratigraphic Correlatin of Thailand and
Thailand. Department of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Malaysia, v1, p. 127-140.
Natural Resources and Environment, Bangkok, Thailand. Sattayarak, N., Chaisiboon, B., Srikulwong, S., Charusirisawat,
Department of Groundwater Resources. 2006, A project on R., Mahattanachai, T., and Chantong, W. 1998, Tectonic
environmental impact study of salt production from evolution and basin development of the Northeast,
subsurface brine in northeastern part fiscal year 2005. Thailand. Seminar on the Mesozoic Redbeds in
Executive Summary Report, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Northeastern Thailand, Department of Mineral Resources,
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand, p. 1-20.
Department of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural Sattayarak, N., and Polachan, S. 1990, Strike-Slip Tectonics and
Resources and Environment, Bangkok, Thailand. [online] The development of Tertiary Basin in Thailand.
[Cited 4 January 2007]. Available from: Inter.Symp. on intermontane basins, Geol., Resources,
http://www.dmr.go.th. Chiang Mai, Thailand, p. 243-453.
Sattayarak, N., Srilulwong, S., and Pum-Im, S., 1989, Petroluem Suwanish, P. 1986, Structural Geology of Potash and Rock Salt
Potential of the Triassic pre-Korat Intermontane Basin in in Nachuak Area, Khorat Plateau, Thailand. Fertilizer
Northeastern Thailand. International Symposium on Minerals in Asia and Pacific, Mineral Concentrations and
Intermontane Basins: Geology & Resources; 30 Jan–2 Feb Hydrocarbon Accumulations in Escap Region,Vol.1.
1989, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Suwanich, P. 1995, Potash mine : a possibility (in Thai). In.
Hite, R.J. and Japakasetr, T. 1979, Potash deposits of the Khorat Proc.of the conf. on technology and development in
Plateau, Thailand and Laos. Econ. Geol., Vol. 74, No.2, p. Northeast, Thailand, Faculty of Technolgy, Khon Kaen
448-458. University, Khon Kaen, Thailand, p. 253-287.
Waterloo Hydrogeologic, Inc. 1999, AquaChem v.3.7 for
Windows 95/98/NT. Ontario, Canada.
124
INTEGRATION OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING AND RAINFALL

DATA INTO LANDSLIDE HAZARD MAP IN THAILAND
Suttisak Soralump1 and Wisut Chotikasathien2
1
Civil Engineering Department, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand, E-mail: fengsus@ku.ac.th
2
Senior Geologist, Environmental Geology Division
ABSTRACT
It was found that the frequency of the landslide events in Thailand is increasing sharply for the last decade starting from
1996-2006. The assumptions of the cause of increasing number of landslide for the past decade are 1. Landslide actually
occur more often 2. Mismanagement of land use in the hazard areas 3. Both reason as indicated. Landslide hazard
zoning shall be the solution in order to reduce number of losses. Various organizations have contributed their effort in
making their own landslide hazard maps of Thailand. However, different landslide susceptibility factors were considered
by different organizations. Factors considered are related directly to their expertise in each organization. Geotechnical
engineering method was used by Geotechnical Engineering Research and Development center (GERD), Kasetsart
University, however that method, even though accurate, is not fully appropriate to use in large area since details input
required. Weighting factor method has proved to be suitable for large zoning area. Various factors that indicated
landslide potential were considered in the analyses including the new factor, the geotechnical engineering properties of
residual soil such as strength reduction, which hasn’t been considered by any. In order to include this factor in the
hazard mapping analysis, appropriate laboratory testing was designed to determine the properties that can indicate the
landslide potential of each type of residual soil. As for rainfall factor, the rainfall accumulations of various return
periods were used instead of using the average rainfall intensity or annual rainfall precipitation. Various landslide
hazard maps were produced based on 3 days accumulated rainfall of different return period used for analyses. GIS tool
was used for map making.
Keywords: Landslide hazard map, Geotechnical engineering, Landslide
INTRODUCTION reason as indicated. Fig. 2 and 3 show the landslide

frequency and direct damage cost of the events that has
Landslide hazard map of Thailand has been done mostly value greater than and less than 100 million baht,
by weighting factor method. Various factors that indicated respectively. Furthermore, table 1 shows number of
landslide potential were considered in the analyses, people who loss their lives.
however the geotechnical engineering properties of กันยายน 2549
กรกฎาคม 2547 กรกฎาคม 2547
พฤษภาคม 2544
residual soil such as strength reduction hasn’t been ตุลาคม 2549
อ.ฝาง จ.เชียงใหม
อ.แมอาย จ.เชียงใหม อ.แมสาย
จ.เชียงราย
กันยายน 2549
อ.เทิง
ต.แมปาก อ.วังชิ้น จ.แพร
considered by any. In order to include this factor in the กันยายน 2547

อ.เมือง จ.แมฮองสอน
สิงหาคม 2548,
จ.เชียงราย ตุลาคม 2549
ต.บอเหล็กลอง อ.ลอง จ.แพร
hazard mapping analysis, appropriate laboratory testing ตุลาคม 2545,
อ.ปางมะผา
จ.แมฮองสอน
สิงหาคม 2549
อ.ทุงชาง จ.นาน
ต.บานปน อ.ลอง จ.แพร
was designed to determine the properties that can indicate อ.แมสะเรียง
จ.แมฮองสอน . พฤษภาคม 2549
ต.หวยออ อ.ลอง จ.แพร
the landslide potential of each type of residual soil. พฤษภาคม 2547 พฤษภาคม 2547
ต.แมระมาด, ต.แมตน ื่
อ.เมือง จ.แพร สิงหาคม 2549
ต.แมปาน อ.ลอง จ.แพร
อ.อมกอย จ.เชียงใหม พฤษภาคม 2549
, ต.ขะเนจื้อ, ต.จะเรา
อ.แมระมาด จ.ตาก อ.ลับแล, อ.เมือง,
พฤษภาคม 2547 อ.ทาปลา จ.อุตรดิตถ พฤศจิกายน 2531
อ.สบเมย จ.แมฮองสอน ตุลาคม 2549 อ.พิปูน จ.นครศรีธรรมราช
LANDSLIDE EVENTS IN THAILAND สิงหาคม 2547
อ.อุมผาง จ.ตาก กันยายน 2549
อ.นครไทย, จ.พิษณุโลก
อ.เมือง จ.เชียงใหม ตุลาคม 2549 อ.ฉวาง จ.นครศรีธรรมราช
ต.แมทอ
 อ.เมือง จ.ตาก กันยายน 2543
กันยายน 2545, อ.เมือง จ.เพชรบูรณ
พฤศจิกายน 2531
พฤษภาคม 2549
Geotechnical Engineering Research and Development พฤษภาคม 2547,
กันยายน 2549 จ.สุโขทัย กันยายน 2543
อ.หลมสัก จ.เพชรบูรณ
อ.ลานสะกา จ.นครศรีธรรมราช
อ.แมแจม จ.เชียงใหม มกราคม 2518

พฤศจิกายน 2513
center (GERD), Kasetsart University has developed อ.ทับสะแก จ.ประจวบคีรีขันธ สิงหาคม 2542, 2544
สิงหาคม 2544
อ.หลมสัก จ.เพชรบูรณ
อ.รอนพิบูลย จ.นครศรีธรรมราช
อ.เขาคิชฌกูฎ จ.จันทบุรี
landslide database of Thailand which contain of the 36 สิงหาคม 2549
ต.คลองสก อ.ตะกั่วปา จ.พังงา
ธันวาคม 2549
อ.เชียรใหญ
ต.บานสอง อ.เวียงสระ จ.สุราษฎรธานี จ.นครศรีธรรมราช
years period information of the previous landslide events สิงหาคม 2549
ต.คึกคัก อ.ตะกั่วปา จ.พังงา
starting from 1970. The example of the database output in ตุลาคม 2544
ต.ปาตอง อ.กะทู จ.ภูเก็ต
ชวงป พ.ศ.
2510 - 2519
GIS format is shown in Fig. 1. It was found that the สิงหาคม 2549
ต.กะทู อ.กะทู จ.ภูเก็ต
มกราคม 2550
อ.นาหมอม จ.สงขลา 2520 - 2529
frequency of the landslide events is increasing sharply for ตุลาคม 2547 ตุลาคม 2547 ธันวาคม 2525 ธันวาคม 2548
อ.บันนังสตาร
2530 - 2539
2540 – 2549
ต.อาวนาง อ.เมือง ต.เขาคราม กิ่งอ.ศรีบรรพต ธันวาคม 2547
the last decade starting from 1996-2006. The assumptions จ.กระบี่ อ.เมือง จ.กระบี่ จ.พัทลุง อ.ธารโต จ.ยะลา จ.ยะลา 2550
of the cause of increasing number of landslide for the past

decade are 1. Landslide actually occur more often 2. Figure 1 Landslide events in Thailand (GERD, 2006).
Mismanagement of land use in the hazard areas 3. Both
125
4 Group 8: Limestone has area of 3.26%. Since rock group
100-300 MB 300-500 MB 300-500 MB >1000 MB
7 and 8 has very low potential of landslide, therefore they
3
3 haven’t been considered in the study.
Frequency
2 2
2
1 11
1
0 000 0 000 0000 0 000 0 00 0 000 0 00

0
1968 - 1972
1973 - 1977
1978 - 1982
1983 - 1987
1988 - 1992
1993 - 1997
1998 - 2002
2003 - 2006
Year
Figure 2 Direct damage cost of greater than 100 million baht

events in Thailand (Suttisak, 2007).
40
0-100 MB 33
30
Frequency
20
10
4
2
1 1 0 0 0
0
1968 - 1972
1973 - 1977
1978 - 1982
1983 - 1987
1988 - 1992
1993 - 1997
1998 - 2002
2003 - 2006
Year
Figure 4 Geological map of Thailand

Figure 3 Direct damage cost of less than 100 million baht (Department of Mineral Resources, 1987).
events in Thailand (Suttisak, 2007).
Table 1 Number of casualties from landslide events in

Thailand since 1970 (Suttisak, 2007).
Damage Casulties Damage Cost

Year Casulties
Cost,MB Per Year Per Year
2510 - 2520 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

2521 - 2530 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2531 - 2540 230.00 1000.00 23.00 100.00
2541 - 2549 304.00 3585.60 33.78 398.40
GEOLOGIC CONDITION OF LANDSLIDE

THAILAND
Figure 1 shows geological map of Thailand which
contains various group of rock. In order to study the effect
of rock type on landslide hazard, similar type of rock,
based on its formation, has been grouped together to
obtain 8 rock group as shown in Fig. 4. The 8 rock groups Fig. 5 Landslide rock group of Thailand (Suttisak et al., 2007).
are Group 1: Carboniferous-Permian granite has area of
0.74% Group 2: Jurassic-Cretaceous granite has area of Considering the landslide events and their rock group,
1.84% Group 3: Jurassic granite has area of 4.55% Group percent of landslide frequency of each rock group can be
4: Volcanic rock and other intrusive rock such as basalt, analyzed as shown in Fig. 5. However, it will be more
andesine, diorite etc. It has area of 2.81% Group 5: appropriate to consider the landslide frequency of each
Sedimentary rock such as sandstone and mudstone, it has rock group based on their area as shown in Fig. 6. From
area of 44.69% Group 6: Metamorphic rock has area of the figure, we can see that landslide has occurred mostly
6.12% Group 7: Quantanary sediment has area of 35.98% in the Jurassic granite, based on the unit area.
126
DLD : Department of Land Development
NUMBER
NUMBEROFOFLANDSLIDE
LANDSLIDEEVENT
EVENTININTHAILAND
THAILAND- FRC : Foresty Reseach Center, Kasetsart University
40
DMR : Department of Mineral Resource
34.92 GERD : Geotechnical Engineering Research and
30 Development Center, Kasetsart University
PERCENT
20 FACTORS CONSIDERED
6.35 4.76 4.76 9.52
10
3.17 This paper is presenting the method for corporation of
0 geotechnical engineering data into landslide hazard map
1 2 3 4 5 6 by using weighting factor method. This is part of the
GROUP OF ROCK study project of Department of Mineral Resources and
done by Geotechnical Engineering Research and
Development Center, Kasetsart University. The study area
Figure 6 Number in percent of landslide events in Thailand is in the 6 provinces in the southern Thailand which has
classified by frequency of occurring in each rock group been affected by 2004 tsunami event. They are Phuket,
(Suttisak et al., 2007).
Ranong, Trang, Phan-Gna, Satun and Krabi. Factors
considered include: 1. Landform (slope and elevation) 2.
NUMBER OF LANDSLIDE EVENT IN THAILAND
PERCENT BY UNIT AREA Geologic condition (rock type and linearment zone) 3.
35
31 Land use 4. Distance from surface water 5. Soil
30
23
characteristics 6. Rainfall intensity and 7. Geotechnical
25
engineering properties of residual soil. Factor 1 to 5 will
PERCENT
20
15 not discuss in detail here since they are common factors
15
12 12 considered for landslide hazard analysis. Rainfall intensity
10
8
and geotechnical engineering properties factor is discuss
5
below.
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
GROUP OF ROCK
Group 1 Permo-Carb. granite

SIMULATION OF SHEAR STRENGTH
Group 2 Jurassic-Cretaceous granite
Group 3 Jurassic granite
LOSS IN RESIDUAL SOIL
Group 4 Volcanic and other plutonic rock
Group 5 Sandstone, shale, mudstone, conglomerate and chert
Group 6 Metamorphic rock In order to consider geotechnical engineering data for the
landslide hazard analysis, three properties of residual soil
Figure 7 Number in percent by unit area of landslide events in were investigated: 1. strength reduction due to increasing
Thailand classified by frequency of occurring in each rock of moisture content 2. soil plasticity and 3. grain size
group (Suttisak et al., 2007) distribution. 220 landslides were investigated in the study
area. 118 samples of residual soil were collected by KU-
LANDSLIDE HAZARD MAP OF THAILAND miniature sampler (Fig 8). The soil sampler was designed
to ease the sampling of the residual soil especially in the
Landslide hazard mapping in Thailand was mostly done landslide area (Mairaing et al., 2005). Since area ratio of
by weighting factor method using GIS technique. Table 2 the sampler is about 18 percent, x-ray analyses were done
shows the organization, produced landslide hazard map. It in this study to ensure the limited disturbance of soil
can be seen that different landslide susceptibility factors samples (Fig 9).
were considered by different organizations, are related
directly to the expertise of each organization.
Geotechnical engineering method was used by GERD,
however the method is not fully appropriate to use in large
area since details input required.
Table 2 Factors considered by various organizations for

landslide hazard analysis
FACTORS RELATED TO LANDSLIDE
ENGINEERING SOIL
RAINFALL 5 return
LANDFORM (SLOPE)
LANDUSE /LAND
GROUNDWATER
SOIL DEPTH
PROPERTIES
ROCK TYPE
TOPOGRAPHIC
THERMALOGY
WATERSHED
COVER
INVENTORY
RAINFALL
ELEVATION
DRAINAGE
GEOLOGY
WETNESS
Method/
Organization
1. Weighting factor
Figure 8 KU-miniature sampler (Mairaing et al., 2005)
1.1 WICHAI
PSU (1995) 3 3 3 3 3
1.2 DLD 3 3 3 3 3
1.3 FRC (KU) 3 3 3 3 3
1.4 DMR 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1.5 Thassanapak (2001) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1.6 GERD (KU) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2. Geotechnical
2.1 GERD (KU)
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
127
initial w% SRN21
การยุบตัวของหินโคลนผุเมื่อสภาวะอิ่มตัว inundrated SRN21
initial w% SNR04
0.00
inundrated SRN04
0.10 initial w% SRN63
inundrated SRN63
Vertical Displacement,mm
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
Fig. 9 X-Ray analysis of soil disturbance from KU-miniature 1.00

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
sampler Root Time,min
Figure 12 Collapse behavior of mudstone residual

Since there were quite a number of samples to be tested, soil after soaked (Suttisak et al., 2007).
the strength reduction due to the increasing of moisture
content was studied by using Strength Reduction Index Beside SRI test, plastic index test and grain size
test (SRI, Soralump, 2006). The test simulates the distribution analysis were also done. Based on rock group
behavior of strength loss during the rainfall. The testing is classification discussed above, the study area consists of
done by comparing the effective shear strength of residual rock group 2,3,5,7 and 8. Group 7 and 8 is not considered
soil in natural moisture condition and in soaked condition. since it has low landslide hazard potential. As for rock
Soil strength was determined by direct shear testing. group 2, 3 and 5, the dominate rock type are granite,
Constant normal stress was applied in all samples. The pebbly mudstone, shale and sandstone or siltstone.
output of SRI is shown as the percent reduction of shear Therefore, the rock type factor, considering in the
strength which is used an index for comparing the landslide hazard mapping analysis of this study, was
behavior of residual soil from different rock group. The considered 4 rock types based on dominate rock. The
effective shear strength will never used for stability results of SRI test, PI value and grain size distribution
analysis since the testing method is not accurate enough analysis of residual soil of those rocks were used to
for detail analysis. Fig 10 and 11 shows the example of compare the landslide hazard potential. The results of
the result from SRI test. Beside the main output shown, those analyses are shown in Fig. 13 to 15.
during the soaking process, the collapse behavior of soil
samples were monitor for future analysis (Fig. 12).
Shear Strength Reduction of Residual Soil
She ar Stre ss and Displacem ent,m m . 7
0.60 GRANITE
6
0.50
MUDSTONE
5 SHALE
Shear Stress,ksc.
0.40
SANDSTONE,SILTSTONE
Number
4
0.30
3
0.20
2
0.10
initial w ater content
1
w et soil
0.00
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 0
Horizontal Displacem ent,m m . 0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 >80
% Strength Reduction
Figure 10 Strength reduction behavior from SRI test
(Suttisak et al., 2007).
Figure 13 Percent of shear strength reduction of residual
Ve rtical and Horizontal Dis place m e nt,m m . soil of various rock type from SRI test.
-0.50
Plastic Index Value Of Residual Soil
28
0.00 26
Vertical Displacement,mm.
24 GRANITE
0.50 22 MUDSTONE
20 SHALE
1.00 18 SANDSTONE,MUDSTONE
16
Number
1.50 14
12
10
2.00 initial w ater content
8
w et soil
6
2.50
4
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00
2
Horizontal Dis place m e nt,m m .
0
NP PI<6 PI>6
Figure 11 Change in vertical displacement from SRI test PI (%)
(Suttisak et al., 2007). Figure 14 Plastic index value of various type of residual soil.
128
Soil Classification TRIGERRING FACTOR AND HAZARD
24 AREA ANALYSIS
22 GRANITE
20
18 MUDSTONE The classification of hazard area has been done in GIS
16
SHALE based. 50 by 50 meter grid size was used for each layer of
Number
14
12
information. The engineering soil properties factor was
10
SANDSTONE,MUDSTONE classified for different level of hazard as discussed in the
8 previous section. Finally rainfall intensity factor was also
6
4 considered. Rainfall precipitation data (about 20-30 years
2 period)were obtained from 242 rain gauge stations in
0
southern provinces in order to calculate 3 days
SM SC ML CL MH
accumulated rainfall in target area with various return
Classifine siol
period: 1, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 year (Fig. 17-18). The
variation of calculated accumulations within the study
Figure 15 Soil classification of residual soil area was used to assign hazard range with various return
periods of precipitation.
From the results shown above, the ranking of rock type Finally, after all factors have been analyzed to obtain
based on potential of landslide hazard was done as shown landslide hazard level, all factors was compared in order
in Table 3. This ranking was used to produce landslide to obtain appropriate weight by using weighting factor
hazard map in the studied area. Figure 16 shows the method. This procedure is an expert opinion method.
engineering soil properties map of Phuket Table 4 shows the result of weighting factor procedure.
The weights and scores shown in Table 4 were applied to
Table 3 Ranking of landslide potential properties. each grid cell in GIS in order to get the landslide hazard
Unstable Wet
level of each grid cell. This process was done for all grid
Rock Type PI USCS Percent Strength Reduction
Soil Ranking Sieve Analysis cells. Figure 19 shows the landslide hazard map of Phuket
1 Sandstone NP Uniform grade SM >50%
2 Granite NP Well grade SM <50%
using 1 year return period of accumulated rainfall. As for
3 Mudstone NP&PI>6 Gap grade SM&CL 20%-70% other higher rainfall intensity (greater return period),
4 Shale PI>6 Gap grade ML 20%-40%
when applied those in the landslide hazard model, the
larger hazard area is obtained. Therefore, the landslide
warning area shall be depended on the rainfall intensity at
which we measure during the rainfall. 5 landslide hazard
maps were then produced. The critical 3 days
accumulated rainfalls of each rain gauge stations were
calculated from the rainfall prediction analyses. The
example of Phuket landslide hazard map and critical 3
days accumulated rainfall data is shown in Fig. 20. For
convenient, various hazard areas calculated from various
rainfall intensity or return periods can be plotted into one
hazard map as shown in Fig. 21.
1200000
1150000
1100000
1050000
1000000
950000
900000
850000
800000
750000
Figure 16 Engineering soil properties of Phuket. 350000 400000 450000 500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
Figure 17 Contour of rainfall precipitation in southern

part of Thailand.
129
Fig. 18 Contour of 3 day accumulate rainfall for 1 year
return period.
Table 4 Weighting and rating used for making landslide Figure 19 Landslide hazard map of Phuket considering 1 year
hazard map of Phuket and others 6 provinces. return period 3 days accumulate rainfall.
Weight Value Rating Value

Parameter Rating
Parameter Sub-parameter Description
(1-5)
1. Geology 5
1.1 Rock Type 3 A. Granite Rock 5
B. Shale/Mudstone 4
C. Sandstone/Siltstone 3
D. Quartzite, Sandstone and Siltstone 2
E. Limestone/Dolomite 1
1.2 Lineament zone 2 A. Area inside lineament zone 5
B. Area outside lineament zone 1
2. Landform 4
2.1 Slope (%) 3 A. >70% 5
B. 50-70% 4
C. 30-50% 3
D. 15-30% 2
E. 0-15% 1
2.2 Elevation (meter) 1 A. >400 m 5
B. 300-400 m 4
C. 200-300 m 3
D. 100-200 m 2
E. 0-100 m 1
3. Surface drainage 2 A. Area inside surface drainage zone 4
Return Station
B. Area outside surface drainage zone 1
4. Soil characteristics 2 A. Gravel loam/Gravelly sand 5 Period A B C D E
B. Sand 4
C. Sandy loam 3
1 131 120 124 137 141
D. Clayey loam/loam 2 5 286 236 281 220 205
E. Clay, Mud 1
5. Land use and land cover 3 A. Agriculture area 4
20 419 336 416 290 260
B. Urban and built-up area 3 50 507 402 505 337 297
C. Other deforestation 2
D. Forest area 1
100 574 452 572 373 324
6. Rainfall intensity 5 Return period 1 Return period 1,5,20,50,100 years
A. >203 mm. >857 mm. 5
B. 161-203 mm. 651-827 mm. 4
C. 119-161 mm. 446-651 mm. 3
D. 77-119 mm. 240-446 mm. 2
E. 35-77 mm. 35-240 mm. 1
7. Engineering soil properties 4 A. Weathered Sandstone/Siltstone 5 1 year 5 years 20 years 50 years 100 years
(in term of parent rocks) B. Weathered Granite Rock 4
C. Weathered Shale/Mudstone 3
D. Weathered Quartzite, Sandstone and Siltstone 2
E. Weathered Limestone/ Dolomite 1
Figure 20 Critical 3 days accumulated rainfall calculated for

each rain gauge station and for different level of hazard map.
130
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Part of the data presents in this paper are obtained from
“Landslide studies in 6 provinces affected by Tsunami”
project which owned by Environmental Geology
Division, Department of Mineral Resources.
REFERENCES
Department of Mineral Resources, 1987, “Geologic map of
Thailand”.
Geotechnical Engineering Research and Development center
(GERD), 2006, “Landslide data base of Thailand”
Mairaing, W., Nongluck and Kulsuwan, B., 2005, “Landslide
study in Pecthchaboon and Chantaburi”.
Suttisak Soralump and Bunpoat Dulsuwan, 2006, “Landslide
Risk Prioritization of Tsunami Affected Area in Thailand”,
International Symposium on Environmental Engineering
and 5th Regional Symposium on Infrastructure
Development in Civil Engineering., Philippines.
Suttisak Soralump, Worawat Thowiwat and Warakorn Mairaing,
2007, “Shear Strength Testing of Soil Using for Warning of
Heavy Rainfall-Induced Landslide”, Proceeding of 12th
National Conference on Civil Engineering. Phisanuklok,
Thailand
Suttisak Soralump, 2007, “Corporation of Geotechnical
Engineering data for landslide hazard map in Thailand”,
EIT-JSCE Joint seminar on Rock Engineering, Bangkok,
Thailand.
Figure 21 Landslide hazard map using different level of

rainfall intensity.
CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions from the study can be drawn as follow:
1. Rock type in Thailand can be grouped into 6
groups based on possibility of landslide hazard.
2. Statistical shows that Jurassic granite in Thailand
has highest landslide frequency per unit area
from the 40 years landslide record.
3. In order to apply geotechnical engineering
properties of residual soil into landslide hazard
mapping, appropriate soil samplings and testing
were done with every landslide potential rock
groups in the study area. Engineering properties
of each rock group were analyzed in term of area
in order to be used as a layer in GIS analysis.
4. Strength reduction index (SRI), plastic index and
grain size distribution were used as an index to
consider the landslide potential of residual soil.
5. Accumulated rainfall precipitation in appropriate
period of time, in this study is 3 days, were used
to consider landslide hazard potential instead of
using average rainfall per year.
131
IS THE KUCHINARAI GROUP OF THE KHORAT PLATEAU

A GOOD SOURCE OF HYDROCARBONS?
Wanida Chantong1 and John Booth2
1
Department of Mineral Fuels, Bangkok, Thailand, E-mail: wanida.c@dmf.go.th
2
Apico, Empire Tower, 195 South Sathorn Road, Sathorn, Bangkok, 10120, Thailand, Email: johnbooth@loxinfo.co.th
ABSTRACT
The Kuchinarai Group consists of terrigenous sediments and associated volcanoclastics, which occupy a series of
Triassic half-grabens or less commonly full grabens that were formed after the Indosinian Orogeny I. The age of half-
graben filling, using palynology analysis from petroleum exploration wells indicates a Late Triassic. On seismic lines the
Kuchinarai Group typically exhibit wedge-shaped packages with internal reflections having divergent to parallel onlap
geometries, which are typical characteristics of half-graben fill. On this basis the Kuchinarai Group is regarded as a
syn-rift megasequence.
An isochore map between the Indosinian I and Indosinian II Unconformities is a convenient way to delineate the position
and facing geometry of the various isolated half-grabens in the subsurface. The major Kuchinarai Group basins that
have been identified in the subsurface of the Khorat Plateau are the Yang Talat, Chonnabot, Phu Phra (the biggest) and
Kuchinarai half-grabens and the Sap Phu graben. Most of these basins are bounded by major NW-SE and W-E faults to
the south. In most of the half-grabens the Khuchinarai Group can be divided into three gross reflection sequences,
suggesting a common tectonic and environmental history during their growth and fill. The upper part is composed of
light to moderate dark grey, buff to tan, red-brown to rust brown claystone and shale. The middle part consists of dark
lacustrine shale with minor amounts of siltstone and sandstone. The lower part is made of basal conglomerates and
associated volcanoclastics.
Several petroleum exploration wells have been drilled into Triassic half-grabens (Kuchinarai-1, Chonnabot-1,
Yangtalat-1, Phu Phra-1, Huai Muk-1 and Mukdahan-1). Of these only two, Huai Muk-1 and Chonnabot-1 (redrilled and
deepened as Phu Wiang-1) encountered significant gas shows in the Kuchinarai Group. Although these drilling results
appear to indicate that the Kuchinarai Group does not contain good reservoir rocks it should be remembered that there
are large areas of these basins that remain untested. In contrast geochemistry analysis shows that the dark grey shales of
the middle part of Kuchinarai Group are rich in organic content. Ranging from 1.0 to 3.7 percent total organic carbon
and are potentially a good source of oil and gas hydrocarbons. However, this characteristic of the basins has been
poorly studied and there is a need to collect a significant volume of data, such as Rock Eval Pyrolysis analysis and
vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) over a much wider area to get better control petroleum basin modelling in this region.
The source potential of the Kuchinarai Group and the fact that several very large basins can be identified on the
available seismic grid, many containing large fault and fold closed prospect structures, mean that whilst exploration
results to date have been disappointing we should not give up on this play. However, it is obvious that a great deal more
effort is needed to improve our knowledge of these basins and develop realistic petroleum systems models.
132
KBR IN ROCK SALT BED; THE INDICATOR OF ORIGIN AND

DEFORMATION OF ROCK SALT STRATA
Parkorn Suwanich
Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies Mahidol University
ABSTRACT
The rock salt samples from potash-boreholes exploration by the Department of Mineral Resources are analyzed. One of
the analyses is the bromine geochemistry that in here is for potassium bromide (KBr) content analysis. The KBr contents
in the rock salt beds can tell about the origin and the deformation of the rock salt in the past. The analyses of KBr in salt
beds are for the utilities to study the profiles in each salt bed which is varied from beginning to ending of deposition. In
addition, it can be studied the tendency deposition of potash bed which the profile or KBr will be high correspondent
with the concentration of sea water till to be as high as the potash deposits overlying the salt bed, in Khorat and Sakhon
Nakhon Basins.
The rock salt strata in Maha Sarakham Formation in Thailand have totally three beds, Upper, Middle and Lower Salt
bed. Generally, the KBr content in the Upper Salt along the depth is about 200-300 ppm. whereas the Middle Salt has
started about 200 ppm and climb up very fast to 500 ppm. In the Lower Salt, the KBr content starts from about 100 ppm.
and keep this rhythm until closing up to the potash bed above and after that it climb up very fast to 500 ppm. However,
the Lower Salt that forms very high domes and diapier also shows the KBr content along the very deep section only the
one level at about 100 ppm.
Keywords: Kbr, rock salt, Khorat plateau, Maha Sarakham Formation
INTRODUCTION ROCK SALT STRATA

The Maha Sarakham Formation is one of the formations Rock Salt is the most common evaporite mineral
in the Khorat Group forming thick bed of three salt beds occurring in the world because it is composed of NaCl
in the Khorat Plateau of the northeastern Thailand. The which is the most soluble substance in sea water about 80
salt basins are separated into 2 big basins. The north basin %. The original thickness of all salt beds in Maha
is called Sakhon Nakhon Basin whereas the south basin is Sarakham Formation might be 600 meters to 900 meters
Khorat Basin. The Maha Sarakham Fm. is divided into (Suwanich, 1986) and deformed its thickness by salt
three salt beds; Upper, Middle and Lower Salt. Each bed tectonic which made flowage both vertical expansion
is separated by clastic member of sticky reddish brown being salt dome, ridge and diapire, sometimes greater than
clay. However, when the salt or halite mineral in the area 1,000 meters thick and contraction being salt basin which
is explored by drilling it did not know which the rock salt is less than 500 meters thick.
bed is found. Some boreholes are intersected only one salt Rock salt on Khorat Plateau both in Khorat and Sakhon
bed; some are two and three beds. Some holes are Nakhon Basin has all identical correlation show that the
abandoned before incomplete drilling because of the two basins had ever been the same as a closed basin and
problem of drilling. The structure of that rock salt bed deposited before the up-lifting of Phu Phan Range
also is not known particularly dome or lamina bed. After separating as a divider between present two basins.
the studying of the behavior of the KBr content in the salt According to geneses of rock salt in Maha Sarakham
bed, it can tell what is the rock salt layer and structure Formation, they were classified as follows.
met. Another remaining small salt bed that is studied is 1. Upper Salt
Color Salt. It is a thin layer of rock salt above the potash 2. Middle Salt
layer, it can tell about the primary and secondary salt 3. Lower Salt
deposits. 4. Color Salt
The entire KBr content in this report using X-ray
fluorescence analyses from Physics Section, Atomic
Energy for Peace Office, Thailand. The KBr content can
be changed to be Br content the number of KBr must be
divided by1.66. However, in this report the content of Br
in the salt will be used KBr according to the analyzing
report.
133
Figure 1 General stratigraphy of Maha Sarakham Formation showing the Upper Salt, Middle Salt, Lower Salt and Color Salt (Col.
Salt abbreviation in the Figure) However, the explanation will be started from the Lower Salt to the Upper Salt as follows.
salt and the lower pressure areas of salt domes and salt
LOWER SALT hosts.
This salt stratum is the salt which occurs as the The complete deposition of the Lower Salt will has the
bottommost salt bed in Maha Sarakham Formation vertex of stratum which contact with Potash Zone and the
overlying Basal Anhydrite and Khok Kruat Fm. overlain base of stratum contact with Basal Anhydrite.
by economic strata of Potash Zone. Its thickness is varied Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks (1982) divided the Lower
dependent on the topography of the distribution of basin Salt into 3 Sequence of Upper, Middle and Lower
depression and subsequent salt flowage. Localities of Sequences and these may in turn by subdivided into
either the basin edge which is near the redbed of Khok Upper, Middle and Lower Sub-Sequences of each
Kruat Formation exposed to the surface or basin center Sequence by using the behaviors of physical properties
which received relatively thick deposits of overlying from hand specimen considered with KBr content of each
clastic sediment now contain very thin salt and vice versa sequence. All of the sequences and sub-sequences have
as salt flowed in response to variation in load pressure. gradational contacts and show individual variation in salt
The high pressure localities are now represented by basin- unit thickness and wedge out.
134
BROMINE GEOCHEMISTRY OF LOWER (130 to 260 ppm.) commencing in the middle portion of
SALT Middle Sequence. The initial KBr increases commences at
the base of the Lower marker Anhydrite (232 meters
depth). The sequence can be sub-divided as follows:
The KBr content profile brought as an example is KB-l, 2.1 The Lower Sub-Sequence from about 232 to about
Bamnet Narong District, Chaiyaphum Province. The 209 meters depth.
initial KBr content of the salt deposited from the sea water 2.2 The Middle Sub-Sequence from about 209 to about
in the basin of the plateau of Northeastern Thailand was 170 meters depth, and
800 to 100 ppm. that equal to the general Br content in the 2.3 The Upper Sub-Sequence from about 170 to about 148
common sea water today 50-60 ppm. The KBr content in meters depth.
the upper part of the range increased to a maximum in the 3. In the Upper Sequence from the range of 148
range 350 to 420 ppm. at which level potash precipitated. to 123.76 meters depth, the KBr content is very high and
Figure 2 illustrates the change of profile as follows. increasing rapidly from 260 to 480 ppm. in only 24.24
1. In Lower Sequence from 316.55 to 232 meters maters thick. The change is most marked in the Lower
depth, the KBr content of salt is somewhat constant of Sub-Sequence where over a thickness of 2 meters (148 to
about 80 to 105 ppm. The sequence can be subdivided 146 meter depth), the KBr content has a range of 90 ppm.
(Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982) into: (260 to 350 ppm. range).
1.1 The Lower Sub-Sequence from 316.56 to about 302 The Sequence can be divided into:
meters depth. 3.1 The Lower Sub-Sequence from about 148 to about
1.2 The Middle Sub-Sequence from about 302 to about 138 meters depth.
260 meters depth, and 3.2 The Middle Sub-Sequence from about 138 to about
1.3 The Upper Sub-Sequence from about 260 to about 232 130 meters depth, and
meters depth. 3.3 The Upper Sub-Sequence from about 130 to 123.76
2. In Middle Sequence from a depth of 232 to meters depth
148 meters and in Figure 2, the KBr content of the salt
increase from 110 to 260 ppm. with the bulk of the change
.
Figure 2 Distribution of KBr in the Lower Salt (hole example no. KB-1) (After Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982).
135
Figure 3 Distribution of KBr in high Salt Dome of the
LoweSalt (bole example no. K-93)
(After Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982)
Figure 4 Distribution of KBr in low Salt Dome of the Lower Salt without Potash Zone overlying (hole example no. K-63) (After
Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982).
However, where the holes intersected into only one salt KBr profile will show as well as in general Lower Salt as
bed of very high domed or diapier structure, the KBr in Figure 4
contents usually are rather constant or show average
straight line of the profile. The KBr profile will illustrate a
range of about 80-120 ppm. (figure 3). This range can be
compared with in the Lower Sequence of general Lower COLOR SALT
Salt. It is explicated that the high domes or diapiere
should expand so high in vertical axis until the upper part The Color Salt is a rather thin salt bed deposited between
such as Upper and Middle Sequence are destructed. The the Lower Clastic, an overlying bed, and the Potash Zone,
anhydrite strikers in rock salt which are undissolved solid the underlying bed (Suwanich, 1978).
accumulate to be the Cap Anhydrite that always found on The Color Salt is distinct from other salt beds. It usually
the top of domes. occurs containing multi-color bands of red, orange, honey,
In some boreholes, if the dome is not so high enough grey, dark grey and colorless until be very dirty look-
which only the Potash Zone overlying was dissolved and liking. Each band has a range of 1 to 5 cm. thick except
remain the complete or almost complete Lower Salt, the the grey, honey and smoky dork may up to 10 to 15 cm.
thick. The glassy white halite shows recrystallization in
136
the upper part of the unit (Hite and Japakasetr, 1983). In Mostly, the KBr content of Color Salt is an inconstant
the glassy white halite, a few red orange spots of carnallite profile and always changes. However, it can be divided
may occur associated. Generally, the halite in this salt has into 2 main types as follows.
a range of 0.5 to 0.8 cm. diam. in size, sometimes up to 3 1. the KBr content will increase when closed to
cm. in size such as K-80. the Potash Zone beneath.
Accessory minerals, including grayish green to dark grey 2. the KBr content will decrease when closed to
clay as thin bands and small fragments in salt, are thin the Potash Zone beneath.
stringers of anhydrite and some dull white spots of The case of higher KBr Profile of Color Salt closed to the
gypsum. Potash Zone is a common type. The Figure 5 is an
Because of its thinness it is not given the status of a example of K-75, Bua Yai District, Nakhon Ratchasima
separated sequence. The Color Salt usually is graded into Province.
the underlying Potash Zone. However, some boreholes, The KBr profiles illustrate rapid increases and decrease in
there is a thick bed of Color Salt but it mostly comprises KBr over short intervals, though in general their content
of only clear halite interbedded with honey halite. This decreases markedly upwards. The KBr content is very
may show the secondary salt deposited. high, in the order of 620 to 700 ppm., at the base of the
The thickest Color Salt bed of all boreholes is in K-84, layer and decreasing to a lower of 200 to 300 ppm. at the
Ban Prakham, Khong District, Nakhon Ratchasima top where the salt passes into clastics.
Province which has about 45.52 meters in thickness and The case of lower KBr profile of Color Salt closed to the
the subordinated where is K-80, the same area of K-84, Potash Zone is usually found in the hole where there are
has about 24.49 meters in thickness. This Color Salt is rather thicker beds of Color Salt and mostly comprise of
rather abnormal bed however, where, particularly, at K- glassy white and recrystallized halite interbedded with
83, Ban Nong Prachak, Muang District, Udorn Thani honey halite.
Province, has an extra abnormal bed which is Figure 6 which is an example of K-76 at Khong District,
indescribable because of its super thickness up to 123.75 Nakhon Ratchasima Province, illustrates the reverse KBr
meters. trend. The content of only 200 ppm. in lower portion of
The normal thickness of Color Salt is not more than 10 the profile increases to 300 ppm. at the upper limit. This
meters, the thickest bed of the normal is KB-17, Ban profile shows that the Color Salt may be leached in some
Nong Yai But, Bamnet Narong District, Chaiyaphum portions till to near or into the Potash Zone. The leaching
Province where has 3.75 meters in thickness. is either complete leaching out of all potash or formed
sylvite from carnallite only which it is dependent on the
BROMINE GEOCHEMISTRY OF COLOR degree of leaching. The signs of leaching are recorded by
the presence of vugs and recrystallization of the salt
SALT (Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks., 1982).
Figure 5 Distribution of KBr contents in

the Color Salt type 1 (hole example no, K-75)
Figure 5 Distribution or KBr contents in the Color Figure 6 Distribution or KBr contents in the Color
Salt type 1 (hole example no, K-75) (After Suwanich Salt type 2(hole example no, K-75) (After Suwanich
and Ratanajaruraks, 1982) and Ratanajaruraks, 1982)
Conclusively, the general Br content in the Color Salt bed about 200 ppm. because the solution still the old solution
is derive from the high density of the brine remaining which never receive a new brine from the normal sea.
from potash deposition because the KBr profile decreases
after potash layer such as in case 1. In case 2, it mean that
the rock salt and may be some potash bed are dissolved Middle Salt
and redeposited, so the profile start again from the low to
high level. However, the low level of KBr profile starts at
137
The Middle Salt is a salt bed stratified between the Middle content increases smoothly to a maximum of 520 ppm. at
and Lower Clastic. In general, the Middle Salt seldom has the top of the Upper Sequence.
complete sequences. It is usually found only from Middle Because of the high initial content of KBr in the Lower
to Lower Sequence. However, in some holes, the Upper Sequence of the Middle Salt from residual potash brine of
Sequence can occur. Generally, the characteristic of the the Potash Zone and salt of the Upper Sequence of the
Middle Salt is similar to the Upper Salt but they can be Lower Salt where they were contemporaneously uplifted
separated by helping of geochemistry of KBr content. into a dome in a nearby sub-basin. This KBr profile can
be analogized with the erratic areal distribution of trace
potash in the Lower Sequence depending on the decree of
Bromine Geoehemistry of Middle Salt salt erosion in the Lower Salt.
In additional, the Middle marker Anhydrite and this
The example of KBr content profile derived from RS-2.18 together with the decrease in KBr content indicates a time
borehole of Bamnet Narong District, Chaiyaphum of influx of sea water into the basin.
Province which there is the most various layers Base on borehole RS-2.18 (Figure 7), the sequence can be
completed. divided into:
In the Figure 7, it will be found that when there are salt 1. A lower Sequence, from about 200 to 183
deposited initially or at the Lower Sequences, the KBr meters depth has the 185-420 ppm. KBr
content is high to about 200 ppm. and rapidly changing up content.
to 400 ppm. In the upper part of the Lower Sequence of 2. A Middle Sequence, from about 188 to 130
thickness only few meters which are similar to the KBr meters depth has an initial KBr content of
content in the Upper Sequence of Lower Salt except it is 300 ppm. increasing to 490 ppm.
increasing. Instead of decreasing (see the detail of 3. An Upper Sequence, from about 130 to
geochemistry in Lower Salt). In the other hands, it means 111.50 meters depth, has the very high KBr
that it nearly has some potash deposited in this sequence. content of 490 to 520 ppm. which may
However, after an initial decrease at the base of Middle indicate potash nearly occur.
Sequence or from the Middle marker Anhydrite, the KBr
Figure 7 Distribution of KBr in the Middle Salt (hole example no. RS-2.18) (After Suwanich and Ratanajarurak, 1982).
138
Figure 8 Distribution of KBr contents in the Upper Salt (hole example no.RS-l.4) (After Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982).
Figure 9 Distribution of KBr in the Upper Salt (hole example no. K-95) (After Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982).
Summarily, after the end of Lower Salt deposit, and there with Middle and Lower Salt due to the fact that the
is a clastic red bed covers on the Lower Salt bed. The old depositional area in the centre of the deep basin or sub-
brine from the Lower Salt still remains and deposits again. basin was small, and further that flowage of salt to
Therefore, the KBr content in the Lower Sequence is structurally high ridges or domes lead to its dissolution
started at almost 200 ppm. likewise in case 2 of the Color and destruction by above groundwater.
Salt that the KBr content will decrease when closed to the
Potash Zone beneath. After that the new brine coming in Bromine Geochemistry of Upper Salt
the basin with high Br content and deposits climb up from
about 300-400 ppm. to 500-600 ppm. of KBr. like figure For the KBr content in Upper Salt (Figure 8), it is the KBr
7. The very high KBr profile at the end of the Middle Salt profile sample from the hole RS-1.4, Bamnet Narong
deposits shows that it is as high as the potash may be District, Chaiyaphum Province (Suwanich and
deposited also in the upper part of Middle Salt. Almost Ratanajaruraks, 1982), illustrates a range of 200 to 300
200 boreholes drilled in the project, there is only one ppm. commencing with a basal content of 300 ppm.
borehole found that there is a potash bed (sylvinite) on the decreasing rapidly upwards to 230 ppm. and then
Middle Salt. It is RS-2.18 borehole at Ban Tan in Bamnet fluctuating gently between 200 and 230 ppm. Taking into
Narong District, Chaiyaphum Province with 1.37 m. thick account the KBr profile and the hand specimen of core
at 110.28-111.65 meters depth. samples, the Lower Sequence is interpreted to occur
between 134 and 130 meters depth and the Middle
Upper Salt Sequence between 130 and 120 meters depth.
The Lower Sequence of the Upper Salt may be derived
Upper Salt is the uppermost salt bed depositing between from underlying potash-bearing salt judged by its high
Upper Clastic and Middle Clastic rock. There are only a 300 ppm. KBr basal content indicated mere potash
few holes which have intersected the Upper Salt together deposits. Afterward, when it is into the interval of Middle
139
Sequence, the salt will start to recycle deposition from an REFERENCES
influx of sea water. The Upper marker Anhydrite is
evidence which is comparable to the profile which drops Hite, R.J., 1983 s Pleistocene? stream channel control of Khorat
to 200 ppm. immediately and gradually increase or just Plateau sylvite deposits; Conference on Geol, and Min,
constant (Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982). Resour, of Thailand,
However, in some boreholes for example K-95 at Chieng Suwanich, P., 1978 (In Thai); Potash In Northeast of Thailand;
Yun District, Maha Sarakham Province (Figure 9), and Econ. Geol. Div., Dept. of Min, Resour. 24 p.
the profile of the Upper Salt is gently smooth at about 200 Suwanich, P., 1986; Potash and rock salt in Thailand,
Nonmetallic Minerals Bulletin No. 2, Economic Geology
ppm. and the lowest dropping is at only 150 ppm. but the Division, Dept. of Min. Res., 339 pp.
general profile of KBr is still similar to RS-1.4 hole Suwanich, P. and Ratanajaruraks P., 1982; Sequences of rock
except at the lower-most interval. It is shown that in some salt and potash In Thailand, Nonmetallic Minerals Bulletin
locality, the paleotopography may be higher than the no.l, 32 pp.
vicinities around and the residual from Middle Salt are
nonredepositable in the Lower Sequence of the Upper
Salt.
CONCLUSION
The KBr content in each salt bed can really separate the
difference of salt bed and structure of the rock salt in
Maha Sarakham Fm. Generally, the KBr content in the
Upper Salt along the depth is about 200-300 ppm.
whereas the Middle Salt has started about 200 ppm and
climb up very fast to 500 ppm. In the Lower Salt, the KBr
content starts from about 100 ppm. and keep this rhythm
until closing up to the potash bed above and after that it
climb up very fast to 500 ppm. However, the Lower Salt
that forms very high domes and diapier also shows the
KBr content along the very deep section only the one
level at about 100 ppm.
However, this should be more studied in every borehole
or almost the total 194 boreholes drilled in the potash and
rock salt by DMR. This study is only a part of knowledge
of potash and rock salt deposits in Thailand.
140
KHLONG MARUI AND RANONG FAULT ZONES IN SOUTHERN

THAILAND RE-ACTIVATED BY THE 26 DECEMBER 2004 MW 9.3
SUMATRA-ANDAMAN EARTHQUAKE?
Duerrast, H., Dangmuan, S., and Lohawijarn, W.

Geophysics Group, Department of Physics, Prince of Songkla University, HatYai, 90112, Thailand
E-mail : helmut.j@psu.ac.th
INTRODUCTION Physics at the Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla

University established in collaboration with the
The Mw 9.3 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake Department of Mineral Resources a seismic network
occurred at 00:58:53 UTC (07:58:53 Thai time) on in Southern Thailand in order to monitor possible
26 December 2004 at 3.316ºN and 95.854ºE off the earthquakes along the Ranong and Khlong Marui
West coast of Northern Sumatra, Indonesia. The Fault Zones.
earthquake triggered a series of devastating
tsunamis that spread throughout the Indian Ocean, ESTABLISHMENT OF A SEISMIC
killing people and inundating coastal communities NETWORK IN SOUTHERN
across South and Southeast Asia, including parts of THAILAND
Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand. The
United States Geological Survey reported the death In the end of December 2004, members and
toll more than 283,000 people, 14,100 missing, and graduate students of the Geophysics Research
1,126,900 people displaced (USGS, 2005). Group went to Phang Nga, Krabi and Phuket
The earthquake occurred at the interface of the provinces to set up a network of altogether four
Indian and Burma Plate, a small plate south of the short-period, three-component seismometers. At
Eurasian Plate (Curray, 2005). According to the that time, one station already existed on the Phuket
USGS report, this earthquake was caused by the Campus of the Prince of Songkla University in
release of stresses that develop as the India plate Khatu District. The site selection for the other three
subducts beneath the overriding Burma plate. A stations was done together with geologists from the
sudden uplift of parts of the ocean bottom started Department of Mineral Resources, as the
the tsunami with devastating effects to Thailand seismometers preferable should be located on
west coast. The trench is the surface expression of hardrock in order to get high quality data. Two
the plate interface between the Australian and India locations in Phang Nga and one location in Krabi
Plate. were chosen for the seismic stations (Table 1).
The Indian Plate is moving 61 mm per year in NNE
direction relatively to the Burma Plate. This is part Table 1: Locations of the short-period seismometer.
of the overall movement of the Indian plate Station Longitude Latitude Location
northwards resulting in the collision with the Station 98°30’E 8°26’N near telecommunication
Eurasian Plate and the formation of the Himalaya 1 station,
mountain range, and the Tibetian Plateau (USGS, Muang District, Pang
2005). The collision resulted in a mechanical Nga Province
overbalance of the area forcing the mass of the Station 98°39’E 8°33’N in Thap Put District,
Southeast Asian area moving in southeast direction, 2 Phang Nga Province
associated with several major and minor fault and Station 98°21’E 7°53’N Prince of Songkla
fault related structures. 3 University, Phuket
In Southern Thailand, there are a series of faults, Campus, Khatu
mainly the Ranong and Khlong Marui Fault Zones, District, Phuket
which were so far identified as dormant by the Province
Station 98°44’E 8°23’N Tanbokkoranee
Department of Mineral Resources (DMR).
4 National Park,
However, the 26 December 2004 Earthquake caused Ao Luek District, Krabi
concerns among people and governmental agencies Province
for possible (re)activation of these and other fault
zones in Southern Thailand. where the data had to be transferred every two
Shortly after the devastating earthquake, the weeks to a computer. Therefore, members of the
Geophysics Research Group in the Department of Geophysics Research Group had to visit all stations
141
every two weeks. Local residents nearby provided photo from the inside (Fig. 1b). The short-period
power for the equipment and looked after the station seismic network was fully operating for nearly six
for safety reasons. Figure 1a shows a schematic months.
diagram of Station 2 in Phang Nga Province and a
(a) (b)
Figure 1: (a) Schematic diagram of the seismic station, with the seismometer covered by a concrete tube
and the seismometer inside s small house. (b) Photo from the inside showing the seismograph
sitting on the cover of the cement tube which is hosting the seismometer, see (a).
SEISMICITY IN SOUTHERN earthquakes. They occurred in areas between 7.25˚N

THAILAND AFTER THE 26 and 10.12˚N longitude and 97.26˚E to 99.69˚E
latitude, with the local magnitude (Ml) ranging from
DECEMBER, 2004 EARTHQUAKE -1.4 to 2.2 Richter scale (-1.4 < Ml < 2.2). Figure 2
shows the distribution of the earthquakes in relation
From January 14 to June 30, 2005, the short-period to the magnitude.
seismic network of the Geophysics Research Group
in Southern Thailand detected 210 local
RFZ
KMFZ
Figure 2: Earthquake locations in Southern Thailand in relation to their local magnitudes (Ml, in classes of 0.5)
determined from 14 January to 30 June 2005. The known faults and fault zones
(DMR). KMFZ - Khlong Marui Fault Zone, RFZ - Ranong Fault Zone.
142
A
Figure 3: Schematic drawings of the geodynamic situation in Andaman Sea and Southern Thailand before (A) and
during/after the 26 December 2004 Earthquake (B). The Indian-Australian and the Eurasian Plate with the
smaller Burma Plate (not shown here) were locked and both moved to the East (A), resulting in a
compressional state of the Burma Plate (close spaced shading). Some sinkholes (closed triangles) and
earthquakes (closed circles) occurred in Southern Thailand. With and after the 26 December Earthquake (B)
both plates were unlocked. The Eurasian Plate moved to the West. This caused an extension or crustal
dilatation in the Eurasian Plate (larger spaced shading) with an increase in sinkhole and earthquake
occurrences. The lower figures in (A) and (B) are adopted from Hyndman and Wang 1993.
143
GEODYNAMIC SITUATION BEFORE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
AND AFTER THE 26 DECEMBER
2004 EARTHQUAKE The authors would like to thank the Department of
Mineral Resources for their initiative and their
The analysis of the earthquake locations in figure 2 collaboration throughout the work, and all the
reveals that some earthquakes might follow a linear people at the seismic stations for their valuable
trend indicating that they generated by fault support. Financial assistance from the Prince of
movement, as others do not show this kind of trend. Songkla University, the Faculty of Science, the
The occurrence of these earthquakes in Southern Department of Physics and the Graduate School,
Thailand can be directly linked with the movement and the equipment support by the International
of the Burma Plate during and after the 26 Science Program (ISP) of Uppsala University,
December 2004 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake. Sweden, is highly appreciated.
Before this major earthquake, the Indian and the
Burma Plate were locked and the Indian Plate REFERENCES
pushed the Burma Plate to the East, consequently
both plates moved to the East. The 26 December Curray, J.R., 2005. Tectonics and history of the
2004 Earthquake unlocked the plates and as a result, Andaman Sea region. J Asian Earth Sci, 25, p.
the Burma Plate moved to the West, while the 187-232.
Indian Plate still moved to the East, and still moving Dangmuan, S., Lohawijarn, W., Dürrast, H.,
today. The stress relief and the West movement of Nuannin, P. and Yongsiriwith, P., 2006.
the Burma Plate caused an expansion of the plate Seismicity of Southern Thailand after the 26
itself and consequently the movement or December 2004 Andaman-Sumatra
reactivation of existing faults and fault zones, as Earthquake. Presentation and paper at the 6th
observed in Southern Thailand and shown here. The General Assembly of Asian Seismological
GRACE gravity satellites also observed this Commission with Symposium on Earthquake
expansion, respectively crustal dilatation, of the and Tsunami Disaster Preparedness and
Burma Plate (Han et al., 2006). Mitigation, Bangkok Thailand, 7-10 Nov.
Therefore, the earthquakes measured between 14 2006.
January and 30 June, 2005 occurred in an Han, S.C., Shum, C. K., Bevis, M., Ji, C. and Kuo,
extensional stress regime, not in a compressional C.Y., 2006. Crustal Dilatation Observed by
one, which explains their low magnitudes. After the GRACE after the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman
26 December 2004 Earthquake, there was a stress Earthquake. Science, 313, p. 658-662.
relief and not a stress build-up in the Burma Plate. Hyndman, R. D. and Wang, K., 1993. Tectonic
The increased number of sinkholes also can be constraints on the zone of major thrust
explained by the dilation. earthquake failure: the Cascadia subduction
The earthquake data are constrained by Global zone. J. Geophys. Res., 98, p. 2039-2060.
Positioning System (GPS) measurements at a USGS, 2005, Summary of Magnitude 9.0 Sumatra-
Phuket site (Vigny et al., 2005). As the 26 Andaman Islands Earthquake & Tsunami
December 2004 Earthquake caused a major Sunday, December 26, 2004 at 00:58:53 UTC
movement of the Phuket site to the West, an [online]. Available from:
increase in the earthquake activities in Southern http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/bulletin/neic_slav_ts.h
Thailand could be also observed. However, the 28 tml [1 September 2007]
March 2005 Earthquake did not cause any major Vigny, C., Simons, W.J.F., Abu. S., Bamphenyu,
movement of the Phuket site, and consequently R., Satirapod, C., Choosakul, N., Subarya, C.,
there was not a significant increase of the Socquet, A., Omar, K., Abidin, H.Z. and
earthquake activities in Southern Thailand Ambrosius, A.A.C., 2005 Insight into the 2004
(Dangmuan et al., 2006). Sumatra-Andaman earthquake from GPS
The ongoing GPS measurements will reveal that at measurements in Southeast Asia. Nature, 436,
one time, the Burma and Indian Plate will be locked p. 201-206.
again and consequently the Burma Plate then will be
pushed back again to the Eastern direction as before
the 26 December 2004 Earthquake. This will change
the stress situation in the Burma Plate from
extensional to compressional again. As a result, the
existing fault zones might be reactivated again, but
then in a compressional stress regime, increasing the
probability of higher magnitude earthquake in
Southern Thailand.
144
LANDFORM ASSOCIATED WITH THE MAHASARAKHAM FORMATION,

THE PHU THOK FORMATION AND SALT DIAPIR IN
THE KHORAT PLATEAU, NORTHEASTERN THAILAND
Denchok Monjai
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok 10400, Thailand, E-mail : Denchok@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Landsat regional scale image of Sakon Nakhon basin and Khorat basin on the northeastern Thailand can be categorized
into 4 main zones. Zone A is the mountains area surrounded basins. Zone B is main flood plains and flats area on the
rims of basins. Zone C is rolling landforms area on the central of basins. This zone is the largest zone. Zone D is small
flood plains develops along fracture at the central area of basins. Field investigation combined with subsurface data
from core explorations and seismic explorations can be established the relationship between rock Formations and the 4
main zones area. Zone A is sequences of clastic rock from the Phu Kradung Formation to the Khok Kruat Formation.
Zone B is a soft rock unit of the Maha Sarakham Formation. Zone C is sequences of clastic rock of the Phu Thok
Formation. Zone D is related to salt diapirs which are deformed by the lower rock salt unit of the Maha Sarakham
Formation. The landform pattern of salt diapirs seems to be intruded around the Phu Tkok Formation as walls
surrounded islands appearance.
Key word: salt diapir, Khorat basin, Sakon Nakhon basin, Maha Sarakham Formation
INTRODUCTION STUDY AREA

Khorat plateau covers an area of about 170,000 km2 in The study areas are situated at the Sakon Nakhon basin
northeastern Thailand and central Laos. The Phu Phan and the Khorat basin (Fig. 1). They are bounded by
anticlinorium trends east-west across the plateau, divided latitude 14030′ to 18030′ north and longitude 101045′ to
the khorat plateau into two basin namely, the Sakon 15030′ east with area of approximately 53,000 km2
Nakhon basin on the north and the Khorat basin on the (17,000 km2 of the Sakon Nakhon basin and 36,000 km2
south. Both basins have salt diapers, which is major rocks of the Khorat basin). Some part of the Sakon Nakhon
and/or minerals of the Maha Sarakham Formation (Fm), basin is extended from northeastern Thailand into
intruded sporadically along sequences of clastic rocks of Vientiane and Savannakhet of Lao People’s Democratic
the Phu Thok Formation. The salt diapirs are major Republic. The elevation of both basins is average between
geological harzadous to the environment e.g. saline soil, 150-190 m. Nam Song Kram and Nam Khong are major
saline water and collapse sink hole. These phenomena are rivers on the Sakon Nakhon basin while Nam Mun and
mainly problems of land use development for agricultural Nam Chi are major rivers on the Khorat basin.
purposes. However rock salt and potash are important raw
materials for various kinds of industrial uses. The Kham STRATIGRAPHY OF THE STUDY AREA
Ta Kla member which is the middle unit of the Phu Thok
Formation is highly potential rock unit to develop for The Khorat plateau consists of continental sequences of
high quantity and drinkable quality of groundwater. Then, red beds of Mesozoic age. This sequence named the
exactly information concerning distribution, location, Khorat Group, consists of 9 formations (Meesook, 2004)
shape, size and relation of salt diaper to the Phu Thok from bottom to top as follow: the Huai Hin lat Fm., the
Formation are very important to improve the land use Nam Pong Fm., the Phu Kradung Fm., the Phra Wihan
planning. This study is proposed relationship among Fm., the Phu Phan Fm. the Khok Kruat Fm., the Maha
topographic landform, location and distribution of salt Sarakham Fm. and the Phu Thok Fm. Rock units at
diapir inside the basins in regional scale. The relative mountain ranges area around the Sakon Nakhon basin and
pattern between landform with rock units can be used as a the Khorat basin are sequence of mudstone, siltstone,
guidance for geological detail mapping to set zone of sandstone and conglomerate from the Phu Kradung Fm.
saline soil, zone of subsurface saline water and high to Khok Kruat Fm. The Maha Sarakham Fm and the Phu
quality groundwater zone. Thok Fm. exposes at central part or low elevation area in
both basins. The Maha Sarakham Fm. consists of thick
bedded of salt layer interbedded with soft claystone. It
can be divided into five units from bottom to top: the
lower salt unit, the lower clastic unit, the middle salt unit,
145
the middle clastic unit and the upper salt unit. The Phu 2006). Overlying the Maha Sarakham Fm. and Phu Thok
Thok Fm. consists of sequences of sandstone, siltstone Fm. are unconsolidated clay, sand and gravel of
and mudstone. It can be divided into three members from Quaternary age which are deposited by fluvial, flood
bottom to top as follows the Na Wa member, the Kham plain and terrace.
Ta Kla member and the Phu Thok Noi member (Monjai,
N ZONE A
Study
C Area
CC C 104 Bangkok
102 D C
0
0 D C
C
180 Vientiane
C
C
C
Laos
B C CC
ZONE C, D C
C D
D
C D C
C
D C C C
C C C
Udon
CC Thani Fig 2 Sakon Nakhon
C C ZONE B
ZONE B Sakon Nakhon Basin C
ZONE A (Phu Phan Range)
Khon Kaen
ZONE B
Fig 3
Khorat Basin
C
C C
D
D
D ZONE C, D D
B C C
C C D C
D
ZONE B CD C
C D C C CUbon Ratchathani
ZONE B
Nakon Ratchasima
ZONE A
0 5 100
0 k
102
0
Legends Symbols
ZONE A Mountain and High land landform
(Phu Kradung Fm.-Khoh Kruat Fm.) Contact Zone A-B
ZONE B Main flood plain on the rim of basin
(Maha Sarakham Fm., Na Wa and Kham Ta Kla member) Contact Zone B- C and D
ZONE C Rolling landform on the central of basin
(Phu Thok Fm.) Contact Zone C-d
ZONE D Small flood plane superimpose on zone C
(Locally of Salt diaper)
Figure 1 Landsat image shows study area and 4 zones of landform associated with the rock units.
146
METHODOLOGY drainage pattern (Fig. 4). The small flood plain of zone D
at Ban None Sabaeng and Borabue area is deposited by
This study is systematically conducted in following order: present sediments in fluvial system. Most of saline soil
First, I perform an interpretation of regional scale landsat and saline water are found in this zone. The elevation
image to produce the geologic map of the basins. Second, difference of zone C and zone D is average 15-25 meter.
four locally areas represented geologic rock unit at the Subsurface interpretation showed the feature of salt layer,
edge and central of both basins are selected for field location of salt diaper and thickness of the Phu Thok Fm.
investigation. The Sa Wang Dan Din village on the which is overlain the Maha Sarakham Fm. Stratigraphic
southern rim area and None Sabaeng village on the correlation of core exploration at Khon Kane city showed
central area are selected area for field investigation on normally bedded of salt layer in zone B. The distribution
Sakon Nakhon basin. The other two areas are north of map of salt dome (Sattayarak and Polachan, 1990)
Khon Kaen province on the northern rim area and showed the salt diapir especially found in zone D.
Borabue district on the central area, are selected for field Thickness of sediment deposit over salt diapir at Ban
investigation on the Khorat basin. Third, I collect and None Sabaeng is average 60 meter (Jenkunawat et al,
study subsurface data from core drilling and seismic 2004).Thickness of the Phu Thok Fm. from core drilled
exploration on purpose to correlate each rock formations hole number K-66 at Borabue is 793 meter (Suwanich,
in the basin. Forth, data analysis of all data that leading to 1986).Thickness of the Phu Thok Fm. on the Sakon
summarize relationship between landform and rock unit Nakhon basin from core drilled hole number K-7 at Ban
distribution. Dung is 580 meter (Suwanich, 1986), however the total
thickness is 797 meter (Monjai, 2006). Cross section from
RESULTS seismic explorations indicate many salt diapirs intruded in
the Phu Thok Fm. and thickness of the Phu Thok is
Landsat image analysis can be divided the study area into increased from the south to the north in both basins (Fig.
4 main zones (Fig. 1). Zone A is the area to besiege the 5, Sattayarak and Polachan, 1990). Subsurface boundary
basin area. Characteristic feature of zone A is light gray between the Maha Sarakham Fm. and the Khok Kruat
tone, coarse texture, mountain and hilly landform, Fm. in the Khorat basin is deeper than the Sakon Nakhon
dendritic drainage pattern, moderate density, medium- basin (Satarugsa et al, 2005).
high resistance, sharp boundary, well bedding, gentle
attitude, high relief. Zone B is on the rim of the basin and DISCUSSIONS AND
dominated many swamps and small lakes. Characteristics RECOMMENDATIONS
feature of zone B is medium to gray tone, fine texture, flat
landform, angular pattern, low to moderate density, low The salt diapir can be especially found into zone D
resistance, sharp boundary, none bedding, low relief. associated with fractures on the clastic rocks of the Phu
Zone C is on the central of the basin. Characteristic Thok Fm. It is possibly be the lower salt unit of Maha
feature of zone C is gray tone, coarse texture, rolling Sarakham Fm. deformed to salt diapir by loading from
landform, dendritic pattern, moderate to high density, clastic rocks of the Phu Thok Fm. (Monjai, 2004). They
medium-high resistance, sharp boundary, massive have a few sequences of the Phu Thok Fm. overlain the
bedding, gentle attitude, high relief. Zone D is salt layers in zone B however salt layer have not develop
superimpose on zone C. Characteristic feature of zone D to salt diapir because of loading is not enough to move
is light gray tone, fine texture, flat and alluvium deposit salt to platicsity. The pattern of zone B and D, surrounded
landform, parallel pattern, low density, low resistance, zone C, control by fracture sets patterns and interpreted to
inferred boundary, none bedding, low relief. be boundary between the Maha Sarakham Fm.
Field investigation founded that zone A is mountainous Dissolution process of salt layer is possible factor
area, consists of sequences of clastic rock of the Phu controlling differentiate elevation landform of zone B,
Kradung Fm. to the Khok Kurat Fm. Zone B is zone of zone C and zone D. The salt layer in zone B and zone D
normally distribution of the Maha Sarakham Fm. The is easy to dissolve so that erosion of the Maha Sarakham
landform of zone B at Sa Wang Dan Din is flat area along Fm. on these zones is faster than the Phu Thok Fm. of
the Phu Phan range (Fig. 2). This flat area is deposited by zone C. Some areas such as Nong Hang at Sakon Nakhon
weather sand from the rock of the Phu Phan range. The province caused salt subsidence from dissolution process
landform of zone B at north of Khon Kaen area is flood built up to be large natural lake.
plain of Chi river which founded terrace of gravel bed This study presents relationship between regional
cover on the lower clastic unit and the middle clastic unit topography and salt diapers then further study should be
of the Maha Sarakham Fm. (Fig. 3). Zone C is the rolling on detail about thickness and boundary of the clastic
landform, interpreted as distribution of the Phu Thok Fm. rocks of the Phu Thok Fm., the shape of salt diapir and
There are many ground water wells developed in this various thicknesses of sediment deposit overlain salt
zone i.e. the Tha Phra area (8 km to the south of Khon diapir. Geophysic explorations can be used to study the
Kaen city). The Kham Ta Kla member of the Phu Thok location and feature of salt diapir. These data are very
Fm. is very high potential aquifer. Zone D is small flood important and very useful to improve saline soil problem,
plain along small streams. These streams develop along to control saline water and to develop groundwater in the
fractures and drainage patterns are sub-angular to trellis basins.
147
Zone C Zone C
Zone D
Zone C
Zone D Zone B
Na Wa Member
Zone B Na Wa
Member
Na Wa
Zone A
Figure 2. Landsat image at the south of Sa Wang Dan Din area shows sharp contact between
zone A and B and between zone B and zone C.
Zone A
Kham
Ta Kla
Member Zone B
Khon Kaen
Zone B
Chi river
Swamp
Kham
Ta Kla
Member Zone C
Figure 3. Landsat image at the north of Khon Kaen area shows sharp contact between zone A and B and between
zone B and zone C. Zone B is flood plain of Chi river with dominated many swamps and small lakes.
148
Khon Kaen
Chi river
ZONE D ZONE D
ZONE D
Mun river
Nakon Ratchasiman
Figure 4 The feature of subangular to trellis drainage patterns (white color lines pattern)
associated with zone D. Locally of salt diapir found in this zone.
Figure 5. Cross sections from seismic exploration show subsurface geology of the Khorat plateau.
Many salt diapers intrude into the Phu Thok Fm. Thickness of the Phu Thok Fm. is increased
from the south to the north in both basins (Sattayarak and Polachan, 1990).
149
CONCLUSIONS REFFERNCES
The regional landform on the Sakon Nakhon basin and Jenkunawat, P., Supphassumthornkul, T., and Gunnaleka, S.,
the Khorat basin form landsat image interpretation can 2003, Results of drilling to study occurrence of salt
be divided into 4 main zones. Zone A is the cavities and salt subsidence at Ban Nonsabaeng and Ban
mountainous areas around the basin. Zone B is main Nong Kwang, Bureau of Mine and Concession,
flood plain and terrace situated on the rim of the basins. Department of Primary Industries and Mines, Bangkok,
Zone C is rolling landform cover most of area in the Thailand: 10.
central of the basins. This zone is associated with the Monjai, D., 2004, Subsurface geology in Sakon Nakhon
Phu Thok Fm. Zone D is small flood plains which is Basin, Proceeding of Annual Meeting, Department of
superimpose on zone C. The fracture sets in the Phu Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand, 51-63, (in Thai).
Thok Fm. control the stream system to develop small Monjai, D., 2006, Facies Genesis Analysis of the Phu Thok
flood plains of zone D. The drainage patterns of zone D Formation and the Upper Clastic Cap Rock of the Maha
are sub-angular to trellis patterns. Salt layer of the Sarakham Formation, [M.Sc thesis in Geotechnology],
Maha Sarakham Fm found in zone B and D but most of Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand, 142 pp.
salt diapir distributed on zone D. It is supposed that salt (in Thai).
layer is deformed to salt diapir by loading of the Phu Satarugsa, p., Youngmee, W., and Meesawat, S., 2005, New
Thok Fm. over on the salt layer. Regional Boundary of Maha Sarakham Formation in the
Northeastern Thailand: Results from 2D Seismic
Mapping, Proceeding of the International Conference on
Geology, Geotechnology and Mineral Resources of
INDOCHINA, Khon Kaen, Thailand, p.212-220.
Sattayarak, N., and Polachan, S., 1990, Rocksalt underneath
the Khorat Plateau, Proceeding of Annual Meeting,
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand,
p. 1-14, (in Thai).
Suwanich, P., 1986, Potash and rock salt in Thailand,
Appendix A, Department of Mineral Resources,
Bangkok, Thailand: 252 pp.
150
LANDSLIDE INVESTIGATION AND HAZARD MAPPING

IN PHUKET PROVINCE
Wisut Chotikasathien1 and Suttisak Soralump2
1
2
Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
ABSTRACT
Phuket is one of the most important provinces for tourism in Thailand. With respect to geological environment, thick
deposit and highly fractured granite caused several landslides in hilly terrain in the past. Most of the landslides in
Phuket were obviously defined as man-made landslide. Extensive landslide investigations were carried out in Phuket by
Department of Mineral Resources and Geotechnical Engineering Research and Development Center, Kasetsart
University. Previous landslides were investigated and prioritized. The prioritization was done using risk-based concept.
Four risky areas were selected and details geotechnical engineering investigations were carried out. The investigation
techniques include disturbed and undisturbed soil sampling, field permeability test, resistivity survey, hand auger boring
and test pit. Necessary data for analyses were obtained from those activities.
KEYWORDS: Landslide, Geotechnical engineering, Landslide investigation, Landslide mapping
INTRODUCTION The first three factors are factors that related to

consequences. Later three factors are related to likelihood
Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) in corporation of landslide occurrence. Those factors are the major
with Geotechnical Engineering Research and factors considered in the analysis. Each major factor
Development Center (GERD), Kasetsart University is contains related minor factors. Therefore, the required
responsible for the project of investigation of landslide data collected from 220 locations are based on criteria as
hazard areas in 6 provinces affected by the consequence follow:
of Earthquake and Tsunami in the Andaman Sea on 26 1. Loss of life
December, 2005. The study was undertaken in 6 a. Number of villages down slope
provinces including Ranong, Phang-nga, Krabi, Phuket, 2. Economics loss
Trang, and Satun (Fig. 1). Two hundred and twenty a. Number of residential buildings
locations of previous and existing landslide areas were b. Government official buildings and
investigated in order to collect the data for various transportation routes
geotechnical analyses including the risk prioritization of c. Hotels and tourist attractions
those areas. High risk areas were chosen for detail 3. Size of landslide
investigation.
LANDSLIDE LIKELIHOOD FACTORS
LANDSLIDE PRIORITIZATION
1. Past event
Since landslide is a serious threat, landslide risk analysis a. Number of past event
needs to be performed in order to develop landslide b. Type of landslide (natural or man
zoning. Then, landslide hazard areas of 6 provinces were made)
selected. As indicated before, the 220 locations of 2. Geography
previous and existing landslides were investigated. In c. Slope angle
order to perform landslide risk prioritization, the d. Distance from landslide to nearest
following factors are considered as consequence related village
factors: e. Watershed area
1. Loss of life 3. Geology
2. Economics loss f. Rock type
3. Size of landslide g. Clay mineral content
The following factors are considered as factors that h. Joint and fracture content
related to landslide likelihood: i. Presence of fault
1. Past event j. Degree of weathering
2. Geography
3. Geology
151
Figure 2 Ranking result of case 1 (Suttisak and Banpoat,
2006)
Figure. 1 Study area
Weighting factor method for landslide

susceptibility assessment (Pungsuwan, 2006) was used to
calculate consequence and likelihood score in order to Figure 3 Ranking result of case 2 (Suttisak and Banpoat,
rank the landslide hazard area by F-N chart (Christian, 2006)
2004). 220 locations of previous and existing landslides
were scored and weighted in order to obtain consequence
and likelihood score of each location. Plotting between
consequence and likelihood score were done for 220
locations of landslides. The ranking were performed based
on the assumption that the higher consequence and the
likelihood score the more risky the area is. The F-N chart
was then classified into three zones which are high,
medium and low risk areas. All three cases were then
plotted as shown in Fig. 2- Fig. 4 (Suttisak and Banpoat,
2006). Each case is based on the purpose of a decision
maker that will be concerned more in economics or loss of
life or both. Fig. 5 shows the first 20 risk areas. It can be
seen that those 20 areas are all situated in Phuket Island. It
also shows that most of the landslides occurred were
triggered by slope cutting instead of natural event. Then, 7
locations out of 220 were selected in order to perform
detail investigations and analyses. Risk areas are mostly Figure 4 Ranking result of case 3 (Suttisak and Banpoat,
in Patong and Kamala area. 2006)
152
Figure 5 Landslide hazard areas in Phuket
FIELD INVESTIGATION Hand auger: is required for landslide investigation in

order to get the subsurface information in vertical profile.
Investigation methods were designed to obtain the Thickness of topsoil can be identified to evaluate the
parameters necessary for geotechnical analyses. Seepage erosion in the area. Thickness of residual soil or highly
and stability analysis was carried out. Seepage analysis is weathered rock could be obtained for seepage and
done for determination of change in soil pore water stability analysis. Disturbed samples of residual soil
pressure during the rainfall. Changing in pore water always collected for engineering classification. Limitation
pressure is directly related to change in shear strength of of hand auger is the depth of investigation. Penetration
soil. Physical characteristics of landslide were recorded in normally can not go farther than 4 meter deep. Fig. 7
the form. The investigations were done as follow: shows soil profile obtained from hand auger survey.
Topographic survey : topographic survey were done by Test pit: is done for observation of soil profile and
using ground surveying technique in order to get 1:1000 collecting of undisturbed samples. It is advantage to hand
topographic map. Fig. 6 shows the surface contour of auger survey. Weathering profile can be observed clearly
landslide along Kamala-Patong highway. Geometries of by test pit. Minimum size of test pit is 1.5 by 1.5 meter
cross section were used for seepage and stability analysis. and at least 1 meter deep. The depth of the test pit depends
The study found that topographic survey is very useful on the stability of side wall. Fig. 8 shows the test pit and
information for analysis and it can lead to accurate its profile. The interpretation results from test pits are very
interpretation. However, smaller scale mapping by other useful to stability analyses.
methods needs to be used as well. Smaller scale Undisturbed soil sampling: undisturbed samples were
topographic map is used for overall seepage and stability collected by using KU-Miniature Sampler (Mairaing et
analysis, rather than local one with larger scale. al., 2005) as shown in Fig. 9. The sampler were designed
Resistivity survey: underground image of soil and rock and used for various landslide investigations for a decade
layers can be obtained from this investigation. The by Geotechnical Engineering Research and Development
purpose is to identify the thickness of soil or weathered Center (GERD), Kasetsart University. The area ratio of
rock layer for using in the analyses. Data can be the sampler is about 18 percent which can be practically
supplemented to hand auger or other sounding method used under some acceptance of disturbance. The sampler
since 2-dimesional profile of soil and rock layers can be is designed for collecting the soil samples for direct shear
obtained. From the study it is found that resistivity testing testing.
is not an appropriate method for landslide investigation
since the interpretation can be less accurate in steep area.
153
Fig. 6 Topographic surface elevation of the side slope of Kamala-Patong highway
Field permeability test: is done in order to get coefficient

of permeability of top and residual soils. Single and
double ring permeability test are normally used. Double
ring permeability test is used to obtained coefficient of
permeability in vertical direction while single ring test is
appropriate for average value of both directions. Data is
used for seepage analysis which directly related to the
modeling of rainfall induced landslide. Fig. 10 shows the
picture of double ring testing.
Figure 9 KU-Miniature sampler
Figure 10 Double ring permeability test

Figure 7 Soil profile from hand auger
154
Figure 8 Test pit profile
CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES
The study found that the investigation methods for Christian, J. T., 2004, Geotechnical Engineering Reliability:
landslide area are mostly appropriate and effective to How Well Do We Know What We Are Doing?, Journal of
obtain the important parameters for seepage and stability Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental engineering, ASCE,
Vol. 130, No. 10, p. 985-1003.
analysis. Those parameters are the geometry of the slide, Mairaing, W., Nongluck and Kulsuwan, B., 2005, Landslide
subsurface profile, soil type classified by engineering study in Pecthchaboon and Chantaburi.
method and coefficient of permeability of residual soil. Pungsuwan, D., 2006, Evaluation of landslide sensitive areas for
More information need to be obtained from collected soil cut slope in Phuket. M.S. thesis, Kasetsart University,
samples which are the shear strength characteristics of soil Bangkok, Thailand.
and strength reduction behavior due to increasing in Suttisak Soralump and Bunpoat Dulsuwan,2006, Landslide Risk
moisture content. The study for risk-based prioritization Prioritization of Tsunami Affected Area in Thailand.
needed to be done to indicate the high risk area. But those International Symposium on Environmental Engineering
detail investigations take effort and consume time. and 5th Regional Symposium on Infrastructure
Development in Civil Engineering, Philippines.
155
LANDSLIDE PREDICTION MODEL USING REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND

FIELD GEOLOGY: A CASE STUDY OF WANG CHIN DISTRICT, PHRAE
PROVINCE, NORTHERN THAILAND.
Suree Teerarungsigul1, Chongpan Chonglakmani2 and Friedrich Kuehn3
1
Suree Teerarungsigul, Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
2
Chongpan Chonglakmani, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand
3
Friedrich Kuehn, Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Germany
ABSTRACT
This study, landslide hazard potential and prediction model were assessed at regional scale (1:50,000 to 1: 100,000)
using remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS) and field geology. The case study area is at Wang Chin
District, Phrae Province, Northern Thailand. The role of remote sensing is mainly to map the distribution of existing
landslides location and the factors that affect the landslide occurrences. While, the GIS are used for database
construction and management, data displays, data analysis and landslide hazard map production.
In this study, the methodology of landslide hazard assessment comprises the bivariate probability and weighting analysis
using GIS technique. It is based on the observed relationship between each instability factor and the past landslide
distribution. The bivariate probability analysis was applied to assess the probability of landslide occurrence which
indicates the hazard areas. In addition, weighting and ranking of importance of factors to landslide occurrence are used
to identification landslide potential areas. Finally, landslide hazard maps were produced. The degree of landslide hazard
is expressed in relative term from very low to very high hazard level, and represents the expectation of future landslide
occurrence based on the conditions of that particular area. The landslide hazard map shows that 3.88 percent of the
whole area lies in the highest landslide prone area. The percentage of low hazard area is highest at 30.24 percent of the
total area. Similarly, 17.44 percent, 20.40 percent and 28.03 percent of area lies in the high, moderate and very low
landslide hazard, respectively. It is obvious from the result map that the areas under high and very high hazard level are
near the first and second stream orders of the study area. The result from this study represents differing hazard levels
that show only the order of relative hazard at a particular site and not the absolute hazard.
Key words: Landslide, prediction model, hazard assessment, remote sensing, GIS, Probability
INTRODUCTION characteristics of the mountainous and hilly part of Mae

Nam Yom basin are constructed. The aim is to assess
Recently there has been an increasing occurrence of landslide hazard or susceptibility at a regional scale
landslide in Thailand. Many parts of the mountainous (1:50,000 to 1:100,000). It is based on an inventory of
areas are exposed to landslide hazard occurrences, which existing landslides and physical factors related to
most cases of landslide occurrence are debris flow and landsliding. The factors considered for this study are
caused by intense and continuous rainfall. On May, 4, including geologic, topographic, hydrologic, and
2001, a disastrous landslide was initiated in Wang Chin vegetation condition. Existing landslides location and
District, Phrae Province after three days of the heavy and physical factors related to landslide occurrences were
continuous rainfall in formed of debris flow. The debris collected form available sources, and derived from remote
flow moved extremely and traveled rapidly for several sensing data. Remote sensing data were used to map
kilometers along the channel, and inundated the low land existing landslide locations and factors that are important
area. Sixty houses and one bridge were completely in landslide initiation, such as slope, slope aspect,
destroyed, forty people died, three people are still missing, elevation, land use/land cover, vegetation mass (NDVI),
and approximately eighty percent of agriculture farms in lithology, and lineaments. The results from the remote
the study area were damaged, specially at Hong, Pa Sak, sensing interpretation were verified by field investigation.
Kham Muak, Song Kwae and Muang Kham Villages All data related to landslide occurrences in the study area
seriously. Consequently, it is necessary to study on were transformed to digital formats and stored in the
landslide hazard assessment, to assess the hazards, and to database of the GIS.
reduce the risks form landsliding. The methodology used for landslide hazard assessment in
This study is focused on the landslide hazard assessment this study is the “bivariate probability and weighting
in Wang Chin District, Phrae Province, Northern Thailand, analysis”. The probability and weighting of landslide
a Remote Sensing and a Geographic Information System occurrence on each factor were analyzed a using
(GIS) containing landslides, and the main environmental geographic information systems (GIS) technique.
156
Landslide hazard map and landslide prediction model central part of the study area shows an undulated terrain
were produced based on probability and weighted value of with elongated shape trending in approximately NE-SW
landslide occurrence of each factor, which shows the direction. The terrain consists of small and low hills,
degree of landslide occurring in the study area. A lying closely to high mountain range. The teak plantation
landslide prediction model of the study area is able to use dominates the land use in this area. The lowest portion of
as a prediction for future landslide-prone ground. the terrain is floodplain, where many important rivers flow
Landslide hazard map was compared with a slope stability through, namely Mae Nam Yom River, Mae Nam Suai
model derived by Guenther (2003) and verified using the River, Huai Mae Kham Muak, and Huai Mae Kra Tom.
probability method. Mae Nam Yom River, the main river in the study area,
flows from the north to south-west. Mae Nam Suai River
Objective of Research is a tributary of Mae Nam Yom River and flows from
Muang Kham Village to Pak Huai Suai Village in the
The goal of landslide hazard or susceptibility analysis is south-west to the north-east direction of the study area.
to assess the landslide hazards in order to reduce the risks Paddy field, mixed orchards, and crops are the main land
to people, urban areas, infrastructures and farmlands. An use units of this flood plain.
essential part of this landslide hazard mapping is to The climate is typical of tropical rain forest region. The
validate the significance of the prediction result, so that it rainy period starts from mid of May to mid of October,
can be used to predict landslide-prone ground in further and is mainly influenced by the southwest monsoon
areas with similar physical factors related to landsliding. season. The average annual rainfall is about 1,500 to
The main objective of research is to generate a landslide 2,000 millimeters within the warm temperature periods.
prediction model for landslide hazard mapping. The The winter season is during mid of October to mid of
following sub-goals are formulated: February, and mainly influenced by the northeast
1) To develop probability and weighting method monsoon. The temperature is between 10º and 30º
used as a prediction model for outlining the landslide Celsius. The summer period starts from mid of February
hazard areas. to mid of May between the winter and rainy season. The
2) To derive GIS database for the landslide temperature is between 28º and 38º Celsius, and rainy
prediction model with the aim at identifying the areas that storms may appear.
are likely affected by future landslides-prone ground.
3) To validate the results of 1) and 2) by compare
with the results of a slope stability model, and cross
checking using probability method with existing
landslide location.
4) To improve a methodology for landslide
hazards detection.
Characterization of the Study Area
The Wang Chin area is located in the south-western part

of Phrae Province and the northern part of Thailand
between 17º30´ to 18º North and 99º to 99º45´ East
(Figure 1). This study area is situated in the catchments
of Mae Nam Yom River. It is called Mae Nam Yom
Valley of which surface accounts are approximately 540
square kilometres. The Mae Nam Yom Valley extends
from Wang Chin District to Muang Kham Village, which
located at the south-western portion of Wang Chin
District. The topography of the area is characterized by
mountains, terraces, and flood Plains. The elevation of the
study area is approximately 1,267 metres above mean sea
level at Khun Khiat range and less than 100 metres above
mean sea level at the Mae Nam Yom Valley floor in the
southern portion of Wang Chin District. There are two
mountain ranges in the western and eastern parts of the
study area, and show a general orientation from northeast
to southwest. Elevation of the western mountainous range
is between 250 and 1,267 metres above mean sea level,
where as elevation of the eastern mountainous range is
between 200 and 900 metres high above mean sea level. Figure 1 Location map of the study area with initial scale
Both mountainous ranges are covered by moderate to 1:250,000 (from Royal Thai Survey Department, 1969).
dense natural forests, which is partly deforested. The
157
LANDSLIDES IN WANG CHIN AREA (a), (b)). Landslide event at Wang Chin area was
classified as a complex landslide (debris slide-debris
Landslide characteristic in Wang Chin Area flow). Because of the materials started to move as a
debris slide, then they take on the character of another
Landslides occurred on May 4, 2001 were triggered by type of movement as a debris flow. This event damaged
continuous and heavy rainfall, which cause water houses and properties, transportation lines and farmlands
percolated through the weathered profile of bedrock and at Hong Village, Kham Muak Village and Pa Sak Village
reduce its stability. These landslides are relatively very seriously, resulted in 40 peoples died, 3 peoples still
shallow and mobilizing only the weathered profile of missing, and 60 houses completely destroyed.
bedrock mixed with wood fragments, logs and water. The highest frequency of landslides is occurring in the
Landslides sizes are vary from small slumps of a few area consisting of shale intercalated with sandstone.
square metres area to some of large landslides with Bedding planes between shale and sandstone horizons,
surface areas in excess of about one thousand square fractures and fissility in rocks mass act as weak zones
metres. Landslide occurrences locations are closed to the which allow high infiltration of rain water. These weak
first order stream or on the convex slope of mountain zones cause the rocks to be subjected to high weathering,
(Figure 2 (a), (b)). and high to slope failures. The dip of bedding plane of
The masses of weathered surface rocks, wood fragments, the study area varying from 30 to 50 degrees, toward to
logs and water moved down from the mountain slopes to the valley floor can also accelerate the slope failures.
the low land areas. Some materials partly blocked the Field evidences showing vegetation cover do not have
water, which flow from upper streams and then became much resistance for sliding process in this area. Because
saturated and liquefied by the water from the stream of the area affected by sliding is mostly covered by
supplemented by the heavy rainfall, and were transformed moderate to dense vegetation. Extensive human activities
into debris flow. This debris flow moved quickly in the form of agricultural activities and road excavations
downward along the channel or stream and pour out at the have also influenced the slope instability phenomena.
valley floor as a special flood, which was a mixture of
water, mud, sand, rock, and wood fragments (Figures 3
Weathered surface Ruptured zone

Landslide scar
Weathered bedrock
(a) (b)
Deposited area
Figure 2 (a) Shallow landslide of weathered surface in the study area. (b) The landslide initiation zone occurrence is close to the
mountainous ridge and the first order stream in the study area.
Fig. 3 (a) masses of weathered surface rocks and wood fragments moved down from the mountain slopes and stream to the low
land area. (b) The debris flow moved quickly downward along the channel and pour out at the valley floor at Hong
Village as a special flood, which is a mixture of water, mud, sand, rock, and wood fragments.
158
Landslide distribution mapping METHODOLOGY
Direct landslide mapping has been worked out using the Data Types and Sources
Landsat 7, Aster and IRS-1D satellite images. These data
are acquired after the past landslide event and during the The first task of this study includes collecting, storage and
season of green vegetation. These types of imagery selecting all data and information that is available, derived
provide information of the ground surface, which is from remote sensing as well as field investigation and of
associated with landslide occurrence such as landslide necessity for this study. All kind of data and information
location, and land use/cover. Features such as scarps, will be collected, mapped and reformatted if required and
disrupted vegetation cover and deviation in soil moisture stored in GIS as a database (Table 2.)
are generally conspicuous on the satellite image. These The slope, slope aspect, elevation and flow direction are
features are assumed as landslide scars. Landslide derived from a digital elevation with spatial resolution
distributions were classified from the band combination of 15x15 m (DEM) using precise Aster B3 Nadir and
Landsat 7 imagery for a small size landslide. Landsat 7 Backward looking. The NDVI and lineaments are derived
image has fair spectral resolution, its 30 x 30 metres from Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM)
spatial resolution is low and generally not suitable for imagery. The landslide location is derived from Landsat 7
detailed landslides mapping. So merging of Aster data (spatial resolution 30x30 m), IRS-1D Panchromatic
and IRS-1D images has been used for visual interpretation (spatial resolution 5x5 m), and Aster image (spatial
to improve landslides detection from visual interpretation resolution 15x15 m). The land use/land cover and
of Landsat 7 image. Because it creates the relatively high geologic data are acquired from Department of Land
spatial resolution 5 x 5 metres of IRS-1D image and has Development and Department of mineral resources. These
the colour composite of band 1, 2 and 3 from Aster image. two maps are updated using the interpretation of Landsat
This is suitable for small landslide scars mapping and 7 imagery. The spatial resolution of Landsat 7 data is 30
morphology analysis related to landslide such as run out m, and so the resolution of all factors must be the same.
track and accumulated zones (Figure 4). Total numbers of The acquired date of the Landsat MSS, Landsat TM, and
1,625 landslide locations were identified from RGB 457 Landsat 7, ASTER, and IRS-1 D (Panchromatic) data are
and RGB 542 FCCs, the RGB 123 PCA, and the merging showed in Table 3.
Aster and IRS-1D Images.
Data Base Construction
The factors affected on landsliding are primarily

lithology, lineament, elevation, slope steepness, slope
aspect, land use/land cover, normalized vegetation index,
flow direction of a watershed, soil type and past landslide
Resident area
location (Table 4).
The data sets related to landslide occurrences in
the study area were transformed to digital formats and
stored as database of GIS. All data sets were built on a
raster base (cell base) and assigned with an attributes
Alluvial fan
database. Each pixel corresponds to a ground resolution
cell of 30 metres by 30 metres, and contained the value
Landslide scar (class number), symbol and class of data maps. The data
maps and its attributes are constructed as a database into
Flow path the GIS using Arc View 3.2 software.
Landslide assessment analysis

The methodology used for landslide hazard assessment in
this study is the “probability bivariate analysis”. The
probability of landslide occurrence is usually a spatial
distribution. In this method, a statistical correlation
between the probability of landslide occurrence and
several factors’ classes was carried out as follows:
1) The first step is to measure the percentage of the total
number of landslide location, and the total area for every
classes of every factor in the study area Then the total
Figure 4. Merging IRS-1D PAN (5 m x 5 m) and Aster (15 m
x 15 m) B1, B2, and B3 shows very clear landslide scars in
percentage of landslide location associated with each class
white color on the mountainous area (IRS-1D, taken on of each factor is divided by the total percentage area of the
27/12/200, and Aster, taken on 28/11/2001). same classes of factors found in the study area (equation
1). This result represents the probability of landslide
occurrence in each class of each factor.
159
Table 2 Data sources
Factor Data type Data Format Provider

Slope Aster DEM Aster format (B3 Nadir and Backward looking) BGR
Slope aspect Aster DEM Aster format (B3 Nadir and Backward looking) BGR
Elevation Aster DEM Aster format (B3 Nadir and Backward looking) BGR
Flow direction Aster DEM Aster format (B3 Nadir and Backward looking) BGR
Soil unit Soil unit map Shapefile (Vector) DLD
Lithologic Geological map, Landsat 7 Thematic Shapefile (Vector), Geotiff (8 bands) DMR
Mapper DMR
Lineament Landsat 7 Thematic Mapper Geotiff (8 bands) DMR
Land use/cover Landsat 7 Thematic Mapper Geotiff (8 bands) DMR
NDVI Landsat 7 Thematic Mapper Geotiff (8 bands) DMR
Landslide location Landsat 7 Thematic Mapper Geotiff (8 bands) DMR
IRS-1D Panchromatic Geotiff (1 bands) DMR
Aster Image (VNIR) Geotiff (14 bands) DMR
BGR = Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Germany, DLD = Department of Land Development
DMR = Department of Mineral Resources
Table 3 Overview of satellites data of the study area
No. RS-system Path/Row Acquisition date Image quality

Cloud coverage
1 Landsat MSS 140/48 26 January 1973 Quality is very good; no clouds
2 Landsat 5 TM 130/48 10 April 2001 Quality is very good; no clouds
3 Landsat 7 ETM 130/48 14 March 2001 Quality is very good; no clouds
4 Landsat 7 ETM 130/48 28 November 2001 Quality is very good; no clouds
5 Aster - 28 November 2001 Quality is very good; no clouds
6 IRS-1D 126/026 27 December 2001 Quality is very good; no clouds
PLFC = % total landslide number in factor’s class (1) PRFC = Probability ratio of landslide on each factor’s class
% total area comprising in the same class
PLFC = Probability of Landslide on each factor’s class For example, the landslide occurrence probability on
slope angle 19-23 degree is 1.67 and it is compared with
For example, in the case of landslide occurrence the probability of landslide occurrence for the whole area.
on slope angle 19º-23º (class 5) of slope angle factor. The
landslide occurrence probability on this class can be PRSA19º-23º = Probability of Landslide on slope angle 19º-23º
calculated as below: Probability of landslide for the whole area
% total landslide number in slope class 5 = 16.00/9.58=1.67 = 1.67/1 = 1.67
% total area of class 5
PRSA = Probability ratio of landslide on slope angle
This means that 16.7% (1.67x100) of landslides occur on
the area with slope angle 19º-23º (class 5) and it is divided This means that the incidence of landsliding on slope
by percent of the total area of the same class (9.58%). angle 19 -23 degrees is 1.67 times greater than the
2) The second step, the probability of landslide occurrence probability of landsliding for the whole area. Considering
for the whole area was calculated from percent total as a measure of prediction, this slope category is 1.67
landslide number in the whole area divided by percent times more likely to occur than the whole area. Thus, the
total of the whole area (equation 2). probability of landslide occurrence for the whole area is
the mean value of landslide incidence for the study area
PLWA = % Total landslide points = 100 (2) and it is called the regional average incidence of
% Total area of study area 100 landslides. This can be explained that if the probability
PLWA = Probability of landslide for the whole area ratio of landslide occurring in each class of each factor is
greater than 1, it means a higher likelihood and if it’s
Then, the probability of landslide occurrence on lower than 1 it means a lower likelihood of landslide
each factor’s class was compared with the probability of hazard occurrence.
landslide occurrence for the whole area (equation 3). This 3) Ranking and weighting for assessing the importance of
result represents the probability ratio of landslide factor: The identification of potential landslide areas
occurrence in each class of each factor compared with the requires that the factors are considered to be combined in
probability of landslide for the whole area. accordance with their relative importance to landslide
occurrence. The importance of factors as a predictor of
PRFC = Probability of Landslide on each factor’s class (3) landsliding can be considered in different ways. Two
Probability of landslide for the whole area possible approaches were used in this study. These
160
approaches are the reliability probability method and the 4) The final step uses the group combination to produce
accountability probability method. landslide hazard zone. The numerical data layers
The reliability probability (RP) was calculated by the representing weight values of the factor attributes as the
percentage area of factors corresponding to landslides. It information of attribute were generated from the thematic
was computed for each factor as equation 3.4. data layers for data integration and spatial analysis in the
RP = ∑ %Landslide point in classes having a probability ratio ≥ 1 (4) GIS. The input data layers were multiplied by their
∑ %Landslide & non-landslide area in the same classes corresponding weight and were added up to obtain the
Landslide Probability Index (LPI) for each 30 by 30 m
The accountability probability (AP) was calculated by the cell as the equation 3.8.
total landslide population accounted for each factor. It j i
was computed for each factor as equation 3.5. LPI = ∑ (F W ) = F W +F W +.......+F W .(8)
1 1 1 1 2 2 j i
AP = ∑ %Landslide point in classes having a probability ratio ≥ 1 (5) Fj is the factor map, which is contained probability ratio
∑ %Landslide point over the entire study area of landslide occurrence.
Wi is the weight for factor j.
According to the step of performing probability analysis,
probability ratio of factor’s classes less than 1 indicates a The landslide potential index map is used to produce
lower likelihood of landslides incidence and probability landslide hazard zonation map. A judicious way for the
ratio of factor’s classes higher than 1 indicates a higher landslide hazard zonation is to use the relative interval to
likelihood of landslides incidence. Therefore, in both separate the landslide potential index into landslide
performance measures, only probability values of susceptibility class level. The level of landslide hazard is
attributes ≥ 1 (i.e. mean and above mean value of measured on the ordinal scale based on the equal interval
landslide incidence) are considered. The mean landslide values. Landslide potential index can be divided into very
incidence value means the probability of landslide high, high, moderate, low, and very low of hazard levels
occurrence for the whole area (cf. equation 2.2). The in one single map as prediction image. The group of
results of RP and AP of each factor were used to ranking proportions with the larger value toward the end of the
and weighting the relative importance of each factor on range represents combinations defining very high
landslide occurrence. landslide hazard. The group of proportion with the
The relative importance of factors to landslide occurrence smallest values represents very low landslide hazard.
can be achieved by developing a ranking scheme to Landslide hazard map is useful for the development
factors. The straight ranking (the most important=1, project planning or the areas, which should be avoid.
second important=2, etc.) is used in this study. Once the
ranking is established for a set of factor, the numerical
weights from ranking values are generated. In this study,
RESULTS
the weights were calculated according to the formula 6.
Landslide hazard map
wi = (nj – ri) + 1… (6)
Landslide hazard maps or landslide susceptibility maps
can be produced based on reliability probability weighted,
nj is the number of factor under consideration landslide hazard map based on accountability probability
j = 1,2,3,...m, with m = 9, in this study. weighted, landslide hazard map based on combination of
ri is the rank position of each single factor considered (1 ≤ reliability and accountability weighted (cf. equation 8).
i ≤ n, with n = 9, in this study) A judicious way for landslide hazard classification is to
wi is the weight of each single factor considered (1 ≤ i ≤ n, use the relative equal interval to separate the landslide
with n = 9, in this study). potential index into landslide hazard class’s level. The
Before the weights can be combined, they need to be level of landslide hazard is measured on the ordinal scale
normalized. Each factor is weighted as (nj – ri) + 1 and based on the equal interval values. Then, five levels of
then normalized by the sum of all weights, that is, ∑ (nj – relative hazard are defined on a landslide susceptibility
ri) +1 as follow. map: (1) very low; (2) low; (3) moderate; (4) high; and (5)
very high hazard.
w (nj) = (nj – ri) +1 = wi ............(7) 1) The landslide probability index value based on
(nj – ri) +1 ∑ wi reliability probability weighting obtained ranges from
0.08 to 2.81. The landslide hazard map show that 2.49
w (nj) is the normalized weight of each single factor. percent of the whole area lies in the highest landslide
∑ wi is the sum of all factor’s weights. prone area. The percentage of very low hazard area is the
The normalized weights of each factors are represent to highest at 35.19 percent of the total area. Similarly, 28.01
the relative importance of each factor. The probability percent, 19.44 percent and 14.87 percent of areas lie in the
ratio of landslide occurrence of each factor is multiplied low, moderate and high landslide hazard levels,
by these weights in order to get a landslide hazard index respectively. It is obvious from the result map that the
of each factor. areas under high and very high hazard level are located
near the first and second stream orders of the study area.
161
Table 4 Factors map for landslide assessment of Wang Chin area.
Layer Factor *Value Symbol Class

1 Lithology 1 Qt Terrace: Sand, Silt, Gravel and Clay
2 Tr3 Shale, Sandstone and Conglomerate
3 Qa Alluvium: Sand, Silt, Gravel and Clay
4 Pm2 Limestone
5 SD Phylite, Quartzite and Quartz-Schirst
6 CP Undiferentiated Sandstone, Shale, Chert and Pebbly
7 Pm3 Shale
8 Rht2 Sandstone, Siltstone, Phylite and Quartz-mica Schirst
9 Tr3-2 Andesitic tuff
10 Tr3-1 Sandstone, Siltstone and Shale
11 Rht1 Shale, Sandstone, Siltstone and Agilaceous limestone
12 Tr3-3 Rhyolite, Andesitic tuff and Agglomerate
13 Pm1 Sandstone and Siltstone
Conglomerate, Sandstone, Shale and Chert
2 Lineament 1 - 0 m – 100 m
2 - 100 m – 200 m
3 - 200 m -300 m
4 - 300 m – 400 m
5 - 400 m – 500 m
6 - 500 m – 600 m
7 - 700 m – 800 m
8 - 800 m – 900 m
9 - 900 m – 1,000 m
3 Land use/Land 1 - Disturbed open forest
cover 2 - Teak plantation
3 - Crop_Orchard
4 - Deforestation
5 - Crop
6 - Village
7 - Rain paddy field
8 - Teak_Crop
9 - Water body
10 - Orchard
11 - Waste land
12 - Teak Orchard
13 - Open forest
14 - Reservoir
15 - Deforestation_Orchard
4 NDVI 1 - -1.00 to -0.75
2 - -.075 to -0.50
3 - -0.75 to -0.25
4 - -0.25 to 0.00
5 - 0.00 to 0.25
6 - 0.25 to 0.50
7 - 0.50 to 0.75
8 - 0.75 to 1.00
5 Slope angle 1 - 0º-5º
2 - 5º-9º
3 - 9º-14º
4 - 14º-19º
5 - 19º-23º
6 - 23º-28º
7 - 28º-32º
8 - 32º-37º
9 - 37º-42º
10 - 42º-46º
11 - 46º-51º
12 - 51º-56º
13 - 56º-63º
1 - North
6 Slope aspect 2 - Northeast
3 - East
4 - Southeast
5 - South
6 - Southwest
7 - West
8 - Northwest
162
Table 4 Factors map for landslide assessment of Wang Chin area (Continued)
Layer Factor Value Symbol Class

7 Flow direction 1 - North
2 - Northeast
3 - East
4 - Southeast
5 - South
6 - Southwest
7 - West
8 - Northwest
8 Soil unit 1 62 -
2 47E -
3 47D/55C -
4 47C -
5 47B/29B -
6 47B/55B -
7 33 -
8 18/5 -
9 48C/55C -
10 29B/46B -
11 47D -
12 35B/61B -
13 48B -
14 18 -
15 47B -
16 18/18B -
17 46B -
18 59B(59) -
19 15 -
20 55B/61B -
21 59 -
22 47C/49C -
23 47B/31B -
24 7/15 -
25 47D/47E -
26 47B/447C -
27 7 -
28 47C/47D -
29 47E/47D -
30 33B -
32 15/61B -
33 15/59 -
34 59/61B -
35 61B -
36 15/33B -
37 47C/55C -
38 47B/56B -
39 47D/56D -
9 Elevation 1 - 17-122
2 - 122-173
3 - 173-224
4 - 224-275
5 - 275-326
6 - 326-377
7 - 377-428
8 - 428-479
16 - 836-887
17 - 887-938
18 - 938-989
19 - 989-1040
20 - 1,040-1,091
21 - 1,091-1,142
22 - 1,142-1,193
23 - 1,193-1,244
24 - 1,244-1,295
25 - 1,295-1,346
26 - 1,346-1,397
27 - 1,397-1,448
28 - 1,448-1,499
29 - 1,499-1,550
30 - 1,550-1,602
163
2) The landslide probability index value map based on occurrence for the whole area (1). The landslide
accountability probability weighting is ranges from 0.08 occurrence ratio (Ls/a) value of landslide hazard map
to 7.66 and landslide hazard. The landslide hazard map based on reliability weighted (1.31) is higher than the
shows that 7.66 percent of the whole area lies in the mean average value of landslide occurrence for the whole
highest landslide prone area. The percentage of low area (1). In both cases, the results of verification at
hazard area is the highest at 30.16 percent of the total area. moderate hazard level are not represents to the average
Similarly, 19.69 percent 22.61 percent and 19.88 percent landslide incidence value for the area, so the method can
of the areas lie in the high, moderate and very low be applied to the landslide occurrence analysis. But there
landslide hazard, respectively. It is obvious from the are less reliability than the landslide hazard analysis based
result map that the areas under high and very high hazard on the combination of reliability and accountability
level are located near the first and second stream orders of weighted.
the study area. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
3) The landslide probability index value map based on the
combination of accountability probability weighting is Discussions
obtained ranges from 0.9 to 2.55. These could be
classified into five landslides susceptible classes of The landslide hazard map was produced by multiplying
landslide hazard as shown in Figure 5. The landslide probability ratio value of classes with the weights of the
hazard map shows that 3.88 percent of the whole area lies factors, and then summing up all weights of each pixel.
in the highest landslide prone area. The percentage of low The susceptibility map was eventually divided into five
hazard area is highest at 30.24 percent of the total area. hazard levels: very low, low, moderate, high, and very
Similarly, 17.44 percent, 20.40 percent and 28.03 percent high. Although there are a lot of causing factors to
of area lies in the high, moderate and very low landslide landslides, this study cautiously selects nine factors for
hazard, respectively. It is obvious from the result map producing a conceptual landslide susceptibility map. The
that the areas under high and very high hazard level are chosen factors are slope angle, slope aspect, elevation,
near the first and second stream orders of the study area. flow direction, NDVI, land use/land cover, soil unit,
The result from this study represents differing hazard lithology, and lineament. According to the importance of
levels that show only the order of relative hazard at a assessing factors, the major cause of landslide may be
particular site and not the absolute hazard. attributed to the presence of weak lineament planes and
their relation to topographic condition and other factors.
Verification of the Results The validation result shows satisfied agreement between
the susceptibility map and the existing data on landslide
The verification method is performed by comparison of locations. Most of the locations of the identified landslide
existing landslide data with landslide hazard maps by actually fall into moderate to very high-class levels of the
cross tabulation in GIS environment. The validation produced susceptibility map. This validates the
results show satisfactory agreement between the landslide applicability of the proposed methods, the conducted
hazard map based on combination of reliability and approaches and the classification scheme. However, the
accountability weighted and existing landslide location reliability of this study is directly dependent on the quality
data. and quantity of the collected data as well as the methods
The verification of probability analysis result is shown in and skill for conceptual landslide prediction. These can
Table 8. At a landslide probability index value below be improved by applying other methods of analysis and
1.08, the occurrence ratio (Ls/a) is very low and low with comparing the results between each method.
a value of 0 to 0.23. A landslide probability index value Having considered the relative importance of each factor,
above 1.57, the occurrence ratio is high and very high, it can be seen that the two performances do not provide
with a value of 2.55 to 7.31. The index value between the same information. For example, soil type is ranked
1.08-1.56 is equal to the occurrence ratio of 1. It the highest on the basis of accountability (96%), but has
represents the mean landslide incidence value for the the lowest reliability value (1.36). However, lineneament
whole area. In this case, the probability indexes of scores highly on both. The reason why the two measures
dependent hazard level output are conformed to the give different results can be explained that within each
method of probability analysis, so the method can be category the landslides are not evenly distributed but from
applied well to the landslide occurrence analysis. clusters. For instant, the area where elevation A
This verification method is also performed on both corresponded to landslide occurrence is particularly prone
landslide hazard maps, which based on reliability, and to landsliding. Bur such condition of high importance
accountability weighted. The validation results show does not apply over most of the region. Therefore, it
unsatisfactory agreement between the landslide hazard should consider their combined relationship for landslide
map based on reliability, and accountability weighted and analysis. Actually, the two factors are individually related
existing landslide location data derived from remote to landsliding, and then the two taken together should
sensing data and field check. provide a better indicator. For example, elevation,
The landslide occurrence ratio (Ls/a) value of landslide accounts for 96 % of all landslides but only 20% of the
hazard map based on accountability weighted (0.69) is unit is corresponded to landslides. Slope B accounts for
lower than the mean average value of landslide 68% of total landslides, but here 25% of the factor is
164
responsible for landslides. The combination of elevation the use of two combinations of factors for the importance
A and slope B accounts for 55% of the region’s landslides measure is considered to be more reliability.
and 45% of this category corresponds to landslides. Thus,
Fig. 5 Landslide hazard map base on accountability and reliability weight.
Table 8 Comparison of landslide occurrence and landslide hazard map based on combination of reliability
and accountability weighted using probability method.
Class Hazard Landslide Landslide % Point of % of Area Ls/a=Pr

level probability index (point) Landslide (Ls) (a)
1 Very Low 0.9-0.58 3 0.18 28.03 0.00
2 Low 0.59-1.07 113 6.93 30.24 0.23
3 Moderate 1.08-1.56 327 20.06 20.40 1.00
4 High 1.57-2.05 725 44.48 17.44 2.55
5 Very High 2.06-2.55 462 28.35 3.88 7.31
Total 1630 100 100 1
165
Conclusions Chadumrong, P., (1992). Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and
Tectonic Setting of the Lampang Group, Central North
This research has demonstrated that the considered factors Thailand. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Tasmania, 230 p.
have had a strong influence on the landslide occurrence in Chang, K.T. (2000). Introduction to geographic information
systems. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company limited.
the study area. The method of probability analysis and New Delhi. India: 348 p.
the weights of evidence in conjunction with the Charoenpravat, A. (1968). Geology of Amphoe Wang Chin and
application of GIS-assisted indirect bi-variable evaluation Ban Bo Kaeo area, with geologic maps 1:50,000, sheet
techniques have applied for the landslide hazard analysis 4944-I and 4964-I, Geological Survey Division.,
of the study area. Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok. (Unpubl. Map.
The landslide hazard map shows the high probability And Rep.)
index for landslide incidence on the mountainous area of Charoenpravat, A. Sripongpan, P., Thammadusadee, V. and
Wang Chin District. The higher the landslide probability Wolfart, R. (1987). Geology of Amphoe Sop Prap (Sheet
index is the more instability of the slope. The landslide 1:50,000 No. 4844-I) and Amphoe Wang Chin (Sheet
1:50,000 No. 4944-IV), Thailand.
probability index map is grouped into five classes of Chung, C.F., Fabbri, A.G., Van Westen, C.J. (1995).
hazard levels from very low to very high hazard (1 = Very Multivariate regression analysis for landslide hazard
high, 2 = High, 3 = Moderate, 4 = Low, and 5 = Very zonation. Geographic Information Systems in Assessing
low). The landslide prediction model was produced as an Natural Hazards. Kluwer, Dordrecht: pp. 107-133.
automatically function of Band Math for landslide Clerci, A., Perego, S., Tellini, C., and Vescovi, P. (2001). A
prediction. Both of these results are useful for landslide procedure for landslide susceptibility zonation by
hazard prediction, risk prevention and mitigation, conditional analysis method. Journal of Geomorphology.
planning land use, and project development in the future. 48: 349-364.
Cruden, D.M., Ematon, T.M. and Hu, X.Q. (1988). Rockslide
hazard in Kananaskis Country, Alberta, Canada. In Proc.
REFERENCES 5th Inter. Sym. On Landslides. C. Bonnard (editor).
Lausanne, Switzerland. pp. 1147-1152.
Abele, G. (1974). Bergsturze in den Alpen. Wiss. Cruden, D.M. (1991). A simple definition of a landslide.
Alpenvereinshefte No. 25, Munich (in German). Acres Bulletin of the international Association og Engineering
International Ltd. 1993. Greater Vancouver Regional Geology. 43: 27-29.
District watershed ecological inventory pilot study. Quoted Cruden, D.M. and Varnes, D.J. (1996). Landslide types and
in Resources Inventory Committee. Government of p r o c e s s e s . I n l a n d s l i d e s
British Columbia. (1996). Terrain stability mapping in investigation and mitigation. Transportation Research
British Columbia: A review and suggested methods for Board, US National Research Council, Turner, A.K. and
landslide hazard and risk mapping http://srmwww.gov.ca/ Schuster, R.L. (editors). Special Report 247, Washington,
terrain/inventory/Stability/index.html DC 1996, Chapter 3, pp. 36-75.
Agostina, V.D., and Marchi, L. (2001). Debrish flow magnitude Dai, J.J., Lorenzato, S., and Rabe, D.M. (2004). A knowledge -
in the Eastern italian Alps : Data collection and analysis. based model of watershed assessment for sediment.
Jour. Phys. Chem. Earth. (C) 26 (9): 657-663. Journal of Environmental Modeling & Software. 19: 423-
Akbar, T.A. (1998). Integration of GPS, GIS and remote 433 pp.
sensing technology for landslide hazard analysis: A case DeGraff, J.V., Canuti, P. (1988). Using isopleth mapping to
study of western Himalayan Kaghan valley, Pakistan. evaluate landslide activity in relation to agricultural
Master degree in engineering thesis. Asian Institute of practices. Bulletin of International Assoc. Engineering
Technology. Bangkok. Thailand: 123 p. Geology. 38: 61-71.
Aleotti, P., and Chowdhury. (1999). Landslide hazard DeGraff, J.V., Romesburg, H.C. (1984). Regional landslide
assessmennt: Summary review and new perspectives. Bull susceptibility assessment for wildland management: a
Eng Geol Env. 58: pp. 21-44. matrix approach. In thresholds in geomorphology. D.R.
Alfoldi, T. (1996). Fundamentals of Remote Sensing. Canada Coates and J. Vitak (editor). Allen and Unwin, Boston. pp.
Centre for Remote Sensing. Natural Resources Canada. 401-414.
Ottawa. Canada. 258 p. Detley, D.N., Crick, W., Hart, A.B. (2000). The use of satellite
Chowdhury (1999). Landslide hazard assessment: Summary imagery in landslide studies in high mountain areas.
review and new perspectives. Bull Eng Geol Env. 58: pp. University of Durham. United Kingdom: 7 p.
21-44. Donati, L., Turrini, M.C. (2002). An objective method to rank
BGR-DMR. (2001). Landslide risk map in Surat Thani Province. the importance of the Factors predisposing to landslide
Technical report. Coastal Resources Institute. Prince of with the GIS methodology: Application to an area of the
Songkla University. Songkla. Thailand: 77 p. Apennines (Valnerina: Perugia, Italy). Engineering
Bonnard, C.H., Noverraz, F. (1984). Instability risk maps. In Geology. 63: 277-289.
proc. 4th Inter. Sym. on Landslides. Toronto. Canada. J. Fenti, V., Silvano, S., Soangna, V. (1979). Methodological
Seychuk (editor). pp. 511-516. proposal for engineering geomorphological map.
Carrara, A., Cardinali, M., Guzzetti, F., and Reichenbach, P. Forecasting rock falls in the Alps. Bull of the Int Assoc Eng
(1995). GIS technology in mapping landslide hazard. Geol. 19: 134-138. Quoted in Aleotti, P., and Chowdhury.
Geographic Information Systems in Assessing Natural (1999). Landslide hazard assessmennt: Summary review
Hazards. Kluwer, Dordrecht: pp. 125-175. and new perspectives. Bull Eng Geol Env. 58: pp. 21-44.
Carrara, A., Merenda, L. (1976). Landslide inventory in Fell, R. (1994). Landslide risk assessment and acceptable risk.
northern Calabria, southern Italy. Geological Society of Geotech Journal. 31: 261-272.
America Bulletin. 87: 1153-1162. Fotheringham, A.S., Brunsdon, C., and Charlton, M. (2000).
Quantitative geography: perspectives on spatial data
166
analysis. The Cromwell Press Ltd. Trowbridge. Witshire. John, R.D., Marry, R.J., and Leyton, R.L. (1999). Computer
Great Britain: 270 p. simulation of shallow landslidinng in New Zealand hill
Geoscience Australia. (2005). Landslides. country. JAG. 1. (2): 122-131.
http://www.ga.gov.au/urban/factsheets/landslide_causes.jsp Kienholz, H. (1978). Maps of Geomorphology and Natural
Geoscience Australia. (2005). Landslides – Slope processes. Hazard of Griendewald. Switzerland. Scale 1:10,000.
http://www.ga.gov.au/Urban/factsheet/ Article and Alpime Research. 10: 169-184.
landslide_types_processes.jsp Lee, S., Min, K. (2001). Statistic analysis of landslide
Geoscience Australia. (2005). Landslide prone areas. susceptibility at Yougin Korea. Journal of Environmental
http://www.ga.gov.au/urban/factsheets/landslide_ Geology. 40: 1095-1113.
areas.jsp Lee, S. (2004). Landslide hazard analysis using GIS and remote
Greenbaum, D. (1995). Project summary report: Rapid methods sensing. Training Note. Korea Institute of Geosciences and
of landslide hazard mapping. Technical Report WC/95/30. Mineral Resources (KIGAM). Korea: 194 p.
International Division. British Geological Survey. Li, P., Zhou, Z., Li, Jianghai., Zhang, C., He, W., and Suh, M.
Keyworth Nottingham. United Kingdom: 12 p. (2003). Structural framework and its formation of the
Greenbaum, D., Tutton, M., Bowker, M.R., Browne, T.J., Kalpin thrust belt Tarim basin Northwest China from
Buleka, J., Grally, K.B., Kuna, G., Mcdonald, A.J.W., Landsat TM data. International Journal of Remote Sensing.
Marsh, S.H., Northmorre, K.J., O’Konnor. E.A., and 24 (18): 3535-3546.
Tragheim, D.G. (1995). Rapid methods of landslide hazard Lin, P.S., Lin, J.Y., Hung, H.C., and Yang, M.D. (2002).
mapping : Papua New Guinea Case Study. Technical Assessing debris flow hazard in a watershed in Taiwan.
Report WC/95/27 Overseas Geology Series. Keyworth Engineering Geology. 66: 295-313.
Nottingham. United Kingdom: 112 p. Lincback Gritzner, M., Marcus, W., Aspinall, R., and Custer, S.
Guerricchio, A., Melidoro, G. (1979). Fenomeni franoci e (2001). Assessing landslide potential using GIS, soil
neotetonici nelle argille grigio-azzurre calabriane di Pisticci wetness modeling and topographic attributes, Payette River,
(lucania). Geol Appl e Idrogeol. 14: 105-138. Quoted in Idaho. Geomorphology. 37: 149-165.
Aleotti, P., and Chowdhury. (1999). Landslide hazard Lorente, A., Garcia-Ruiz, J., Begueria, S., and Arnaez. J. (2002).
assessment: Summary review and new perspectives. Bull Factors explaining the spatial distribution of hillslope debris
Eng Geol Env. 58: pp. 21-44. flows. Mountain Research and Development. 22: 32-39.
Günther, A. (2003). Slopemap: programs for automated Malczewski, J. (1999). GIS and multicriteria decision analysis.
mapping of geometrical and Kinematical properties of hard Department of Geography. University of Western Ontario.
rock hill slopes. Computers & Geosciences. 29: pp. 865-875. John Willey&Sons Inc. Canada: 392 p.
Günther, A., Carstensen, A., and Pohl, W. (2003). The RSS-GIS Meneround, J.P., Calvino, A. (1976). Carte ZERMOS, Zones
(Rock Slope Stability GIS): Tools for automated regional E x p r o s e e s a d e s
sliding-susceptibility assessments to hard-rock hill slope. Risques lies aux Mouvements. Region de la Moyenne Vesubie
Institute for Geosciences. Technical University (Alpes Maritimes). Bureau de recherches Geologiques et
Braunschweig. Germany: 8 p. Minieres, Orleams, France. Quoted in Aleotti, P., and
Günther, A., Carstensen, A., and Pohl, W. (2004). Automated Chowdhury. (1999). Landslide hazard assessment:
s l i d i n g s u s c e p t i b i l i t y Summary review and new perspectives. Bull Eng Geol Env.
mapping of rock slopes. Natural Hazards and Earth System 58: pp. 21-44.
Sciences. 4: pp. 95-102. Metternicht, G., Hurni, L., and Gogu, R. (2005). Remote
Gupta, J., and Saha, A. (2001). Mapping debris flows in sensing of landslides: An analysis of the potential
Himalayas. Natural resources management. GIS contribution to geo-spatial systems for hazard assessment in
development net. 4 p. mountainous environments. Remote Sensing of
Gupta, P.R. (2002). Remote Sensing geology. 2nd Edition. Environment. 98: pp. 284-303.
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York, Germany. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources. (2005).
Hervas, J., Barredo, J., Pasuto, A., Montovani, F., and Silvano, S. Landslide types [On-line].
(2003). Monitoring landslides from optical remotely sensed Available:http://www.em.gov.bc.ca/Mining/Geolsurv/Surfi
imagery: The case story of Tessina landslide, Italy. Journal cial/landslide /ls2.html
of Geomorphology. 54. 63-75. Montavani, F., Soeters, R., and Westen, V., (1996). Remote
Hick, B.G., and Smith, R.D. (1981). Management of steeplands sensing techniques for landslide studies and hazard zonation
impacts by landslide hazard zonation and risk evaluation. in Europe. Journal of Geomorphology. 15: pp. 213-225.
Journal of Hydrology. 20: 63-70. Musaoglu, N., Kaya, S., Sekel, D.Z., Gokzel, C. (2002). A case
Humbert, M. (1977). Risk mapping of area exposed to study of using remote sensing data and GIS for land
movements of soil and sub-soil: French “Zermos” maps management: Cataca Region. XXII FIG International
Bulletin of International Association of Engineering Congress, April 19-23. Washington DC. USA.
Geology.16: 80-82. Nationalatlas of the United Stats. (2005). Landslide types and
Ives, J.D., Messerli, B. (1981). Mountain hazard mapping in processes.
Nepal: Introduction to an Applied Mountain Research http:/ nationalatlas.gov/articles/geology/a_landslide.html
Project. Mountain Research and Development. 10: 185-212. Ngugen Quoc, P., Bui Hoang, B. (2004). Landslide hazard
Jibson, R.W., harp, E.L., and Michael, J.A. (1998). A method to mapping using Bayesian approach in GIS: Case study in
produce probabilistic seismic landslide hazard maps. Yangsan area, Korea. International Symposium on
Proceeding of International Association for Mathematical Geoinformatics for spatial Infrastructure Development in
Geology 1998 Annual Meeting (IAMG’98). Ischia, Italy: pp. Earth and Allied Sciences. Korea: 7 p.
35-51. Nilaweera, N.S. (1994). Effects of tree roots on slope stability:
John, A.R., and Jia X. (1999). Remote Sensing digital image The case of Khao Luang Mountain area, Southern Thailand.
analysis-An introduction. 3rd Edition. Springer-Verlag Ph.D Dissertation. Asian Institute of Technology. Bangkok.
Berlin Heidelberg New York, Germany. Thailand: 452 p.
167
O’Loughlin, C.L. (1972). The stability of steepland forest soils Singhroy, V., and Molch, K. (2004). Characterizing and
in the Coast Mountains, southwestern British Columbia. monitoring rockslides from SAR techniques. Advances in
Ph.D Dissertation. Department of Geology. University of Space Research. 33: 290-295.
British Columbia. Quoted in Resources Inventory Soeters, R., Van Westen, C.J. (1996). Slope stability:
Committee. Government of British Columbia. (1996). recognition, analysis and zonation. In: A.K. Turner, R.L.
Terrain stability mapping in British Columbia: A review Shuster (editor) “Landslides: investigation and mitigation”.
and suggested methods for landslide Transportation research Board - National Research
hazard and risk mapping. Council, Special Report 247: pp. 129-177.
http://srmwww.gov.bc.ca/terrain/inventory/Stability/index.html Sten, B. (1999). A digital elevation model for estimating
Ostir, K., Veljanovski, T., Podobnikar, T., and Stancic, Z. flooding scenarios at the Falsterbo peninsular. Journal of
(2003). Application of of satellite remote sensing in Environmental Modelling & Software. 14:579-587.
natural hazard management: the Mount Mangart landslide Swanson, F.J., Janda, R.J., Dunne, T., and Swanston, D.N.
case study. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 24 (1982). Sediment budgets and routing in steep forested
(20):3983-4002. drainage basins. Technical Report PNW-141. Quoted in
Pack, R.T. (1985). Multivariate analysis of landslide-related Resources Inventory Committee. Government of British
variables in Davis Conty, Utah. In delineation of landslide, Columbia. (1996). Terrain stability mapping in British
Flash flood and debris flow hazards in Utha. Utah State Columbia: A review and suggested methods for landslide
University: pp. 50-58. hazard and risk mapping. http://srmwww.gov.bc.ca/
Pantanahiran, W. (1994). The use of Landsat imagery and terrain/inventory/ Stability/index.html
digital terrain models to assess and predict landslide activity Temesgen, B., Mohammed, M.U., and Korme, T. (2001).
in tropical areas. Ph.D. Thesis. University Natural hazard assessment using GIS and remote sensing
of Rhode Island. United State of America: 56 p. methods with particular reference to the landslides in the
Patanakanog, B. (2001). Landslide hazard potential area in 3 Wondgenet area Ethiopia. Journal of Phys. Chem. Earth
dimensions by remote sensing and GIS technique. Land (C). 26 (9):665-675.
Development Department. Bangkok. Thailand: 5p. Thitisawarn, V. (2003). Terrain characterization for landslide
Piyasin, S. (1971). Marine Triassic sediments of northern susceptibility analysis along Sillong-Silchen highway in
Thailand. Newsl. Geol. Soc. Thailand, 4, 4-6, Bangkok. northeastern India. Geosciences division. Indian Institute of
Piyasin, S. (1972). Geological Map of Thailand, 1:250,000, remote sensing. Dehra Dun. India: 66 p.
sheet Lampang (NE47-7), Bangkok. Varnes, D.J. (1978). Slope movement types and processes. In
Piyasin, S. (1974). Geological Map of Thailand, 1:250,000, landslide analysis and control. Special Report 176
sheet Uttaradit (NE47-11), Bangkok. (Washington, DC.: transportation Research Board, 1978):
Rajbhandri, P.C.L. (1995). Application of GIS and remote pp. 12-33.
sensing for landslide hazard zonation and mapping disaster Varnes, D.J. (1984). Landslide hazard zonation: A review of
prone area: A case study of the Kulekhari. Ph.D principles and practice, Natural hazard 3. Commission on
Dissertation. Asian Institute of Technology. landslides of the IAGE. UNESCO. Paris. France: 63 p.
Bangkok.Thailand: 136 p. Van Westen, C.J. (1993). Training Package for Geographic
Resources Inventory Committee. Government of British Information Systems in Slope Instability Zonation. ITC-
Columbia. (1996). Terrain stability mapping in British Publication n. 15. Part I. Enschede. The Netherlands. 245 p.
Columbia: A review and suggested methods for landslide Wang, S.Q. (2001). Landslide on natural terrain. Journal of
hazard and risk mapping. Mountain Research and Development. 12: 40-47.
http://srmwww.gov.bc.ca/terrain/inventory/Stability/index.h Yamakuchi, Y., Tanaka, S., Odajma, T., Kamai, T., and
tml Tsuchida, S. (2003). Detection of landslide movement as
Rood, K.M. (1984). An aerial photograph inventory of the geometric missregistration in imagge matching of SPOT
frequency of yield of mass wasting on the Queen Chariotte HRV data of two different dates. International Journal of
Islands, Land Management Report No. 34. Quoted in Remote Sensing. 24. (18): 3523-3534.
Resources Inventory Committee. Government of British Zinck, A.J., and Lopez, J., Metternicht, G.I., Shrestha, D.P., and
Columbia. (1996). Terrain stability mapping in British Vazques-Selem, L. (2001). Mapping and modeling mass
Columbia: A review and suggested methods for hazard and movement and gullies in mountainous areas using remote
risk mapping. sensing and GIS techniques. JAG. 3 (1): 43-53.
http://srmwww.gov.bc.ca/terrain/inventory/Stability/index.h Zomer, R., Ustin, S., and Ives, J., (2002). Using satellite remote
tml sensing for DEM extraction in complex mountainous
Rupke, J., Cammeraat, E., Seijmonsbergen, A.C., Van Westen, terrain : landscape analysis of the Makalu Barun National
C.J. (1988). Engineering geomorphology of Widentobel Park of Eastern Nepal. International Journal of Remote
Catchment, Appenzell and Sankt Gallen, Switzerland: A Sensing. 23 (1): 125-143.
geomorphological inventory system applied to geotechnical
appraisal of slope stability. Engineering Geology. 26: 33-68.
Sabin, FF. (1997) Remote Sensing-Principles and interpretation.
2nd Edition. Free man, San Francisco, USA.
Sarkar, S., Kanungo, D.P. (2004). An integrated approach for
landslide susceptibility mapping using remote sensing and
GIS. Photogrammetric Engineering& Remote Sensing. 70
(5): pp. 617-625.
Seker, D.Z., Altan, M.O., Duran, Z., Shrestha, M.B., Yuasa, A.,
Kawamura, K. (2004). Producing landslide risk map of
Sebinkarahisan by means of remote sensing and GIS
techniques. Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul University,
Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey.
168
LATE MIDDLE PERMIAN ALATOCONCHID-BEARING LIMESTONES

FROM THE SOUTH OF THE KHAO KHWANG PLATFORM, CENTRAL
THAILAND
Mongkol Udchachon1,2, Chongpan Chonglakmani3, Hamish Campbell4 and Nathawut Thanee1
1
Institute of Science, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand
2
3
Institute of Engineering, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand
4
Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
ABSTRACT
The upper part of the platform carbonate section (Middle Permian) at Khao Somphot south of the Khao Khwang
platform has been measured and analyzed. The present study is concentrated on depositional environment of limestones.
As a result, six main microfacies are differentiated. They consist of algal-foramal wackestone/packstone facies, fusulinid
wackestone/packstone facies, alatoconchid floatstone/rudstone/wackstone facies, lime mudstone/ argillaceous
wackestone facies, laminated bindstone facies, and coated-bioclastic packstone/grainstone facies. These facies represent
subtidal/peritidal domains which consist of sheltered lagoon, internal shoal, semi-restricted lagoon, restricted lagoon,
and intertidal environments. Storm deposits are dominated throughout the section accumulated as thin layers and
alatoconchid floatstone/rudstone (coquinites) layers. Alatoconchid bivalves are excellent in preservation but difficult for
extraction to reveal a complete morphology. They were observed in both life-position and reworked beds. Peloidal
wackestone indicates their living site condition as muddy substrate with relatively low-water energy. The occurrence of
fusulinids including Lepidolina sp., Conodofusiella sp., Colania douvillei, reveals Capitanian (Midian) age. Smaller
foraminifers are common including Neohemigordius grandis, Neohemigordius japonica, Hemigordius sp., Agathammina
sp., Kamurana sp., Climacammina sp., Pachyphloia sp., Nodosaria sp., Globivalvulina sp., Ichtyolaria sp., Eotuberitina
sp., Tetrataxsis sp, etc. Other associated fossils are algae (e.g. Vermiporella nipponica, Mizzia velebitana, and
Ungdarella sp.), ostracods, gastropods, brachiopods, corals, etc.
Key words: Permian, Microfacies, Alatoconchids, Thailand
INTRODUCTION indicates low-energy environment (Isozaki, 2006; Termier

et al., 1973). In the Philippines, gregarious alatoconchid
In Thailand, alatoconchid bivalves were found most accumulation has been interpreted as a lateral-limited
intensively in areas along the Phetchabun fold and thrust biostrome (Keissling and Flügel, 2000). Based on these
belt including Loei, Nam Nao, Khao Somphot, Takfa, Pak evidences, it can be suggested that alatoconchids preferred
Chong and Khao Yai. The occurrence of these bivalves in fine-grained sediment substrate such as muddy sand or
Khao Somphot locality is the most excellent one so far. even stiff mud with low- to moderate-energy
Khao Somphot is located to the east of Chai Badan district environment. Numbers of associated organisms
(Lam Narai), Lop Buri Province. Study section is situated accumulated in alatoconchid beds such as bellerophon
in a small hill east of Khao Somphot range. mollusks, foraminifera, corals, ostracods, calcareous algae
Based on previous works, peleoenvironment of Permian and echinoderm indicate shallow marine environment
alatoconchids have been differently interpreted. They are (Yancey and Boyd, 1983).
previously erected as reefal organisms (Termier et al., This study aims at characterizing depositional
1973). However, they are interpreted as bank-setting environment of alatoconchid-bearing limestones in the
faunas based mainly on their morphology and study section. Depositional environment which in turn
sedimentology of their habitat. These large wing-like infers to paleoenvironment of alatoconchids is interpreted
flange bivalves seem to prefer loose sedimentary surface by using microfacies analysis and paleontological data. In
rather than reef-top environment (Yancey and Boyd, this stage of study, the selected section contains
1983). Most of alatoconchid localities in Malaysia, Japan, approximately 70 meters of well bedded alatoconchid-
Afghanistan and Tunisia were observed in fine-grained bearing limestones. It is bed-by-bed method used for
matrix sedimentary rocks. In Malaysia and Tunisia, the detailed study. Samples are collected and prepared for
rocks are light colour, poorly sorted bioclastic packstone rock slabs and thin-sections. Then limestones are
suggested moderate- to high- energy environment differentiated based on detailed thin-section study into
(Runnegar and Gobbett, 1975). By contrast, dark-gray various microfacies types. Consequently, microfacies types
lime mudstone/wackestone in Japan and Afghanistan are interpreted to represent their depositional environment.
169
GEOLOGIC SETTING
In Indochina Block, Permian limestones are exposed
extensively along the Phetchabun fold and thrust belt.
This belt is exposed in north-south trend along western
edge of the Korat Plateau (Fig.1). The Permian domain in
this belt is composed of Khao Khwang platform, Pha Nok
Khao platform and Nam Duk basin located to the west,
the east and in the center respectively.
The Khao Khwang platform consists of strata
accumulated in three main depositional environments
including outer platform, platform interior and restricted
platform. These environments can be further divided in to
nine depositional sub-environments (Wielchosky and
Young, 1985). The platform ranges in age from Asselian
to Midian (Alterman, 1987; Chonglakmani and Fontaine,
1999). The underlying and overlying rocks of the Khao
Khwang platform comprise Carboniferous and Late
Triassic rocks respectively. The Carboniferous rocks
contain shales and limestones exposed around Ban Bo
Nam (Fontaine et al., 1999). These rocks are probably the
oldest marine rocks underlain this platform. The Late
Triassic rocks composed of basal conglomerates of Hui
Hin Lat Formation is found closed to Carboniferous
locality. These basal conglomerates seem to directly
overlain Permian rocks of the Khao Khwang platform Figure1. Early to Middle Permian paleogeography along
with significant unconformity. Both localities are situated Phetchabun fold and thrust belt. The study area is located in
in a few kilometers north of Khao Somphot range. Khao the south of Khao Khwang platform. (modified after
Somphot is located to the south of Khao Khwang platform Chonglakmani and Fontaine, 1992 )
belonging to Khao Khwang Formation of Saraburi Group.
It contains mainly of limestones and dolomites. FT1: Algal-foramal wackestone/packstone :This facies
Limestones were deposited mainly in platform interior is most common in lower trough middle parts of the
environment with approximately 1000 meters thick. section. It is characterized predominantly by algae and
Based on fusulinids, these rocks belong to Asselian, smaller foraminifera in medium gray with medium to
Sakmarian, and Early through Late Guadalupian. thick bedded limestones. In some interval, this facies is
Dolomite was found between Asselian and Late local gradually changed into dolomitic limestone in the
Sakmarian with approximately 200 meters thick upper part of beds. Burrows were found in some intervals.
(Wielchosky and Young, 1985). Additionally, Nodular and lenticular cherts are common.
Kubergandian-Murghabian strata composed of limestones FT2: Fusulinid wackestone/ packstone :Prolific
and limestone conglomerates were found in eastern foot fusulinid tests scattered throughout the limestones is a
hill of Khao Somphot range (Altermann, 1987). Recently, main characteristic of this facies. It was observed most
according to our preliminary study, alatoconchid-bearing frequently in middle through upper part of the section.
limestones in small hill east of Khao Somphot range Limestones are light to medium gray with thick to very
belong to Murghabian-Midian interval. However, the thick bedded. Stylolites are profound with thin, sutured
studied section for this paper is restricted to Midian and arranged parallel to bedding plane. Light gray
interval. weathered surface of silicified and dolomitized patches
are common. Condensed concentration of fusulinid tests
(fusulinid sheet) in scour-and-fill structures with
RESULTS
undulating thin layers is also common.
FT3: Alatoconchid rudstone/floatstone/wackestone
FACIES DIFFERENTIATION
FT3a:Alatoconchid rudstone/floatstone (coquinites) :
In alatoconchid rudstone, large alatoconchid shells are
In the field, there are five main facies types (FT) can be
excellent preserved with densely-packed in thick to very
differentiated from approximately 70 meters-thick
thick beds. The rock matrix is dark-gray bituminous
limestone section. In bed scale, subtidal with peritidal
containing fusulinids, brachiopods and massive corals. In
capped stacking pattern indication of shallowing-upward
floatstone, abundant alatoconchids are loosely packed
parasequence is prevailed. The facies types contain their
with reworking position. The rocks are medium gray with
distinctive characters and components.
medium to thick beds. Base of the beds is commonly
sharp with irregular undulating while top of beds is sharp
planar. Alatoconchid shell condition composes of single-
170
valved, double-valved and shell fragments. Shell associated with calcareous algae and miliolids in
orientations comprise normal, incline and overturn. Most packstone. Pressure solution including dissolution seams
of alatoconchid shells in rudstone and floatstone beds are and microstylolites are common. Dolomitic texture is
adult shells, only some thin beds exhibit thin juvenile locally capped in some interval.
shells. These beds were found intercalated with the others Interpretation: Well preserved and prolific miliolids and
throughout the section. Note that it is difficult to extract ostracods in wackstone indicate restricted-shallow
complete specimen of alatoconchids from limestone subtidal with relatively quiet energy. While packstone
matrix. Nodular cherts are common in this facies. texture indicates slightly winnowing part of this
FT3b: Alatoconchid wackestone : Alatoconchid shells environment. Most of fusulinids were transported to this
are found loosely in medium gray matrix. The shells are area by current.
found mainly in double-valved condition, but single MF2: Fusulinid wackestone/packstone
valves and fragments are also observed. Shell orientations Description: Allochems compose of fusulinids, smaller
are normal, sub-parallel to parallel to bedding plane. foraminifera, peloids, micritic grains, coated grains, shell
Ventral side lies on substrate and dorsal ridge points to fragments, debris, and cortoids. Fusulinids compose of
top of bedding plane indicated living position. Most of Neoschwagerina sp. Colania douvillei, Lepidolina sp.,
alatoconchids are in adult stage showing large shell with Conodofusiella sp., Verbeekina verbeeki and others. Most
wing-like flange. Shell thickness is measured up to 1.0 cm of them are worn or abraded without outer volution and
with more than 30.0 cm wide of single valves. Gastropods some perform oncolitic structure especially in packstone
are common with more than 4.0 cm of whorl diameter. texture. Micritic and crushed fusulinids are common.
This facies was observed mainly in the lower through Smaller foraminifers include Tetrataxis sp.,
middle part of the section. Pseudoendothyra sp., Globivalvulina sp., Agathammina
FT4: Non-laminated limestones : The rocks are medium sp., Hemigordius sp., Eotuberitina sp. and Pachyphloia
to dark gray with medium to thick bedded. This facies is sp.
less common in comparison to other facies. The Interpretation: This facies was deposited mainly in
weathered surface is slightly rough with prominent shelter lagoon environment with open marine circulation
lithoclasts. In some interval, this facies is gradually under low to moderate energy near shore or shoal. It was
changed into dolomitic limetones locally in the upper part. locally deposited in semi-restricted lagoon below fair-
FT5: Laminated limestones : The facies is dark gray, weather wave base also. The occurrence of both derived
medium to thick bedded with prominent lamination. and in-situ allochems in micrite matrix are inferred to
Lamination is planar type arranged slightly parallel to non-constant energy environment. Abraded and micritic
bedding plane. Fusulinids and small shell fragments are fusulinids indicate transportation. Additionally, high
occasionally observed. These grains and fragments show concentration of fusulinids in fusulinid packstone
grain orientation slightly parallel to bedding plane. This indicates occasionally storm event. Scour-and-fill
facies is not common in comparison to the others structures in the field support this interpretation (Aigner,
1982a).
MICROFACIES ANALYSIS MF3: Alatoconchid floatstone/rudstone/wackestone
MF3a: Alatoconchid floatstone/rudstone (Coquinites)
In order to confirm field data, more than 114 samples Desciption: This microfacies is characterized by
were prepared for microfacies analysis. Based mainly on alatoconchid shells and shell fragments floating over or
Dunham (1962) and Flügel (2004), these samples were packing in calcisiltite/calcarenite (packstone) matrix.
classified and summarized into six major microfacies Allochemical constituents are peloids, shell debris,
types (MF). Selected photomicrographs of these bioclastic fragments, ostracods and smaller foraminifers.
microfacies are shown in figure 2 and 3. Stratigraphic log Black filamentous matters and carbonized or bituminous
is presented in figure 4. Depositional environments of wood fragments are common.
microfacies were interpreted based mainly on Flügel Interpretation: Texture and grain components indicate
(2004) (fig.5). storm deposits or tempestites. Grain components were
MF1: Algal-foramal wackestone/packstone transported under high-energy condition and deposited
Description: This facies is characterized by common when the energy decreased. The accumulation of large
occurrence of dasycladacean algae and miliolid bivalve shells indicates proximal tempestites. It can be
foraminifers in peloidal wackestone and packstone. compared to shell bed of calcareous tempestites (Aigner,
Ostracods and shell fragments were found scattered in this 1982b). This structure is possibly parautochthonous.
facies. Algea compose mainly of Vermiporella nipponica Black skeletal debris and filaments are algal derived
and Mizzia velebitana. Miliolids consist mainly of material as shown by relics of algal structure in these
Hemigordius sp., Agathammina sp., and Kamurana sp. materials.
Other smaller foraminifers include Psuedoendothyra sp., MF3b: Alatoconchid wackestone
Globivalvulina sp., Ichtyolaria sp., Eotuberitina sp., Description: Peloids are predominating over skeletal
Tuberitina sp., etc. Micritised fusulinids are occasionally grains in micrite matrix. These peloids are irregular in
observed with fragments, worn and crushed tests. shape and diffuse in outline with diameter ranging from
Nankinella sp. was recrystallised and locally found
171
Figure 2. Photomicrographs of alatoconchid-bearing limestones from Khao Somphot locality.1; fusulinids in peloidal bioclastic
wackestone texture (MF2), 2; fusulinids in bioclastic packstone texture. Abraded and worn fusulinids are prominent with
echinoderm fragments and debris (MF2), 3; algal-foramal wackestone with miliolids and Vermiporella nipponica (MF1), 4; lime
mudstone with miliolids, ostracods and fragments (MF4), 5; calcisiltite/packstone matrix with worn alatoconchid shell from
alatoconchid rudstone (MF3a), 6; peloidal wackestone matrix from alatoconchid wackestone (MF3b). (scale bars=500 µm)
20 µm to100 µm. Smaller foraminifers include Tuberitina mud matrix. Bioclastic grains compose of smaller
sp., Globivalvulina sp., miliolids, etc. Fusulinids were foraminifers, calcisphere, algae, ostracods, gastropods,
found mainly of Verbeekina verbeeki and brachiopods, corals and shell debris. Smaller foraminifers
Neoschwagerina sp. Other allochems are ostracods, fine- consist of Agathammina sp., Hemigordius sp.,
grained shell fragments and algal fragments. Globivalvulina sp., Calcitornella sp., and
Interpretation: Depositional environment is subtidal Pseudoendothyra sp. Ostracods were found in both single-
lagoon around or under fair-weather wave base. This valved and double-valved conditions. Algae include
microfacies was deposited in relative quiet condition Vermiporella nipponica and most of them are fragmented.
indicated by large amount of micrite. Peloids are inferred Corals are rare showing as small fragments. Intraclasts
to fecal pellets in origin. Alatoconchids seem to prefer this compose of sand size, subangular to subrounded. Peloids
environment as their main habitat. In the field, are rounded and common. Fenestral fabric may found in
alatoconchids which found in life-position without some intervals. Fenestrae exhibit laminoid fabric with
significant evidence of transportation supports this slightly elongate cavities in mudstone groundmass.
interpretation. Internal cavities are occluded by equant calcite cement
MF4: Lime mudstone/ argillaceous wackestone and dark-gray peloids. Matrix is predominated by
Description: This microfacies is characterized by peloids, carbonate mud over equant calcite cement. Peloids and
bioclastic grains and intraclasts scattered in carbonate coarse intraclasts are abundance but bioclastic grains are
172
Figure 3. Photomicrographs of alatoconchid-bearing limestones from Khao Somphot locality. 1; fenestral mudstone (MF4)
showing irregular voids with calcite infilling, rounded void outline with pendant shape on roof, 2; sediment-floored cavity with
calcite infilling, 3; fenestral bindstone (MF5) showing laminoid fenestral fabric intercalated with algal bindstone, 4; laminated
algal bindstone with packed peloidal-bioclastic framework (MF5), 5-6; coated bioclastic grainstone (MF6). (scale bars=500 µm)
rare. Bioclastic grains compose of ostracods, smaller on rock texture and composition, fenestral fabric was
foraminifers, algal fragment, shell fragments and debris. located in intertidal zone.
Filamentous matters were found arranged in sub-parallel MF5: Laminated bindstone
orientation. Most ostracods were found in fragments or Description: This microfacies consists of thin laminae of
single-valved condition, however, double-valved is algal tubes with packed allochems. The texture shows
occasionally observed. Smaller foraminifers compose of grain orientation sub-parallel to parallel along bedding
Langella sp., Globivalvulina sp. and miliolids. plane. Allochems compose of peloids and bioclastic
Interpretation: This microfacies indicates intertidal grains. Peloids are silt size with sub-spherical shape.
environment. It shows characteristic of tidal flats with Bioclastic grains are abraded and composed of
good preservation of restricted fossils as miliolids, dasycladacean algae, smaller foraminifers, alatoconchid
ostracods and gastropods. Intraclasts were created by re- fragments, and shell debris. Algae consist of Mizzia sp.
sedimentation of semi-lithified to lithified sediments by and Vermiporella sp. Most of algal thalli are flatted
wave or current. Some of bioclastic fragments and shell especially in Vermiporella sp. Some bioclasts such as
debris are reworked or transported grains. Generally, the algal and bivalve fragments are encrusted by filamentous
existence of fenestral fabric or birdseyes indicates laminae. Miliolids show most prolific occurrence among
intertidal environment. However, the open cavities may be smaller foraminifers. However, they are poorly preserved
the result of wetting and drying of carbonate mud in with erosion and recrystallization tests. Fusulinids are rare
supratidal setting (Shin, 1968). In this study, based mainly and show strong micritisation while some exhibit crushed
173
A
Figure 4. A; stratigraphic log of alatoconchid-bearing limestone section from Khao Somphot locality showing succession of
microfacies types. MF1=algal-foramal wackestone/packstone, MF2= fusulinid wackestone/packstone, MF3a=alatoconchid
floatstone/rudstone, MF3b= alatoconchid wackestone, MF4= lime mudstone/ argillaceous wackestone, MF5=laminated bindstone,
MF6=coated-bioclastic packstone/grainstone. B; field photograph of alatoconchid bed (MF3b) with lenticular chert on top, ruler
for scale =15 cm. C; draft of B, alatoconchids are light gray, crosswing-like flange of double-valved one is in center. D; field
photograph of alatoconchid coquinite bed (MF3a), pen for scale =15 cm. E; draft of D, fragment of alatoconchids is dark gray
tests. Shell fragments and debris composes of are rounded sub-spherical to ellipsoidal in shape.
alatoconchid components and undetermined grains. Bioclastic grains compose mainly of miliolids and other
Filaments were found wrapped around and between smaller foraminifers, algae, ostracods, shell fragments and
grains. This microfacies may grade into fenestral debris. Smaller foraminifers include Neohemigordius
bindstone in some interval. Fenestral fabric shows grandis, Neohemigordius japonica, Pachyphloia sp. and
distinctive alternating couplets of light-gray and dark-gray others. Algae compose mainly of Vermiporella nipponica.
laminae. Fenestral cavities were found mainly in light Interpretation: This microfacies can be compared to
gray layer. In this layer, fenestral fabric is characterized algal mat. It was deposited in shallow subtidal or intertidal
by lateral extended irregular, laminar cavities. The environments. Algal tubes are responsible for binding or
internal cavities are floored by micrite and occluded by trapping sediments. Shell fragments and debris were
spar filled cement. Allochems were observed mainly in transported to this area by current or wave. Grain contact
dark layers predominated by peloids over bioclastic grians and fitness were enhanced by mechanical
with relic of filamentous matter in groundmass. Peloids compaction.Fenestral fabric was developed in intertidal
174
Figure 5. Summary of microfacies, facies association and depositional environment with clan and depositional model.
area. In addition, bioclastic components and fragments environments. Based on microfacies analysis,
indicate intertidal rather than supratidal. By contrast, alatoconchids seem to prefer soft substrate with peloidal
supratidal origins normally show less or almost absent of wackestone texture. Their depositional environments or
bioclastic grains. The intercalation of fenestrae with paleoenvironments are sheltered lagoon and semi-
bindstone facies probably indicates a small-scale restricted lagoon. The platform was dominated by storms
fluctuation of sea-level in peritidal domain. Filamentous indicated by intercalation of storm deposits or tempestites.
matter is interpreted as algal in origin. The most prolific tempestites in the field are alatoconchid
MF6: Coated-bioclastic packstone/grainstone coquinite beds. Additionally, theexistence of reworked
Description: This microfacies is characterized by grain- coral heads and storm sheets support storm-dominated
supported fabric with common grain-in-contact. platform as well. Diagenetic alterations are common such
Allochems are mostly in silt size, well sorted and well as pressure solution, dolomitization, and silicification. The
rounded. They compose of coated grains with micrite Capitanian age (Midian) of this section is revealed by the
envelopes or cortoids as major component. Smaller Lepidolina zone with Colania douvillei and
foraminifers and peloids are minor component. Most of Conodofusiella sp.
smaller foraminifers are micritised. Interstitial space is
occluded mainly by sparry cement. REFERENCES
Interpretation: This microfacies indicates relatively
constant agitated water of internal shoal environment. Aigner, T. 1982(a). Event-stratification in Nummulite
This area is located between semi-restricted lagoon and Accumulations and in Shell Beds from the Eocence of
open lagoon above fair-weather wave base. Rounded and Egypt. In Einsele, G. and Seilacher, A. (eds.), Cycle
micritised grains indicate reworking and transportation. and Event Stratigraphy. Berlin-Heidelberg. New York,
This facies was deposited in more agitated water of 248-262.
shallower environment in comparison with fusulinid Aigner, T. 1982(b). Calcareous Tempestites; Storm-dominated
Stratification in Upper Muschelkalk Limestones
facies (MF2). (Middle Triassic, SW-Germany). In Einsele, G. and
Seilacher, A. (eds.), Cycle and Event Stratigraphy.
CONCLUSION Berlin-Heidelberg. New York, 180-198.
Altermann, W. 1989. Facies Development in the Permian
Six major microfacies are differentiated from limestones Petchabun Basin, Central Thailand. Verlag Für
in the study section. The sediment was deposited in Wissenschaft und Bildung, 10 Pl, Berlin, 235p.
sheltered lagoon with open marine, internal shoal, semi- Chonglakmani, C. and Fontaine, H. 1990. The Lam Narai-
Phetchabun Region: A Platform of Early Carboniferous to
restricted lagoon, restricted lagoon, and intertidal
175
Late Permian Age. Proc. Techn. Conf. on Development of Kiessling, W. and Flügel, E. 2000. Late Paleozoic and Late
Geology for Thailand into the year 2000. Chulalongkorn Triassic Limestones from North Palawan Block
University, Thailand, 39-98. (Philippines): Microfacies and Paleogeographical
Dunham, R. J. 1962. Classifiation of Carbonate Rocks according Implication. Facies, 43, 39-78.
to Depositional Texture. In Ham, W. E (ed.), Runnegar, B. and Gobbet, D. J. 1975. Tanchintongia gen. nov., a
Classification of Carbonate Rock. Mem. Am. Ass. bizarre Permian myalinid bivalve from west Malaysia and
Petro.Geol.1, 108-121. Japan. Palaeontology. 18: 315-322.
Fontaine, H., Salyapongse, S., and Vachard, D. 1999. New Shin, E. A. 1968. Practical Significant of Birdseye Structures in
Carboniferous Fossils found in Ban Bo Nam Area, Central Carbonate Rocks. J. Sediment. Petrol, 38: 215-233.
Thailand. In Khantarab C. (editor-in-chief), Proc. Termier , H., Termier, G., and De Lapparent, A. F. 1973. Grands
Symposium on Mineral, Energy and Water Resources of bivalves récifuax du Permian supérieur de I’ ′Afghanistan
Thailand: Towards the year 2000. Chulalongkorn central. Annuales Société Géol. Du Nord. 93: 75-80.
University, 39-98. Wieldchosky, C. C. and Young, J. D. 1985. Regional Facies
Flügel, E. 2004. Microfacies of Carbonate Rocks: Analysis, Variation in Permian Rocks of the Phetchabun Fold
Interpretation and Application. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. and Thrust Belt, Thailand. In Thanvarachorn, P.,
976p. Hokjaroen, S., and Youngme, W. (eds.), Proc. on
Isozaki, Y. 2006. Gaudalupian (Middle Permian) Giant Bivalve Geology and Mineral Resources Development of the
Alatoconchidae from a Mid-Panthalassan Paleo-Atoll Northeastern Thailand. Khon Kaen University,
Complex in Kyushu, Japan: A Unique Community Thailand, 41-55.
Associated with Tethyan Fusulines and Corals. Yancey, E. T., and Boyd, W. D. 1983. Revision of the
Proceeding of the Japan Academy. Ser B, vol 82, no 1, 25- alatoconchidea: a remarkable family of Permian bivalve.
32. Palaeontology. 26 (3):497-520.
176
MIDDLE HOLOCENE PEAT AND MOLLUSK SHELLS FROM

ONGKHARAK AREA, NAKHON NAYOK, CENTRAL THAILAND:
EVIDENCE OF IN SITU DEPOSITS DURING A MARINE TRANSGRESSION
PERIOD
Wickanet Songtham 1, Poramita Phanwong 2, and Tosak Seelanan 2
1
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok 10400 Thailand
2
Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330 Thailand
ABSTRACT
About seven meter-thick Bangkok Clay in Ongkharak area, Nakhon Nayok, Central Thailand had been studied. Clay
samples were collected for palynology. Peat and mollusk shells were recovered for carbon fourteen dating. The Bangkok
Clay distinctly yielded mangrove pollen, peat, and abundant marine mollusk shells. The clay sediment dating back from
7,600 to 5,000 years B.P. is prominently considered as marine clay deposited during a marine transgression period. At
the beginning of the marine invasion, 7,600 to 7,000 years B.P., abundant peat was accumulated in littoral zone under
mangrove forest. The area was continuously flooded by seawater and was subsequently in subtidal zone at about 5,000
years B.P. indicated by a mollusk shell layer containing abundant Cyrtopleura sp. cf. C. costata, the species today occurs
near the low tide boundary of subtidal zone as burrower. The shell species from the Bangkok Clay is strongly regarded
as in situ deposit on the basis of its occurrence that is suitable for age determination. The carbonized woods are
reasonably regarded as in situ deposit as well. The carbonized woods and shells are evidences of a marine transgression
period during Holocene.
Key words: mollusk, central Thailand, transgression
INTRODUCTION STUDY AREA

Precise carbon fourteen dating for Holocene geological The study area is a large soil pit producing dumped soil
formation needs suitable materials, peat or marine shell, to for construction site. It is 380 meters wide, 1050 meters
representing their original deposition. The basic long, and 27 meters deep. The soil layers in the pit are
requirement is to make sure that the material used is not consistently considered as Quaternary deposits. The lower
reworked sample, likewise, the in situ materials is needed. portion exposed about 20 meters thick is stiff clay of
The Holocene Bangkok Clay in the lower central plain of Pleistocene sediments covered with Holocene Bangkok
Thailand is one that contains abundant materials of peat, Clay containing abundant marine animal remains with
carbonized woods, and marine mollusk shells of which thickness about 7 meters. The youngest sediment is a thin
are possible to date. However, these materials are hard to layer of clay without marine animal remains regarding as
proof that either they are in situ or ex situ deposit. The a recent fluvial deposit.
Bangkok Clay has been proven as estuarine deposits that The pit is located in Ban Lad Chang, Tambon Chumpon,
reworked woods and shells were possibly taken place in Ongkharak district, Nakhon Nayok province. It is on the
general. Some carbonized wood and mollusk shell area between Khlong Sib Si and Khlong Sib Ha on the
occurrences from Lad Chang soil pit, Ongkharak, Nakhon southern area of Khlong Rang Sit. It is located on latitude
Nayok province (Fig. 1), are needed to prove for this 14° 00' 40" N longitude 100° 55' 30" E of the Royal Thai
application. Common carbonized woods at the lowermost Survey Department map sheet 5137 II, scale 1: 50,000
portion of the Bangkok Clay play significant role for (Nong Sua sheet). The area is on the lower central plain of
precise age determination. A species of shell from a thin about 150 kilometers wide in east-west direction and
shell layer at the middle portion of the Bangkok Clay about 190 kilometers long in north-south direction
shows a systematic depositional pattern enabling to bounded by mountain ranges to the west, north, and east
believe as an in situ deposit. These led us to collect the with the Gulf of Thailand in the south. The plain is where
carbonized woods and shell specimens for carbon fourteen four main rivers run through from north to south flowing
dating and reconstructing the ancient shorelines. This out to the gulf including Maeklong, Tajeen, Chao Phaya,
paper aims to describe and record some special and Bang Pakong rivers arranging from west to east
characteristics of materials used for age determination and respectively. The plain is under tropical monsoon climate
their occurrences. alternated between wet and dry period in a year rounded.
The plain is usually flooded during heavy rains with
flooding sediment accumulation from year to year over
177
thousands of years. Large cities settled in the plain include Chasoengsao, and with some parts of Petchaburi,
Bangkok, Pathumthani, Nontaburi, Samut Prakan, Samut Kanchanaburi, Prachinburi, Nakhon Nayok, and Chonburi
Sakhon, Samut Songkarm, Nakhon Pathom, provinces.
Supanburi,Ratburi, Ayuthaya, Angthong, Singburi,
Figure 1 Map of lower central plain of Thailand showing four main rivers,
Mae Klong, Tachin, Chao Phaya, and Bangprakong rivers; province localities, and study area.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials used in this study consist of clay samples, peat,
and mollusk shells. The clay is soft and black in general
collecting along northern wall of the Lad Chang soil pit,
Chumpol sub-district, in Ongkharak district of Nakhon
Nayok province. The Bangkok Clay is about 7.6 meters
thick and the samples were collected from the base to the
top of the horizon with about 10 centimeters intervals.
Each station of the sample was precisely located by
Theodolite and using ½ inch-size PVC pipe to collecting
the clay. The samples were put in plastic bags and
marking labels. The clay samples are being used for
palynological extraction.
Carbonized woods from the Bangkok Clay are located at
the contact between the lowermost part of the Bangkok
Clay and the underlying sedimentary layer (Fig. 2). They
are black, brittle as characteristics as lignite and annual
rings are well observable. They exposes as the basal parts
of small tree trunks in upright position with roots deeply
submerged down into the soil. Three samples were
collected and wrapped with aluminum foil for carbon
fourteen dating. Figure 2 Stratigraphic log from a pit wall of Lad Chang soil pit
In the middle portion of the Bangkok Clay contains a thin showing the Bangkok Clay where mollusk shell and
mollusk shell layer about 15 centimeters thick. The shell carbonized wood were collected for carbon fourteen dating.
layer is at 4.428 meters under present mean sea level
178
whereas the ground surface is about 2.2 meters above the 5,000 years B.P. as the result of the age determination of
mean sea level. There are diversified species of mollusks the shell.
but Cyrtopleura sp. cf. C. costata is significantly Carbonized woods together with abundant peat densely
interesting. The shell is characterized by an oval to occur in the lowermost part of the Bangkok Clay. The
elongate shape with narrowing towards the posterior end. woods sparsely occur from place to place with some
Valves have umbones at about ¼ position of the shell significant interesting. They are characterized by tree
length from the anterior end. Outside surfaces of the trunk shape with annual rings clearly visible. The tree
valves are patterned with radial riblets, which are sharp trunks pose in vertical standing with roots deeply
and angular in the anterior, and broader posteriorly. Inside submerged downward in the soil. The woods are said to
surface of the valves, behind the umbones, is a thick, be in situ deposit that have stood at the original living tree
winged plate that lies transverse to the plane of the valves. positions perhaps in the mangrove forest at the time of
Each mollusk shell body separately occurs from each 7,600 to 7,000 years B.P. These carbonized woods are,
other about 5 to 30 centimeters separation widely thus, considered as good materials for carbon fourteen
distributed all over the study area. The shell body always dating.
occurs as a pair of valves as its original nature and almost The area was first affected by the marine incursion at
always orientated its long axis in upright position to the about 7,600 to 7,000 years B.P. At the time, the area was
shell layer with anterior side pointed downwardly and a shore where abundant crabs living along. Many crab
posterior side pointed upwardly (Fig. 3). Many samples burrows were in the Pleistocene stiff clay and at the same
were collected but one of them was chosen and wrapped time abundant peat was also being accumulated probably
by aluminum foil for carbon fourteen dating. under the early stage of the mangrove environment. The
Holocene peat deposit took place on the Pleistocene stiff
clay shore marking unconformity boundary with more
clay deposition onward forming the Holocene Bangkok
Clay as seen today. The area had continuously flooded by
seawater forming subtidal environment at about 5,000
year B.P. where abundant mollusks living in especially
the Cyrtopleura sp. cf. C. costata. The time span between
7,600 to 5,000 years B.P. is, thus, considered as a marine
transgression time span.
Table 1 Results of carbon fourteen dating.
Figure 3 Occurrence of mollusk shells Cyrtopleura sp. cf. C. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
costata at the middle part of the Bangkok Clay showing
orientation of the shell valves of in situ burrowing deposits. The occurrence of Cyrtopleura sp. cf. C. costata plays
systematic depositional pattern with high degree of
RESULTS confidence in saying that the shell is in situ deposit. The
5,000 years B.P. age of the shell clearly represents the age
The mollusk shell, Cyrtopleura sp. cf. C. costata, seems of deposition. The carbonized woods seem to be in situ
to be much interested as in situ deposit as suitable for deposits but not highly confident by some features of
carbon fourteen dating. Each shell body is oval elongated depositional styles. However, the result 7,600 to 7,000
shape and still kept into pair valves as its original nature years B.P. in age determination is reasonable enough by
with anterior part pointed downwardly and the posterior mean of older than the shell deposit. Therefore, the ages
part pointed upwardly, the long axis of the valves from the carbonized woods are relatively acceptable in
orientated in vertical position. This manner is interpreted term of stratigraphic sense but absolute acceptance is not
that the shell body has been preserved in its own burrow yet available until more detail investigation is confirmed.
since it was still alive. As the present Cyrtopleura costata,
it is burrower living on sandy mud near lower tide in ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
subtidal zone. It has survived in the burrow since juvenile
stage and never come out the burrow until die. Thus, the The authors sincerely thank Mr. Santi Sricham and Mr.
shells Cyrtopleura sp. cf. C. costata from the study area Montree Kaenthong from the Department of Mineral
are said to be in situ deposit and can be used to represent Resources who kindly provided a ground level survey of
its original stratigraphic level. The shells and the the study area. We thank the Department of Mineral
embedded sediment were, therefore, accumulated at about Resources in providing financial and logistical supports
throughout the field works.
179
MIDDLE TRIASSIC RADIOLARIANS FROM DEN CHAI AREA,

NORTHERN THAILAND
Hathaithip Thassanapak1,2, Chongpan Chonglakmani3, Qinglai Feng4, Jack Grant-Mackie5,
and Nathawut Thanee1
1
School of Biology Institute of Science, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand
2
3
School of Geotechnology, Institute of Engineering, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand
4
Faculty of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, The People’s Republic of China
5
Geology Department, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
ABSTRACT
Middle Triassic (Anisian-Ladinian) radiolarians were extracted from maroon siliceous rocks, south of Den Chai.
Radiolarians are composed of Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Triassocampe coronata Bragin,
Triassocampe scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler, Annulotriassocampe sulovensis (Kozur and Mock), Muelleritortis
cochleata cochleata (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Muelleritortis cochleata tumidospina Kozur, Muelleritortis expansa
Kozur and Mostler, Spongoserrula rarauana Dumitrica, Orbiculiforma karnica (Kozur and Mostler), Orbiculiforma sp.
cf. O.gazipasaensis Tekin, Archaeocenosphaera sp. cf. A. laseekensis Pessagno, Six and Yang, etc. This assemblage can
be correlated with those found in Fang-Chiang Dao area, Lumphun area and the Changning-Menglian belt of western
Yunnan. However, the rocks in the studied section show different texture with higher clastic content compared to those
areas. This study interprets the Middle Triassic radiolarian-bearing strata from Den Chai as having been deposited off-
shore of the extensional continental margin, compared with those of the deeper Chiang Dao and Lumphun areas.
Key words: Triassic, Radiolarians, Den Chai, Northern Thailand
INTRODUCTION by the occurrence of Middle Triassic radiolarians (Feng et

al., 2002). This basin can be compared to eastern belt of
For the last few decades, one of the most controversial Triassic deep marine and oceanic facies (Chonglakmani,
topics on geodynamic evolution of Southeast Asia has 1999). In addition, Carboniferous to Triassic sequences in
been the timing and location of the main Paleotethys. this region can be correlated with the eastern zone of
There were several concepts proposed in order to solve Changning-Menglian belt, western Yunnan. They are
this situation (e.g. Helmcke, 1985; 1994; Metcalfe, 1999; similar not only in petrological characteristics but also
Bonopas, 1981; 1994; Hutchison, 1993; Mitchell, 1992). sedimentology and fossil assemblages (Feng et al., 2002).
Various geological disciplines have been used for the The western limit of these sequences is located along deep
solution on this topic such as sedimentology, petrology, marine and oceanic facies and the eastern limit is located
stratigraphy, geochemistry and paleontology. Radiolarian along eastern portion of Nan-Uttaradit suture
paleontology is an important tool for fulfilling (Chonglakmani, 2001). Then it is possible to find other
geodynamic interpretation. Lithology of radiolarian- Middle Triassic deep marine strata along this region,
bearing rocks and radiolarian assemblages provide good however, petrology and other geological disciplines must
indicators of tectonic settings. be considered prior to conclusion.
Recently, it is widely accepted that the main Paleotethys In order to examine this assumption, field trip during
of this region is situated along Thai-Myanmese border summer 2004 was carried out. As a result, radiolarian-
(Chonglakmani, 2002; Wang et al., 1999). By contrast, bearing siliceous rocks were found cropped out with
Nan-Uttaradit suture as the main Paleothetys should be basalts at km 88, highway 101 south of Den Chai, Phrae
ruled out since it was closed not latter than Middle Province (Fig.1). These rocks are maroon in color, very
Permian (Helmcke, 1994). thinly to thinly bedded and intensely folded in various
In northern Thailand, there is another deep marine basin directions. Twenty-five samples were collected and they
located to the east of the main Paleotethys within the provide a moderately preserved Middle Triassic
Shan-Thai Block. It contains deep marine strata such as radiolarian fauna.
pelagic cherts and black shales which have been found
north of Chiang Mai. The age of these strata ranges from GEOLOGIC SETTING
Devonian to Middle Triassic (Jaeger et al., 1969; Sashida
et al., 1993; Caridriot, 1993; Thassanapak et al., 2006). The study locality is located in mountainous area close to
Moreover, this basin can be traced southward to Lumphun the southern edge of the Cenozoic Phrae basin (Fig. 1).
180
This area is covered mainly by Triassic rocks with red beds with Bouma sequence which are interpreted as
Pleistocene Basalts (Geological survey division, 1999). shallow marine and fan-delta facies deposited on the
The Triassic rocks are composed mainly of Wang Chin extentional forearc basin (Chaodumrong and Burret
and Pha Daeng Formations of Lampang Group. These 1997). However, these flysch-like strata were interpreted
rocks deposited in Triassic Lampang-Phrae basin as sediment deposited under rapidly subsiding area of
(including Lampang sub-basin and Phrae sub-basin) epicontinental setting (intramontane basins) (Helmcke,
which contains both shallow marine and deep marine 1994).
facies. More off-shore environment (deep marine) is The Pleistocene basalts are olivine and nepheline types.
indicated by the common occurrence of pelagic Permo-Triassic volcanic rocks including rhyolite,
ammonoids and bivalves (Posidoniidae) (Chonglakmani andesite, tuff and agglomerate are found mainly between
and Grant-Mackie, 1993).The Wang Chin Formation Lampang sub-basin and Phrae sub-basin and locally
consists mainly of mud-rich sequence of submarine fan around the north of study area (Piyasin, 1974). Major
sediments with detached sand bodies (Chaodumrong, lineaments of this area are in northeast-southwest trend
1994). Fossils include Halobia sp., Palaeocardita sp., and subparallel to major trend of the so-called Northern Basin
Posidonia sp. (Meesook et al., 2002). In addition, Pha and Range province of this region.
Daeng Formation is sporadically exposed in the north of
the study area. It is characterised mainly by fine-grained
A B
Figure 1. A: Simplified geologic map of the study area locates in the north of Thailand. Radiolarian-bearing siliceous rocks are
found within Triassic unit, partly covered by Pleistocene Basalts (modified after Geological survey division, 1999).
B: Folded siliceous rocks crop out in the study area.
RADIOLARIANS ASSEMBLAGES AND deweveri zone) of Sugiyama (1997) and Triassocampe

AGE DETERMINATION deweveri zone of Yao (1982) from Mino Terrane, Japan.
In addition, it can be correlated with Triassocampe
Radiolarians obtained from Den Chai section are deweveri zone from the Changning-Menglian belt,
composed of Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and southwestern Yunnan, China (Feng et al., 2002). Similar
Nishimura), Triassocampe coronata Bragin, assemblage from European Tethys is Spongosilicarmiger
Triassocampe scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler, transitus zone (Kozur, 1994). These zones are tentatively
Annulotriassocampe sulovensis (Kozur and Mock), assigned a Late Anisian age. The common occurrence of
Muelleritortis cochleata cochleata (Nakaseko and Muelleritortis cochleata cochleata allows correlation with
Nishimura), Muelleritortis cochleata tumidospina Kozur, the Muelleritortis cochleata zone of Kozur and Mostler
Muelleritortis expansa Kozur and Mostler, Spongoserrula (1994) and Sugiyama (1997). With the first co-occurrence
rarauana Dumitrica, Orbiculiforma karnica (Kozur and of Spongoserrula rarauana, Orbiculiforma karnica and
Mostler), Orbiculiforma sp. cf. O.gazipasaensis Tekin, O. cf. O.gazipasaensis, it can be correlated with
Archaeocenosphaera sp. cf. A. laseekensis Pessagno and Spongoserrula rarauana subzone, middle subzone of
Yang, and others. It shows a common occurrence of Muelleritortis cochleata zone of Kozur and Mostler
Triassocampe deweveri, T. coronata, T. scalaris, (1996) and Tekin (1999). These radiolarian faunas may
Muelleritortis cochleata cochleata and suggest middle to late Ladinian. According to the ranges
Archaeocenosphaera sp. This assemblage can be of all species in assemblages, the geological age of these
correlated with assemblage zone TR 2C (Triassocampe faunas is interpreted as late Anisian to late Ladinian.
181
STRATIGRAPHIC IMPLICATION Remarks: This form is similar to A. laseekensis Pessagno
and Yang. It differs only in possessing smaller
According to previous works, an Anisian radiolarian pores.
assemblage has been found in area south of Lumphun Range: Middle Triassic (late Anisian to late ladinian) -
which was formerly mapped as Permain strata (Feng et This study; Mesozoic (Triassic to Cretaceous) -
al., 2002). In addition, Middle Triassic radiolarians are Total range.
observed from bedded cherts in Chiang Dao area which Occurrence: Tethyan and Boreal Realms.
was formerly considered Carboniferous (Thassanapak et
al., 2006). These data are interpreted as stratigraphic Family Oertlispongidae Kozur and Mostler, 1980
slices. It shows that deep marine discontinuous strata are Subfamily Oertlisponginae Kozur and Mostler, 1980
exposed in Fang-Chiang Dao areas and extend southward Genus Spongoserrula Dumitrica, 1982
to Lumphun. Type Species: Spongoserrula rarauana Dumitrica, 1982
Based on this present work, late Anisian to late Ladinian
radiolarian-bearing siliceous rocks are exposed in a Spongoserrula rarauana Dumitrica, 1982
complex zone which contains mainly Triassic Lampang
Group and Permian units. Texture of siliceous rocks Plate 1, figure 24.
exhibits dull surface but not vitreous as common in cherts. 1995 Spongoserrula rarauana Dumitrica- Halamić and
Colour is maroon which is probably due to an effect of Goričan, p.136, pl.1, fig.2
iron hydroxides. The rocks differ from cherts from Chiang 1996 Spongoserrula rarauana Dumitrica- Kozur and
Dao and Lumphun in containing relative higher amount of Mostler, p.115, pl.5, figs. 8, 10, 11, 13-15; pl.6,
clastics. The Lan/Cen vs. Al2O3/ (Al2O3+Fe2O3) figs. 1-3, 6, 9; pl.8, fig. 9
discrimination diagrams from the geochemical analyses 1999 Spongoserrula rarauana Dumitrica- Tekin, p.106,
(ICP-MS, XRF) indicate continental margin environment pl.15, figs 7-8
(in preparation). Consequently, the studied section is 2002 Spongoserrula rarauana Dumitrica- Kamata et al.,
interpreted as a remnant of strata deposited in a shallower p.503, figs. 6N and O
environment than those in Chiang Dao and Lumphun area.
The sediment in this section accumulated under Remarks: An illustrated poorly preserved specimen has
extensional regime of epicontinental setting subsequent to flattened wide spine, strongly curved of teeth.
a Late Variscan (Permian) orogeny. The ends of its teeth are rounded. Based on these
features, we can tentatively assign it to this
SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY species.
Range: Middle to Late Triassic (late Ladinian to Carnian).
Systematic paleontology of some selected radiolarians Occurrence: British Columbia, European Tethys,
obtained from the studied area is listed below. Figures of Romania, Turkey, northern Thailand.
these radiolarians are illustrated in plate 1.
Family Orbiculiformidae Pessagno, 1973
Phylum Protozoa Genus Orbiculiforma Pessagno, 1973
Subphyum Sarcodina Type species: Orbiculiforma quadrata Pessagno, 1973
Class Actinopoda
Subclass Radiolaria Müller, 1858 Orbiculiforma karnica (Kozur and Mostler, 1978)
Order Polycystina Ehrenberg, 1838, emend. Riedel,
1967 Plate 1, figure 22, 23.
Suborder Spumellaria Ehrenberg, 1875 1999 Orbiculiforma karnica (Kozur and Mostler, 1978) –
Superfamily Actinommacea Haeckel, 1862 Tekin, p.119, pl.20, fig. 10
Family Xiphostylidae Haeckel, 1862 2005 Praeorbiculiformella karnica (Kozur and Mostler,
Genus Archaeocenosphaera Pessagno and Yang, 1989 1978) – Feng et al., p.247, pl.2, figs. 19, 20
Type species: Archaeocenosphaera ruesti Pessagno and
Yang, 1989 Remarks: This species shows a circular test in outline
with short spines at periphery. The central cavity
Archaeocenosphaera sp. cf. A. laseekensis Pessagno and is commonly missing. Our specimens are not
Yang, 1989 well preserved but have similar features to the
type specimens of O.karnica (Kozur and
Plate 1, figure 25, 26. Mostler) by test, spines and shape of pore
1989 Archaeocenosphaera laseekensis n.sp. - Pessagno , frames.
Six and Yang, p.203, pl.2, figs.18, 21, 22, 25 Range: Middle to Late Triassic (late Ladinian to middle
1993 Archaeocenosphaera sp. aff. A. laseekensis Carnian).
Pessagno and Yang- Carter, p.67, pl.1, figs 14, Occurrence: Austria, Turkey and northern Thailand.
19, 20
1999 Archaeocenosphaera sp. - Bragin and Krylov, p.545, Orbiculiforma sp. cf. O. gazipasaensis Tekin, 1999
fig. 2F
182
Plate 1, figure 21. Carnian).
1999 Orbiculiforma gazipasaensis n.sp. - Tekin, p.118, Occurrence: Turkey so far as known.
p.20, figs. 5-7
Suboder Entactinaria Kozur and Mostler, 1982
Remarks: Test large and roughly circular in outline, Family Muellertortidae Kozur, 1988
without equatorial spines and moderately Genus Muelleritortis Kozur, 1988
developed a raised boss within the central cavity. Type species: Emiluvia? cochleata Nakaseko and
The boss in our specimen is lower than that in Nishimura, 1979
the type specimens of O. gazipasaensis, Tekin.
Range: Middle to Late Triassic (late Ladinian to early
Plate 1. Late Anisian to late Ladinian radiolarians from Den Chai section; fig.1-3= Annulotriassocampe sulovensis (Kozur and
Mock, 1981); fig. 4-6= Triassocampe coronata Bragin 1991; fig. 7-9= Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura, 1979);
fig. 10-12=Triassocampe scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler 1980; Fig. 13,15,16= Muelleritortis cochleata cochleata (Nakaseko
and Nishimura) Kozur, 1988; fig.14,17= Muelleritortis expansa Kozur and Mostler, 1996; fig.18-20= Muelleritortis cochleata
tumidospina Kozur, 1988; fig. 21= Orbiculiforma sp. cf. O. gazipasaensis Tekin, 1999; fig. 22-23= Orbiculiforma karnica (Kozur
and Mostler, 1978); fig. 24= Spongoserrula rarauana Dumitrica, 1982; fig. 25= Archaeocenosphaera sp. cf. A. laseekensis
Pessagno and Yang, 1989; fig 26=magnification of figure 25. Scale bars: a= 1-5, 7-9(40 µm); b=26(40 µm); c=11, 12, 23 (200 µm);
d=13-22, 25 (200 µm); e=6, 10, 24 (200 µm).
Muelleritortis cochleata cochleata (Nakaseko and 1979 Emiluvia? cochleata n.sp. - Nakaseko and
Nishimura) Kozur, 1988 Nishimura, p.70, pl.3, figs. 2-4, 6
1988 Muelleritortis cochleata cochleata (Nakaseko and
Plate 1, figure 13, 15, 16. Nishimura) - Kozur, p.53, pl.1, figs. 1-8; pl.2,
figs. 1, 2; pl.3, fig.1
183
1996 Muelleritortis cochleata cochleata (Nakaseko and Type species: Annulotriassocampe baldii Kozur, 1994
Nishimura) - Kozur, p.86, pl.1, fig.9
1999 Muelleritortis cochleata cochleata (Nakaseko and Annulotriassocampe sulovensis (Kozur and Mock, 1981)
Nishimura) - Tekin, p.130, pl. 26, figs. 4-5
2002 Muelleritortis cochleata cochleata (Nakaseko and Plate 1, figure 1-3.
Nishimura)Kozur - Kamata et al., p.501, fig. 6D 1994 Annulotriassocampe sulovensis (Kozur and Mock) -
Kozur and Mostler, p.249
Remarks: The specimens are characterized by having 1999 Annulotriassocampe sulovensis (Kozur and Mock) –
four main spines. Three main spines are twisted Tekin, p.170, pl.41, fig.8
tightly. An untwisted spine is either the same 2002 Triassocampe cf. sulovensis Kozur and Mock –
length as or a little longer than other spines. The Kamata et al., fig.7D
cortical shell is spherical to subspherical and
rarely round in polar view. These characteristics Remarks: The specimens figured here have well
are similar to the type specimens of M. c. developed circumferencial ridges, each with a
cochleata (Nakaseko and Nishimura) by Kozur, horizontal row of pores on its crest.
1988.
Range: Middle to Late Triassic (middle Ladinian to early Range: Middle to Late Triassic (Ladinian to early
Carnian). Carnian)
Occurrence: European Tethys, Russian Far East, Japan Occurrence: Northern Alps, U.S.A, Turkey, Philippines,
and northern Thailand. northern Thailand.
Muelleritortis cochleata tumidospina Kozur, 1988 Genus Triassocampe Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler,
1980
Plate 1, figure 18-20. Type species: Triassocampe scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur
1988 Muelleritortis cochleata tumidospina n.subsp. - and Mostler, 1980
Kozur, p.54, pl.3, fig.2
1999 Muelleritortis cochleata tumidospina Kozur - Tekin, Triassocampe coronata Bragin 1991
p.131, pl.26, fig. 7
2002 Muelleritortis cochleata tumidospina Kozur - Plate 1, figure 4-6.
Kamata et al., p.502, fig. 6C and E 1979 Dictyomitrella sp.A - De Wever et al., p.90, pl.5,
figs. 12, 16
Remarks: The main spines of this species are broader 1992 Triassocampe coronata Bragin- Sugiyama, p.1198-
than in M. c. cochleata (Nakaseko and Nishimura). 1199, figs. 11-5, 6
Range: Middle Triassic (late Ladinian). 1997 Triassocampe coronata Bragin- Sugiyama, p.110,
Occurrence: European Tethys, Russian Far East, Japan figs.27-6, 7
and northern Thailand. Remarks: The species has a strong circumferential ridge
in the upper part of each abdomen segment, with
Muelleritortis expansa Kozur and Mostler, 1996 a large single row of pores beneath each ridge.
Range: Middle Triassic (middle Anisian).
Plate 1, figure 14-17. Occurrence: Russian Far East, Greece, Italy, Japan,
1996 Muelleritortis expansa n.sp. - Kozur and Mostler, northern China and northern Thailand.
p.88, pl.1, figs.1-5, 8?
1999 Muelleritortis expansa Kozur and Mostler - Tekin, Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura), 1979
p.131, pl.26, fig.8
Plate 1, figure 7-9.
Remarks: The special characteristics of this species are 1979 Dictyomitrella deweveri sp.nov. - Nakaseko and
very broad and deep median groove on all four main Nishimura, p.77, pl.10, figs. 8, 9
spines, arranged in cross-like and having the same length. 1982 Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura)-
The three twisted are distally expanded, round and blunt Yao, pl.1, figs. 1-3
at distal ends without terminal spine. An untwisted main 1993 Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura) -
spine is slightly expanded and rounded pointed at distal Feng, Zhang and Ye, p.182, pl.3, figs.1-6
ends with a long terminal spine. Although the specimens
that figured here are not well preserved, we can correlate Remarks: This species possesses 2-3 rows of pores
them to this species based on the main characteristics. beneath each circumferential ridge. Cephalis
Range: Middle Triassic (late Ladinian). dome-shaped without horn, shell
Occurrence: European Tethys, Japan. multisegmented. The specimens figured here are
identical to the type speciens.
Suborder Nassellaria Ehrenberg, 1875 Range: Middle Triassic (eary to late Ladinian).
Family Triassocampidae Kozur and Mostler, 1981 Occurrence: Japan, Slovenia, Italy, Turkey, northern
Genus Annulotriassocampe Kozur, 1994 Thailand.
184
Triassocampe scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler Islands, British Columbia, Canada. Mémoires de Géologie
1980 (Lausanne), 11, 1-175.
Chaodumrong, P., 1994. Sedimentology and Tectionic
Plate 1, figure 10-12. Implication of Triasic Submarine Fans, Lampang Group,
Central North Thailand. In Angsuwathana, P.,
1980 Triassocampe scalaris n.gen.n.sp.-Dumitrica, Kozur Wongwanich,T., Tansathien, W, Wongsomsak, S, and
and Mostler - p.26, pl.9, figs.5, 6, 11, pl. 14, fig.2 Tulyatid, J. (eds.), Proceeding of the International
1990 Triassocampe scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Symposium on Stratigraphic Correlation of Southeast Asia.
Mostler- Gorican and Buser, p.159, pl.12, figs. 2, Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand, 208-
3 225.
1999 Triassocampe scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Chaodumrong, P. and Burret, C., 1997. Early Late Triassic
Mostler – Tekin, p.170, pl.41, fig.10 Continental Colliding between Shan-Thai and Indochina
Terranes as Indicated by Occurrence of Fan Delta Red Beds
Remarks: The specimens figured here are similar to those of Pha Daeng Formation, Central North Thailand. In
Dheeradilok, P. et al., (eds.), Proceedings of International
of the types of T. scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Conference on Stratigraphy and Tectonic Evolution of
Mostler in the shape and ring of pores. Southeast Asia and the South Pacific. Department of
Range: Middle Triassic (early to late Ladinian). Mineral Resources. Bangkok, Thailand, 143-157.
Occurrence: Southern Alps, Japan, Slovenia, Italy, Chonglakmani, C., 1999. The Triassic system of Thailand:
Turkey. Implications for the paleogeography of southeast asia. In
Ratanasathien, B., and Rieb, S.L. (eds.). Proceedings of the
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS International Symposium on Shallow Tethys (ST) 5.
Department of Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University,
486-495.
The authors would like to express their thanks to the Key Chonglakmani, C., 2002. Current status of Triassic stratigraphy
Laboratory at China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) of Thailand and its implication for geotectonic evolution. In
for allowing access to their SEM and ICP-MS for this Montajit, N. (ed. in chief). Proceedings of the Symposium
project. We appreciate the GPMR of China University of on Geology of Thailand. Department of Mineral Resources.
Geosciences who also supports this project. Many thanks Bangkok, Thailand, 1-3.
are conveyed to staffs and students from Faculty of Earth Chonglakmani, C., and Grant-Mackie, J. A., 1993.
Sciences, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) who Biostratigraphy and facies variation of the marine Triassic
are friendly and helpful during the visit of the main sequences in Thailand. In Thanasuthipitak, T. (ed.).
International Symposium on Biostratigraphy of Mainland
author. Last but not least, special thanks are due to Prof. Southeast Asia : Facies and Paleontology. Department of
Dr. Feng’s family members who are very kind during that Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University, 97-123.
visit. Chonglakmani, C., Feng, Q., Meischner, D., Ingavat-Helmcke,
R., and Helmcke, D., 2001. Correlation of Tectono-
REFERENCES Stratigraphic Units in Northern Thailand with Those of
Western Yunnan (China). Journal of China University of
Bragin, N. and Krylov, K., 1999. Early Norian radiolaria from Geosciences.12 (3), 2070-213.
Cyprus. Geodiversitas, 21(4), 539-569. De Wever, P., Sanfillipo, A., Riedel, W. R., and Gruber, B.,
Bunopas, S., 1981. Paleogeographic history of western Thailand 1979. Triassic radiolarians from Greece, Sicily and Turkey.
and adjacent parts of south-east Asia: A plate tectonics Micropaleontology, 25(1), 75-109.
interpretation. Ph.D. Dissertation, Victoria University of Dumitrica, P., Kozur, H., and Mostler, H., 1980. Contribution to
Wellington, New Zealand. (Reprinted in 1982, Geological the radiolarian fauna of the Middle Triassic of the Southern
Survey Paper 5, Geological Survey Division, Department of Alps. Geologisch-Palaeontologische Mitteilungen
Mineral Resources, Thailand). Innsbruck. Sonderband, 10(1):1-46.
Bunopas, S., 1994. The Regional Stratigraphy, Paleogeographic Feng, Q., Zhang, Z., and Ye, M., 2001. Middle Triassic
and tectonic events of Thailand and Continental Southeast radiolarian fauna from southwest Yunnan, China.
Asia. In Angsuwathana, P., Wongwanich,T., Tansathien, Micropaleontology, 47(3), 173-204.
W, Wongsomsak, S, and Tulyatid, J. (eds.), Proceeding of Feng, Q., Chonglakmani, C., Helmcke, D., and Ingavat, R.,
the International Symposium on Stratigraphic Correlation 2002. Middle Triassic radiolarian fauna from Lumphun,
of Southeast Asia, 2-24. northern Thailand. In Montajit, N., et al., (eds),
Caridroit, M., 1993. Permian radiolarian from NW Thailand. In Proceedings of the Symposium on Geology of Thailand.
Thanasuthipitak, T. (ed.). International Symposium on Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand, 108-
Biostratigraphy of Mainland Southeast Asia : Facies and 116.
Paleontology. Department of Geological Sciences, Chiang Feng, Q., Malila, K., Wonganan, N., Chonglakmani, C.,
Mai University, 83-96. Helmcke, D., Ingavat-Helmcke, R., and Caridroit, M., 2005.
Caridroit, M., Bohlke, D., Lumjuan, A., Helmcke, D., and De Permian and Triassic radiolarian from northwest Thailand:
Wever, P., 1993. A mixed radiolarian fauna paleogeographical implications. Revue de
(Permian/Triassic) from clastics of the Mae Sariang area, micropaleontology, 48, 237-255.
northwestern Thailand. In Thanasuthipitak, T. (ed.), Geological Survey Division, 1999. Geological Map of Thailand,
International Symposium on Biostratigraphy of Mainland scale 1:2,500,000. Department of Mineral Resources,
Southeast Asia : Facies and Paleontology. Department of Bangkok, Thailand.
Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University, 401-413. Gorican, S. and Buser, S., 1990. Middle Triassic radiolarians
Carter, E. S., 1993. Biochronology and paleontology of from Slovenia (Yugoslavia). Geologija, 31/32, 133-197.
uppermost Triassic ( Rhaetian) radiolarians, Queen Charotte
185
Halamić, J. and Goričan, S., 1995. Triassic radiolarites from Metcalfe, I., 1999. The Tethys: How Many? How Old? How
Mts.Kanik and Medvednica (northwestern Croatia). Deep? How Wide? In Ratanasathien, B., and Rieb, S.L.
Geologia Croatica, 48/2, 129-146. (eds.). Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Helmcke, D., 1985. The Permo-Triassic Paleotethys in Shallow Tethys (ST) 5. Department of Geological Sciences,
Mainland Southeast-Asia and Adjacent Parts of China. Chiang Mai University, 486-495.
Geologische Rundschau, 74/2, 215-228. Mitchell, A. H. G., 1992. Late Permain-Mesozoic events and the
Helmcke, D., 1994. Distribution of Permian and Triassic Syn- Mergui Group Nappe in Myanmar and Thailand. Journal of
Orogenic Sediments in Central Mainland SE-Asia. In Southeast Asian Earth Sciences, 7 no. 2/3, 165-178.
Angsuwathana, P., Wongwanich,T., Tansathien, W, Nakaseko, K. and Nishimura, A., 1979. Upper Triassic
Wongsomsak, S, and Tulyatid, J. (eds.), Proceeding of the radiolarian from southwest Japan. Science Report of the
International Symposium on Stratigraphic Correlation of College General Education of Osaka University. 28, 2, 61-
Southeast Asia. Department of Mineral Resources, 109.
Bangkok, Thailand, 123-128. Pessagno, E.A., Six, W.M., and Yang, Q., 1989. The
Hutchison, C. S., 1993. Gondwana and Cathaysian Blocks, Xiphostylidae Haeckel and Parvivaccidae, n. fam.,
Palaeotethys Suture and Cenozoic Tectonics in South-East (Radiolaria) from the north American Jurassic.
Asia. Geologische Rundschau, 82, 388-405. Micropaleontology, 35, 3, 193-255.
Jaeger, H., Stein, V., and Wolfart, R., with a contribution from Piyasin, S., 1974. Geological Map of Thailand, sheet Changwat
D.Stoppel, 1969. Fauna (Graptolithen Brachiopoden) Uttaradit (NE47-11), scale 1:250,000. Department of
der unterdevonischen Schwarzschiefer Nord-Thailands. Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand.
Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Sashida, K., Igo, H., Hisada, K., Nakornsri, N., and
Abhandlungen, 133, 171-190. Ampornmaha, A., 1993. Occurrence of Paleozoic and Early
Kamata, Y., Sashida, K., Ueno, K., Hisada, K., Nakornsri, N., Mesozoic radiolarian in Thailand (preliminary report).
and Charusiri, P., 2002. Triassic radiolarian faunas from the Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences, 8, 97-108.
Mae Sariang area, northern Thailand and their Sugiyama, K., 1992. Lower and Middle Triassic radiolarians
paleogeographic significance. Journal of Asian Earth from Mt. Kinkazan Gifu prefecture, central Japan.
Science, 20, 491-506. Transactions and Proceedinds of the Palaeontological
Kozur, H., 1988. Muelleritortiidae n. fam., eine charakteristische Society of Japan, News Series, 167, 1180-1223.
longobardische (oberladinische) radiolarian familie, Teil I. Sugiyama, K., 1997. Triassic and lower Jurassic radiolarian
Freiberger Forschungshefte, 427, 95-100. biostratigraphy in the siliceous claystone and bedded chert
Kozur, H. and Mostler, H., 1994. Anisian to middle Carnian units of the southeastern Mino terrane, central Japan.
radiolarian zonation and description of some Bulletin of the Mizunami Fossil Museum, 24, 79-193.
stratigraphically important radiolarians. Geologisch- Tekin, U.K., 1999. Biostratigraphy and Systematics of late
Palaeontologische Mitteilungen Innsbruck. Sonderband, 3, middle to late Triassic radiolarians from the Turus
39-255. Mountains and Ankara region, Turkey. Geologisch-
Kozur, H. and Mostler, H., 1996. Longobardian (late ladinian) Palaeontologische Mitteilungen Innsbruck. Sonderband, 5,
Muelleritortiidae (radiolaria) from the Republic of Bosnia- 1-296.
Hercegovina. Geologisch-Palaeontologische Mitteilungen Thassanapak, H., Feng, Q., Chonglakmani, C., Udchachon, M.,
Innsbruck. Sonderband, 4, 83-103. and Thani, N., 2006. Middle Triassic radiolarians
Kozur, H. and Mostler, H., 1996. Longobardian (late ladinian) from Chiang Dao, Chiang Mai, northern Thailand. In Lüer,
Oertlispongidae (radiolaria) from the Republic of Bosnia- V., Hollis, C., Campbell, H., and Simes, J. (eds.),
Hercegovina and the stratigraphic value of advanced InterRad11 and Triassic Stratigraphic Symposium.
Oertlispongidae. Geologisch-Palaeontologische Wellington, New Zealand, 133. (Abstract)
Mitteilungen Innsbruck. Sonderband, 4, 105-193. Wang, X. D., Ueno, K., Mizuno, Y., and Sugiyama, T., (2001).
Kozur, H., Krainer, K., and Mostler, H., 1996. Radiolarians and Late Paleozoic faunal, climatic, and geographic changes in
facies of the middle Triassic Loibl Formation, south Alpine the Baochan block as a Gondwana-derived continental
Karawanken Mountains (Carinthia, Austria). Geologisch- fragment in southwest China. Palaeogeography,
Palaeontologische Mitteilungen Innsbruck. Sonderband, 4, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 170, 197-218.
195-269. Yao, A., 1982. Middle Triassic to Early Jurassic radiolarians
Meesook, A., Suteethon,V., Chaodumrong, P., Teerarungsigul, from Inuyama area, central Japan. Journal of Geosciences,
N., Sardsud, A., and Wongprayoon, T., 2002. Mesozoic Osaka City University, 25, 4, 53-70.
Rocks of Thailand: A Summary. In Montajit, N. (ed. in
chief). Proceedings of the Symposium on Geology of
Thailand. Department of Mineral Resources. Bangkok,
Thailand, 82-94.
186
MINERAL IDENTIFICATION OF DICKITE, PYROPHYLLITE, AND

ASSOCIATED CLAY MINERALS IN SARABURI AND NAKHONNAYOK
PROVINCES, THAILAND.
Pramual Jenkunawat
Department of Primary Industries and Mines, Bangkok 10400 Thailand: E-mail: pramual@dpim.go.th
ABSTRACT
A special type of clay minerals found within an area between Saraburi Province and Nakhonnayok Province has been
mined for a few decades. It has specific high strength properties suitable for application in ceramics, high temperature
bricks and white cement. Some rare pieces of translucent mass were once used as carved stone products by local
villagers.
The mineral name, “pyrophyllite”, was first used in mining licenses, more than 20 years ago, because of the physical
properties. Scientists conducted researches, in the past 10 years, on clay minerals using X-Ray Diffractrometry (XRD),
and found that the clay minerals not only pyrophyllite, but also dickite, kaolinite, and muscovite.
Color ranges from white, light gray, gray, greenish and bluish gray, reddish gray. Hardness is 2 – 3. Texture is massive,
dull and earthy look. Alumina content ranges 18-25%, Iron oxide content 0-1.5%. Quartz grains are frequently found.
Pyrite is sometimes disseminated.
These clay mineral deposits are located in small volcanic hills exposed in a vast volcanic field covering, hundreds of
square kilometers. The elevations are between 50-300 m above MSL. The Khao Yai formation is a Permo – Triassic
volcanic complex comprises of rhyolite, andesite, agglomerate and tuff. The volcanic complex is highly variable in
lithology. The clay minerals are probably occurred in a hydrothermal alteration, where alumina and H2O are added
while CaO, Na2O and K2O are reduced. The ore are formed by replacement of volcanic rocks and fracture – filling. The
suite of clay minerals showed mineral zoning.
Key words: clay minerals, central Thailand, x-ray diffractometry
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES 1970. Pyrophyllite was later used in other 12 mining
licenses in the nearby area.
A number of 13 clay mineral samples were collected from Dickite was first identified by Kuentuk (1988) a scientist
mining areas in Kaeng Khoi District, Saraburi Province, in the Department of Mineral Resources 18 years later.
approximately 70 km Northeast of Bangkok, were The whole mining areas were described as the Dickite
analyzed for mineral identification and chemical Mineral Area in the Mineral Resource Map, scale
1:250,000, Map Sheet ND47-08 (Ayudhaya)
compositions.
(Ratanajaruruk, Utha–Aroon and Supasunthornkul, 1992,
This special type of clay minerals found within an area
Rattanajaruruk, Youngsanong, Gawinet, 2001,
between Saraburi Province and Nakhon Nayok Province
Smintrpanya et.al., 2005).
has been mined for a few decades. It has specific high
Dickite is used as mineral commodity among mineral
strength properties suitable for application in ceramics,
sellers and Australian mineral buyers. Pyrophyllite is used
high temperature bricks and white cement. Some rare
among mineral sellers and buyers in the domestic markets.
pieces of translucent mass were once used as carved stone
The cause of this confusion is probably derived from the
products by local villagers.
similarity in physical properties of the clay minerals
The purpose of this study is to identify mineral type(s), in
themselves. These minerals possess very similar physical
these mining areas, which brought about confusion to
properties and chemical compositions. X-Ray
scientists and mining engineers whether it was
Difractometry analytical method may be the tool to make
Pyrophyllite or Dickite, or other types of mineral. The
solve this problem.
results of this study will lead to using the right mineral
name in the mining licenses.
Pyrophyllite was first used in the mining license no.
STUDY AREA
14060/9994 to Mrs.Tharini Krisdakorn dated July 29th of The study area is located between latitudes 14° 15′ and
14° 30′ N and longitudes 101° 00′ and 101° 15′ E,
covering an area of approximately 6 x 5 sq.km. (Fig. 1)
187
Figure 1 The mineral zoning map classifies mining area of clay minerals in Kaeng Khoi district, Saraburi province
into Dickite zone, Kaolinite zone and Pyrophyllite zone.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CLAY To ensure the typical sample of ore mineral from the
MINERALS mine, samples were collected by local miners who were
working in the mine. UTM coordinates from a global
Pyrophyllite and Dickite are white, whitish gray or position system were noted on a topographic map.
yellowish gray. Luster is earthy dull. Texture is massive, Photographs of samples were taken at mining site,
dull and earthy look. Mineral grains are finer than 2 sampling site, and specimens submitted to the laboratory.
microns (or 0.002 mm). Hardness is 2 – 3. Major (Fig. 3-4)
constituents are alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2) with
different proportions. These two minerals cannot be PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
differentiated by naked eyes, under microscopes, thin OF CLAY MINERALS IN THE STUDY
sections, nor chemical compositions. (David, 2005) AREA
Pyrophyllite and Dickite are clay minerals, which are
classified by their internal crystal structure (Fig. 2) which The clay minerals in the study areas are special type of
is generally differentiated by X-Ray Diffractrometry. clay with specific high strength properties suitable for
application in ceramics, high temperature bricks and white
SAMPLING METHOD cement. Some rare pieces of translucent mass were once
used as carved stone products by local villagers. (Fig. 3-4)
The mineral deposits are located on small and medium hills Color ranges from white, light gray, gray, greenish and
located on a vast alluvial plain. Mountain peaks are located at bluish gray, reddish gray. Hardness is 2 – 3. Texture is
100 to 267 meters above mean sea level. The alluvial massive, dull and earthy look. Alumina content ranges 18-
plains are located at 20 meters above mean sea level. 25%, Iron oxide content 0-1.5%. Quartz grains are
(Fig.1) frequently found. Pyrite is sometimes disseminated. (Fig.
Sampling locations are past, present and future mining sites. 3-4)
Outcrops of clay minerals are clear and easy to be collected.
188
Figure 2 Classification of clay minerals (Phyllosillicates) using internal crystal structures
Figure 3 Clay mineral mining sites in Kaeng Khoi district, Saraburi province. Samples are collected by local miners
189
Figure 4 Clay minerals from mining areas in Kaeng Khoi district, Saraburi province.
ANALYSIS METHODS MINERAL IDENTIFICATION

A group of 8 samples were submitted to Department of Results of X-Ray Diffractrometry analyses showed that
Mineral Resources laboratory and analyzed for mineral clay minerals in the mining areas are not only
identification using the X-Ray Difractometry and Pyrophyllite and Dickite but also Muscovite, Kaolinite
chemical composition, alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2). and Illite. Dickite distributes in the northern mining areas.
Another group of 5 samples were submitted to the Pyrophyllite is located in one mining area in the south.
Metallurgy and Materials Science Research Institute, Muscovite, Kaolinite and Illite are located in the middle
Chulalongkorn University and analyzed for mineral of the group of mining areas. (Fig. 6 and Table 1)
identification using the X-Ray Difractometry. (Fig. 5)
Table 1 Results of X-ray diffractometry mineral identification and chemical compositions.
190
Figure 5 X-Ray diffractometry mineral identification results of clay mineral samples showing Dickite and Quartz peaks.
Figure 6 Map of mining areas showing sampling locations and results of X-ray diffractometry mineral identification.
S = sampling location, P = Pyrophyllite, K = Kaolinite, I = Illite, M = Muscovite, D = Dickite
191
OCCURRENCE OF CLAY MINERALS IN
THE STUDY AREA
Clay mineral deposits are located in small volcanic hills
exposed in a vast volcanic field covering, hundreds of Study area, Kaeng Koi
square kilometers (Fig. 7-8). Occurrence of clay mineral Saraburi
deposits is probably from alteration of volcanic rocks,
where alumina and H2O are added while CaO, Na2O and
K2O are reduced. The ore are formed by replacement of
volcanic rocks and fracture–filling. (Hedenquist and
Sillitoe (2003), Choo and Kim (2004), Viorica, Jean-
Pierre, and Jacques (2004), Deyell et.al (2005) Kroos,
Kasbohm and Lai (2006)
The Khao Yai formation is a Permo – Triassic volcanic
complex comprises of rhyolite, andesite, agglomerate and
tuff. The volcanic complex is highly variable in lithology.
Various types of clay minerals, not only Pyrophyllite and
Dickite but also Muscovite, Kaolinite and Illite are found
in the same proximity. The variability of mineral type is
in a response to the variability of lithology of the parent Khao Cha Ngok
rocks.
MINERAL ZONING
The clay minerals altered from volcanic rocks generally
provide the variability (Fig. 9, Hedenquist and Sillitoe,
2003), Choo and Kim, 2004, Viorica, Jean-Pierre, and
Jacques, 2004, Deyell et.al., 2005, Kroos, Kasbohm and Figure 7 Topographic map showing distribution of clay mineral
deposits from Khao Cha Ngok, Nakhonnayok province to Kaeng
Lai, 2006.
However, mineral zoning in the study area can be made
from hill to hill (Fig.1). This is probably because the
volcanic parent rocks in each hill are different. This
mineral zoning would be useful in nomenclature of the
mining licenses.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS
Results of chemical analyses showed that alumina and silica
contents varied from area to area and from sample to sample.
There is no relationship between type of mineral and the
chemical contents. (Table 1)
Khao Cha Ngok
Khoi district, Saraburi provinve.
Figure 8 Geological map of the study area and surroundings,

showing the clay mineral deposit, underlained by
undifferentiated volcanic rocks with various chemical
composition providing variability in the clay mineral
compositions. The clay mineral deposits can be traced
from the study area to Khao Cha Ngok
(modified from Hinthong et al., 1975).
192
Figure 9 Distribution of clay minerals in volcanic rock alteration profile (Deyell, et al., 2005). Explanation: alun = alunite, dick =
dickite, ill = illite, jar = jarosite, kao = kaolinite, pyl = pyrophyllite, qtz = quartz.
REFERENCES Kroos, J., Kasbohm, J. and Lai, L.T., 2006. Pyrophyllite deposit
in Tan Mai, Viet Nam. Department of geology and minerals
Choo, C.O. and Kim, S.J., 2004. Dickite and Other Kaolin of Vietnam.
Polymorphs from an Al-rich Clay Deposit Formed in Kuentuk, J., 1988. Clay Mineral Deposits in Thailand.
Volcanic Tuff, Southeastern Korea. Clays and Clay Proceeding of 1988 Annual Mining Conference , Economic
Minerals, V. 52, No 6, p. 749-759(11) Geology Division, Department of Mineral Resources, 65 pp.
David B., 2005. Dickite Mineral Data, and Pyrophyllite Mineral (Thai Language)
Data, www.webmineral.com. Ratanajaruruk, P., Youngsanong, M. and Gawinet, S., 2001.
Deyell, C. L., et.al., 2005. Alunite in the Pascua-Lama High- Mineral Resource Map sheet ND 47-8 (Ayudhaya),
Sulfidation Deposit: Constraints on Alteration and Ore Department of Mineral Resources.
Deposition Using Stable Isotope Geochemistry. Economic Smintrpanya, S. et.al, 2005. Some Properties of Dickite from
Geology; January; v. 100; no. 1; p. 131-148. Saraburi. General Sciences Department, Srinakarin
Hedenquist, J. W. and Sillitoe, R.H., 2003. Alteration, University Prasarnmitr, 4 pp.
degradation, and slope failure of volcanoes, Geological Utha–Aroon, C. and Supasunthornkul, T., 1992. Guidebook for
Society of America Abstracts with Programs, Vol. 35, No. 6, the route B excursion, Resources and utilization of
September 2003, p. 551. industrial mineral, Central and North–East Thailand.
Hinthong, C. et.al, 1975. Geological Map Scale 1 : 250,000 November 21 – 24, Department of Mineral Resources, p. 3-
sheet ND 47-8 (Ayudhaya). Department of Mineral 8.
Resources. Viorica, M., Jean-Pierre, M., and Jacques, L., 2004. Rosia Poieni
copper deposit, Apuseni Mountains, Romania: advanced
argillic overprint of a porphyry system. Mineralium
Deposita, V. 39, No.2, March, p. 173-188(16).
193
MINERAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT IN LAO PDR

1
Chansavath Boupha, 2Kongkham Chanthavichith
1
Department of Geology, Lao
2
Department of Mines, Ministry of Energy and Mines, Lao
ABSTRACT
Lao PDR has favorable geological features, thus possessing a good potential in mineral resources such as gold, silver,
copper, lead, zinc, tin, iron, aluminum, coal, potash, sapphire and others which are important for the development of Lao
economy.
Key words: mineral resource, Lao PDR, Metallic mineral, industrial mineral,
POTENTIAL OF MINERAL RESOURCES mineralization consists of pyrite, chalcopyrite and gold in

disseminations, veinlets, bandings and cross cutting quartz
Gold Potential veins.
Xanakham gold-copper deposit is located west of
From a geological structural point of view , Lao PDR Vientiane. Extensive but low-grade mineralisation was
consists of four units: the Sukhothai fold belt (mainly found through a detailed airborne geophysical work.
composed of Middle to Upper Paleozoic formation and Other potential gold occurrences are found in many
Late Paleozoic granitic rocks, the Loei fold belt (mainly locations of the country such as Vientiane, Oudomxay and
composed of Middle to Upper Paleozoic formation, Attapeu. Gold anomalies in central part of Lao PDR (Nam
Lower Mesozoic formation and Late Paleozoic granitic Kata, Nam Pheo, Na Kadok, and Nam Ke) and in northern
rocks , the Indochinese fold belt (mainly composed of part (Houei Xeng, Xiengkok) have been outlined by a
Middle to Upper Paleozoic system and Late Paleozoic joint Vietnamese - Lao exploration project.
granitic rocks and the Khorat plateau (mainly Mesozoic to
Paleogene formation).
Gold deposits and occurrences in Lao PDR are widely
distributed in three fold belts, with the exception of the
Khorat plateau (Fig. 1). In these areas, there are numerous
epithermal gold deposits and occurrences, and placer gold
deposits along rivers. Gold potential zones are mostly
present around Late Paleozoic granitic rocks, near and
along the large tectonic lines trending NNE-SSW and
NW-SE.
Gold mineralization at the Sepon gold deposit in
Savanakhet province, occurs as disseminations in
Devonian to Carboniferous highly altered calcareous
sedimentary rocks with affinities to the Carline type. The
Sepon gold / copper project consists of Discovery,
Discovery West – colluvial, Nalou, Namkok West,
Namkok Est, Vang Nang and Luang deposit.
Ore reserve of the Sepon gold mine amounts to 14.2
million tons at 3.4 3 g/t Au and 5.68 g/t Ag.
Phu Bia gold project comprises three deposits: Phu Kham
gold/copper deposit, Long Cheng Track deposit and Ban
Houayxai deposit. These deposits having oxide gold
mineral resources of 12.8 million tons at 1 g/t Au
(424,000 oz Au) has proved the potential to support a
mine development of about 50,000 oz per annum. The
Phu Kham deposit is classified as a primary porphyry
copper deposit, comprising sericite – altered feldspar
intruded into calcareous sediments and overlain by
Figure 1: Gold Potential Map of Lao PDR
massive red beds and limestone. The primay
194
Table 1: Ore reserves of Sepon gold mine
Category Tons Gold (g/t) Silver (g/t0 Au (oz) Ag (oz)

Proven ore 6,825,000 3.75 5.90 822,857 1,294,629
Probable ore 6,871,000 3.11 5.26 687,022 1,161,974
Stockpile 528,000 3.29 3.90 55,850 66,205
Total ore 14,242,000 3.43 5.68 1,568,582 2,597,534
At present, gold exploration is undertaken by many of skarn type. Overall copper resources at Sepon total 1.68
projects. Lao PDR has high potential for gold. Gold million tons and include the Khanong orebody and the the
reserves accounts to 143 tons. From the distribution of Thengkham North and South deposits.
gold deposits and mineralization, gold potential could Phu Kham copper deposit in Phu Bia mine is of porphyry
possibly range from 300 – 400 tons. type related to Late Paleozoic granitic rocks, such as
diorite and tonalite and fracture zones have developed
Copper Potential nearby. The granitic rocks intrude calcareous sedimentary
rocks, and skarn-type copper deposits lie replacing
Copper deposits and occurrences in Lao PDR are widely calcareous rocks. Copper reserves at Phu Kham amounts
distributed throughout the country especially distributed to 144 million tons at 0.56 % Cu.
in the Indochinese fold belt. From summarizing data from Copper metal reserves in Lao PDR are evaluated to have
geological and mineral reports, there are 46 copper an amount of 2.9 million tons and resources of 6 million
occurrences that are in disseminated form or vein tons. Judging from the successful development of the
originated from granodiorite intrusion. These occurrences Sepon copper deposit, the Phu Kham copper deposit, and
are located in Phongsaly, Louangnamtha, Oudomxay, features of copper mineralization in many localities,
Xiengkhouang and Savannakhet Province (Fig. 2). copper potential in Lao PDR could possibly range from 8
to 10 million tons of copper metal.
Lead and Zinc Potential
Numerous lead and zinc deposits and occurrences are

distributed in the Loei fold belt and the north of the
Indosinian fold belt (Fig. 3). Lead and zinc deposits and
occurrences in the Loei fold belt are found near the
Mekong River in Vientiane and Luang Prabang provinces.
Other deposits and occurrences are mostly present in,
XiangKhouang and Houaphan provinces in the Indosinian
fold belt.
Lead and zinc deposits are divided into skarn type and
Mississipi valley type. Strata surrounding ore deposits
underlie upper Paleozoic calcareous rocks and are
favorable for country rocks of skarn type and Mississipi
valley type deposit.
Estimated lead - zinc resources account 0.8 million tons.
Tin Potential
Tin deposits and occurrences are found in the north and

south of the Indochinese fold belt. They are mostly
concentrated in Vientiane, Xieng Khouang, Houaphan,
Khammouane and Champasak province (fig.4). Tin
deposits are related to Late Paleozoic granitic rocks.
Cassiterite-bearing quartz veins and quartz networks exist.
Known tin ore reserves amount to 34 million tons at
present, they could increase with exploration activity.
Figure 2: Copper Potential Map of Lao PDR
Two types of copper mineralization are found in Lao

PDR: one is porphyry copper-gold deposits forming
quartz stockwork in granitic rocks, and the other is copper
skarn deposits which have formed in and around country
rocks. The Khanong copper deposit in the Sepon mine is
195
Potential of Other Mineral Resources
Aluminium: Bauxite is the major aluminum ore found in

Lao PDR. It is mostly concentrated in the southern part of
the country (Champassack, Sekong and Attapeu
province). Hypothetical resources total approximately 700
million tons and provable reserves 125 million tons.
Mining licences have been issued to six local and foreign
companies.
Coal: Coal occurrences and deposits are found in many
locations of Lao PDR such as Sayabury, Xiengkhouang,
Vientiane, Oudomxay and Saravan province. According
to results of coal exploration, proven reserve amounts to
347 million tons. Hongsa lignite deposit situated in
Sayabury province with resource of about 700 million
tons is reserved for supplying to a power plant. Most coal
mines produced coal for supplying to cement plants.
Gypsum: Gypsum occurs in thick evaporite of the Upper
Cretaceous over and its reserve amounts to 8 million tons.
The thick evaporite of theUpper Cretaceous is distributed
over Vientiane, Bolikhamxay and Khammouan provinces
in central part. Gypsum resources and reserves total 172
million tons.
At present, gypsum is produced in Khammouan and
Savannakhet provinces.
Potash Rock Salt: As with gypsum, potash rock salt
occurs in the evaporite of the Upper Cretaceous in
Vientiane and Khammouane and Savannakhet provinces.
Figure 3: Lead - zinc Potential Map of Lao PDR The exploration results of the potash deposit located
Vientiane Plain indicate up to 14 billion tons of potash.
This potash deposit is going to be mined by the end of
2007.
The Nonglom potash deposit situated in Khammouan
province has a reserve of 187 millions tons of potash, 140
million tons of magnesium salt and 670 millions tons of
halite.
Kaolin: Regarding clay mineral such as kaolin, rhyolite
of Permian to Triassic Period was altered into kaolinite
and pyrophyllite. Rhyolite occurs in outcrops in
Champasak province, which borders on Cambodia, and
Vientiane and Xiengkhoung provinces. Reserves of clay
containing kaolin amount to 5 million tons and resource
may be expected 70 million tons.
Sapphire: In Ban Houei Sai in Bakeo province of
northwestern Laos, sapphire occurs in placer deposits in
tributaries of the Mekong River. In 2004, 710,000 carats
of sapphire were mined. Because primary sapphire is
formed in syenite and high-metamorphosed limestone, its
genetic condition is restricted. Resource of sapphire
amounts to 23 million carats, and potential of sapphire
may be 30 million carats because of the limited formation
environment.
Limestone: Limestone used for cement, construction
aggregate, and road material occurs in many provinces,
especially Xiengkhouang, Vientiane and Khammouan
provinces. There are 44 million tons of reserves and 1,6
billion tons of resources.
Figure 4: Tin Potential Map of Lao PDR
196
Summary Mineral Resources and Reserves organizations, mineral exploration projects by private
local and foreign mining companies, mineral resources
Results from geological and mineral investigation by the and reserves could be summarized as following (table 2).
Department of Geology, cooperation programme with
overseas mineral institutions and international
Table 2: Summary of Mineral resources and reserves in Lao PDR
Mineral commodity Total Ore Resources Ore Resources Ore Reserves Metal Reserves
&Reserves (million tons) (million tons) (million tons) (tons)
Gold 87 70 17 143
Silver 42 42
Copper 602 420 182 2.9
Lead - zinc 1.1 0.3 0.8 0.17
Tin 34.1 32.5 1.6 6.8
Aluminum 825 700 125
Iron 103 95 14
Gypsum 272 44 128
Potash 14,399 14,000 399
Limestone 1,644 1,600 44
Coal 977 630 347
MINERAL INDUSTRY are: prospecting, exploration, exploitation and artisanal

mining. Of the164 projects, 68 are under prospecting
Investment in the mineral sector phase, 50 under exploration phase, 3 under feasibility
study and 45 under exploitation stage. The targeted
The Lao mining industry with hydropower industry is minerals include gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, zinc,
identified as one of the priority sectors in the country’s aluminum, potash, gypsum, barite, coal, cement raw
socioeconomic development. In the last ten years, it is materials and sapphire. Only are presumed to be large
rapidly becoming an important source of economic scale mining and advanced the development of base
growth, national revenue and a driver for local community metals. Domestic operations focus on alluvial gold, tin,
development. The mining industry is expected to play a barite, gypsum and construction materials.
vital role in Lao’s economic growth during the next 15
years. Mineral Production
In 2001, there were 48 local and foreign companies
investing in the mineral sector. As of October 2007, 164 The production of mineral commodities in Lao PDR
mining licences have been issued to 112 companies, of include gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, zinc, coal , gypsum,
which 43 are local companies and 69 are foreign barite, construction aggregate and gemstones (mostly
companies (40 from China, 9 from Vietnam, 6 from sapphire). Table 3 and figure 5 shows the mineral
Thailand, 4 from Australia, 2 from Russia, 1 from North production trends from 2001 to 2006.
Korea, 1 from South Korea, 1 from Canada, 1 from
England and 1 from Poland). The types of mining licences
Table 3 Mineral Production from 2001 to 2006.
Year Barite Lignite Sapphire Gold+Silver Gypsum Tin Zinc Copper

(T) (T) (ct) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T)
2001 1,470 179,773 532,494 - 121,220 678 18,000 -
2002 16,640 233,923 833,964 - 119,514 672 2,034 -
2003 18,600 212,819 2,302,973 8.879 101,726 594 2,036 -
2004 10,470 332,907 712,320 6.759 244,145 144 2,000 -
2005 950 332,934 - 9.211 199,019 119 - 29,061
2006 3,500 432,421 - 12.380 206,104 656 3,945 60,785
Total 51,630 1,724,777 4,381,751 37.229 991,728 2,863 28,015 89,846
Gold and Silver: Oxiana Resources Co. Ltd. is the first The total gold production from 2001 to 2006 totaled
ranked gold producer in Lao PDR. It brought the Sepon 37.229 tons. In 2006, the average processed ore grade was
mine in Savannakhet province into production in 2003.
197
2.7 g/t gold. The gold and silver recovery rates were 83.7 REFERENCES
% and 24.1 % respectively.
Phu Bia gold mine located in Vientiane province and BGS, 1991. Map of Geology and Mineral Resources of Lao PDR
owned by Pan Australian Resources Ltd. produced 670 kg at 1:100000.
in 2006. World Bank, MINDECO & DGM, 2006. Sector Plan for
Copper: Copper production in Lao PDR began in 2005 Sustainable Development of the Mining Sector in Lao PDR
from Sepon open-pit mine using a whole ore leach and Oxiana Resources Ltd., 2006. Oxiana Limited Annual Report
solvent extraction electrowinning. The production of 2006.
Department of Geology, 2006. Mineral Yearbook 2006 Pan
refined copper (copper cathode) amounted to 29,061 tons Australian Resources. Pan Australian Resources Annual
in 2005 and 60,800 tons in 2006. Report 2006.
The Phu Kham copper mine is planned to bring copper Department of Mines, 2006. DOM Annual Report 2006
into production by 2008 with annual target production of DGM Vietnam & DGM Lao. Report on Potash Exploration in
50,000 tons of copper . Central Laos.
DGM Vietnam & DGM Lao, 2000. Report on Geological
Mineral sector contribution to the Lao Economy Mapping and Mineral Investigation at 1:200000 scale of
Mid Central Laos.
The value of mineral production has been steeply
increasing from 65 million kips in 2001 to 725,000
million kips in 2003 and to 109,733,000 million kips in
2006. Gold and silver production of about 10 tons per
annum began in 2003 and copper production of 60,000
tons per annum in 2005.
The mining sector contributed about 0.5 % to GDP, 2.4 %
in 2003 and 5% in 2006. It is anticipated that the
contribution rate will be > 10% in 2010. Besides to the
direct contribution of national revenue, the mining sector
also contributes to the local community development,
infrastructure construction and job creation to local
people.
Growth of mineral production value of 2001-2006
100,000,000
10,000,000
Kips
1,000,000
100,000
10,000
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year
Figure 5: Growth of mineral production from 2001-2006.
198
MINERALISATION CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LONG CHIENG TRACK

(LCT) GOLD DEPOSIT, LAO PDR
Takayuki Manaka, Khin Zaw and Sebastien Meffre
CODES ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
ABSTRACT
The Long Chieng Track (LCT) gold deposit is located in northern Lao PDR, on the confluence of Loei and Truongson
Cu-Au Fold Belts in mainland SE Asia. The geology of the deposit consists of a sedimentary sequence intruded by two
distinct Earliest-Early Permian intrusive-volcanic rocks. The mineralisation occurs as stockwork vein system spatially
associated with one of the intrusive rocks (i.e., feldspar-phyric dacitic porphyry). The main mineralisation stage consists
mainly of quartz and minor sulphides including pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena. Gold normally
occurs as inclusions in pyrite closely associated with the occurrence of other sulphides. Alteration facies in the wall rock
consist of quartz-sericite-pyrite (phyllic) alteration in the proximal part of the stockwork vein system and chlorite-sericite
(propylitic) alteration in the distal part. On the basis of these characteristics, the Long Chieng Track (LCT) gold deposit
is comparable to the low-sulphidation epithermal mineralisation system.
KEYWORDS: Martabe, high-sulfidation, epithermal, enargite, luzonite
INTRODUCTION
The Long Chieng Track (LCT) deposit is situated in the

southern end of the Phu Bia Contract Area, which is
presently owned by Pan Australian Resources Ltd and lo-
cated approximately 100 km northeast of the capital Vi-
entiane of Lao PDR (Fig. 1). This location is metal-
logenitically important for mineral exploration as it is
lying at the confluence of the Loei and Truongson Cu-Au
Fold Belts, both of which are the largest endowments of
economic metal deposits in the region of mainland SE
Asia (Tate, 2005). A number of deposits have so far been
discovered in the Phu Bia Contract Area such as Phu
Kham Cu-Au porphyry skarn, Ban Houayxai Au-Ag epi-
thermal, Phu He Au epithermal and Khamthonglai (KTL)
Cu porphyry (www.panaustralian.com.au). Figure 1. Location of LCT deposit in the Phu Bia Contract
The initial discovery of the LCT deposit was due to re- Area in northern Lao PDR, together with Phu Kham, Ban
gional drainage sampling program, followed-up by nine Houayxai, Phu He and Khamthonglai deposits.
diamond drill testing by Phu Bia Mining Ltd during
1996-97 period (Johnston, 2002). No historical mining In this paper, detailed mineralisation characteristics, as
activity in this area has been reported. The LCT deposit is well as deposit-scale geology, of the LCT deposit are re-
currently under development and the reserve is estimated ported involving general geology, geochronology, geo-
to be 0.62 Mt @ 1.0 g/t gold chemistry and mineralisation and the paragenetic rela-
(www.panaustralian.com.au). tionships. This study aims at understanding the
Previous studies on the LCT deposit are limited to few metallogenesis and ore depositional conditions of the
consultant reports, describing brief geological and miner- LCT deposit.
alisation characteristics (e.g., Mason, 1997; Johnston,
2002; Tate, 2003; Manaka, 2007). No detailed compre- LONG CHIENG TRACK LOCAL
hensive research on the geology and mineralisation of the
LCT deposit has been carried out.
GEOLOGY
A sedimentary sequence is distributed in the LCT deposit
area including carbonaceous limestone, alternating beds
199
of sandstone and siltstone, polymictic sedimentary brec- sedimentary sequence at the LCT (Mason, 1997). This
cia and tuffaceous sandstone, in ascending order (Fig. 2). shows that the sedimentation at the LCT was formed as
This sequence is intruded by intrusive-volcanic rocks early as Carboniferous in the area.
such as quartz monzonite, quartz monzodiorite and feld- Geochemical characteristics of the intrusive-volcanic
spar-phyric dacitic porphyry, and is locally overlain by rocks at the LCT including feldspar-phyric dacitic por-
volcaniclastic boulders in the central deposit area (Fig. phyry and quartz monzonite were investigated for major
3). The feldspar-phyric dacitic porphyry and tuffaceous (Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K, P), trace (Rb, Sr, Ba,
sandstone units preferentially host the gold mineralisation Sc, V, Cr, Ni, Zn, Y, Zr, Nb, Pb) and rare earth (La, Ce,
occurring as a stockwork vein system in the central de- Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu) ele-
posit area. ments using whole rock XRF analysis. The geochemical
U-Pb zircon geochronological analysis of the main intru- data show that the intrusive-volcanic rocks at the LCT
sive-volcanic rocks at the LCT such as quartz monzonite have volcanic-arc and syn-collisional affinities according
and feldspar-phyric dacitic porphyry was conducted us- to the geotectonic discrimination diagrams of Pearce et
ing LA-ICPMS instrument at the University of Tasmania. al. (1984).
The ages of the rocks yielded 292±3 Ma and 279±4 Ma A NE-SW trending, steep easterly dipping fault occurs at
ages respectively, showing Earliest-Early Permian. These the west of the ore zone. This fault may not have been re-
ages are mostly comparable to the ages of intrusive- lated to the mineralisation of the stockwork vein system
volcanic rocks at the neighboring Phu Kham and Ban at the LCT, but appears to have contributed to the pres-
Houayxai deposits. These ages indicate that active mag- ervation of the ore zone from erosion as there is a thick
matism occurred during Latest-Carboniferous to Early- colluvium layer above the stockwork veins which may
Permian in this area. An occurrence of rugose coral of a have been formed due to this fault.
Carboniferous index fossil is also reported from the car-
bonaceous limestone consisting of the lowest part of the
Figure 2. Interpreted geological map of the Long Chieng Track deposit. A white traverse line is for the cross-section in figure 3.
200
Figure 3. Geological cross-section of the Long Chieng Track deposit, along the white traverse line in figure 2. Refer to figure 2 for
legend. Note that black thin lines in this diagram represent veins.
MINERALISATION CHARACTERISTICS tion style suggested by Hedenquist et al. (2000). It is noted

that the ore zone consisting of stockwork veins in the cen-
Five mineralisation stages are recognised at the LCT on the tral deposit area may have been preserved from erosion, as
basis of microscopic and textural studies: Stage 1 Chlorite a thick colluvium layer has been developed by a fault in
+ quartz + sulphide + sericite + illite; Stage 2 Quartz + sul- post-mineralisation period.
phides + sericite + illite + adularia ± electrum; Stage 3 Py-
rite + chalcopyrite + sericite + illite + calcite ± quartz; ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Stage 4 Calcite + quartz ± chlorite ± illite ± pyrite and
Stage 5 Kaolinite + halloysite ± alunite. Mineralisation of This study is conducted as a part of the first author’s Mas-
these stages occurs mainly as veins except for Stage 5 ter research funded by Pan Australian Resources Ltd and
where clays form a supergene cover of the deposit area. Loei ARC Linkage project to Khin Zaw. We greatly
The ore minerals mainly form as vein infill, whereas the al- thanked staff of Pan Australian Resources Ltd for support
teration minerals mostly occur in the wall rock. The main during field work and permission to publish this paper.
mineralisation stage (i.e., Stage 2) forms stockwork veins
in the shallower part and as crystalline and crustiform REFERENCES
veins in the deep part. Gold occurs as electrum inclusions
of vein-located pyrite associated with sulphides such as py- Hedenquist JW, Arribas RA and Gonzalez-Urien E (2000) Explo-
rite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena. ration for epithermal gold deposit, Reviews in Economic
Two hypogene alteration types, which may have formed Geology, vol 13, pp 245-277.
during main mineralisation stage, are identified including Johnston AC (2002) Geological Model LCT Gold Deposit, Lao
quartz-sericite-pyrite (phyllic) and chlorite-dominated PDR; Consultant Report for Pan Mekong Exploration Pty
(propylitic) alteration. The quartz-sericite-pyrite alteration Ltd (unpublished).
normally intensely occurs in the proximity of veins devel- Kamvong T (2007) Possible Adakitic Porphyries in Northeastern
Thailand and Laos: Implications for the Evolution of the
oping up to several tens of cm in thickness, whereas the Loei Fold Belt, AOGS Asia Oceania Geoscience Society
chlorite-dominated alteration is formed in the wall rock Conference, 29th July - 4th August, Bangkok, Thailand.
distal from the veins. These hypogene alterations are over- Manaka T (2007) Geological setting and mineralisation character-
printed by supergene clay (Stage 5) alteration extensively istics of the Long Chieng Track Deposit, Lao PDR, AOGS
covering surface and the beneath (up to 100 m from the Asia Oceania Geoscience Society Conference, 29th July -
surface) in the deposit area. 4th August, Bangkok, Thailand.
Mason D (1997) Petrographic description and interpretation for
eleven drill core rock samples, Long Chieng Track Prospect,
SUMMARY Lao PDR; Consultant Report for Phu Bia Mining Ltd (un-
published).
The geology of the LCT deposit is composed of a Carbon- Pearce JA, Harris NBW and Tindle AG (1984) Trace element
iferous sedimentary sequence intruded by Earliest-Early discrimination diagrams for the tectonic interpretation of
Permian intrusive rocks. The gold-bearing mineralisation granitic rocks. Journal of Petrology, vol 25, no 4, pp 956-
occurs as a stockwork quartz-sulphide vein system, fa- 983.
vorably hosted in the feldspar-phyric dacitic porphyry and Tate NM (2003) Mapping Notes for the LCT Gold Deposit, Lao
tuffaceous sandstone units. Gold occurs as electrum inclu- People’s Democratic republic; Consultant Report for Pan
sions in pyrite closely associated with arsenopyrite, chal- Mekong Exploration Pty Ltd (unpublished).
Tate NM (2005) Discovery, Geology and Mineralisation of the
copyrite, sphalerite and galena. Two distinct hypogene Phu Kham Copper-Gold Deposit Lao People’s Democratic,
phyllic and propylitic alterations occurred during the gold in JaB Mao, F (ed.), Mineral Deposit research: Meeting of
mineralisation stage and are overprinted by later supergene the Global Challenge, 8th Biennial SGA Meeting, 18-21
clay alteration at near surface. These mineralisation charac- August 2005, Beijing, China, vol. 2, pp. 1077-80.
teristics are comparable to the low-sulphidation mineralisa-
201
AQUIFER IDENTIFICATION AND GROUNDWATER USE

IN CHIANG MAI BASIN
Adisai CHARURATNA
Department of Groundwater Resources, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
ABSTRACT
Chiang Mai groundwater basin is an intermontane plain elongated along north-south direction in the north of Thailand.
There are two main rivers of Mae Ping and Mae Kuang flowing through Chiang Mai and Lumphun cities
respectively. Previous study, major aquifers were geomorphologically identified as unconsolidated and semi –
consolidated sediments of Quaternary period consisting of alluvial aquifer(Qcp), low terrace aquifer (Qcr) and
high terrace aquifer (Qcm). Totals of their sediments are ranging from 300-3,000 meters underlain by Tertiary
sediments.
Due to economic growth has been rapidly continuing during the last 10 years. Groundwater consumption is commonly
applied for various activities such as agriculture, industrial and domestic purposes whereas public water supply by pipe
system can not provide throughout the communities. The tendency of groundwater use is expected to be increasing in the
future.
In 2005, Department of Groundwater Resources established a project to drill many wells for detailed hydrogeological
studies and to construct groundwater monitoring stations. Aquifer identification by using electric loggings and drilling
sample descriptions shows that alluvial aquifer and low terrace aquifer are high groundwater potential and the most of
wells exploited water from these aquifers within the total sediment thickness of approximately 200 meters. From dating
analysis of peat found at the depth of 70 meters to point that low terrace sediments is about 30,000 years and to be
underlain unconformity by high terrace sediments. Particularly high terrace aquifers can be separated in to several
layers but most of them gains generally low groundwater potential.
According to observed groundwater usage, groundwater pumping is ranging form 85-138 million cu.m/year whereas
numerical modeling recharge circulating into the system is about 145 million cu.m/year (Panya consultant co. ltd.,2004).
Finally current water balance in the plain is still good situation by normal groundwater level in monitoring wells.
202
MODERN SEA FLOOR TOPOGRAPHY AND LATE QUATERNARY

SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY OF THE UPPER GULF OF THAILAND
Wichien Intasen, Rungsiroj Vongprommek, Precha Laochu
ABSTRACT
The modern sea floor topography of the Upper of Thailand is relatively smooth and has little relief, except on the
southwestern and eastern-southeastern parts of the area where bathymetric depressions were encountered. The slope
gradient has a break point between 12-15 m bathymetric. The delta front in front of the Chao Phraya River mouth is
steeper (1:1,500) than in front of the Mae Klong and Tha Chin river mouths (1:2,000).
Interpretation of high-resolution seismic profiles in correlation with borehole data provided valuable information on
offshore Quaternary sedimentation, tectonics as well as environmental and engineering geology of this area. Three main
seismic units of late Quaternary strata formed during and since the last glacial maximum were identified; Unit 1, the
lowermost unit directly overlying undifferentiated older complex sedimentary strata, displays mainly high amplitude
aggrading seismic facies and moderate to high amplitude incised valley seismic configurations. It is composed of stiff
alluvial silty clay alternated with silty sand and dense channel sand deposited during regression period of late
Pleistocene lowstand sea level. Unit 2 is mainly characterized by low-moderate amplitude filling seismic facies, and
locally acoustic turbidity facies. It is interpreted as medium-stiff shallow marine clay and estuarine channel deposited
during transgression period of late Pleistocene-early Holocene. Unit 3 displays semi-transparent and low amplitude
aggrading seismic configurations. The thickness of this unit decreases seaward. It is mainly composed of very soft-soft
marine deposited since Holocene to Recent.
The absence of any trace of any barrier sand in the offshore area is explained by the very low gradients on the bed of the
Gulf which promote the landward migration of transgressive barriers under conditions of rising sea level. In addition,
the absence of the regressive barriers as sea level fell towards the last glacial period, reflects a lack of available sand.
Instead of regressive sand deposits, thick marine clay blankets occur in nearshore area of the upper Gulf. Furthermore,
seismic facies configurations of the Units 2 and 3 indicate that very little amount of coarse sediments have been
transported to the Upper Gulf since the Holocene marine transgression till present.
Keywords: sea floor topography, seismic, gulf of Thailand, echo sounder, subbottom profiler
INTRODUCTION level, marine clay and silt (muds) are reworked seaward
and piedmont fan alluvium is spread by rivers into the
The Gulf of Thailand is one of the major semi-enclosed Gulf. During marine transgressions when sea level rise
coastal seas of the world, located in Southeast Asia, above 50 m (i.e. water depth of the sill at southern end of
immediately to the west of the South China Sea. It covers the Gulf) estuarine sediments infill fluvial channels
an area of about 320,000 km2. The mean water depth of incised into the former land surface and, as water depths
the Gulf is 45 m, and the maximum depth is 80 m. There and wave action increase, transgressive barrier are formed
is a shallow sill at its southern end. and migrate onshore. Under sea level highstand
The Gulf is a shallow intra cratonic basin of the Sunda conditions, barriers prograde at the coast and marine muds
Shelf. The regional geologic setting for the Gulf is a series accumulate on the sea bed offshore. Although the
of north-south trending troughs and ridges that has been highstand barriers tend to be preserved intact, the marine
subsiding slowly throughout the Cainozoic. The Gulf has muds are mostly dispersed during subsequent regressions
been a depocenter for clastic sediments. Petroleum of the sea. As such, the Gulf serves as a site for
exploration results reported in Pradidtan and Dook (1992) understanding depositional and erosional processes
indicated that the northern Gulf has filled with 1,000- associated with sea level change.
1,500 m of late Miocene to Recent sediments in the last High resolution shallow seismic reflection profiling is a
10.4 million years. These form the Chao Phraya Group common technique applied to investigate submarine
and mainly comprise oxidized floodplain alluvium and geology, for example depositional environments of late
less common coastal swamp and marine facies. Because Quaternary sediments on the continental shelf and
of the shallowness of the Gulf, for more than 50% of the erosional unconformities or stratigraphic time gaps
middle-late Quaternary period, sea level has been below separating depositional sequences as well as principal
the sill depth and the Gulf has been a swampy terrestrial processes involved in dispersing sediments across the
environment. During regressions and periods of low sea shelf margin (Berryhill, 1986).
203
In this paper, high resolution shallow seismic data in the last glacial maximum. The recent sea floor topography
upper Gulf were interpreted to describe the geometry and was also described.
acoustic characters of the late Quaternary deposits above
the older sedimentary strata and discuss the depositional
history in response to the sea level fluctuations since the
Figure 1 Location map of the study area.
STUDY AREA the Gulf’s circulation. Monsoons also play a significant

role on the sea surface currents. During the southwest
The study area encompasses the northern or upper part monsoons season (May –September) the surface current
of the Gulf of Thailand (Fig. 1). Four main rivers, from moves clockwise and during northeast monsoon season it
west to east, the Mae Klong, Tha Chin Chao Phraya and moves counterclockwise.
Bang Pakong flow across the central plain to the upper
Gulf. According to Milliman et al (1995) the Chaophraya MATERIALS AND METHODS
River carries suspended sediments of about 11 million
tons to the Gulf annually. The Mae Klong River carries The seismic grid was designed with profiles across and
suspended sediments of about 8 million tons to the Gulf along the upper Gulf. The sources employed were 200
annually. The sediment discharge of the Pang Pakong joules EG&G Subbottom Profiler in the years 2001 and
River is small in comparison with that of other three 2003; the profiles were record in analog format, and 175
rivers. joules Geoacoustics Subbottom Profiler in the year 2007;
The Upper Gulf coast is a low energy environment, with the profiles were digitally recorded (Fig. 2). During the
the maximum tidal range of 2.3-2.8 m survey, echo sounder (Marimatech Model E-Sea sound)
(Vongvisessomchai, 1992) and mean tidal range of 1.0- was also simultaneously deployed for water depth
2.5 m (Sojisuporn, 1998). The type of tide is a mixed measurement. Shipboard navigation was controlled using
type, meaning that in a period of lunar day having large a GPS system and the survey speed was maintained at
inequalities in heights and/or durations of consecutive about 8-10 km/h. A total number of about 2,000 line-kms
high and low waters. Monsoons, tidal currents, were obtained.
precipitation and river discharge play an important role on
204
Figure. 2 Map showing the tracklines of seismic and echo sounding profiles. Heavy lines
denote the selected seismic profiless shown in Figs. 4-1 to 4-4.
The seismic stratigraphy methodology was applied RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

following the procedures described by Vail et al. (1977).
The major boundaries between sedimentary sequences Sea Floor Topography
were firstly identified followed by analyzing of main
types of seismic facies and attributes such as amplitude, The modern sea floor topography of the Upper Gulf is
continuity, frequency, steepness and acoustic reflectivity. shown by the bathymetric map in Fig. 3. The water depths
For the determination of the thickness of the sediment along the survey lines in the survey area range from 0.5 m
units, the following values of propagation were used 1490 to 34 m below mean sea level. Generally the sea bed
m/s for water column and 1,650 m/s for the sedimentary topography is relatively smooth and has little relief,
record. A total number of more than 100 shallow borehole except on the southwestern part (offshore Phet Buri
data around the Gulf of Thailand collected by the Gulf of province) and eastern-southeastern part (offshore Chon
Thailand Project team and the authors, Department of Buri province) of the area where bathymetric depressions
Mineral Resources, during 1994-1996, and 46 borehole were encountered. The boundary between the Chao
data courtersy from STS instruments Co. Ltd., were Phraya delta front and the prodelta is along the 12-15 m
analyzed and correlated with seismic data. bathymetric contours, where the slope gradient has a
break point. The delta front in front of the Chao Phraya
River mouth is steeper (1:1,500) than in front of the Mae
Klong and Tha Chin river mouths (1:2,000).
205
Figure 3 Map showing bathymetry of the Upper Gulf of Thailand.
Seismic units and seismic facies analysis Unit 1 directly overlies the older sedimentary strata. It is
commonly 5-15 m thick. The basal depth of this unit
The seismic profiles shown in Figs. 4-1 to 4-5 are chosen ranges between 15-30 m below sea level. It can be
from the survey to show complexity of the late subdivided into Unit 1a and Unit 1b according to their
Quaternary sequence beneath the upper Gulf. The survey seismic facies. Unit 1a is mainly characterized by
routes cross both major and minor incised and infilled aggrading facies with internal structure showing high
channels and display the continuity of late Pleistocene amplitude parallel and sub-parallel reflection patterns.
lowstand erosional surface as well as ravinement surface Unit 1b distinctly displays incised valley seismic
which is produced by shoreface erosion of the underlying configurations with internal structure showing moderate
sediments during a transgression when shoreface moves amplitude chaotic and irregular clinoform reflection
landward. The complex variations in seismic character of patterns. The size of incised channel ranges from 10 m to
these profiles reflect variations in lithology. 3,000 m in width and 2 to 20 m in depth. Locally, the fill
Three major seismic units above the older complex in incised channels is composite. At least twice and
sedimentary strata (presumably late Pleistocene) were perhaps three times during regression, sea level oscillated
defined according to the seismic approach. They were sufficiently to cause re-entrenchment. Drilling results
assigned as unit 1, 2 and 3 in ascending order. These units show that Unit 1a consists of stiff-hard oxidized alluvial
are separated by erosional surfaces which can be traced silty clay alternated with silty fine sand, and Unit 1b is
over most of the study area. composed of dense gray-yellowish brown fine-medium
206
sand with an absent of shell fragments. Unit 1 is then time, the Gulf was widely exposed and the land surface
interpreted as alluvial plain (unit 1a) and incised channel was entrenched by numerous channels (Sinsakul, 1992;
deposits (Unit 1b) formed during the last regression Batchelor, 1992).
period of late Pleistocene lowstand sea level (oxygen
isotope stage 2; Chappell and Shackleton, 1966). At that
Fig. 4-1 High-resolution boomer profile showing seismic units and bounding surfaces (for location see Fig. 2).
207
208
Unit 2 is mainly characterized by simple filling facies thought to be fluvial delta facies that formed in the heads
with internal reflection showing simple parallel, wavy of the drowned valleys. Initially, fluvial sand s are
parallel and semi-transparent patterns. Locally, acoustic deposited in the head of the downed valleys. These fluvial
turbidity facies and oblique clinoform in buried channel deposits migrate landward as sea levels rise and are
were observed. Aggrading facies with internal reflection superseded (overlain) by organic rich clay (Unit 1),
displaying low-moderate amplitude closely-space parallel- deposited from suspension as water depth increase and
subparallel patterns were also encounterd. The channel energy levels decline (Fig. 5 inset A). The absence of
width – to - depth ratio is highly variable. The size of shell fragments can be attributed to acidic conditions
incised channel ranges from 10 m to 1,000 m in width and generated as the plant detritus decays. This unit is
2 to 10 m in depth. Drilling results show that this unit is interpreted to be shallow marine and estuarine channel
composed mainly of medium-stiff grey silty clay with sediments deposited during transgression period of late
some sand seam/pocket, lime concretions and shell Pleistocene-early Holocene. The bounding surface which
fragments as well as salt water swamp vegetations separates the Unit 1 from Unit 2 is defined as a
indicating intertidal or shallow subtidal environments. ravinement surface produced by shoreface erosion that
Authigenic pyrite and siderite indicating reducing shift landward during transgression (Foyle and Oertel,
conditions during diagenesis were also observed. In some 1992).
large and deep channels, 1-2 m thick of sand layer was
intersected at the channel base. The sandy sediments are
209
Fig. 5 Idealised stratigraphy of transgressive estuarine sedimentation in a fluvial channel system undergoing drowning as sea level
rises. Inset A illustrates successive shorelines at different sea level positions as a marine transgression drowns a segment of coast
with an incised channel. Inset B shows an idealized stratigrphy of the estuarine chaane fill deposits. The contact between estuarine
clay and marine clay is mostly not clear on the seismic profiles.
Unit 3, the topmost unit covering entire of the survey area, The marine clay is terrestrial in origin and reaches the
displays aggrading seismic configuration with internal upper Gulf in suspension in rivers swollen by monsoon
structure displaying semi-transparent to parallel and floods. Once it reaches the coast, the mud is dispersed by
acoustic turbidity. The bounding surface which separates sea, tidal and wind-drift currents and eventually settles to
Unit 3 from Unit 2 is relatively poor. Nevertheless, the the sea bed in areas where turbulence levels are
thickness of Unit 3 generally decreases seaward. Its significantly low. Storm wave action usually prevents
thickness in nearshore area reaches up to 20 m. Drilling mud settling permanently in water depths less than 3 m.
results show that it is made up of very soft-soft clay and Because the marine clay is so soft and easily mobilized,
silty clay with high natural water content and low plastic its distribution clearly indicates regional variations in
limit. Marine shells and fine organic materials are present day depositional conditions of the upper Gulf. The
extensively encountered. This unit is therefore deciphered total thickness of Unit 2 and Unit 3 is shown in Fig. 6.
as transgressive - highstand sediment deposited since
Holocene to Recent and can be correlated with the so
called “Bangkok soft clay” (Rau and Nutalaya, 1983).
210
Figure 6 Map showing the total thickness of seismic units 2 and 3. Note that Unit 3 mainly deposited in depression zones.
CONCLUSIONS 3. The absence of any trace of any barrier sand in the

offshore area is explained by the very low gradients on the
Analyses of high-resolution seismic profiles, water depth bed of the Gulf (typically 0.1o-0.2o) which promote the
data and borehole information lead to the following landward migration of transgressive barriers under
conclusions: conditions of rising sea level (Roy, et al, 1994). In
The water depths along the survey lines in the survey area addition, the absence of the regressive barriers as sea level
range from 0.5 m to 34 m below mean sea level. The fell towards the last glacial period, reflects a lack of
boundary between the Chao Phraya delta front and the available sand. Instead of regressive sand deposits, thick
prodelta is along the 12-15 m bathymetric contours, where marine clay blankets occur in nearshore area of the upper
the slope gradient has a break point. The delta front in Gulf.
front of the Chao Phraya River mouth is steeper than in 4. Seismic facies configurations indicate that coarse
front of the Mae Klong and Tha Chin river mouths. sediments have not been transported to the Upper Gulf
2. Three main seismic units above older complex since the Holocene marine transgression till present.
sedimentary strata were identified on the seismic profiles. 5. The mapping of mud transport pathways and areas of
These units constitute the regressive, transgressive and deposition and scour may have environmental and
highstand system tracts formed since the last glacial biological significance and may be worth pursuing in the
maximum. future.
211
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Milliman, J.D., Rutkowski, C., Meybeck, M., 1995, River
discharge to the sea: A Global River Index. LOICZ Core
Project Office, 125pp.
This work is exclusively supported by the Department of Rau, J.L., and Nutalaya, P. 1983, Geology of the Bangkok Clay.
Mineral Resouces. The author would like to thank Mr. Geological Society of Malaysia Bulletin 16, 99-116.
Sathien Sukhonpongpao, Deputy Director of Department Roy, P.S., Cowell, P.J., Ferland, M.A., and Thom, B.G., 1994,
of Mineral Resources, and Mr. Tawsaporn Nuchanong, Wave dominated coasts, Chapter 4, in R.W.G Cater and
Director of Environment geology and geohazard, who C.D. Woodroffe (eds.).
support the study. Many thanks also extends to all field Sinsakul, S., 1992, Evidence of Quaternary sea level changes in
survey crew members. the coastal areas of Thailand: a review. Journal of
Southeast Asian Earth Sciences, 7, 23-37.
Sojisuporn, P. 1998, Physical characteristics of the Bangkok
REFERENCES estuary, in : Role of Ocean Sciences for Sustainable
Development. Proceedings of the 4th International
Batchelor, A.F., 1992, Regional onshore-offshore upper Scientific Symposium in Okinawa, Japan,
Cenozoic stratigraphic correlations inthe Sundaland area, UNESCO/IOC/WESTPAC, pp. 498-514.
Southeast Asia. Journal of Thai Geosciences, 2, 1-12. Vail, P.R., Mitchum, R.M. Jr., Todd, R.G., Widmier, J.M.,
Berryhill,H.L. (Editor), 1986, Late Quaternary facies and Thomson, S III., Sangree, J.B., Bubb, J.N., and Hatelid,
structure, northern Gulf of Mexico: interpretations from W.G., 1977, Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea
seismic data. American Association of Petroleum level, 49-212 in Seismic Stratigraphy applications to
Geologists, Studies in Geology, Vol. 23. hydrocarbon exploration. Payton C.E. (editor). Memoir of
Chappell, J., and Shackleton, N.J., 1966, Oxygen isotopes and the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 26.
sea level., Nature, London, Vol. 324, 137-140. Vongvisessomchai, S., 1992, Coastal erosion in the Gulf of
Foyle, A.M., and Oertel, G.F., 1992, Seismic stratigraphy and Thailand. Research and Development Journal of the
coastal drainage patterns in the Quaternary section of the Engineering Institute of Thailand, 3, 38-58.
southwern Delmarva Peninsular, Virginia, USA.,
Sedimentary Geology, vol. 80, 261-277.
Pradidtan, S., Dook,R.,1992, Petroleum geology of the northern
part of the Gulf of Thailand. In National conference on
Geologic Resources of Thailand: Potential for Future
Development, 17-24 November, 1992, Department of
Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 235-246.
212
MORPHOTECTONIC EVIDENCES ALONGS THE RANONG –

KLONG MARUI FAULT ZONE, SOUTHERN THAILAND
Suwith Kosuwan 1, Preecha Saithong1, Weerachat Wiwegwin1,
Wannaporn Punyawai1 and Punya Charusiri 2
1
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok 10400, THAILAND.
2
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
ABSTRACT
The Ranong – Klong Marui Fault Zone, Southern Thailand is selected for morphotectonic investigations with particular
emphasis on remote-sensing interpretation using enhanced Landsat TM7 images. The prime objective is to delineate
faults and lineaments and their orientations and past movements. Detailed site investigation includes delineating
individual lineaments using aerial photographs and field reconnaissance survey.
Results from integrated data indicate 2 major fault zones, Ranong Fault zone (RNF) with a total length of about 145 km
and Klong Marui Fault zone (KMF) with a total length of about 80 km are the oblique-slip fault. The major trend of
lineaments and faults is in the northeast-southwest direction. Three minor trends of lineaments and faults are recognized
in northwest-southeast, east-west and north-south directions. All these segments pass both Cenozoic basins and pre-
Cenozoic landforms.
There are several kinds of evidence from morphotectonic landforms in the area. Based on our reconnaissance surveys,
they include fault scarps, triangular facets, shutter ridges, linear ridges, offset streams, and beheaded streams. The
morphotectonic landforms, related to the northeast-southwest trending fault indicate the left-lateral movement with
minor vertical slip, whereas pre-Cenozoic structures indicate the right-lateral moment. Neotectonically, the surface
rupture length together with our preliminary TL dates indicate the movement of the RNF and KMF during the
Quaternary with the maximum earthquake at Mw 7.1 and 6.9, respectively.
213
NEW AND OLD HYDROCARBON PLAYS IN THE PERMO-TRIASSIC

SECTION OF THE KHORAT PLATEAU BASIN, NE THAILAND
John Booth (APICO) and Wanida Chantong
Department of Mineral Fuels, Bangkok, Thailand)
Up to 2003 various oil companies had drilled 24 separate prospects in the Khorat Plateau Basin (since 1972) and
ExxonMobil had brought the Nam Phong gas field on stream in 1991. However, the amount of licensed acreage had
shrunk to just the production and reserve areas around the Nam Phong and Phu Horm gas fields – only 300 km2. At the
present time there are 7 exploration blocks licensed (27, 463 km2) and applications for another 10 blocks pending
approval (36,308 km2).
This is a remarkable change in the acreage position in the Khorat Plateau. Some of this can be attributed to the successful
appraisal of the Phu Horm gas field, which came on stream in 2006, but much of the rest possibly reflects the large
increase in the oil price and a “gold rush” mentality of companies trying to secure acreage positions in SE Asia.
The objective of this paper is to show the geology and geophysics of the key successful wells drilled in the Khorat
Plateau basin to date, particularly the ongoing development of the Phu Horm field, and see what lessons might be applied
to future exploration. We will then examine the recently licensed acreage to demonstrate some of the new, unexplored
plays and discuss the merits of the main prospective structures we have identified in these blocks.
214
NEW TERTIARY TECTONICS MODEL IN THAILAND

Surapol Thanomsap
Department of Mineral Fuels, Bangkok, Thailand
ABSTRACT
Himalayan Orogeny is the most pronounce and largest orogeny in the world presently. This orogeny spans its effects to
various countries and including Thailand. Three main approaches have been conducted to unravel these effects in
Thailand and adjacent countries. These three approaches are; flexural fold model of Ramsay (Gigantic fold), Clay cake
experiments and Megasutures model of Bally, respectively. Each of these models supports and compatible with the
others. In Flexural fold model, Thailand situated at the right-hand limb of the fold, shows significantly combination of
two processes that go on together; layer parallel shear and tangential longitudinal strain. Layer parallel shear
performing as a thrust plate which radial propagates outward to the East - Southeast, whereas tangential longitudinal
strains bisect thrust plate into compartments and shifting thrust terranes. Extension vein system in flexural fold is
another feature that related to the basin creation and younger to the East which coincident with the direction of thrust
propagation.
Clay cake experiments show structural development as radial propagation. Megasutures model is an ultimate models
which giving an acceptable solution. Therefore, we can classify the effects of Himalayan orogeny that occurs in Thailand
as typical Cordilleran Type Megasutures. This type of megasutures consists of B-subduction (Benioff subduction) to the
West and A-subduction (Ampferer subduction) to the East. The B-subduction is the Sunda subduction Zone in Andaman
Sea while A-subduction represented by Nan-Uttaradit Suture Zone to the West of Khorat Plateau. Moreover, West to
East transections show completed features. These features are fore-arc fold-thrust belt of Naga hills and Chin hills (the
Indo-Burman Ranges), fore-arc and back-arc basins of the Andaman Sea, Thailand and Myanmar Orogenic Terranes (or
Thrust Belts, Allochthonous terranes) and Khorat Plateau Foreland Deformation (Autochthonous terranes), respectively.
Upper layers crust within these two subduction zones shows different structural styles from place to place depend upon
tectonic settings, plate configuration, rate of subduction. Therefore, there are three domains structural styles; Wrenching
domain, Compression domain and Extension domain. Wrenching domain perform in Andaman Sea and the western part
of Thailand. Large parts of the onshore Thailand belong to the compression domain, whereas in the Gulf of Thailand is
an Extension domain.
Compression domain composed of; Overthrust plates, Nan-Uttaradit suture Zone, Wangthong-Lomsak peripheral swell,
Phetchabun foredeep, Lam Sonthi and Lam Chao triangle Zone and Khorat Plateau perform as foreland deformation,
respectively.
215
OVERVIEW AND CURRENT STATUS OF THE

“GEO (GLOBAL EARTH OBSERVATION) GRID”
M. Matsuoka, S. Kodama, R. Nakamura, N. Yamamoto, H. Yamamoto,
K. Iwao, T. T. Vu, S. Tsuchida, and S. Sekiguchi
Grid Technology Research Center (GTRC)
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)
Umezono 1-1-1, Tsukuba 305-8568, Japan.
Email: m.matsuoka@aist.go.jp
ABSTRACT
The “GEO (Global Earth Observation) Grid” is aiming at providing an E-Infrastructure to understand our Earth more
insightful and more precisely, but faster and easier to worldwide Earth Sciences community. On the E-Infrastructure, we
are able to share data, application programs, and scientific workflows without knowing deep knowledge in IT where the
grid technology is provisioned. GEO Grid provides large archives of earth observation satellite data securely and
rapidly, integrated service with wide variety of geo-scientific information and GIS data, and assembles them easy-to-use
formats for potential stakeholders in not only disaster management but also other several Societal Benefit Areas.
GEO Grid potentially contributes to provide IT as software package and large-scale of archived data related to the earth
observation. The former enables to support securely for publishing data with incoherent owners’ policy, easy access, and
distributed data provider. The latter contains the all ASTER archives and geological maps. In other words, GEO Grid
has the capability to generate high-level data products (accurate geometric-, radiometric- and atmospheric-corrected,
and 30-meter and/or higher resolution DEM globally) by the Computing Grid.
Keywords: Global Earth Observation Grid, E-infrastructure, GIS
INTRODUCTION motivated scientists advance research on earth

observations, we propose a new platform, GEO (Global
Earth observations are indispensable to all of our activities, Earth Observation) Grid, for accessing the earth
especially disaster mitigation, weather prediction, natural observation databases and providing computing resources
resource exploration, environment monitoring, and so on. easily.
In particular, satellite imagery provides a wealth of
information to examine the surface of the planet Earth, OVERVIEW OF THE GEO GRID
however, the data rates are currently growing dramatically.
For example, the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission The GEO Grid is an E-infrastructure for archiving and
and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER, Yamaguchi et al., processing huge satellite observation data, such as
1998) mounted on the Terra earth observation mission ASTER and MODIS, and other geo-scientific dataset
satellite has produced more than one hundred terabytes of based on GIS by using the grid computing technologies
raw data since its launch in 1999. PALSAR (Phased Array Yamamoto et al., 2006). Comprised of observation and
L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar) onboard that ALOS information systems for earth observations, the GEO Grid
(Japanese nicknamed “Daichi”) satellite, which started system implements an infrastructure for flexible, secure,
operation in 2006, will generate more than a petabyte of and coordinated sharing of resources such as satellite data,
raw data in its five-year nominal mission period. Most of field sensor data, and computing for simulations and data
the data has been maintained in an archive system on a analysis. In the design policy of the GEO Grid system, in
traditional tape library system. order to enable security framework, the GEO Grid system
In addition to such huge amounts of satellite data, introduces the concept of a virtual organization (VO) (The
researchers may be interested in accessing other databases, Grid, 2004, Foster, 2001) for its design, in which various
such as the data from land-use map, climate data, and field data and computing resources are provided as services
sensors, and then analyzing and simulating the data to represented by standard protocols. Figure 1 shows the
know the real and future world. However, it is a difficult schematic architecture of the GEO Grid. The latter chapter
task for an individual user to retrieve the desired data from describes its detail configuration by taking the ASTER
distributed systems and process that data on remote data application as an example.
computing resources. Based on the background, in this
paper, in order to overcome the difficulties and to help
216
Figure 1. Simple architecture of the GEO Grid
ASTER GRID SYSTEM connected by Giga-bit Ethernet, each of which is equipped

with a 6.3TB RAID6 hard disk drive. The total storage
As a sample application of the GEO Grid system, we have volume is 176.4TB as a single storage volume by Gfarm
developed and deployed a system for accessing ASTER (Tatabe et al., 2002). Currently, approximately 125TB of
data using the components of the GEO Grid system. the ASTER data stored in the Gfarm file system is
ASTER, which is a high spatial resolution multi-spectral physically dispersed across the cluster nodes, however it
imaging radiometer, was developed by the Ministry of can be accessed transparently by mounting the Gfarm file
International Trade and Industry of Japan (METI). The system in a user space via the FUSE (Szeredi, 2005)
Earth Remote Sensing Data Analysis Center (ERSDAC) mechanism.
of Japan has been archiving ASTER data in a traditional
tape library system at the rate of approximately 70-100 ASTER DATA APPLICATION
gigabytes per day, then providing users the ASTER
Ground Data System (GDS, Aster web) to search and DEM and orthorectified image generation
obtain ASTER data products through a Web portal. One
inconvenience issue is that it usually takes for the whole One of the most significant characteristics of ASTER is
daylong when the ASTER GDS generates products in the along-track stereoscopic data acquisition capability
bulk requested by a user. It is desirable for users to enjoy and accurate geolocation. The ASTER Grid system
on-demand and near-real-time delivery services of the utilizes another cluster system called the F32 cluster,
product. which has 256 dual Intel Xeon nodes connected by Giga-
Secondary, on ASTER GDS there is no previewing of bit Ethernet. The F32 cluster is used for executing the
scenes in Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC web) image processing application which generates Digital
compliant format before purchase and considerable Elevation Model (DEM), actually Digital Surface Model
latencies to get the scenes after the order. Although in a (DSM), and orthorectified images using Level 1A derived
modern GIS system it is expected that any map will be from Level 0 ASTER data stored in a Gfarm file system in
searchable and accessible through a single GUI through the GEO Grid cluster storage area (Fig. 2). The spatial
OGC standard services, such as WMS (Web-Mapping resolution of the ASTER DEM and orthorectified images
Service), WFS (Web-Feature Service), and WCS (Web- is 15 meters in the highest level for visible and near-
Coverage Service). Users may want to overlay a infrared wavelength bands. All data sets can be
thumbnail as previewing image of the ASTER scenes and downloaded by on-demand and user’s request basis on the
other useful maps like geology and/or land-use map. ASTER Grid portal as shown in Fig. 3.
Unfortunately as of today, users must query the ASTER The one of the most advanced features of ASTER DEM is
data and the geology map independently through different to capture the detailed 3D surface in the area above 60
GUIs with the ASTER GDS. degrees of altitude because Shuttle Radar Topography
In the ASTER Grid system, ASTER data is stored not in a Mission (SRTM web) could not cover the high-latitude
tape library system but in a cluster system called the GEO regions. Surface topography should be rather stable in the
Grid cluster. It consists of 28 dual Intel Xeon nodes absence of significant ground movements, such as
217
earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. In other words, by matsuoka, 1993) at the GEO Grid (Fig. 5). Other
using the ASTER Grid, temporal topography and algorithms can be applied when the programs (services)
coastline changing caused by geo-hazards can be are registered. The result maps are provided by using the
examined immediately and easily. WMS, making it easier to overlay them on other GIS data
and maps.
Integration and hazard simulation
The GEO Grid system also supports OGC standard

services like the WMS to provide the global ASTER
imagery and ASTER-generated maps, which allows users
integrating the ASTER data with the data from other
services (or their own data). Figure 4 shows an example of
image overlaying results added by geological map through
the GEON site (GEON web). In the future we also plan to
support the WCS for more advanced scientific analysis
under VO environment.
As an example of geo-hazards application, the GEO Grid
contains the pyroclastic flow simulation program which
provides a possible coverage map of pyroclastic flow Figure 2. On-demand DEM and orthorestified images
deposits caused by a volcanic dome collapse, and can generated on the ASTER Grid system
contribute to make an emergency volcanic hazard map.
An energy line model is used for calculation of the
maximum possible flow distance (Takarada and
Figure 3. Snapshot of the ASTER Grid portal
Figure 4. 3D surface view using the geologic map of Pennsylvania from GEON and the ASTER DEM from the GEO Grid.
218
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of pyroclastic flow simulation on the GEO Grid
CONCLUSION THE GRID, 2004, Blueprint for a New Computing

Infrastructure, 2nd Edition, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
Foster, I., 2001, The Anatomy of the Grid, in Proc. 7th
In this paper, we presented the architecture of the International Euro-Par Conference Manchester on Parallel
archiving and processing satellite imagery and GIS data Processing, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, v. 2150, p.
sets, called GEO (Global Earth Observation) Grid, which 1-4.
is aiming at providing an E-Infrastructure to understand ASTER Ground Data System (GDS),
our Earth more insightful and more precisely, but faster http://www.gds.aster.ersdac.or.jp/.
and easier to worldwide Earth Sciences community. The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC),
GEO Grid project is a joint project of the Geological http://www.opengeospatial.org/.
Survey of Japan (GSJ) and the Grid Technology Research Tatebe, O., Morita, Y., Matsuoka, S., Soda, N. and Sekiguchi,
Center (GTRC) of the National Institute of Advanced S., 2002, Grid Dataform Architecture for Petascale Data
Intensive Computing, in Proc. International Symposium on
Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Japan. GSJ Cluster Computing and the Grid, p. 102-110.
has large amounts of geospatial data and applications, and Szeredi, M., 2005, Filesystem in Userspace,
AIST stores ASTER data. GTRC provides the Grid-based http://fuse.sourceforge.net, February 2005.
e-Science infrastructure for them. Our project has only Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM),
just started and the current prototype implementation is “http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/.
equipped only with limited functionality from the entire GEON, the geosciences network, http://www.geongrid.org/.
architecture of the GEO Grid, however, we are already Takarada, S. and Yamamoto T., 1993, Flow and deposition
offering the full set of ASTER images with our first mechanism of pyroclastic flows of the 1991-93 eruption of
prototype. Unzen Volcano and the 1929 eruption of Hokkaido
Komagatake Volcano, Japan, IAVCEI General Assembly,
Canberra, 1993.
REFERENCES
Yamaguchi, Y.,. Kahle, B.A., Pniel, M.,. Tsu, H. and Kawakami,
T., 1998, Overview of Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER), IEEE
Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, v. 36, no. 4, p. 1062–1071.
Yamamoto, N., Nakamura, R., Yamamoto, H.,. Tsuchida, S.,
Kojima, I., Tanaka, Y. and Sekiguchi, S., 2006, GEO Grid:
grid infrastructure for integration of huge satellite imagery
and geoscience data sets, Proc. Of the 6th IEEE
International Conference on Computer and Information
Technology (CIT ’06), 6 pp.
219
PALEOEARTHQUAKE OF THE SI SAWAT AND THREE PAGODA

FAULT ZONE, WESTERN THAILAND
Suwith Kosuwan, Preecha Saithong, Weerachat Wiwakwin, and Ekkachai Keomart
ABSTRACT
Paleoearthquake is the investigation of prehistoric earthquakes especially their location, timing, and size of magnitude.
The almost instantaneous deformation of landforms and sediments during earthquakes permit study of the distribution of
individual paleoearthquake in space and over time periods of thousands or tens of thousands of years.
The study of earthquake geology is in Kanchanaburi and neighboring area. They are expressed at the surface as linear
belts of landforms across which vertical relief is evident or where terrain elements are shifted laterally. The fault traces
of Si Sawat Fault Zone (SSFZ) and Three Pagoda Fault Zone (TPFZ) are usually identified by satellite image (LANDSAT
7ETM+) and examination of aerial photographs.
Results from integrated data indicate 2 major fault zones, the SSFZ in northwest-southeast (NNW-SSE) trend and the
TPFZ in the northwest-southeast (NW-SE) trend. Based on our remote-sensing interpretation and field investigation, The
SSFZ can be traced from eastern Myanmar by joining with the NW-SE trending Pan Luang fault zone through the border
zone of western Thailand to central Thailand along the Mae Num Khwae Yai. The SSFZ has a ranging in a total length of
about 170 km. The TPFZ can be traced from eastern Myanmar through the border zone of western Thailand along the
Mae Num Khwae Noi, a ranging in a total length of about 210 km.
Trenching in deformation zones has become a major element of paleoearthquake studies in Kanchanaburi. Trenches
across faults are typically sited to optimize data on either paleoearthquake displacement. Based on the field survey,
several kinds of morphotectonic landforms along the SSFZ and TPFZ including fault scarps, triangular facets, shutter
ridges, and offset streams. The fault shows the right-lateral and reverse sense of movement at present. The slip rate of
these fault segments are about 1.3 - 1.9 mm/yr. Four major earthquakes with the paleoearthquake of about 6.5 Mw
occurred about 43,000 - 30,000 years, 15,000 - 30,000 years, 7,000 years and 1,000 – 2,000 years ago. The TPFZ is
regarded as the most active and was responsible for the 5.9 Richter on April 26, 1983 earthquake.
220
PERMIAN LIMESTONES OF SURAT THANI PROVINCE,

PENINSULAR THAILAND
Fontaine Henri, Hoang Thi Than, Sirot Salyapongse, Varavudh Suteethorn and Daniel Vachard
ABSTRACT
Limestone is widespread in Surat Thani Province. It is locally exposed at ground surface but, more widely, it builds up
small to large hills with a spectacular karst topography. Because of its large distribution, it appears interesting from
economical points of view. In order to assess its resources, it has been recently studied in the field and laboratories
(Harrison et al., 1997; Chaodumrong et al., 1998; Dill et al., 2004).
In the past, the stratigraphy of the Surat Thani Province was commonly based on the limestone appearance after
observing its colour, the thickness of the beds, the presence of chert nodule or of the elephant skin texture characteristic
of the occurrence of dolomite. Fossils were only occasionally mentioned. In fact, they are not in abundance at many
places. In addition to that, they are not diverse and locally they have been destroyed by strong dolomitization or
recrystallization. However, the samples which have been recently collected from an important number of Permian
limestone exposures (samples T7306 to T7485) contain fossils which indicate rather precise ages at some localities and
bring also important information on paleogeography. In the following text, other localities are not mentioned because no
fossil was found due to dolomitization or recrystallization.
Key words: fossil, limestone, southern Thailand
PERMIAN FOSSILS Pronina (1997) while that of Sphairionia has been

discussed by Pronina (1996).
A few previous studies have reported Permian fossils in In Kanchanadit area east of Surat Thani, limestone hills
Surat Thani Province. In 1993 in Donsak District, on land are scattered; they are assigned to the Um Luk Formation
and on two islands (Ko Nai Pud and Ko Woa Lap), (Chaodumrong et al., 1998). Two hills have yielded
Ingavat-Helmcke found algae, calcispheres, smaller interesting material:
foraminifers (Sphairionia, Dagmarita, Rectostipulina, 1 - At Khao Khuha (9°09’09”N, 99°28’26”E; samples
Langella and others), Fusulinidae (Minojapanella, T7464 to T7468; pl. I, figs. 1 to 4), a small hill with a
Ozawainella, Pseudodoliolina, Chusenella) and corals cave and a Buddhist Temple, 16 km east of Surat Thani in
(Tabulata). A Middle Permian age was suggested. Kanchanadit area, a grey thickly bedded to massive
In 1994, Sphairionia and Neomisellina were mentioned at limestone contains abundant and quite diverse fossils. It is
another island, Ko Pha Luai (Fontaine et al., 1994). rich in Hemigordiopsis renzi Reichel 1945, associated
In 2004, Dill et al. mentioned Hemigordiopsis and with calcispheres (Eotuberitina), smaller foraminifers
Dagmarita in the widespread Um Luk Formation without (Sphairionia sikuoides Nguyen 1987, Climacammina,
giving names of precise localities. They gave also lists of Geinitzina, Endothyra, Pachyphloia, Globivalvulina and
Carboniferous and Permian fossils which will be Agathammina), rare poorly preserved Fusulinidae, very
discussed in the following lines. rare solitary corals, fragments of brachiopods (shells and
spines), a few gastropods and crinoids. Sphairionia is rare
LOCALITIES WITH HEMIGORDIOPSIS at Khao Khuha.
2 – At a hill without name (9°08’07”N, 99°28’01”E;
AND/OR SPHAIRIONIA samples T7469 to T7471), 2 km south of Khao Khuha, a
grey thickly bedded to massive limestone is micstone to
According to our own research, the youngest well-dated wackestone. It contains calcispheres, smaller foraminifers
Permian limestones of Surat Thani Province contain (Sphairionia sikuoides Nguyen, Climacammina,
Hemigordiopsis and Sphairionia. They belong to the Globivalvulina, Pachyphloia, Eolasiodiscus), rare
Midian, maybe down to a part of the Murgabian. They are fusulinidae and rare fragments of solitary Rugosa
exposed in Kanchanadit area and in Donsak area. They (Pavastehphyllum).
are similar to Khao Yoi, a hill south of Ratburi where In Donsak area east-northeast of Surat Thani, Sphairionia
Hemigordiopsis, Dagmarita and Sphairionia are an has been found at localities on land and in the sea. Donsak
important part of the fossil fauna (Fontaine et al., 1998), is 59 km far from Surat Thani town.
and to other localities of southern Thailand (Fontaine et 1 – At a small hill southeast of Donsak (9°17’18”N,
al., 1994). The stratigraphic significance of 99°44’07”E; samples T7352 to T7356; pl. I, fig. 6; pl. III,
Hemigordiopsis has been discussed by Nestell and fig. 3), a thickly bedded limestone is wackestone to
221
packstone. It contains poorly preserved algae 2 – At Khao Ok, an elongated limestone hill south-
(Ungdarella), calcispheres (Eotuberitina), smaller southeast of Laem Kula (laem = cape) and 55 km east-
foraminifers (Sphairionia sikuoides, Climacammina), northeast of Surat Thani, samples have been collected
scattered Fusulinidae (Parafusulina), common fragments from two localities of the western side of the hill. The
of bryozoans (Fenestellidae), a few brachiopods and rare limestone is grey and contains rare chert nodules.
crinoids. Fusulinidae are locally in abundance.
PLATE I Fossil location at Khao Khuha. Figure 1– Hemigordiopsis renzi Reichel, associated with Agathammina, Pachyphloia,
Climacammina, Globivalvulina. Sample T7464. Figure 2 – Hemigordiopsis renzi Reichel. Sample T7468. Figures 3 and 4 –
Hemigordiopsis renzi Reichel. Sample T7465. Fossil at second locality Khao Ok. Figures 5, 7 and 8 – Sphairionia sikuoides
Nguyen. Sample T7318. Fossil location at small hill southeast of Donsak. Figure 6 – Sphairionia sikuoides Nguyen. Sample
T7353. Fossil at first locality, Khao Kho Kwang. Figure 9 – Sphairionia sikuoides Nguyen. Sample T7321.
222
At the first locality (9°17’55”N, 99°44’55”E; samples corals (Tabulata, solitary, fasciculate and massive
T7313 to T7315; pl. II, figs. 1 to 5), limestone is Rugosa). However, these fossils are of a low diversity and
wackestone to packstone. It contains Tubiphytes, smaller they are commonly in a poor state of preservation.
foraminifers (Geinitzina, Climacammina, Globivalvulina, At Khao Singkhon (9°14’49”N, 99°41’09”E; samples
Pachyphloia, rare Sphairionia and very rare T7348 to T7351), a small hill with a cave and a Buddhist
Hemigordiopsis), Fusulinidae, a few fragments of Temple, grey thickly bedded to massive limestone
Fenestellidae and rare crinoids. Fusulinidae are locally in contains calcareous sponges, rare solitary corals,
abundance and mainly belong to Parafusulina and to at brachiopods, gastropods and crinoids. A fasciculate coral
least two species of this genus (see plate II). has been collected (sample T7349), but it is almost
At the second locality (9°18’03”N, 99°44’54”E; samples completely destroyed by recrystallization. At other hills
T7316 to T7320; pl. I, figs. 5, 7 and 8; pl. II, figs. 6 to 8), near Khao Singkhon: a small hill without name
limestone is similar to that of the first locality. It contains (9°11’57”N, 99°40’31”E; samples T7341 and T7342),
algae (Ungdarella), Tubiphytes, smaller foraminifers Khao Chong Khok (9°11’47”N, 99°39’51”E; sample
(Climacammina, Geinitzina, Pachyphloia, Tetrataxis, T7343) and Khao Wat (9°12’08”N, 99°39’55”E; samples
Sphairionia common in sample T7318), Fusulinidae, T7344 to T7347), limestone is recrystallized at different
bryozoans (Fistulipora in abundance in sample T7320) degrees; only crinoids have been noticed.
and rare solitary corals. Fusulinidae are again locally in At the southern part of Khao Nom Tro (9°01’32”N,
abundance and belong to Parafusulina cf. crassispira 99°34’29”E; samples T7417 to T7423; pl. IV, fig. 8), a
Leven and to Pseudodoliolina ozawai Yabe 1932. large hill, limestone contains diverse fossils: rare debris of
At a small hill at Laem Kula near the ferry pier algae, Tubiphytes, calcispheres (Eotuberitina), smaller
(9°19’19”N, 99°44’42”; samples T7306 and T7307), a foraminifers (Climacammina), small transported and
black bedded limestone is very poor in fossils. The beds eroded Fusulinidae (Nankinella sp.), solitary Rugosa, very
are 10 to 50 cm thick and dips 30° towards west. South of rare massive Rugosa (Wentzelophyllum), bryozoans
Laem Kula, a black bedded limestone (samples T7308 and (Fistulipora), brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods and
T7309), is underlain by black shale and minor sandstone; crinoids.
it contains a few fossils (bryozoans, brachiopods, At Khao Tan (9°16’51”N, 99°46’39”E; samples T7364 to
gastropods). At Khao Noi (9°18’07”N, 99°44’31”E; T7369; plate III, figs. 2, 8 and 9), a grey thickly bedded to
samples T7310 and T7311), a small hill south of Laem massive limestone is partly dolomitized, but elsewhere
Kula and west of Khao Ok, limestone is locally contains Tubiphytes, smaller foraminifers (Pachyphloia,
dolomitized. Climacammina, Globivalvulina, Langella), locally
3 – At Khao Kho Kwang, a hill 2 km southeast of Khao abundant Fusulinidae (Yangchienia iniqua Lee 1933 and
Ok, limestone is dark grey; samples have been collected Parafusulina), small solitary corals (Lophophyllidium,
from two localities of the western side of the hill. Pavastehphyllum?) and bryozoans. At a Buddhist Temple
At the first locality (9°17’15”N, 99°45’37”E; samples (9°14’22”N, 99°48’19”E; sample T7375) and at a cave
T7321 to T7325; pl. I, fig. 9; pl. III, figs. 1, 5 to 7), the (9°14’15”N, 99°48’15”E; no sample) at Khao Krot, a hill
limestone contains small fragments of algae, Tubiphytes, southeast of Khao Tan, limestone displays elephant skin
smaller foraminifers (Pachyphloia, Climacammina, texture and no fossil has been noticed.
Geinitzina, Globivalvulina, Sphairionia common in At Khao Lom (9°03’02”N, 99°47’16”E; samples T7381 to
sample T7321), Fusulinidae (Yangchienia iniqua Lee T7385; pl. IV, figs. 1, 2, 4 and 6), a hill 20 km south of
1933 in sample T7323), solitary corals (Lophophyllidium Khao Krot, limestone is black, thickly bedded to massive.
6 mm in diameter, Pavastehphyllum 12 mm in diameter), It contains poorly preserved fragments of algae,
a poorly preserved massive Rugosa (sample T7325), calcispheres (Eotuberitina), smaller foraminifers
bryozoans and crinoids. (Climacammina, Deckerella, Langella), Fusulinidae
At the second locality (9°16’54”N, 99°45’57”E; samples (locally in abundance and belonging mainly to Chusenella
T7326 to T7331), limestone is bedded, dark grey to black. crassa Deprat 1913 and maybe to Chusenella navillei Erk
Beds are 20 to 60 cm thick; they dip towards west. Fossils 1942), Tabulata (Protomichelinia with corallites 3 to 4
are few and of a low diversity. They consist of a few mm in diameter; sample T7385), very rare solitary
solitary corals (Lophophyllidium, Paracaninia), Rugosa (Pavastehphyllum), bryozoans (Fistulipora),
Fenestellidae, fragments of brachiopods and crinoids. brachiopods, gastropods and ostracods. At Khao Sak
The two localities of Khao Kho Kwang maybe do not (9°03’17”N, 99°47’20”E; samples T7386 to T7388), a hill
belong to the same stratigraphic horizon. Few fossils have near and north of Khao Lom, limestone is black, bedded;
been obtained from the second locality. it is underlain by black shale. It contains fragments of
algae, smaller foraminifers (Pachyphloia), very rare
LIMESTONE EXPOSURES CONTAINING fragments of Fusulinidae (impossible to identify), two
FUSULINIDAE AND CORALS species of Tabulata belonging to Protomichelinia
(corallites 3 to 4 mm in diameter in sample T7387 and 2
Some limestones of the Surat Thani Province are grey, to 2.5 mm in sample T7386). At Khao Samna
thickly bedded to massive, not very different from the (9°04’06”N, 99°46’12”E; samples T7389 and T7390; pl.
limestones containing Hemigordiopsis and Sphairionia. IV, fig. 3), 3.5 km northwest of Khao Lom, dark grey
They are locally rich in Fusulinidae and contain a few limestone is packstone. It contains calcispheres, smaller
223
foraminifers (Climacammina, Deckerella, Langella), (Pavastehphyllum?), bryozoans, brachiopods gastropods
Fusulinidae (Chusenella cf. crassa Deprat 1913), very and abundant crinoids.
rare solitary corals only noticed in the field
PLATE II Fossil of first locality at Khao Ok. Figure 1 – Parafusulina sp. (transverse section; on the left) and Parafusulina cf.
crassispira Leven 1967 (on the right). Sample T7313. Figures 2 to 4 – Parafusulina sp. and Parafusulina cf. nosonensis Thompson
& Wheeler 1946 (fig. 4, at the center and the bottom). Sample T7314. Figure 5 – Parafusulina sp. (transverse and subaxial
sections). Sample T7315 Fossil of second locality at Khao Ok. Figure 6 – Parafusulina sp. (two transverse sections at the top) and
Parafusulina cf. crassispira Leven 1967 (subaxial section at the bottom). Sample T7317. Figure 7 – Pseudodoliolina ozawai Yabe
1932. Although only subaxial, this section is well characterized by the number and the type of volutions as well as by the shape of
parachomata and their intervals. Sample T7318. Figure 8 – Chusenellidae indet. (transverse section). Sample T7318.
224
PLATE III Fossil of first locality at Khao Kho Kwang. Figure 1 – Yangchienia cf. iniqua Lee 1933. Several types of sections.
Sample T7323. Figure 5 – Yangchienia iniqua Lee 1933. Subaxial section. Sample T7323. Figure 6 – Yangchienia iniqua Lee
1933. Subaxial section. Sample T7323. Figure 7 – Yangchienia cf. iniqua Lee 1933. Subtransverse section. Sample T7323. Fossil at
Khao Tan Figure 2 – Parafusulina sp. (the transverse sections) and Parafusulina cf. nosonensis Thompson & Wheeler 1946 (the
two subaxial sections on the right, center and bottom). Sample T7366. Figure 8 – Yangchienia iniqua Lee 1933. This subaxial
section is well characterized by the almost rhombic form of the test and the very massive chomata. Sample T7369. Figure 9 –
Yangchienia iniqua Lee 1933. Axial section, also characteristic. Sample T7367. Fossil at small hill southeast of Donsak Figure 3 –
Parafusulina sp. (various sections). Sample T7354. Fossil at a small hill near Khao Nam Lai. Figure 4 – Chusenella cf. crassa
Deprat 1913. Various sections. Sample T7370.
225
PLATE IV Fossil at Khao Lom. Figures 1, 2, 4 and 6 – Chusenella crassa Deprat 1913. Various sections. Fig. 6 is a typical
section, fig. 4 is more atypical and looks like Chusenella navillei (Erk) sensu Skinner 1969, not Erk 1942. Sample T7381. Fossil at
Khao Samna. Figure 3 – Chusenella cf. crassa Deprat 1913. Transverse and subtransverse sections. Sample T7389. Fossil at Khao
Phap Pha. Figures 5 and 7 – Chusenella cf. crassa Deprat 1913. Various sections . Sample T7392. Fossil at Khao Nom Tro. Figure
8 – Nankinella sp. Subaxial section. Transported specimen with facets of truncature (bottom). Sample T7420.
226
At Khao Phap Pha (9°10’42”N, 99°41’16”E; samples (Sinopora), solitary Rugosa (Pavastehphyllum),
T7391 to T7394; pl. IV, figs. 5 and 7), 3 km west of an bryozoans, bivalves and gastropods. As for Pachyphloia,
abandoned gypsum mine where gypsum is within a the stratigraphical range of Geinitzina is restricted to the
sequence of shale and sandstone, a black bedded Permian.
limestone dips 20° towards west. It contains smaller At Khao Kun (9°04’04”N, 99°41’42”E; samples T7409 to
foraminifers (Climacammina, Deckerella, Endothyra), T7413), limestone contains rare solitary corals
locally Fusulinidae (Chusenella cf. crassa Deprat 1913), 2 (Plerophyllum), bryozoans and locally brachiopods in
species of solitary corals belonging to Pavastehphyllum abundance.
and showing different diameters, bryozoans, brachiopods At Khao Wang Phut (9°05’47”N, 99°37’22”E; samples
and crinoids. In this area, Permian and older rocks are T7433 to T7435), a bedded limestone is rich in fragments
apparently exposed; Tentaculites was found in 1991 by S. of diverse shells (brachiopods, bivalves, ammonoids). It
Salyapongse, A. Lumjuan and T. Thathong at the eastern displays a peculiar facies.
side of Khao Khuan Reng, the northern end and the At the eastern side of Khao Yom Doi (9°09’11”N,
southeastern side of Khao Chang Lot, hills east of the 99°33’37”E; samples T7449 to T7452), 10 km northwest
gypsum mine; a Devonian age was suggested. of Khao Phru Nom Wang and 4 km north of Khao Thung
At Laem Phap Pha (9°18’30”N, 99°47’14”E; samples Nang Ling, a dark grey bedded limestone is rich in
T7325 and T7328, T7357 to T7359), a black bedded crinoids associated with a few solitary Rugosa
limestone is rich in Tabulata (Sinopora), reaching up to 50 (Paracaninia) and with bryozoans.
cm in diameter and associated with smaller foraminifers Khao Thung Nang Ling is a large hill almost 3 km long in
(Tetrataxis), poorly preserved Fusulinidae, a few solitary a north-south direction. It has been visited at 3 places. In
Rugosa and gastropods. its northern part (9°06’58”N, 99°33’30”E), limestone is
At Laem Thap, limestone belongs to an important section poor in fossils which consist of solitary corals and
easy to observe along seashore and already described by brachiopods. At its western side (9°06’51”N,
Lumjuan (1993). The limestone builds up a cliff at one 99°33’06”E), limestone is rich in crinoids associated with
end of the beach (9°18’57”N, 99°48’16”E; samples T7332 some Fenestellidae. At the southern end of the hill
to T7335); it is poor in fossils. It is underlain by a (9°05’44”N, 99°32’59”E; samples T7458 and T7459),
sequence of shale and sandstone containing pebbly limestone contains smaller foraminifers (Geinitzina,
mudstone at the other end of the beach (9°18’36”N, Climacammina, Deckerella), Fusulinidae (Chusenella?),
99°48’25”E). Pebbles are commonly less than 5 cm in bryozoans, brachiopods and crinoids.
diameter, rarely 5 to 10 cm in diameter and 20 cm The localities mentioned up to now in this text belong
measured in a single sample. largely to the Permian and mainly to Middle Permian.
South of Laem Thap (9°18’26”N, 99°48’13”E; samples They are not rich in diverse assemblages of fossils.
T7337 to T7340), large blocks of shale and limestone are Because of that, their study is not easy. Other hills have
scattered at the foot of a hill. The limestone contains been visited, but fossils are absent in the collected
calcispheres, some smaller foraminifers (Geinitzina, samples.
Pachyphloia, Endothyra), a few fragments of Fusulinidae,
Tabulata with common Sinopora, rare solitary Rugosa and PROBLEM OF UPPER CARBONIFEROUS
a few gastropods. AND LOWER PERMIAN
At the northern end of Khao Nam Lai (9°18’21”N,
99°47’42”E; samples T7360 to T7363), limestone is Some limestone exposures of Surat Thani Province have
locally dolomitized; elsewhere, it is very poor in fossils. been assigned to “Lower to Upper Carboniferous”, to
At a small hill (9°16’08”N, 99°47’29”E; samples T7370 “Upper Carboniferous” and to “Lower Permian” (Dill et
to T7374; pl. III, fig. 4) near and south of Khao Nam Lai, al., 2004, p. 66-67). Lists of diverse fossils have been
a dark grey to black bedded limestone contains a few provided and, in conclusion, a stratigraphic extension of
fragments of algae, calcispheres, smaller foraminifers the Ratburi Limestone down to the Carboniferous has
(Climacammina, Geinitzina), Fusulinidae (locally in been proposed. These results have been leading to a new
abundance: Chusenella cf. crassa Deprat) and bryozoans. interpretation of the geology of Peninsular Thailand, but
At Khao Nui (9°14’31”N, 99°48’34”E; samples T7376 to they are restricted to the Surat Thani Province and they
T7380), 8 km north of Amphoe Khanom (district remain partly questionable. During the last 20 years, many
southwest of Surat Thani), a black bedded limestone geologists have not observed limestone of Upper
contains smaller foraminifers (Pachyphloia), diverse Carboniferous age or belonging to the lower part of the
bryozoans and fragments of brachiopods. Fusulinidae are Lower Permian in Peninsular Thailand, and to prove the
absent. The stratigraphical range of Pachyphloia is contrary, there is a need of a detailed study of the local
restricted to the Permian. stratigraphy and of a discussion about the environmental
At Khao Maen, 10 km south of the gypsum mine, fossils meaning of the identified fossils.
have been found only at its southern part (9°04’29”N, The “Upper Carboniferous” fossils of Dill and his co-
99°42’27”E; samples T7401 to 7406) where a black authors are smaller foraminifers and ostracodes; the
bedded limestone dips 10° towards east and is underlain genera are identified, but the species are not precisely
by sandstone. The fossils consist of fragments of algae, known. The identified genera of ostracodes: Holinella and
smaller foraminifers (Pachyphloia, Geinitzina), Tabulata Cavellina have a long stratigraphical range extending to
227
Permian and even Triassic; it is difficult to suggest an REFERENCES
Upper Carboniferous age without precise identification of
the species. The smaller foraminifers cannot bring more Chaodumrong P., P. Bamroongsong and N. Jungyusuk, 1998,
information. Limestone and dolomite resources map of Ban Pak Nam
The “Lower Permian” age is based on algae and smaller Tha Thong Sheet or Sheet 4927III of 1:50,000 scale.
foraminifers with a long stratigraphical range; there is no Dill H. G., F. W. Luppold, A. Techmer, P. Chaodumrong and S.
mention of the Fusulinidae well known in the Lower Phoonphun, 2004, Lithology, micropaleontology and
Permian of northeast and northwest Thailand. Some chemical composition of calcareous rocks of Paleozoic
through Cenozoic age (Surat Thani Province, central
conodonts are also mentioned. There is no discussion Peninsular Thailand): implications concerning the
about the different horizons of the Lower Permian. environment of deposition and the economic potential of
limestones. Journ. Asian Earth Sci., 23: 63-89.
PALEOGEOGRAPHY Fontaine H., C. Chonglakmani, Ibrahim B. A. and S. Piyasin,
1994, A well-defined biogeographic unit : Peninsular
The Surat Thani Province does not appear different from Thailand and northwest Peninsular Malaysia. Journ.
the other parts of Peninsular Thailand. Permian limestone Southeast Asian Earth Sci., 9(1-2): 129-151.
Fontaine H., V. Suteethorn and D. Vachard, 1998, Khao Yoi, a
is widespread, with an age evidenced by the occurrence of Permian limestone hill of the Ratburi area, Peninsular
Hemigordiopsis, Sphairionia, Pachyphloia, Geinitzina, Thailand. CCOP Newsletter, 23(3): 12-14.
some genera of Fusulinidae and of corals. The fossil Harrison D. J., P. Chaodumrong and M. Charusribandhu, 1997,
assemblages are not very diverse and commonly not in Assessment of limestones resources from Surat Thani
great abundance. Genera of large Fusulinidae, such as Province, Thailand. Proc. Intern. Conf. Stratigraphy and
Sphaeroschwagerina, Pseudoschwagerina, Verbeekina, Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia and the Pacific,
Neoschwagerina, Yabeina, and others, are easy to notice Bangkok, 640-649.
in the field. They are widespread in central, northeastern Ingavat-Helmcke R., 1993, Contribution to the Permian
and northwestern Thailand, but have not been found in fusulinacean faunas of Peninsular Thailand. Journ.
Southeast Asian Earth Sci., 8(1-4): 67-75.
Surat Thani Province as in the other parts of Peninsular Lumjuan A., 1993, Permo-Carboniferous of northern Nakhon Si
Thailand. Corals are not diverse and in abundance in Surat Thammarat. Intern. Symposium on Biostratigraphy of
Thani Province; there is no reef. Rugosa are mainly Mainland Southeast Asia: Facies and Paleontology, Chiang
solitary specimens; fasciculate and massive Rugosa are Mai, vol. 1: 219-224.
not common. Locally, a species of Tabulata is in Nestell M. K. and G. P. Pronina, 1997, The distribution and age
abundance, but is not associated with diverse other groups of the Genus Hemigordiopsis. In: Ross C. A., J. R. P. Ross
of fossils. and P. L. Brenckle, 1997 – Late Paleozoic Foraminifera;
The Carboniferous of northeastern and northwestern their biostratigraphy, evolution and palaeoecology; and the
Thailand contains diverse assemblages of fossils which Mid-Carboniferous boundary. Cushman Foundation for
Foraminiferal Research, Special Publication, 36: 105-110.
indicate different stratigraphical horizons. In the Upper Nguyen D. T., 1989, Sphairionia sikuoides gen. et sp. nov., a
Carboniferous or Pennsylvanian, it is easy to recognize Permian incertae sedis organism. XIe Congrès International
Bashkirian, Moscovian, Kasimovian and Gshelian, by the de Stratigraphie et de Géologie du Carbonifère, Beijing
studies of different groups of fossils which lead to the 1987, Compte Rendu 3 (1989) : 73-77, 2 pl.
same conclusion. Pronina G. P., 1996, Genus Sphairionia and its stratigraphic
In Peninsular Thailand, the oldest beds of Permian significance. Ann. Mus. Civ. Rovereto, Sez.: Arch., St., Sc.
limestone appear to belong to the upper part of Lower Nat., Suppl. Vol. 11 (1995): 105-118.
Permian, but commonly not to the lower part of Lower
Permian. However, a Late Asselian species of conodont
has been reported by Dill et al., 2004, p.78; this discovery
may suggest a local deposition of calcareous material
slightly earlier than elsewhere, but probably, not under a
truly warm climate.
In conclusion, observations have been made in Peninsular
Thailand by many geologists in the past from different
points of view. They have shown that the geology of the
peninsula is not exactly the same as in the other parts of
Thailand. They cannot be changed without very precise
studies. A fact easy to observe immediately is that fossils
are not in abundance at many localities and they are not
very diverse. A succession of the different stages of the
Upper Carboniferous has not been found up to now.
228
PERMIAN LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY OF THE SHAN-THAI TERRANE IN

THAILAND: REVISION OF THE KAENG KRACHAN AND RATBURI GROUPS
Pol Chaodumrong1, Wang Xiangdong2 and Shen Shuzhong2
1
, Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
2
Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Nanjing 210008, P.R. China
ABSTRACT
Permian strata of the Shan-Thai terrane in Thailand consist of the clastic sequence of the Kaeng Krachan Group and the
conformably overlying carbonate sequence of the Ratburi Group. However, the constituent formations of the former were
used in different ways, while formation names in the latter are in an initial stage and only applied in limited areas.
During the last few years, detailed stratigraphic and paleontological work and reviews from Kanchanaburi through
southern Thailand have been carried out. As a result, the lithostratigraphy of both the Kaeng Krachan and Ratburi
Groups are revised. The Kaeng Krachan Group, ranges in age from the Asselian to Kungurian and consists of 5
formations, in ascending order, the Laem Mai Phai, Spillway, Ko He, Khao Phra and Khao Chao. The Ratburi Group
ranges in age from the Roadian to Wuchiapingian and comprises 5 formations, in ascending order, the Thung Nang
Ling, Khao Muang Krut Sandstone, Phap Pha, Phanom Wang, and Um Luk. In most areas, the group commences with
thin to medium bedded limestone of the Phap Pha Formation and is conformably overlain by massive limestone of the
Um Luk Formation. The Permian stratigraphy of the Kaeng Krachan and Ratburi Groups can be traced widely from
Malaysia, through peninsular Thailand, Myanmar, West Yunnan, to Lhasa.
Key words: Permian lithostratigraphy, Kaeng Krachan Group, Ratburi Group, hiatus, Shan-Thai terrane, glaciomarine, dropstone
INTRODUCTION Thailand accomplished in 2005 (e.g. Boonkanpai, 2005)

after the great tragedy tsunami in December 26, 2004.
The purpose of this paper is to clarify the stratigraphy of
the Kaeng Krachan and Ratburi Groups. During the last PROPOSED LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC
few years, we have investigated in detail 22 measured NOMENCLATURE FOR THE KAENG
stratigraphic sections as well as reviewed the published KRACHAN GROUP
paleontology on the Kaeng Krachan (also called Phuket
Group) and Ratburi Groups from Kanchanaburi The name "Kaeng Krachan Group" of Piyasin(1975) is
southward to Phuket. The term Kaeng Krachan is used favored here due to it being widely used. It is redefined
and subdivided differently by various authors. For here as that sequence of thin to medium bedded sandstone
example, the "Khao Phra Formation" of Piyasin (1975), and mudstone, pebbly rocks, mudstone and quartz-rich
Raksaskulwong and Wongwanich (1993), and Department sandstone, ranging in age from Asselian to Kungurian
of Mineral Resources (1999) have different meanings (Lower Permian) outcropping in the Shan-Thai terrane. Its
(Table 1). In order to minimize nomenclatural confusion, lower boundary has not been observed, and it is overlain
it is necessary to revise the stratigraphic classification of conformably by carbonates of the Ratburi Group. It
the Kaeng Krachan Group by following the guidelines in consists of 5 formations, in ascending order, the Laem
the International Stratigraphic Guide (Hedberg, 1976). Mai Phai, Spillway, Ko He, Khao Phra and Khao Chao
The carbonate sequence of the Ratburi Group, on the (Table 1 and Fig. 1). However, the Spillway Formation
other hand, has long been mapped as a single unit without occurs locally. Lower part of the group was deposited by
subdivision into constituent formations. Chaodumrong et gravity flow sediments, possibly in submarine fan
al. (1998) were the first to demonstrate that the carbonate environment, in outer shelf and basin plain areas under
sequence of the Ratburi Group could be subdivided into glaciomarine conditions as indicated by abundant
formations and mapped on 1:50,000 scale. Later, Cruziana ichnofacies and rare dropstones. The upper part
Chaodumrong, et al. (2004) showed that stratigraphic was shallow marine with occasional storm deposits.
units of both groups are mappable and correlate able
across the Shan-Thai terrane which had been implemented
in geological maps at 1:50,000 scale of southern
229
Table 1 Stratigraphic nomenclature development of the Kaeng Krachan Group
Piyasin Hills Raksaskulwong and Dept Mineral

This Paper
(1975) (1989) Wongwanich(1993) Resources(1999)
Gr Fm Gr Fm Gr Fm Gr Fm Gr Fm
Khao Chao Ao Loh
Khao Chao
เขาเจา
270-760 m Dalum Khao Phra Khao Chao
120 m เขาพระ
แกงกระจาน (Kaeng Krachan)

Khao Phra Khao Phra
Ko Lon
344-520 m Ko He
เกาะเฮ Ko He
Kaeng Krachan
Kaeng Krachan
Kaeng Krachan
120 m
Phuket
Spillway
สปลเวย
Spillway
Laem Mai Phai

120 m Khao Phra
Huai Phu
Laem Mai
Noi
Phai Khao Wang
205-480 m
แหลมไมไผ
Kradat
104 m
Figure 1 Lithostratigraphic correlations of the Kaeng Krachan Group
230
Laem Mai Phai Formation laminated mudstone in the upper part of the sequence
(Fig. 2c). There are occasional slumped beds and rare
The name Laem Mai Phai Formation of Hill(1989) is dropstones (Fig. 2d). Raksaskulwong and Wongwanich
adopted here. It is well exposed on the Phuket island (1993) reported “distorted brachiopod” as Spirifer sp. and
where it is 120 meters thick at its type section at Ban Spinomartinia sp. from eastern side of the Laem Mai Phai
Laem Mai Phai. It is characterized by at least 2 cycles of and assigned to be Early Carboniferous- Early Permian.
fining upward sequences that were deposited by turbidity However, these fossils were identified from many places
currents. Thin bedded sandstone and mudstone with in southern Thailand and Malaysia to be Early Permian
sandstone to mudstone ratio around 2:1 to 1:1 occurred in (Grant, 1976; Waterhouse, 1981; Shi et al., 1997, 2002;
the lower part of the sequence (Fig. 2a). Bedding consists Chaodumrong et al., 2004). Therefore, the age of this
mostly of wavy and parallel type. Bioturbation of formation belongs to the Lower Permian.
Cruziana ichnofacies are common in this part (Fig. 2b).
Sandstone decreases in proportion upward and changes to
a b
c d
Figure 2 Photos showing characteristics of the Kaeng Krachan Group: a) Thin bedded sandstone and mudstone,
b) Planolites, same location as Fig. 2a, c) Laminated mudstone, and d) Dropstone
Spillway Formation lonestone can be observed. It overlies conformably the

Laem Mai Phai Formation, and is well exposed at its type
The Spillway Formation (Raksaskulwong and section at Kaeng Krachan Dam, but elsewhere is of
Wongwanich, 1993) is a 120 meters thick sequence of limited distribution. Age of this formation is determined
laminated mudstone and thin to medium bedded from stratigraphic ground to be Lower Permian.
sandstone. The bedding is of usually wavy and nonparallel
type (Fig. 3a). Sedimentary structures such as load cast,
bioturbation, slump, hummocky cross bedding and
231
Ko He Formation brachiopods from Khao Than of Chumphon province:
Stereochia koyaonensis Waterhouse, Spiriferellina modeta
Pebbly rocks are typical of the Kaeng Krachan Group. Waterhouse, Spinomartinia prolifera Waterhouse,
The Ko He Formation (named after "He island" of Phuket Chonetinella andamanensis Waterhouse, Cleiothyridina
province)of Raksaskulwong and Wongwanich (1993) seriata Grant, at Khao Phanom of Krabi province:
overlies conformably either the Spillway Formation or Spinomartinia prolifera Waterhouse, Demonedys
Laem Mai Phai Formation (where the Spillway was tricorporum Waterhouse, Costatumulus sp.,
absent), and is characterized by an over 125 meters thick Linoproductus sp. (Chaodumrong et al., 2004), and
sequence of mainly pebbly rocks (Fig. 3b) or diamictite crinoids.
with subordinate, intercalated mudstone and sandstone. It
is poorly sorted, with clasts generally less than 10%, and a Khao Chao Formation
matrix consisting of silty mud to muddy sand. Clasts are
mostly smaller than 2 cm, and consist mainly of quartzite, Quartz-rich sandstone, ranging in composition from
quartz, sandstone, limestone, marble, granite and gneiss. quartz arenite to subarkose, is a typical characteristic of
Brachiopod Costatumulus sp. at Khao Nang Hong of the upper part of Kaeng Krachan Group and had been
Phangnga province may indicate a Sakmarian-Artinskian reported from many places in southern Thailand. This
age. paper follows Piyasin (1975) in separating this sandstone
sequence as the Khao Chao Formation lying conformably
on the Khao Phra Formation. It is characterized by a
Khao Phra Formation sequence of quartz-rich sandstone, shale, siltstone and
mudstone. Beds of tuff, limestone, thin shells (Fig. 3d)
The Khao Phra Formation differs from the original name and crinoid stems are observable in the upper part of the
proposed by Piyasin (1975) in that it lacks predominant formation. Brachiopod: Meekella bisculpta Grant, and
pebbly rock sequence. Its type section is at Khao Phra in Costatumulus sp. were identified in white sandstone of
Phetchaburi province, where it overlies conformably the Chumphon province (Shi et al., 2001), and Marginifera
Ko He Formation. It is a 340+ meters thick sequence of sp. at abandoned quarry opposite to the Khao Phu Liap of
mudstone, laminated mudstone, siltstone and sandstone Kanchanaburi province (Chaodumrong et al., 2004), and
(Fig. 3c). Faunas are often observed and indicate a indicate a Sakmarian-Artinskian age.
Sakmarian-Artinskian age, including bryozoans:
Fenestella sp., Polypora sp. (Sakagami, 1968);
a b
c d
Figure 3 Photos of the Kaeng Krachan Group, a) Load cast in the Spillway Fm, b) Pebbly sandstone in the Ko He Fm, c)
Laminated mudstone in the Khao Phra Fm, and d) Thinly shell beds in the Khao Chao Fm.
232
PROPOSED LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC stratigraphy of the Ratburi Group to consist of 5
NOMENCLATURE FOR THE RATBURI formations, in ascending order the Thung Nang Ling,
Khao Muang Krut Sandstone, Phap Pha, Phanom Wang,
GROUP and Um Luk. In most areas, the group commences with
thin to medium bedded limestone of the Phap Pha
The Permian limestone sequence in the Thai peninsula has
Formation and is conformably overlain by massive
long been mapped as a single unit as the Ratburi Group
limestone of the Um Luk Formation (Fig. 4) . Faunas, in
without division into constituent formations (e.g.
general, are rare and low diversity, but local can be
Department of Mineral Resources, 1999), and a type
abundant. Replacement dolomite can be observed in all
section was not proposed. During carbonate resource
formations, and many places showing strong
mapping in Surat Thani area, Chaodumrong et al. (1998)
dolomitization. The Ratburi Group lies conformably on
subdivided the limestone sequence into formations, using
the Kaeng Krachan Group, and was deposited from the
their physical characteristics and lithofacies criteria such
Roadian to the Wuchiapingian (Middle to Late Permian)
as lithology, type of bedding, intercalation of clastic rocks
on a shallow marine, low energy, epeiric carbonate
and presence of chert. It also shows that each subdivided
platform.
formation exhibits similar chemical and mechanical
properties. Later, Chaodumrong et al. (2004) amended the
Figure 4 Simplified stratigraphic relationship within the Ratburi Group
Thung Nang Ling Formation Khao Muang Krut Sandstone

Thung Nang Ling Formation takes its name from "Khao Khao Muang Krut Sandstone is that 50 meters thick
Thung Nang Ling" in Surat Thani province. It is that 80 sequence, cropping out at "Khao Kaeo Noi" in
meters thick sequence of thick bedded, gray skeletal Kanchanaburi province, of quartz-rich sandstone (quartz
packstone and grainstone (Fig. 5a) with minor shale and arenite-subarkose), shale and mudstone with limestone
sandstone. It occurred locally. Crinoid stems are common increase in proportion up sequence. Fossils are common;
to abundant. Coral: Euryphyllum sp. (at Khao Kaeo Yai of brachiopods include Stereochia litostyla Grant, Derbyia
Kanchanaburi province), and Marginiferid gen. et sp. scobina Grant, Neospirifer sp., and corals include:
indet. (at Khao Kaeo Noi of Kanchanaburi), suggests a Verbeekiella sp., Lophophyllidium sp., and Wordian
Wordian (Middle Permian) age. (Middle Permian) in age.
233
Phap Pha Formation Um Luk Formation
Phap Pha Formation takes its name from "Khao Phap Um Luk Formation (Fig. 5d) is that 200 meters thick
Pha" in Surat Thani province. It is, 200 meters thick, sequence of thickly bedded to massive, gray to light gray
characterized by thin to medium bedded, gray wackestone limestone (mainly lime mudstone to packstone). Fauna
to lime mudstone, and interbedded thinly layer shale (Fig. are rare and low diversity. The fusulinids:
5b). Few fossils are observable but include the coral: Eopolydiexodina sp. and Yangchienia sp. are found in the
Sinopora sp. (Fontaine et al., 2003), and the fusulinids at lower part of the formation and indicate a Middle
Khao Kaeo Noi Pseudofusulina sp., Yangchienia sp., the Permian (Murghabian), while Shanita sp. (Dawson et al.,
brachiopods at Khao Kaeo Noi Stereochia litostyla Grant, 1994) indicates Late Murgabian to early Dzhulfian age.
at Khao Phu Liap Spiriferellina sp., Marginifera sp.
which may indicate a Middle Permian (Wordian) age. CONCLUSIONS
Phanom Wang Formation The lithostratigraphy of the Kaeng Krachan Group is
Phanom Wang Formation is that 80 meters thick sequence revised to consists of 5 formations, namely, the Laem Mai
of medium to thick bedded, gray limestone (mainly Phai, Spillway, Ko He, Khao Phra and Khao Chao. It is
wackestone to packstone) and intercalated chert nodule overlain conformably by carbonate sequence of the
and lens (Fig. 5c). It is well exposed at Khao Phanom Ratburi Group that comprises 5 formations, namely, the
Wang temple in Surat Thani province, but elsewhere has a Thung Nang Ling, Khao Muang Krut Sandstone, Phap
limited distribution. Pha, Phanom Wang, and Um Luk. The Tha Ma Dua
Sandstone of Bunopas (1992) that claimed to be the
uppermost stratigraphic unit of the Ratburi Group is
regarded here as Mesozoic red beds.
a b
c d
Figure 5 Photos showing rocks of the Ratburi Group, a) Crinoidal grainstone or encrinite of the
Thung Nang Ling Formation, b) Thin to medium bedded limestone of the Phap Pha Formation,
c) Thin bedded limestone and chert in the Phanom Wang Formation, and d) Massive limestone of
the Um Luk Formation lies conformably on thin bedded limestone of the Phap Pha Formation.
234
What is the age of the base of the Kaeng Krachan Group? from foraminifera as Upper Carboniferous to Middle
It has long been mapped as Carboniferous-Permian Permian, that is strongly contrasted with this paper.
Period based on evidence of Piyasin (1975) who reported However, the faunas as mentioned above strongly indicate
"not well preserved specimen" as Upper Devonian the age of the Ratburi Group ranging from Middle to
Chonetes sp. from Huai Phu Noi Fm (equivalent to Laem Upper Permian. Our studies also suggest a hiatus on the
Mai Phai Fm of this paper), and Upper Carboniferous Shan-Thai terrane during Late Carboniferous.
Fenestella sp. and Polypora sp. from Khao Chao Fm; and Evidence from large dropstones in the Laem Mai Phai
Raksaskulwong and Wongwanich (1993) who reported Formation strongly supports a glaciomarine depositional
"distorted specimen" as Early Carboniferous- Early environment (Fig. 6) while Cruziana ichnofacies are
Permian Spirifer sp. and Spinomartinia sp. from eastern typical of shelf environments. This is consistent with
side of the Laem Mai Phai (equivalent to Laem Mai Phai occurrences of temperate to cool brachiopod: Sulciplica,
Fm of this paper). However, Piyasin (1975) ignored the Kitakamithyris, Vacunella, Cancrinelloides, and cool
"Upper Devonian Chonetes sp." when he assigned the age water coral: Euryphyllum of Late Asselian in pebbly
of the Kaeng Krachan Group as only Carboniferous (see mudstones of Kaeng Krachan Group from the Phi Phi and
entitle of the paper). On the other hand, the Fenestella sp. Muk islands (Waterhouse, 1982). The Shan-Thai terrane
and Polypora sp. (e.g. Sakagami, 1968, 1973), Spirifer sp. was rifted from the Gondwana probably not later than
and Spinomartinia sp. (Grant, 1976; Waterhouse, 1981; Early Permian as indicated by occurrence of pebbly rocks
Shi et al., 1997; Chaodumrong et al., 2004) were clearly and the cool water faunas. The pebbly rocks were
identified as Early Permian. Therefore, it is no doubt that deposited in the rift basin by debris flow process. They
the Kaeng Krachan Group belongs to Lower Permian. In were derived from the Gondwana as suggested by
fact, after a review of published paleontological similarity of clasts in the pebbly rocks and the tillites in
documents (brachiopods, corals, bryozoans, fusulinids and northwest Australia (Hills, 1989). Shallow marine
foraminifera) over the last 30 years of various researchers, environment continued in the upper part of the Kaeng
there has been no Late Carboniferous fossil documented Krachan Group through the epeiric carbonate platform of
in the Thai Peninsula (Chaodumrong et al., 2004), except the Ratburi Group.
Dill et al. (2005) who reported age of the Ratburi Group
Figure 6 Depositional model of the Kaeng Krachan Group.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES
This paper is based on the research project funded by the Bunopas, S., 1992, Regional stratigraphic correlation in
National Research Council of Thailand and the Natural Thailand, in Piancharoen, C., ed.-in-chief, Proceedings of
Science Foundation of China. The authors would like to the National Conference on Geologic Resources of
thank Mr San Assavapatchara and Mr Sutee Thailand: Potential for Future Development, Department of
Jongautchariyakul for assistance in fieldwork and Dr Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand, 1992,
Thasinee Charoentitirat for fusulinid identification. Supplementary volume, p. 189-208.
235
Boonkanpai, N., 2005, Geological map of Amphoe Ko Lanta Raksaskulwong, L., and Wongwanich, T., 1993, Stratigraphy of
sheet (4824 III), 1:50,000 scale, Bureau of Geological Kaeng Krachan Group in Peninsular and Western Thailand:
Survey, Department of Mineral Resources. Geological Survey Division, Department of Mineral
Chaodumrong, P., Assavapatchara, S., and Jongautchariyakul, Resources, 66 p. (in Thai).
S., 2004, Final report on Comparative research on Permian Sakagami, S., 1968, Permian bryozoa from Khao Ta Mong Rai,
strata and fauna between West Yunnan and West Thailand: peninsular Thailand, in Kobayashi, T., and Toriyama, R.,
Research project funded by National Research Council of eds., Geology and Palaeontology of Southeast Asia:
Thailand, 235 p. (in Thai). University of Tokyo press, v. 5, p. 47-67.
Chaodumrong, P., Bamroongsong, P., and Jungyusuk, N., 1998, Sakagami, S., 1973, Permian bryozoa from Khao Raen, near Rat
Limestone and dolomite resources map of Ban Pak Nam Buri, Thailand, in Kobayashi, T., and Toriyama, R., eds.,
Tha Thong sheet (4927 III): Geological Survey Division, Geology and Palaeontology of Southeast Asia: University
Department of Mineral Resources. of Tokyo press, v. 12, p. 75-90.
Dawson, O., Racey, A., Whitaker, J.E., 1994, Permian Shi, G.R., Mohd Shafeea Leman, M.S., and Tan, B.K., 1997,
foraminifera from northeast and peninsular Thailand, in Early Permian brachiopods from the Singa Formation of
Angsuwathana, P., Wongwanich, T., Tansathien, W., Langkawi Island, northwestern Peninsular Malaysia:
Wongsomsak, S., and Tulyatid, J., eds., Proceedings of the biostratigraphical and biogeographical implications, in
international symposium on stratigraphic correlation of Dheeradilok, P., Hinthong, C., Chaodumrong, P.,
southeast Asia: Bangkok, 1994, Department of Mineral Putthaphiban, P., Tansathien, W., Utha-aroon, C., Sattarak,
Resources, IGCP 306, p. 323-332. N., Nuchanong, T., and Techawan, S., eds., Proceedings of
Department of Mineral Resources, 1999, Geological Map of the International Conference on Stratigraphy and Tectonic
Thailand, 1:1,000,000 scale: Department of Mineral Evolution of Southeast Asia and the South Pacific (Geothai
Resources. 97): Bangkok, Thailand, August 19-24, Department of
Dill, H.G., Botz, R., Luppold, F.W., and Henjes-Kunst, F., 2005, Mineral Resources, v.1, p. 62-72.
Hypogene and supergene alteration of the Late Palaeozoic Shi, G.R., Shen, S., Campbell, H.J., and Raksaskulwong, L.,
Ratburi Limestone during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic 2001, A Meekella-dominated Early Permian brachiopod
(Thailand, Surat Thani Province). Implications for the assemblage from central Peninsular Thailand, Contributions
concentration of mineral commodities and hydrocarbons: to Geology and Paleontology of Gondwana in honour of
Int J Earth Science (Geol Rundsch), 94: p. 24-46. Helmut Wopfner, Cologne, p. 441-451.
Fontaine, H., Salyapongse, S., and Suteethorn, V., 2003. Shi, G.R., Raksaskulwong, L., and Campbell, H.J., 2002, Early
Glimpses into fossil assemblages of Thailand: Coral Permian brachiopods from northern and central peninsular
perspective. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 51(1), p. 37-67. Thailand, in Hills, L.V., Henderson, C.M., and Bamber,
Grant, E.R., 1976, Permian brachiopods from Southern E.W., eds., Carboniferous and Permian of the World:
Thailand: Journal of Paleontology, v.50 (Supplement to no. Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, Memmoir 19, p.
3), Paleontological Society Memoir 9, 269 p., 71 pl. 596-608.
Hedberg, H.D., 1976, International stratigraphic guide- A guide Tantiwanit, W., Raksaskulwong, L., and Mantajit, N., 1983, The
to the stratigraphic classification, terminology and Upper Palaeozoic pebbly rocks in southern Thailand, in
procedure: International subcommission on stratigraphic Nutalaya, P., ed., Proceedings of the Workshop on
classification of IUGS, Commission on Stratigraphy, stratigraphic correlation of Thailand and Malaysia: Haad
Wiley- Interscience, New York. Yai, Thailand , 8-10 September 1983, p. 96-104.
Hills, J.W., 1989, The geology of Phuket district of Thailand and Waterhouse, J.B., 1981, Early Permian brachiopods from Ko Yao
its tectonic relationship to Gondwanaland: BSc Honors Noi and near Krabi, southern Thailand, in Waterhouse, J.B.,
Thesis, Geology Department, University of Tasmania, 144 Pitakpaivan, K., and Mantajit, N., eds., The Permian
p. stratigraphy and palaeontology of Southern Thailand:
Piyasin, S., 1975, Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Kaeng Geological Survey Memoir, no.4, Department of Mineral
Krachan Group (Carboniferous), in Stoke, R.B., and Resources, p. 43-213
Tantisukrit, C., eds., Proceedings of the Conference on Waterhouse, J.B., 1982, An Early Permian cool water fauna
Geology of Thailand: Department of Geological Sciences, from pebbly mudstones in South Thailand: Geological
Chiang Mai University, Special publication no.1, v. 2, p. Magazine, v.119, p.337-354.
25-36.
236
PETROCHEMISTRY OF THE MAE NGAO BASALTS,

THA SONG YANG, TAK, THAILAND
P. Limtrakun, Y. Panjasawatwong, B. Phajuy, B. Srithai, Y. Vasasmith and W. Jintanavisetkul
Department of Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
E-mail: plimtrak@chiangmai.ac.th
ABSTRACT
The field area studied here is known as "the Mae Ngao basalts". These Cenozoic basalts are exposed as small mass,
unconformably overlying Ordovician-Triassic sedimentary rocks. The basalts are very fine-grained and grayish black,
showing megacrystic texture. They are slightly weathered and decomposed to reddish brown soil. The Mae Ngao basalts
are mineralogically typical of within-plate alkali basalt, with megacrysts of plagioclase, olivine and clinopyroxene. Their
groundmass shows holocrystalline texture, largely consisting of plagioclase laths with minor amounts of clinopyroxene,
olivine and magnetite. They sporadically contain orthopyroxene xenocrysts. Chemically, the Mae Ngao basaltic rocks
are best assigned to mildly alkalic, constituting trachybasalts, basalts and basaltic trachyandesites. The Mae Ngao
basalts have fractionated and crystallized from a single parental magma, and are occur in continental within-plate
environment. The Mae Ngao basalts are not considered to be a potential source of gem-quality corundums.
Keywords: Alkali basalt, Cenozoic, Corundum, Thailand
INTRODUCTION feldspars, spinel, ilmenite, magnetite, garnet and zircon.

Late Cenozoic basalts in Thailand have wholerock
Late Cenozoic basalts in Southeast Asia form a large absolute ages ranging from 24 Ma to less than 0.5 Ma
continental volcanic province. Exposures in Thailand and (Sutthirat et al., 1994; Sutthirat et al., 1995). The
western Cambodia are generally small and scattered, intraplate basaltic rocks in Southeast Asia have erupted in
whereas those in eastern Cambodia, southern Laos, and a continental rift environment and may be related to the
Vietnam tend to be larger and more extensive. Similar age fracture openings between the Gulf of Thailand and the
basalts also occur in Malaysia and southern China (Barr South China Sea (Jungyusuk and Khositanont, 1992;
and MacDonald, 1978, 1981). Several basalt occurrences Smith, 1996; Barr and James, 1990; Hoke and Campbell,
in this region are likely important sources of gem-quality 1995). The Mae Ngao basalts are located in Tha Song
corundum. In northern Thailand, basalts are exposed Yang district, Tak province, northern Thailand, covering
along the Tak-Chiang Khong volcanic belt. Examples of an area of approximately 4 km2. It is approximately 40 km
northern Thai basalts include the Denchai basalt and the south of Sop Moei district. These basalts occur in an area
Long basalt, Phrae Province; the Mae Tha, the Sob Prab of hilly terrain, and are unconformably overlie the
and the Nam Cho basalts, Lampang Province; the Chiang basement rocks of Ordovician-Triassic undifferentiated
Khong and the Thoeng basalts, Chiang Rai Province; and sandstone, shale, conglomerate, chert and limestone. The
the Mae Ngao basalt (Mae Lama basalt), Tak Province. main purposes of this study are (i) to present its
They are also exposed along the Nan-Uttaradit suture petrography and wholerock geochemistry (major and trace
zone, Uttaradit Province, and have been named the Ngom elements) of the Long basalt, (ii) to review the occurrence
Tham basalt (Panjasawatwong and Yaowanoiyothin, of the Long basalt and (iii) to discuss the genesis of the
1993). Basalts also outcrop in the other parts of Thailand, Long basalt. An attempt is also made to determine
including central, northeastern, western and southeastern. whether the Long basalt has potentially being source of
Many workers have presented numerous geochemical gem-quality corundum (Fig. 1).
studies over the last two decades. Late Cenozoic basalts in
Southeast Asia are alkalic and tholeiitic in character. OCCURRENCE & PETROGRAPHY
Basalts in Thailand are predominantly alkaline, except the
Sob Ngao, the Thoeng and the lowermost flow of the The Mae Ngao basalts unconformably overlie those
Denchai basalt, which are tholeiitic in composition (Barr basement rocks and consist of subaerial lava flows. These
and MacDonald, 1978, 1979, 1981; Charusiri et al., 1995; basaltic flows are slightly weathered and decompose to
Panjasawatwong, 1995; Yamamoto, 1991). Gem-quality brownish red soil with in situ float host rocks. The fresh
corundum is most likely associated with the strongly exposures are usually sitting along slopes of hills in the
alkalic basalt that contain abundant peridotite xenoliths
and megacryst assemblages of pyroxenes, amphiboles,
237
texture between clinopyroxenes and plagioclases. Vesicles
and fractures are infilled with chlorophaeite, carbonate,
zeolitic and iron oxide/hydroxide minerals but are
uncommon.
GEOCHEMISTRY
Special care was taken to avoid samples showing:
extensive development of mesoscopic domains of
secondary minerals such as quartz due to silicification,
epidote minerals and chlorite, xenoliths, abundant vesicles
and amygdale minerals, quartz, epidote or calcite veining
or patches totalling more than approximately 5 modal %.
Consequently, least altered samples were analyzed for
major elements (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, FeO*, MnO, MgO,
CaO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5 and loss on ignition) and a range
of trace elements (Ba, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, V, Ni, Cr and
Sc).
Analytical work was carried out at the Department of
Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Thailand.
Both major and trace elements analyses were obtained
using a Phillips MagiX Pro Wavelength Dispersive X-ray
Fluorescence (XRF) Spectrometer with PW1510 Sample
Changer. Major elements were measured from fusion
discs prepared with 0.1 g Lithium Bromide (LiBr), 5 g Di-
Lithium Tetra borate (Li2B4O4) and 1 g sample powder.
Trace elements were performed on pellets made from
pressed sample powder. These were manufactured using
approximately 5 g of sample powder with 1 g wax
(C6H8O3N2), which had been mixed with boric acid
(H3BO3) in aluminium cup prior to pressing. Several
international standard samples were measured during
XRF analysis including AGV-2, BCR-2, BHVO-2, BIR-1,
Figure 1. The distribution of late Cenozoic basalts in Thailand DNC-1 and RGM-1. The loss on ignition (LOI) of the
(modified from Jungyusuk and Khositanont, 1992). samples was determined by heating approximately 1 g of
sample powder at 1000 oC for 12 hours (Table 1).
present day. The subaerial basaltic flows show similar Volcanic rocks are susceptible to alteration, however it is
internal structures to those typical worldwide subaerial widely suggested that least altered samples can be
basaltic flows (vesicular top/base and massive with platy informative with regards to their primary magmatic series
and columnar joints at middle). The platy and columnar if due care is taken with the selection of appropriate
joints display different attitudes, possibly due to elements and element ratios employed. The least altered
paleotopography; the axes of columnar joints and dip Long basaltic rocks (LOI < 3 wt%) are best assigned to be
angles of platy joints are, however, almost vertical and mildly alkalic. They are mostly plotted in trachybasalt
horizontal respectively. Due to the highly fractured of the field on the basis of total alkalis (Na2O+K2O) versus SiO2
Mae Ngao basalts, it is difficult to identify the total classification diagram (Fig. 2). A few samples extend into
number of basaltic flows. Twenty-two least-altered basalts the basalt and basaltic trachyandesite fields. In terms of
were carefully selected for petrographic study. The their geochemical compositions, these basalts have SiO2
studied basalts clearly display megacrystic texture with values which range from 48.92-51.72 wt.%, 16.89-17.97
variable amounts of megacrysts. Plagioclase is the most wt.% Al2O3, 1.53-1.83 wt.% TiO2, 4.89-7.50 wt.% MgO,
abundant megacryst, following by olivine and 7.39-9.24 wt.% CaO, 2.71-3.93 wt.% Na2O, 1.52-3.16
clinopyroxene. These megacrysts assemblages usually wt.% K2O and have a range of MgO/(MgO+FeO) ratio
form as isolated crystals and occasionally as (herein Mg#) 0.47-0.57. Minor and trace elements contain
glomerocrysts and cumulocrysts. Orthopyroxe xenocrysts Ni (42-147 ppm), Cr (40-257 ppm), Zr (147-234 ppm),
are sporadically observed in some samples. These Nb (21-31 ppm) and 22-31 ppm of Y. Consideration of
megacrysts and xenocrysts are embedded in very fine- to the Mae Ngao basalts chemical composition, the data
fine-grained holocrystalline and felty groundmass, which presented in this study has been interpreted using major,
mostly shows felted texture to less trachytic texture. The minor and trace elements (including large ion lithophile
groundmass compositions largely comprise plagioclase elements (LILE: Ba, Rb, K and Sr) and high field-strength
laths with subordinate intergranular clinopyroxenes, elements (HFSE: Nb, P, Zr, Ti, Y, Yb).
magnetites and olivines. A few samples display poikilitic
238
Table 1 Mafor, minor and trace element compositions of the Mae Ngao basalts.
Sample MNG01 MNG02 MNG03 MNG04 MNG05 MNG06 MNG07 MNG08 MNG09 MNG10 MNG11 MNG12 MNG13 MNG14 MNG15 MNG16 MNG17 MNG18 MNG19 MNG20 MNG21 MNG22
Major elements (wt%)
SiO2 49.88 48.95 49.36 50.42 51.17 50.29 49.72 49.84 49.90 50.37 48.40 48.62 48.51 49.95 49.75 49.50 49.49 49.33 48.69 49.28 49.09 49.36
TiO2 1.52 1.54 1.53 1.67 1.62 1.62 1.69 1.70 1.67 1.69 1.77 1.75 1.80 1.63 1.65 1.72 1.70 1.71 1.72 1.75 1.80 1.81
Al2O3 17.26 16.91 17.02 17.36 16.99 17.19 17.36 17.47 16.96 17.34 17.56 17.11 16.75 16.96 16.71 17.17 16.84 16.46 16.70 17.66 17.78 17.67
FeO* 9.59 9.76 9.85 9.58 9.62 9.63 9.96 9.64 9.82 9.60 9.49 9.58 10.06 10.55 10.33 9.62 9.48 9.81 9.95 9.76 9.82 9.96
MnO 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.14
MgO 7.01 7.23 7.42 6.14 6.04 6.20 6.06 5.85 6.42 5.82 5.72 5.91 7.24 6.35 6.72 5.29 5.75 6.22 6.50 4.84 5.25 4.90
CaO 8.56 8.64 8.25 7.39 7.46 7.31 7.89 8.00 7.82 7.69 8.84 8.69 8.31 8.02 8.68 8.61 8.79 8.82 9.13 8.09 8.05 8.60
Na2O 3.02 3.56 3.39 3.52 3.27 3.93 3.47 3.56 3.47 3.53 3.27 3.33 3.12 2.71 2.72 3.40 3.12 3.61 3.14 3.57 3.57 3.15
K2O 1.52 1.62 1.57 2.29 2.20 2.20 2.18 2.26 2.28 2.31 3.09 3.15 1.91 2.08 1.70 2.83 2.97 2.20 2.32 3.16 2.72 2.62
P2O5 0.40 0.53 0.38 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.43 0.45 0.44 0.46 0.66 0.65 0.43 0.43 0.45 0.65 0.67 0.59 0.60 0.66 0.69 0.68
LOI 2.77 2.69 2.09 2.68 2.72 2.30 2.05 2.71 2.92 2.82 2.49 2.07 2.54 2.03 2.46 3.02 2.31 2.31 2.59 2.62 2.01 2.43
Total 101.69 101.59 101.01 101.63 101.66 101.22 100.94 101.62 101.84 101.76 101.43 101.00 100.82 100.86 101.32 101.95 101.26 101.20 101.48 101.53 100.93 101.32
Mg# 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.54 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.56 0.52 0.54 0.49 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.47 0.49 0.47
Trace elements (ppm)
Rb 23 19 35 23 28 26 20 30 27 24 47 49 16 29 29 53 71 28 40 38 32 26
Sr 531 682 476 491 517 583 609 612 616 565 664 695 855 948 916 841 910 741 967 965 871 897
Ba 742 750 815 647 902 665 694 680 686 902 675 659 868 612 624 652 662 675 673 671 609 613
Y 22 23 25 25 25 24 25 25 24 25 25 24 23 23 22 27 31 25 26 26 27 26
Sc 6 12 9 17 6 13 19 21 18 9 17 18 11 20 21 17 17 20 18 16 17 19
Ni 137 141 122 70 81 74 75 85 83 85 48 51 147 147 126 60 75 76 73 45 50 42
Cr 257 237 251 146 152 137 140 147 149 146 69 74 179 176 153 81 112 127 134 47 46 40
V 149 148 131 159 160 157 156 150 155 155 116 114 158 164 160 165 159 163 160 163 170 168
Zr 155 161 147 185 185 187 189 191 195 191 174 170 180 187 185 218 223 201 210 229 234 230
Nb 21 21 21 24 23 22 23 23 24 22 23 23 26 25 26 29 30 25 24 31 30 31
Total Fe as FeO*, Mg# = Mg/(Mg+Fe2+), LOI = Loss on Ignition
16
14 Phonolite
12 Tephri-
phonolite
Trachyte
10
Phono-
Tephrite
Foidite Trachy- Trachydacite
Na2O+K2O 8 andesite Rhyolite
Basaltic
Tephrite trachy-
6 Basanite Trachy- andesite
basalt
Dacite
4 Andesite
Basaltic
Basalt andesite
2 Picro-
basalt
0
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
SiO2
Figure 2. Chemical classification and nomenclature of the Mae Ngao basalts
using the total alkalis versus silica diagram (Le Bas et al., 1986).
MAJOR, MINOR & TRACE ELEMENTS increasing FeO*/MgO ratios. Minor and trace elements
exhibit decreasing trends of Ni and Cr, whereas Sc and Sr
Compositional variations for the Mae Ngao basalts are increase, and V, Y, Rb and Nb show no or little change
shown in a series of variation diagrams in which major, apparent across the Zr range (Fig. 4). Plots of the Mae
minor and trace elements are plotted against FeO*/MgO Ngao basalts in various discrimination diagrams, both Zr-
and Zr in Figures 3 and 4. Figure 3 illustrates major Nb-Y and Nb/Y-Zr/TiO2 diagrams (Fig. 5 and 6) indicate
elements plotted against FeO*/MgO ratios. Most major continental within-plate environment.
elements show a little change in the crystallization trends
(SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, FeO*, MnO, CaO and P2O5), whereas
Na2O+K2O increase, and MgO show clearly decrease with
239
18.00 52.00 Nb*2
17.50 51.00
Al2O3
SiO2
17.00 50.00
16.50 49.00
16.00 48.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
Fe O*/M gO Fe O*/M gO
AI
1.90
0.80
0.60
1.80 AII
TiO 2
P2O5
1.70
0.40 B
0.20 1.60
0.00 1.50
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 C
Fe O*/M gO FeO*/MgO D
8.00 8.00
6.00 6.00 Zr/4 Y

Na2O+K2O
MgO
4.00 4.00
2.00 2.00 Figure 5 The Zr-Nb-Y discrimination diagram for basalts

0.00 0.00 (Meschede, 1986). Al = within-plate alkali basalts; All =
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.00 1 .00 2.00 3.00 within-plate alkali basalts and within-plate tholeiite; B = E-
Fe O*/M gO Fe O*/M gO
Type MORB; C = within-plate tholeiites and volcanic-arc
basalts; D = N-Type MORB and volcanic-arc basalts.
10.00 10.80
9.00
5
10.20
FeO*
CaO
8.00
Com/Pant Phonolite
9.60
7.00 1
6.00 9.00
Zr/TiO2*0.0001
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.0 Rhyolite

FeO*/MgO FeO*/MgO
Trachyte
Figure 3 Variation diagrams of major elements (wt%) 0.1 Rhyodacite/Dacite
plotted against Fe*/MgO. TrachyAnd
25 1200
Andesite
20
15
800
0.01 Bsn/Nph
Andesite/Basalt
Sc
Sr
10
400
5 Alk-Bas
0 0 SubAlkaline Basalt
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
Zr Zr 0.001
0.01 0.1 1 10
200 40
150 30 Figure 6 The Nb/y-Zr/TiO2 discrimination diagrams for

100 20 basalts (Winchester and Floyd, 1977).
V
50 10
0
0 100 200 300
0
0 100 200 300
DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
Zr Zr
Looking on the compositional variations for the Mae

300 80 Ngao basalts (Figures 3-4) appearing no SiO2
200
60 fractionation trends, this indicates a single parental
magma for the studied basalts, and Fe-Ti oxide minerals
Rb
Cr
40
100
20 fractionation do not occur. The decreasing trends of MgO,
0
0 100 200 300
0
0 100 200 300
Ni and Cr during the evolution of these magmas is best
Zr Zr accounted for olivine and Cr-spinel are co-crystallizing
phases. Increasing of Al2O3, CaO, Sc and Sr trends, as
160 40 FeO*/MgO and Zr increase, suggests that no appearance
120 30 of plagioclase and clinopyroxene as a liquidus phase. The
important trace element ratios such as Zr-Nb-Y and Nb/Y-
Nb
Ni
80 20
40 10 Zr/TiO2 (Fig. 5-6) suggest that the Mae Ngao basalts

0
0 100 200 300
0
0 100 200 300
occur in continental within-plate environment.
Zr Zr In summary, major, minor and trace element patterns
Figure 4 Variation diagrams of minor and indicate olivine and Cr-spinel involve in crystal
trace elements (ppm) plotted against Zr. fractionation sequence during the evolution of these
240
magmas. The Mae Ngao basalts might have fractionated Le Bas, M. J., Le Maitre, R. W., Streckeisen, A. and Zanettin, B.,
and crystallized from a single parental magma, and are 1986, A Classification of Igneous Rocks and Glossary of
occur in continental within-plate environment. Although Terms. Blackwell, Oxford, England.
the view that late Cenozoic basalts in Thailand are the Meschede, M., 1986, A method of discriminating between
different type of mid-ocean ridge basalts and continental
source for much of sapphire reserves (Vichit et al., 1978: tholeiites with the Nb-Zr-Y diagram. Chemical Geology,
Vichit, 1992), the Mae Ngao basalts petrochemistry 56: p.207-218.
suggests that they are not considered to be potentially Panjasawatwong, Y., 1995, Late Cenozoic basalts from Khao
source of commercial gem-quality corundums. Phanom Sawai, northeastern Thailand – Petrography and
geochemistry. Eighth Regional Conference on Geology,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Minerals, and Energy Resources of Southeast Asia, Manila,
Philippines, Abstract, 2.
Panjasawatwong, Y. and Yaowanoiyothin, W., 1993,
The Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University Research Petrochemical study of Post-Triassic basalts from the Nan
Fund and the Igneous Rocks and Related Ore Deposits Suture, northern Thailand. Journal of Southeast Asian
Research Unit, for which the authors are very much Earth Sciences, 8: p.147-158.
grateful, provided financial support for this project. Field Smith, A. D., 1996, Intraplate volcanism in Asia and the origin of
work was carried out with the assistance of Pukpong the DUPAL anomaly. International Symposium on
Osataporn which the authors greatly appreciate. Chantip Lithosphere Dynamics of East Asia, Taipei, Taiwan, Abstract,
Pandhusa is also thanked for preparation of thin sections. p.40-43.
Sutthirat, C., Charusiri, P., Farrar, E. and Clark, A. H., 1994, New
40
Ar/39Ar geochronology and characteristics of some Cenozoic
REFERENCES basalts in Thailand. Proceedings of International Symposium
on Stratigraphic Correlation of Southeast Asia, Bangkok,
Barr, S. M. and James, D. E., 1990, Trace element Thailand, p.306-320.
characteristics of Upper Cenozoic basaltic rocks of Sutthirat, C., Charusiri, P., Pongsapich, W., Farrar, E. and
Thailand, Kamphuchea and Vietnam. Journal of Southeast Landgridge, R., 1995, A late Pliocene Ko Kha–Sop Prap and
Asian Earth Sciences, 4: p. 233-242. nam Cho basaltic eruption, Northern Thailand: Evidences
Barr, S. M. and MacDonald, A. S., 1978, Geochemistry and from geology and 40Ar/39Ar geochronology. Proceedings of
Petrogenesis of Late Cenozoic Alkaline Basalts of Thailand. International Conference on Geology, Geotechnology and
Geological Society of Malaysia Bulletin, 10: p. 25-52. Mineral Resources of Indochina, Khon Kaen, Thailand, p.247-
Barr, S. M. and MacDonald, A. S., 1979, Palaeomagnetism, Age 253.
and Geochemistry of the Denchai Basalt, Northern Thailand. Vichit, P., 1992. Gemstones in Thailand. Proceedings of National
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 46: p. 113-124. Conference on Geologic Resources of Thailand: Potential for
Barr, S. M. and MacDonald, A. S., 1981, Geochemistry and Future Development, Department of Mineral Resources,
geochronology of Late Cenozoic basalts of Southeast Asia – Bangkok, Thailand, p.124-150.
part II. Geological Society of American Bulletin, 92: p.1069- Vichit, P., Vudhichativanich, S. and Hansawek, R., 1978. The
1142. distribution and some characteristics of corundum-bearing
Charusiri, P., Plathong, C. and Pongsapich, W., 1995, Geology and basalts in Thailand. Journal of Geological Society of Thailand,
petrochemistry of basaltic rocks at Khao Kradong, Burirum, 3: M4-M38.
NE Thailand – Implications for rock wool and tectonic setting. Winchester, J.A. and Floyd, P.A., 1977, Geochemical
Eighth Regional Conference on Geology, Minerals, and discrimination of different magma series and their
Energy Resources of Southeast Asia, Manila, Philippines, differentiation products using immobile elements.
Abstract, 1. Chemical Geology, 20: p.325-343.
Hoke, L. and Campbell, H. J., 1995, Active Mantle melting Yamamoto, M., 1991, Occurrences and petrochemistry of the
beneath Thailand? Proceedings of International Conference Lampang and Sop Prap basalts, Northern Thailand. Report of
on Geolgy, Geotechnology and Mineral Resources of Research Institute of natural Resources, Mining College,
Indochina, Khon Kaen, Thailand, p. 13-22. Akita University, Japan, 56: p.85-94.
Jungyusuk, N. and Khositanont, S., 1992, Volcanic rocks and
associated mineralization in Thailand. Proceedings of
Conference on Geology and Mineral Resources of Thailand,
Bangkok, Thailand, p.1-9.
241
PETROGRAPHY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE

CHANTHABURI-TRAT BASALT, THAILAND
Apichet Boonsoong
Department of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
E-mail: Apichet@chiangmai.ac.th, Siamsapphire@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
The Chanthaburi-Trat basalts are phyric to microphyric contained phenocrysts, including abundant olivine, subordinate
clinopyroxene, and rare plagioclase, ulvöspinel, and nepheline: chromium-rich spinel megacrysts and lherzolite
xenoliths are common in the more alkaline flows. These basalts are compositionally basic and transitional between
trachybasalts and basanites. The basalts all appear comagmatic, and are characterized by a limited range of SiO2
(42.26–48.54 wt%), mg# (0.55–0.66), normative nepheline varying from 1.56 to 20.39%, variable values for total alkalis
(3.41–7.46 wt%), K2O/Na2O (0.58 ± 0.23 on average), Nb/Y (2.29–3.99), Ni values of 60–298 ppm and Cr 52–341 ppm.
The REE patterns show moderate LREE enrichment and relative HREE depletion with chondrite-normalized La/Yb
ranging from 15.59 to 28.00. The magma was generated in a continental rift environment, in equilibrium with an
amphibole-bearing lherzolite. Such a primary magma could be produced by a small degree of partial melting of either a
fertile mantle, or a mantle intermediate between depleted and fertile mantles at pressures slightly greater than 10kb
(35km depth).
Keywords: Chanthaburi-Trat basalts, basic, comagmatic, continental rift environment
INTRODUCTION nephelinite and basanite) which contain abundant

peridotite xenoliths and megacrysts of clinopyroxene,
The Late Cenozoic (24 Ma, Upper Oligocene to less than olivine, ilmenite, spinel, magnetite, anorthoclase,
0.5 Ma, Quaternary) basalts in mainland Southeast Asia plagioclase, nepheline, garnet, zircon and/or apatite.
(including Vietnam, China, Thailand and Malaysia) are In the Chanthaburi-Trat provinces the basalts are
interpreted to have erupted in a continental rift Pleistocene in age. They occur as scattered masses, of
environment and may be related to fractures produced in highly variable sizes, covering an area of approximately
the area of the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea 320 sq.km in Amphoe Tha Mai, Amphoe Pong Nam Ron,
as the result of an interaction between the Indian and Amphoe Khlung, Chanthaburi Province and Amphoe Bo
Eurasia plates (Jungyusuk and Khositanont, 1992; Smith, Rai, Trat Province (Fig. 1). The basalts are largely of
1996) or related to crustal thinning and mantle upwelling subaerial flows which have largely been extensively
(Barr and MacDonald, 1979; Isayev and Kkhoan, 1976) or weathered, giving rise to brown and brownish yellow soil.
northwestward migration of the lithosphere over an The least-altered basalts are medium dark grey to dark
underlying hot spot or mantle plume (Barr and James, grey, and are dense, fine-grained, with phyric to
1990; Hoke and Campbell, 1995; Smith, 1996; Mitchell microphyric textures.
and Garson, 1981).
Late Cenozoic basalts in Thailand, comprise a minor part OCCURRENCE & PETROGRAPHY
of those in mainland Southeast Asia, occur as scattered
small plugs and vents associated with lava flows Occurrence & Sample Collection
distributed through northern, eastern and central Thailand.
Petrochemical studies have revealed that, in contrast to the The Chanthaburi-Trat basalts commonly underlie the low
Late Cenozoic basalts of mainland Southeast Asia land between the mountains, which are made up of
consisting of alkalic basalts and tholeiitic basalts in Triassic sedimentary rock, Permian limestone, Permo-
roughly equal proportions (Smith, 1996), the Thai basalts Triassic sedimentary rock, and Quaternary gravels. The
are almost totally alkalic. They are subdivided into two basalt consists largely of subaerial lava flows. The lava
magmatic affinities: a basanitoid and a hawaiitic series flows have largely been extensively weathered, giving rise
(Barr and MacDonald, 1978). Basalts assigned to the to brown and brownish yellow soil and are well exposed
basanitoid series consist of nephelinite, basanite, on hill slopes and in road cuts. Minor subaqueous lava
nepheline hawaiite and nepheline mugearite. Those of the flows, characterized by basalt pillows, hyaloclastites and
hawaiitic series comprise alkali olivine basalt, hawaiite associated pahoehoe toes, occur in some areas.
and mugearite. Gem-quality corundum is spatially
associated with the more strongly alkalic basalts (i.e.
242
102°00É 102°15É 102°30É
Ban Samrong
Ban Ta Mu LAOS
EXPLANATIONS
Sa Kae
Amphoe Kang Hang Meao 1556
13°00Ń
Khao Soi Dao Nua THAILAND
317
Ban Samet
Basalt boundary
CA
MB
Ban Pa Wilai
OD
378
Basalt sample location Ban Wang Kaphrae
IA
362
Khao Chawak Khao Chao Sut
CAMBODIA
National highway
1670 Amphoe Pong Nam Ron 13
Provincial highway Khao Soi Dao Tai 15
Ban Pong Nam Ron
Ban Khrua Wai
Unpaved highway 12
Ban Chamaep
Ban Sam Sip N
Province (Changwat) Ban Phang Kalaeng
674 14/1 & 14/2 677
Khao Phra Bat Phlung Khao Phra
District (Amphoe)
Ban Hin Dat
Village (Ban) Ban Noen Din Daeng

Ban Pong
100
Mountain with top Reservoir 12°45Ń
Ban Khao Sukim
elevation (Khao)
CAMBODIA
317
1
Ban Thengme 4
International Ban Khao Din Daeng Ban Salaeng Daeng
boundary 3249
Ban Bo Welu
7
Ban Noen Tak Daet
Amphoe Makham Ban Thung Bon 3 Ban Saeng Daeng 16
Ba
Geographic zone
Khao Song Phi Nong 11 Ban Nong Bon
ng
boundary 5
k
356
3 279
ok
Ban Khao Wua Ban Tok Si Khao Cha Om

Ban Ang 9
Amphoe 25 Ban Tok Phrom Ban Sua Dao
Tha Mai 2 17/1 & 17/2
Ban Thai
22 24 8 Ban Ta Bat
18/1 & 18/2
Ban Khao Phloi Waen Ban Ang Et 6
23 Changwat Chanthaburi Amphoe Bo Rai 19
0 5 10 15 Ban Si Phraya 21/1 & 21/2
Ban Chak Lao
Ban Changkin Ban Tak Waeng Lang
347
10
3 924
Khao Cha Om
Kilometers Khao Trog Nong Ban Khlong Aeng
Ban Bo Na Wong Ban Sa Yai
Ban Tha Chalaep Ban Tok Maru Ban Khlong Sano Lang
Gulf of 20
Thailand Ban Sak Yai 12°30Ń
102°00É 102°15É 102°30É
Figure 1. Schematic map showing basalt boundaries and sample locations of the Chanthaburi-Trat basalt presents in this study.
Basaltic rock samples for petrographic and chemical study dark gray to dark gray in colour, and are dense and fine-
were collected from the outcrops throughout the study grained. They contain phenocrysts of olivine, white
area. Most of the Chanthaburi-Trat basalts are not well feldspar and dark greenish to black minerals with sizes up
exposed because of dense vegetations and shown the to 20 mm across. Some contain black megacrysts of
effects of weathering in a tropical climate. However clinopyroxene, and opaque minerals. Yellowish green,
samples were taken from all accessible outcrops where dark green and white xenoliths (Fig. 2), up to 100 mm
fresh rock was exposed. Some, twenty-nine basalt samples across, occur sporadically in many samples. In some
were collected from twenty-five locations (Fig. 1). places a few vesicles, and amygdales filled with calcite
and zeolitic minerals are present. Fractures in the rock
Petrography were, where present, partly infilled with carbonate and/or
iron oxide/hydroxide.
Megascopically, the basalts vary from medium
Figure 2. Yellowish green xenoliths containing white spots Figure 3. Subhedral clinopyroxene megacryst in phyric basalt
in Chanthaburi-Trat basalt. (Sample no. CT 10), showing zoning and a little sieve-texture.
Crossed polars.
243
These basalts have been classified chemically and olivines. The groundmass commonly shows felty texture
petrographically in to basanites/nepheline basanites and and uncommon trachytic texture. The primary
trachybasalts/basalt (Le Bas et al., 1986). They range groundmass constituents are made up largely of
texturally from phyric (Fig. 3) to microphyric (Fig. 4) plagioclase laths with subordinate intergranular olivines
with variable quantities of phenocrysts (mainly and pink clinopyroxenes, and minor ulvöspinel; many
microphyric) and megacrysts. samples have variable amounts of brown glass and
The most common phenocryst assemblage for quenched crystals (Fig. 6). A few of the basalts exhibit
basanites/nepheline basanites is olivine + clinopyroxene + subophitic textures. Amygdales and veinlets are rarely
ulvöspinel, and olivine + clinopyroxene + plagioclase ± present. Lherzolite and feldspathic xenoliths have been
ulvöspinel for the trachybasalts/basalt. In addition to these sporadically detected in some samples; quartz xenocrysts
assemblages, chromium-rich spinel may be present as (Fig. 7) are rare in trachybasalts.
megacrysts (Fig. 5). The most abundant phenocrysts are
Figure 4. A clinopyroxene-olivine cumulocryst and an olivine Figure 5. Chromium-rich spinel megacryst (Sp) in a
glomerocryst (top of the photo) in microphyric basalt microphyric rock (Sample no. CT 22) with olivine
(Sample no. CT 6). Crossed polars. phenocrysts (Ol). Plane polarised light.
Figure 6. Devitrified brown glass and quenched crystals (tiny Figure 7. Phyric basalt (Sample no. CT 7) displaying a
needle crystals) in a hypocrystalline rock (Sample no. CT 15). quartz xenocryst (Qtz) with reaction corona made up
Other minerals in this glassy groundmass are clinopyroxenes of tiny clinopyroxene crystals. Also shown are sieve-
(Cpx), plagioclases (Plag), olivines (Ol) and ulvöspinel (Op). textured clinopyroxene (Cpx) megacrysts with
Plane polarised light. corroded edges and zoning. Crossed polars.
GEOCHEMISTRY The Chanthaburi-Trat basaltic rocks are compositionally

basic, as evidenced by their low values for SiO2 and
All the twenty-nine least altered powdered samples were Mg/(Mg+Fe) (herein mg#) that are in ranges of 42.26 –
analyzed for 11 major and minor oxides, including SiO2, 48.54 wt% (average 44.81 ± 1.60 wt%) and 0.50-0.66
TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 (total), MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, (0.59 ± 0.05 on average), respectively. These basic rocks
P2O5 and loss on ignition (Table 1). In addition, they were have variable Na2O+K2O contents ranging between 3.41
analyzed for Ba, Co, Cr, V, Cu, Ga, Mo, Nb, Pb, Sr, Th, and 7.46 wt% (5.44 ± 0.86 on average) with a K2O/Na2O
U, W, Y, Zn and Zr, and rare-earth elements (REE); La, ratio range of 0.19 to 1.02 (0.58 ± 0.23 on average). Ni
Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Dy, Ho, Er, Yb and Lu (Table 2). and Cr contents vary from 60 to 298ppm and from 52 to
341ppm, respectively. The Nb/Y ratios (2.29–3.99) for
244
representative samples also lie well within the limits for Trace Elements
alkalic rocks (Pearce and Cann, 1973, Winchester and
Floyd, 1977; Pearce, 1982). Plots for the trace elements, including Ba, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr,
Total alkali-SiO2 plot for different rock types (Fig. 8, Le Ni, V and Cr against MgO for the Chanthaburi-Trat
Bas et al., 1986) shows these alkalic basaltic lavas to be alkalic suite show scattered compositional trends. These
largely basanites with subordinate trachybasalts with only may be attributable to the limited MgO values for the
one sample in the basalt field. These imply that they are studied basalt samples. Plots for the incompatible-element
alkalic rocks transitional between trachybasalts and pairs (Nb-Zr, Nb-Y, Sr-Zr, Sr-Y, Sr-Nb, Y-Zr, Ba-Y, and
basanites. The relative amounts of Na2O and K2O for Ba-Zr), show linear trends in narrow ranges (Figures 10)
trachybasalts and basalt show that they are almost all with Nb/Zr = 0.24–0.32 (0.28±0.02 on average), Nb/Y =
potassic, i.e. trachybasalts and shoshonites (Le Bas et al., 2.29–3.99 (2.90±0.37 on average), Sr/Zr = 2.85–4.26
1986), respectively and they contain normative nepheline (3.43±0.33 on average), Sr/Y = 28.03–52.33 (35.92±5.34
varying from 1.56 to 20.39% (average 10.11 ± 5.00). on average), Sr/Nb = 10.28–15.66 (12.42±1.28 on
average), Y/Zr = 0.07–0.11 (0.10±0.01 on average), Ba/Y
16
= 6.33-27.09 (18.60±4.43 on average), and Ba/Zr = 0.54-
2.66 (1.80±0.47 on average), imply that the basalts all
14 phonolite
appear comagmatic.
Many empirical diagrams for discriminating tectonic
12 tephri-
settings of eruption have appeared in the literature (Pearce
phonolite trachyte
(q<20%)
and Cann, 1973; Pearce and Norry, 1979; Pearce, 1980,
foidite
trachydacite
1982; Shervais, 1982; Meschede, 1986). These diagrams
Na2O+K2O (wt%)
10 (q>20%)
phono-
tephrite
trachy-
are largely designed for basalts of tholeiitic affinities,
rhyolite
8 tephrite
(ol<10%)
andesite
however some can be applied to alkalic basalts and
basanite
(ol>10%)
basaltic
trachy- LIC
transitional tholeiites. A V-Ti plot (Fig. 11) shows that
KA LIC
andesite AL
6
trachy- SU
B AL
KA
Chanthaburi-Trat basalts to lie close to the field of
basalt
dacite
Hawaiian alkalic basalt. They further as defined as alkalic
4 within-plate basalt by Ti/Y-Nb/Y (Fig. 12), Nb-Zr-Y (Fig.
basalt basaltic andesite
andesite 13) and Ti-Zr-Y (Fig. 14).
picro-
2
basalt
Multi-element Patterns
0
37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 77
Chondrite-normalized plots (Fig. 15) show moderate light
SiO2 (wt%)
rare-earth-element (LREE) enrichment with chondrite-
Figure 8. Alkali versus silica plot for the Chanthaburi-Trat
basalts. Delimited fields for different rock types are after
normalized La/Sm ((La/Sm)n) varying between 2.77 to
Le Bas et al. (1986). Also shown is the alkalic/subalkalic 3.92 and relative depletion in heavy rare-earth elements
dividing line of Miyashiro (1978). (HREE) with chondrite-normalized Sm/Yb ((Sm/Yb)n)
ranging from 4.59 to 7.96 (Table 2). These REE patterns
Major and Minor Oxides are very similar to those of alkalic basalts world-wide.
The non-parallel and crosscut patterns may result from
The data for major and minor oxides are plotted against analytical errors and/or varying degrees of contamination
MgO as a parameter for fractionation (Fig. 9). Two (xenoliths). On an N-MORB normalized multi-element
distinct groups emerge on most of these plots: plot (Pearce, 1982; 1983) (Fig. 16), the patterns of
basanites/nepheline basanites have lower SiO2 and Al2O3 Chanthaburi-Trat basalts are step-like, typical of within-
concentration, slightly higher total iron as FeO (herein plate alkalic basalts.
FeO*), TiO2 and CaO, positive correlation between MgO The patterns for the Chanthaburi-Trat basaltic lavas are
and SiO2, and Al2O3 and negative correlation between closely analogous to those for alkalic basalts from the
MgO and FeO*, CaO and P2O5. Trachybasalts/basalt Eastern Virunga Province, Rwanda on the western branch
show similar but much clearer define positive correlation of the African Rift (Rogers et al., 1998). They are thus
between MgO and Na2O+K2O content. The depletion of inferred to be alkalic basalts erupted in a continental
SiO2 and Al2O3 in the more primitive stage signifies that within-plate environment. This interpretation is consistent
the trends are controlled significantly by suppression of with the tectonic history of Thailand where the eruption of
plagioclase. The data points for P2O5 show a broad Late Cenozoic basalts took place after the continent-
negative correlation with MgO, signifying that P2O5 is an continent collision between Shan-Thai and Indochina
incompatible element. In contrast to other oxides, MnO is (Bunopas and Vella, 1983; Barr and MacDonald, 1991;
quite scattered and does not define a trend. The presence Intasopa, 1993).
of olivine, clinopyroxene, plagioclase and ulvöspinel
phenocrysts, as previously discussed in petrography
session, signifies that the trends formed by the
Chanthaburi-Trat basaltic suite cannot be explained
clearly by crystal fractionation.
245
Table 1. Major- and minor-oxide compositions, and CIPW norms of 29 Chanthaburi - Trat basalts.
These oxides are recalculatedto 100 % on the basis of loss on ignition free.
CT
Sample No. CT 1 CT 2 CT 3 CT 4 CT 5 CT 6 CT 7 CT 8 CT 9 CT 10 CT 11 CT 12 CT 13 CT 14/1
14/2
SiO2 46.93 43.89 44.17 45.06 44.69 47.13 47.53 44.31 44.67 45.51 44.61 42.91 46.56 48.54 47.18
TiO2 2.86 3.09 3.29 2.52 3.01 2.80 2.87 3.09 3.29 2.22 3.08 3.28 3.27 2.11 2.77
Al2O3 13.63 11.75 12.56 13.04 12.05 13.42 13.46 12.02 12.72 13.66 12.08 12.31 13.27 14.28 13.28
Fe2O3 2.71 2.00 2.86 1.84 1.99 2.84 2.72 1.96 2.01 2.49 2.07 3.11 2.13 2.35 2.77
FeO 10.01 11.14 10.61 10.21 11.01 10.50 10.10 10.86 11.21 9.21 11.51 11.53 11.84 8.71 10.28
MnO 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.19 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.16 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.17
MgO 8.17 12.06 9.03 10.34 10.36 7.32 8.01 11.69 9.82 9.70 9.89 7.64 6.91 9.09 7.75
CaO 9.09 9.80 9.77 10.53 10.05 9.98 8.98 10.27 9.46 9.43 10.39 10.24 10.74 8.20 9.89
Na2O 3.04 3.07 3.63 3.15 3.23 4.04 2.79 3.30 3.30 4.07 2.71 4.45 3.10 3.36 4.10
K2O 2.48 2.00 2.67 2.20 2.60 0.96 2.45 1.27 2.27 2.21 2.70 3.01 1.17 2.43 0.94
P2O5 0.91 1.04 1.23 0.95 0.82 0.86 0.91 1.06 1.06 1.31 0.80 1.34 0.85 0.78 0.87
Original 100.79 100.03 99.91 99.62 99.71 100.41 99.87 100.22 99.84 99.65 99.12 99.76 100.37 100.26 100.28
Sum
Ignition loss 2.19 1.84 1.95 2.46 1.92 1.97 1.99 0.44 2.41 2.69 2.39 2.27 3.46 1.96 2.19
mg# 0.58 0.66 0.59 0.65 0.63 0.54 0.57 0.66 0.61 0.64 0.61 0.53 0.51 0.64 0.56
FeO*/MgO 1.52 1.07 1.46 1.15 1.24 1.78 1.57 1.08 1.33 1.18 1.35 1.88 1.99 1.19 1.65
K2O/Na2O 0.82 0.65 0.74 0.70 0.80 0.24 0.88 0.38 0.69 0.54 1.00 0.68 0.38 0.72 0.23
CIPW norms
Or 14.67 11.83 15.81 13.00 15.36 5.65 14.51 7.50 13.45 13.06 15.99 15.79 6.89 14.39 5.54
Ab 17.78 6.48 6.48 6.63 3.96 24.46 20.74 11.36 9.73 11.51 3.72 0.00 21.50 21.74 24.40
An 16.21 12.34 10.04 14.90 10.69 15.63 16.90 14.21 13.12 12.43 12.75 4.70 18.83 16.66 15.05
Lc 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.56 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ne 4.27 10.55 13.13 10.85 12.65 5.26 1.56 8.97 9.86 12.42 10.41 20.39 2.54 3.62 5.55
Di wo 9.83 12.60 13.03 13.26 14.34 12.05 9.32 12.75 11.53 11.13 14.25 15.95 12.32 8.13 12.08
Di en 5.90 8.04 8.01 8.22 8.78 6.83 5.55 8.14 6.98 7.06 8.48 8.95 6.43 5.15 7.03
Di fs 3.39 3.73 4.25 4.24 4.73 4.70 3.28 3.76 3.91 3.35 5.02 6.33 5.53 2.45 4.47
Ol fo 10.16 15.48 10.19 12.34 11.98 8.03 10.13 14.77 12.31 12.04 11.36 7.10 7.60 12.30 8.64
Ol fa 6.45 7.93 5.97 7.03 7.12 6.09 6.61 7.53 7.62 6.31 7.42 5.55 7.21 6.45 6.05
Mt 3.93 2.90 4.15 2.66 2.88 4.12 3.95 2.84 2.92 3.61 3.00 4.51 3.09 3.41 4.02
He 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Il 5.43 5.87 6.26 4.79 5.72 5.32 5.46 5.88 6.26 4.21 5.85 6.23 6.21 4.02 5.27
Ap 1.99 2.27 2.69 2.08 1.80 1.87 1.99 2.31 2.32 2.87 1.74 2.93 1.85 1.70 1.89
Sample No. CT 15 CT 16 CT 17/1 CT 17/2 CT 18/1 CT 18/2 CT 19 CT 20 CT 21/1 CT 21/2 CT 22 CT 23 CT 24 CT 25
SiO2 44.24 42.55 42.26 46.13 44.53 42.26 44.33 44.18 44.02 45.17 43.16 44.00 45.20 43.66
TiO2 3.00 3.53 3.25 2.98 2.86 3.23 3.28 3.32 3.75 3.02 3.29 3.31 3.03 3.21
Al2O3 12.70 11.76 12.02 13.15 13.35 12.09 12.67 12.56 12.10 12.34 11.66 11.57 12.44 11.82
Fe2O3 1.95 2.37 3.08 2.88 1.90 3.32 2.08 2.03 2.04 1.99 2.32 2.31 2.84 3.13
FeO 10.84 13.21 11.39 10.64 10.59 12.28 11.53 11.33 11.33 11.08 12.90 12.81 10.53 11.63
MnO 0.17 0.20 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.21 0.18 0.19 0.18 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.17 0.18
MgO 10.68 9.25 8.99 8.02 10.48 7.39 9.36 10.01 10.60 10.32 8.35 8.93 9.56 8.86
CaO 10.08 12.41 10.12 9.53 10.79 11.28 10.65 9.50 10.13 10.13 10.92 10.53 10.30 10.19
Na2O 3.39 2.08 4.41 3.10 3.00 4.23 3.33 3.50 4.11 3.17 4.49 4.24 2.55 4.64
K2O 2.11 1.33 2.97 2.32 1.34 2.14 1.30 2.31 0.80 1.80 1.27 0.93 2.60 1.52
P2O5 0.84 1.32 1.34 1.08 1.00 1.57 1.29 1.08 0.95 0.79 1.45 1.18 0.79 1.15
Original Sum 100.64 100.68 100.33 99.43 99.75 99.53 100.58 99.83 99.31 99.45 99.93 100.53 100.57 99.86
Ignition loss 3.11 6.29 0.37 3.35 2.53 2.35 2.24 2.06 2.69 3.99 3.58 4.14 2.07 3.08
mg# 0.64 0.56 0.57 0.56 0.64 0.50 0.59 0.62 0.63 0.63 0.54 0.56 0.61 0.56
FeO*/MgO 1.18 1.66 1.58 1.65 1.17 2.07 1.43 1.31 1.24 1.25 1.79 1.67 1.37 1.63
K2O/Na2O 0.62 0.64 0.67 0.75 0.45 0.51 0.39 0.66 0.19 0.57 0.28 0.22 1.02 0.33
CIPW norms
Or 12.46 7.87 10.20 13.74 7.95 12.66 7.70 13.69 4.70 10.65 7.52 5.47 15.35 9.00
Ab 5.43 7.04 0.00 16.31 11.35 2.16 13.66 7.44 13.68 10.75 8.54 13.26 8.12 9.05
An 13.19 18.81 4.22 15.09 18.98 7.65 15.73 11.72 12.21 14.10 7.87 9.79 14.81 6.91
Lc 0.00 0.00 5.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ne 12.58 5.69 20.18 5.35 7.58 18.20 7.85 11.98 11.40 8.68 15.95 12.22 7.26 16.33
Di wo 13.32 14.61 15.92 10.81 11.97 16.34 12.32 12.13 13.57 13.14 15.77 14.83 13.23 15.41
Di en 8.28 8.12 9.47 6.32 7.43 8.76 7.25 7.35 8.48 8.02 8.47 8.20 8.21 9.03
Di fs 4.23 5.91 5.62 3.96 3.81 7.03 4.45 4.10 4.24 4.37 6.77 6.05 4.22 5.61
Ol fo 12.90 10.50 9.10 9.60 13.13 6.81 11.31 12.37 12.61 12.44 8.67 9.89 10.97 9.19
Ol fa 7.27 8.43 5.96 6.63 7.43 6.03 7.65 7.63 6.95 7.49 7.65 8.05 6.22 6.30
Mt 2.82 3.44 4.47 4.17 2.76 4.81 3.01 2.95 2.96 2.89 3.37 3.35 4.12 4.54
He 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Il 5.70 6.70 6.17 5.66 5.43 6.15 6.23 6.30 7.12 5.73 6.25 6.29 5.76 6.11
Ap 1.84 2.88 2.92 2.35 2.19 3.42 2.82 2.36 2.07 1.73 3.17 2.58 1.71 2.51
mg # = Mg2+ / (Mg2+ + Fe2+) assuming Fe2O3/FeO = 0.20 and FeO* = Total iron as FeO
246
Table 2. Trace and rare-earth element compositions for the Chanthaburi - Trat basaltic rocks.
Sample No. CT 1 CT 2 CT 3 CT 4 CT 5 CT 6 CT 7 CT 8 CT 9 CT 10 CT 11 CT 12 CT 13 CT 14/1 CT 14/2

Ba 459 652 538 435 488 466 501 442 630 546 576 397 540 623 829
Rb 45.1 63.7 59.8 47.6 59.1 46.5 85.6 38 53.2 53.8 51.5 43.9 35 41.1 26.2
Sr 908 1078 831 971 821 907 892 1528 770 1198 784 1107 868 911 973
Nb 73.6 85.4 64.8 72.3 63.2 84.6 75.1 97.6 74.9 77.5 75.8 79.7 67.7 80 79.3
Zr 252 326 245 256 245 287 257 359 245 304 247 321 277 320 312
Y 25.5 29.3 25.8 26 27.6 21.2 26.6 29.2 26.6 31.7 27.2 29.8 29.3 32.5 30.6
Cr 154 131 211 143 341 301 214 307 200 301 204 221 215 210 206
Ni 98 158 153 105 270 184 171 213 129 296 134 156 151 152 274
V 170 182 192 161 188 145 182 138 194 194 203 166 219 184 183
Co 97 97 91 84 105 74 101 98 110 98 110 116 96 106 83
Cu 69 78 79 68 81 59 78 71 80 71 77 75 80 75 58
Ga 19 19 19 18 17 20 19 19 18 17 22 19 18 22 18
Pb 6 9 4 12 5 5 12 8 1< 4 4 6 7 1< 6
W 151 107 63 37 75 43 216 149 222 70 168 191 50 108 55
Zn 116 117 98 113 102 99 104 113 117 109 117 114 109 116 112
Rare-earth elements (ppm)
La 40.55 65.64 44.95 40.75 42.91 44.87 50.76 70.90 41.08 54.21 41.87 51.95 46.86 51.31 51.04
Ce 78.00 117.87 89.06 78.00 81.34 80.97 95.38 122.48 74.98 103.10 77.88 94.11 84.61 95.38 93.67
Nd 43.17 54.03 42.40 43.30 41.36 38.53 44.86 59.60 42.07 50.42 41.31 49.45 46.16 47.84 49.21
Th 9 6 1< 15 9 6 8 5 10 7 8 10 5 6 9
Sm 8.93 10.39 8.68 8.95 8.55 7.11 8.80 11.03 8.33 9.86 8.44 9.93 9.25 9.70 9.78
Eu 2.93 3.36 2.82 2.96 2.85 2.32 2.83 3.56 2.81 3.18 2.80 3.29 3.09 3.21 3.23
Gd 8.45 8.46 8.56 8.60 8.35 5.95 8.00 8.75 7.23 8.39 8.03 8.55 7.96 8.65 9.06
Dy 5.74 6.44 5.60 5.79 5.86 4.32 5.61 6.42 5.67 6.36 5.75 6.62 6.34 6.78 6.80
Ho 1.12 1.23 1.18 1.12 1.16 0.86 1.15 1.22 1.07 1.24 1.11 1.29 1.21 1.33 1.33
Er 2.42 2.83 2.57 2.44 2.61 1.96 2.55 2.81 2.49 2.84 2.50 2.96 2.85 3.07 3.08
Yb 1.76 1.84 1.96 1.80 1.88 1.29 1.89 1.86 1.60 1.99 1.73 2.04 1.95 2.21 2.31
Lu 0.24 0.27 0.27 0.24 0.27 0.19 0.26 0.29 0.24 0.29 0.24 0.31 0.30 0.32 0.32
U 0< 6 LD 1< 1< 1< LD 1< LD LD LD LD 3 4 1<
(La/Sm)n 2.77 3.85 3.16 2.78 3.06 3.85 3.52 3.92 3.01 3.35 3.02 3.19 3.09 3.22 3.18
(Sm/Yb)n 5.50 6.12 4.80 5.39 4.93 5.97 5.04 6.42 5.64 5.37 5.29 5.27 5.14 4.75 4.59
(La/Yb)n 15.21 23.56 15.14 14.95 15.07 22.97 17.73 25.17 16.95 17.99 15.98 16.82 15.87 15.33 14.59
Sample No. CT 15 CT 16 CT 17/1 CT 17/2 CT 18/1 CT 18/2 CT 19 CT 20 CT 21/1 CT 21/2 CT 22 CT 23 CT 24 CT 25

Ba 430 726 623 519 786 467 692 556 610 583 247 205 617 616
Rb 47.6 61.3 69.8 44 51.8 50.6 86.3 49.7 19.4 44.1 54.2 104 58.3 52.2
Sr 936 1420 1303 926 1656 904 941 976 1329 1095 1376 1262 1035 1198
Nb 76.2 105.9 111.6 76.9 121.3 73.7 84.3 78.4 98 97.5 115.2 109.1 84.7 102.3
Zr 298 380 397 243 434 255 309 294 327 316 407 383 323 360
Y 29.5 33.7 37.5 24.4 40.2 26.5 28.6 29.5 30.3 30.6 35.9 32.4 29.2 30.7
Cr 207 52 57 231 52 144 189 295 158 147 120 190 134 137
Ni 163 90 83 177 60 101 213 298 113 104 125 189 148 247
V 181 188 180 173 175 167 224 207 192 190 199 154 188 197
Co 95 91 100 86 90 80 104 104 82 94 92 103 96 96
Cu 73 75 91 72 81 73 79 72 69 74 73 68 75 57
Ga 19 18 24 19 23 20 20 17 19 19 25 23 19 24
Pb 8 2< 7 8 10 4 6 LD 11 5 6 2< 5 5
W 122 43 113 52 94 48 102 106 39 57 30 100 54 70
Zn 123 139 152 102 161 114 119 107 126 127 148 140 125 129
Rare-earth elements (ppm)
La 49.52 76.83 78.35 48.36 90.75 41.65 52.66 54.44 61.81 64.02 73.28 68.91 66.48 71.37
Ce 89.72 147.72 155.28 93.95 162.64 74.36 102.44 101.68 108.61 116.35 131.51 126.24 116.99 134.59
Nd 48.21 69.03 72.76 45.11 83.51 42.46 51.32 51.39 57.13 58.44 67.09 65.78 56.50 64.50
Th 12 13 16 3 11 5 10 10 14 8 7 2< 12 12
Sm 9.27 13.62 13.96 9.16 15.72 8.94 10.04 10.06 11.01 11.33 12.84 12.06 10.65 12.40
Eu 3.11 4.28 4.37 2.92 5.05 3.01 3.19 3.27 3.56 3.63 4.14 3.89 3.41 3.96
Gd 8.10 12.68 13.24 8.65 12.87 7.72 9.39 9.08 9.59 10.07 10.53 10.15 9.13 10.88
Dy 6.40 7.82 7.98 5.60 9.12 5.86 6.07 6.51 6.77 6.94 7.63 7.14 6.52 7.51
Ho 1.23 1.57 1.62 1.14 1.64 1.06 1.26 1.28 1.28 1.31 1.41 1.31 1.28 1.46
Er 2.93 3.33 3.42 2.44 3.58 2.43 2.74 2.89 2.86 2.92 3.07 2.93 2.87 3.18
Yb 2.08 2.29 2.36 1.70 2.14 1.56 1.99 2.11 1.94 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.96 2.08
Lu 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.25 0.29 0.23 0.27 0.29 0.27 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.27 0.28
U 2< 1< 4 LD 1< 1< 2< 3< 4 LD 3 5 3 3<
(La/Sm)n 3.26 3.44 3.42 3.22 3.52 2.84 3.20 3.30 3.42 3.44 3.48 3.48 3.80 3.51
(Sm/Yb)n 4.83 6.44 6.41 5.84 7.96 6.21 5.47 5.17 6.15 6.29 7.32 7.06 5.89 6.46
(La/Yb)n 15.72 22.15 21.92 18.78 28.00 17.63 17.47 17.04 21.04 21.68 25.47 24.60 22.40 22.66
(La/Sm)n, (Sm/Yb)n and (La/Yb)n = chondrite - normalized values for La/Sm, Sm/Yb and La/Yb, respectively.
247
50 5 200 200
48
4 150 150
TiO 2 (wt%)
SiO 2 (wt%)
Nb (ppm)
Nb (ppm)
46
3 100 100
44
2 50 50
42
(a) (b)
40 1 0 0
3 6 9 12 15 3 6 9 12 15 0 125 250 375 500 0 10 20 30 40 50
MgO (wt%) MgO (wt%) Zr (ppm) Y (ppm)
16 18 2000 2000
1500 1500
FeO* (wt%)
Al2O3 (wt%)
14 15
Sr (ppm)
Sr (ppm)
1000 1000
12 12
500 500
(c) (d)
10 9 0 0
3 6 9 12 15 3 6 9 12 15 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 10 20 30 40 50
MgO (wt%) MgO (wt%) Zr (ppm) Y (ppm)
0.25 15 2000 50
40
13 1500
MnO (wt%)
0.20
CaO (wt%)
Sr (ppm)
30
Y ( ppm)
10 1000
20
0.15
8 500
10
(e) (f)
0.10 5 0 0
3 6 9 12 15 3 6 9 12 15 0 50 100 150 200 0 100 200 300 400 500
MgO (wt%) MgO (wt%) Nb (ppm) Zr (ppm)
10 2.0 1000 1000
8 800 800
1.6
Na2O+K 2O (wt%)
P2O5 (wt%)
Ba (ppm)
Ba (ppm)
6 600 600
1.1
4 400 400
0.7
2 200 200
(g) (h)
0 0.2 0 0
3 6 9 12 15 3 6 9 12 15 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 100 200 300 400 500
MgO (wt%) MgO (wt%) Y ( ppm) Zr (ppm)
Figure 9. MgO variation diagrams for major- and minor Figure 10. Correlation of (a) Nb and Zr, (b) Nb and Y,
oxide in the Chanthaburi-Trat alkalic basalts (solid (c) Sr and Zr, (d) Sr and Y, (e) Sr and Nb, (f) Y and Zr,
diamond, basanite; and open circle, trachybasalt and (g) Ba and Y, and (h) Ba and Zr for all analyzed
basalt). Chanthaburi-Trat alkalic lavas (solid diamond,
basanite; and open circle, trachybasalt and basalt).
PETROGENESIS olivine with subordinate clinopyroxene, plagioclase and

ulvöspinel. Although some crustal contamination may
The data presented in this study indicate that the parental have taken place (Petrographic Session), there is no strong
magma was equilibrated with an amphibole-bearing chemical evidence for extensive crustal contamination,
lherzolite. Such a primary magma could be produced by a the effect of contamination cannot be chemically assessed.
small degree of partial melting of either a fertile mantle,
or a mantle intermediate between depleted and fertile, at
pressures slightly greater than 10kbar (35km depth). The
parental magma may have ascended and accumulated in a
shallow magma chamber (approximately 5kbar pressure,
i.e. 17–18km depth) prior to fractionation. The result of
low-pressure fractionation might have been almost totally
248
600 1000
BABB
= 10
0
=2
WPA
T i/ V
MORB
V
Alkalic
T i/
500
IAT
Transitional
VAB
400
50 Tholeiitic
HT =
/V
Ti
V (ppm)
HA
Ti/Y
300 MORB
VAB
MORB
200
0
= 10
100 T i/V
0 100
0 5 10 15 20 25 0.1 1 10
Ti/1000 (ppm) Nb/Y

Figure 11. V-Ti plot (after Shervais, 1982). HA = Hawaiian Figure 12. Ti/Y-Nb/Y diagram (after Pearce, 1982).
alkalic basalt, HT = Hawaiian tholeiite, MORB = mid-ocean MORB = mid-ocean ridge basalt, VAB = volcanic arc
ridge basalt, BABB = backarc basin basalt, IAT = island-arc basalt, WPA = within-plate basalt (solid diamond,
tholeiite (solid diamond, basanite; and open circle, basanite; and open circle, trachybasalt and basalt).
trachybasalt and basalt).
Nb *2 Ti/100
WPA
WPT
WPA
D A
E-MORB
B
WPT
C
VAB N-MORB
VAB
Zr /4 Y Zr Y*3
Figure 13. Nb-Zr-Y diagram for Chanthaburi-Trat basalts Figure 14. Ti-Zr-Y diagram (after Pearce and Cann,
(after Meschede, 1986). WPA = within-plate alkalic basalt, 1973). A, B = low potassium tholeiites; B = ocean floor
WPT = within-plate tholeiitic basalt, VAB = volcanic arc basalts; B, C = calc-alkaline basalts; D = within plate
basalts, E-MORB = enriched mid-ocean ridge basalt, basalts.
and N-MORB = normal mid-ocean ridge basalt.
500 500
M41
M79
(b) M79
M28
(b)
M41 M81
M28 M78
100
M103
N-MORB normalized
100
Chondrite normalized
Basanitic Suite
Basanitic Suite
10
Trachybasaltic Suite
1 Trachybasaltic Suite
10 M81
M103
M78
3 0.1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta Nb Ce P Zr Hf Sm Ti Y Yb
Figure 15. The upper and lower limits of chondrite-nomalized Figure 16. The upper and lower limits of N-MORB
REE of basanitic and trachybasaltic suites compared with nomalized of basanitic and trachybasaltic suites
that of the low silica alkalic basalts from the Eastern compared with that of the low silica alkalic basalts
Virunga Province, Rwanda (sample no. M78, from the Eastern Virunga Province, Rwanda
M103, M81, M28, M41 and M79). (sample no. M78, M103, M81, M28, M41 and M79).
249
REFFERENCES Le Bas, M.J., Le Maitre, R.W., Streckeisen, A. and Zanethien,
B., 1986, A chemical classification of volcanic rocks
based on the total alkali-silica diagram. Journal of
Barr, S.M. and James, D.E., 1990, Trace element characteristics
Petrology, Vol. 27, p. 745-750.
of Upper Cenozoic basaltic rocks of Thailand,
Meschede, M., 1986, A method of discriminating between
Kampuchea and Vietnam. Journal of Southeast Asian
different types of mid-ocean ridge basalts and
Earth Sciences, Vol. 4, p. 233-242.
continental tholeiites with the Nb-Zr-Y diagram.
Barr, S.M. and MacDonald, A.S., 1978, Geochemistry and
Chemical Geology, Vol. 56, p. 207-218.
petrogenesis of late Cenozoic alkaline basalts of
Mitchell, A.H.G. and Garson, M.S., 1981, Mineral deposits and
Thailand. Geol. Soc. Malaysia, Bulletin, Vol. 10, p.
global tectonics settings, London Academic Press, 42
25-52.
pp.
Barr, S.M. and MacDonald, A.S., 1979, Palaeomagnetism, age,
Miyashiro, A., 1978, Nature of alkalic volcanic rock series.
and geochemistry of the Den Chai basalt, northern
Contribution to Mineralogy and Petrology, Vol. 66, p.
Thailand. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Vol.
91-104.
46, pp. 113-124.
Pearce, J.A., 1980, Geochemical evidence for the genesis and
Barr, S.M. and MacDonald, A.S., 1991, Toward a Late
eruptive setting of lavas from Tethyan ophiolites. In:
Palaeozoic - Early Mesozoic tectonic model for
Proceedings, International Ophiolite Symposium,
Thailand. J. Thai Geos., Vol. 1, p. 11-22.
Cyprus, p. 261-272.
Bunopas, S., and Vella, P., 1983, Tectonic and geologic
Pearce, J.A., 1982, Trace element characteristics of lavas from
evolution of Thailand. In: Proceedings, Workshop on
destructive plate boundaries: In Thorpe, R.S., ed.,
Stratigraphic Correlation of Thailand and Malaysia,
Andesites - Orogenic Andesites and Related Rocks.
Haad Yai, Thailand, p. 213-232.
Norwich, Page Bros. Ltd., p. 525-548.
Hoke, L., and Campbell, H.J., 1995, Active Mantle melting
Pearce, J.A. and Cann, J.R., 1973, Tectonic setting of basic
beneath Thailand ?, In: Proceedings of International
volcanic rocks determined using trace element
Conference on Geology, Geotechnology and Mineral
analyses. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Vol.
Resources of Indochina (Geo-Indo’95), Khon Kaen,
19, p. 290-300.
Thailand, p. 13-22.
Pearce, J.A. and Norry, M.J., 1979, Petrogenetic implications of
Intasopa, S., 1993, Petrology and geochronology of the volcanic
Ti, Zr, Y and Nb variations in volcanic rocks.
rocks of Central Thailand Volcanic Belt. Ph.D. Thesis
Contribution to Mineralogy and Petrology, Vol. 69, p.
(unpublished), the University of New Brunswick,
33-47.
Canada, 242 pp.
Rogers, N.W., James, D., Kelley, S.P. and De Mulder, M., 1998,
Isayev, Y.N. and Kkhoan, F., 1976. Some features of the deep-
The generation of potassic Lavas from the eastern
seated structure of the crust of Vietnam. Internat.
Virunga province, Rwanda. Journal of Petrology, Vol.
Geol. Rev., Vol. 18, p. 945-948.
36, p. 1223-1247.
Jungyusuk, N. and Khositanont, S., 1992, Volcanic rocks and
Shervais, J.W., 1982, Ti-V plots and the petrogenesis of modern
associated mineralization in Thailand. In: Proceedings
and ophiolitic lavas. Earth and Planetary Science
of the National Conference on “Geologic Resources of
Letters, Vol. 59, p. 101-118.
Thailand: Potential for Future Development”,
Smith, A.D., 1996, Intraplate volcanism in Asia and the origin of
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand,
the DUPAL anomaly. In: International Symposium on
17-24 November, p. 528-532.
Lithosphere Dynamics of East Asia, Taipei, Taiwan,
Abstracts, p. 40-43.
Winchester, J.A. and Floyd, P.A., 1977, Geochemical
discrimination of different magma series and their
differentation products using immobile elements.
Chemical Geology, Vol. 20, p. 325-343.
250
PETROLEUM POTENTIAL IN NORTHERN ANDAMAN SEA, THAILAND

Tananchai Mahattanachai, Potchara Auanlumme
Department of Mineral Fuels, Bangkok, Thailand, E-mail: tananchaim@yahoo.co.uk
ABSTRACT
The North Andaman Sea within the Thai territory consists of two tertiary basins: the north extension of Mergui-North Sumatra
basin and eastern Andaman Basin. Data form the Manora-1 well was used to correlate seismic profile and it exposed an attractive
petroleum system to the explorationists by its excellent quantity of sand reservoir. 2D-seismic data from the Thai Andaman Sea
allowed a qualitative assessment of hydrocarbons potential in northern Andaman Sea. Surface picking of seismic stratigraphic
boundaries were defined based on criteria of their uniform seismic characteristic and parameters. The picked seismic markers
collaterally match with sequence boundaries and unconformities which subsequently correlated and mapped throughout the study
area. Information achieved from mapping helps identifying and indicating petroleum structures of the north Mergui Basin.
Evidences of abrupt change in lateral seismic facies are not uncommon in this area. It indicates wrench related setting of tectono-
stratigraphy in this location. Thickness of Oligocene sediment on Isochron map and petroleum generation window, determined by
Ro-maturation analysis, was used to determine potential area (kitchen area) of effective petroleum source rock. Van-Krevelan
diagramb suggested that petroleum source rocks in the Mergui basin present both Oil and Gas prone. Seismic Expressions
suggested that sediments were deposited at the same time as the North Mergui and the Andaman basins were situated in an active
tectonic locale. The basin architecture is convincingly influenced by faulting and structural evolution. Accommodation space,
increased periodically through time, and sedimentation supplied from the Mergui Shelf play main role in deposition in this vicinity.
While sediments deposited in deep sea environment and shale diaper are regularly found within western domain, which laid the
eastern flank of the Andaman Basin. Although the northern Mergui basin has not yet considered to have substantial hydrocarbon
potential, however, it forming a northern extension of the Arun gas field within North Sumatra Basin, while the Mergui Fault Zone
of northern Mergui basin and the East Andaman Fault Zone of Andaman basin could be traced northward to joint with the N-S
Strik-Slip Fault, the Sagiang Fault Zone, which related to presence of petroleum fields, placed along this fault zone. For this
reason, it can presume that there are additional petroleum resources remain undiscovered in this area.
251
POTASH-EVAPORITE DEPOSITS IN THAILAND

Parkorn Suwanich
Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
ABSTRACT
The potash-evaporite deposits in Thailand have occurred only in the northeastern portion of Thailand. The northeastern
Thailand forms as the landscape of low elevation plateau (about 150-220 m. above mean sea level). This is called Khorat
plateau. The Khorat plateau is divided into 2 basins, the north basin or Sakhon Nakhon basin and the south basin or
Khorat basin. The potash minerals are deposited in the Maha Sarakham Formation which is the rock salt main deposits.
The Maha Sarakham Formation is consisted of 3-layer salt beds, the Upper, Middle and Lower salt layers. These salt
beds are interbedded by clastic sediments of sticky reddish brown mainly clay. The potash minerals have been found only
at the top of the Lower Salt. There are only 2 kinds, carnallite and sylvite. They are usually deposited and interlocking
with halite or rock salt grains and called the carnallitite and sylvinite strata. The other evaporite minerals mostly found
in the potash minerals are tachyhydrite (Mg-rich mineral) and rare boracites and gypsum. The structure of the Maha
Sarakham Formation varies from common salt strata to salt domes. The Lower Salt is domed up through the Middle and
Upper Salt closing to the surface. The peak or highest point of the domes is leached by groundwater remaining only the
salt whereas the flank around the domes still remains the potash mineral containing sylvinite mainly. The carnallitite is
usually found beyond the flank of the domes. The theory said that the carnallite is the primary mineral while the sylvite is
the secondary deposit altered from carnallite reacting with the groundwater in suitable condition. The reserve of all rock
salt in the 2 basin is about 18 million million tones, carnallite 400,000 million tones, sylvite 7,000 million tones and
tachyhydrite 200,000 million tones.
Key words: potash, northeastern Thailand, Maha Sarakham Formation, salt dome
INTRODUCTION
has been in Thailand with some areas in Laos, at
Potassium-bearing minerals are found prevalently in the Vientiane (north of the basin) and Savannakhet (east of
earth's rock formations as many mineral types. the basin).
However, the potassium has never formed as a single
element. It is found both in rock, soil, lake, river and
salty soil. In the earth crust, the number of potassium
has about 2.5-3.11 % where it has in igneous rock
forming silicate compound more than others about 95%,
in sedimentary rock as sandstone about 1.1 %, as shale
2.7 % and limestone about 0.27 % etc.
However, nowadays, potassium, which is occurred from
evaporation of seawater still lesser than potassium
occurring from igneous rock, but available potash
minerals in the world come from evaporite potash
which is brought out much easier than igneous potash.
Thus, the potash resources where is importance in
economic of the world are from all evaporite potash
resources.
LOCATION OF THE DEPOSITS IN

THAILAND
The area of the potash-evaporite deposits in Thailand is

in the 2 basins in the northeastern portion of Thailand.
One basin, in the north of Khorat Plateau, is called
Sakon Nakhon Basin whereas another south basin is Figure 1 Showing the Khorat Basin and Sakhon Nakhon
Khorat Basin. The Khorat basin is just located in Basin (Green area) on the Khorat Plateau, (White area) in
Thailand, whereas the Sakhon Nakhon Basin is mainly Northeastern Thailand.
252
GEOLOGY OF POTASH-EVAPORITE Clay in Middle Clastic rock mostly is sticky, soft,
DEPOSITS IN THAILAND plastic and damp or always wet in the characteristic of
unconsolidated or semi-consolidated rock. Its color
The potash-evaporite deposits in Thailand are found in displays in dark reddish brown to purple which so
the northeastern Thailand in the Maha Sarakham contrast with Upper Clastic distinctly. Although some
Formation. portions of Upper Clastic rock are breccia and
The Maha Sarakham Formation is composed of many composed of much water until look-like clay and sticky
rock strata and varies upon the area control by rock salt similar to Middle Clastic rock, but the color of these
structures. However, the completed stratigraphy of two clastic rock are so different. And in the case of non
Maha Sarakham Formation is as follows. Upper Salt or ever possesses but completely corroded
Upper Salt and without anhydrite layer interbedded, the Upper and
Middle Clastic Middle Clastic rock will be contacted together directly,
Middle Salt but they can be, separated undifficultly by using their
Lower Clastic hardness and color. Bedding of Middle Clastic
Potash Zone generally is rare because of its good compaction and
Lower Salt massive. However, some depths may be noted in which
Basal Anhydrite their tilting are 0 to 20 degree from horizon and
sometimes are found a few crossbedding from 10 to 45
Upper Salt degree tilting.
Generally, on the surface of cores are coated by dark
Rock salt on the Khorat Plateau both in Khorat and reddish brown flush when pulled from boreholes along
Sakon Nakhon Basin has all identical correlation shown all depth but when they are scratched or broken, the
that the two basins had ever been the same as a closed clay will display heterogeneous color; major is dark
basin and deposited before the up-lifting of Phu Phan reddish brown, minor of scattered spots is pale to dark
Range separating as a divider between present two grayish green established in very fine to big spots (1.6
basins. cm. diam.) which is disseminated or aggregated in the
Upper Salt is the uppermost salt bed depositing between cores. Sometimes, pale reddish brown spots are found
Upper Clastic which may has or has not Upper associated to dark reddish brown ground or in converse
Anhydrite and Middle Clastic rock. There are only a manner.
few holes which have intersected the Upper Salt In some portions, the dark reddish brown clay is
together with Middle and Lower Salt due to the fact that interbedded by thin layers of light olive gray or greenish
the depositional area in the center of the deep basin or gray color or in some boreholes, deep red and soapy
sub-basin was small, and further that flowage of salt to clay replaces in dark reddish brown clay. Most of bands
structurally high ridges or domes lead to its dissolution and layers are about 1-2 cm. thick, may be up to 5 cm.
and destruction. In additional, because of its thinness, thick. Rare bands of dark carbonaceous matter are
sometimes, it was intersected without noticeability since found in the clay mostly in lower intervals.
the upper portion drilling was often used by rock bits, Fractures are commonly appeared in the Middle Clastic
however it can be detected by gamma-rays log running and in various directions. The tilting of fractures is 20-
after the hold was already drilled. 30 and 50-60 degree from horizon or in vertical. In
Its general behavior of the Upper Salt bed consists of some portions, a great deal of fractures displays breccia
moderate to dark yellowish brown or honey halite, in various size from 0.5-1.0 cm. diam. which made a
minor anhydrite stringers, smoky dark halite bands, poor core recovery. Along the fracture plane, the
milky white halite grained and a few orange-halite. greenish gray or light olive gray commonly coat on the
Locally, large, crystals of colorless halite are about 1 - 2 surface of the fracture planes.
cm. diam. associated. Commonly, the honey halite In some portions of Middle Clastic, there are a few
grained is about 0.2 - 0.5 cm. diam. Some flow textures components of calcareous happening. Sometimes, they
as flakes are apparent. are aggregated as nodules or small pebbles in some
At the lower part of the Upper Salt in general, is depth which there may be other rock pebbles of
composed of dark honey and interbedded by dark siltstones, sandstones, claystones and dolomite
smoky halite and minor orange halite near the bottom including.
contact and local traces of carnallite rarely. Anhydrite At about the middle to bottommost portion of Middle
Clastic, gypsum veins and veinlets are commonly found
and milky white halite are rarely found or absent.
in the fractures up to 1-3 cm. thick or might be occurred
as white or white gray granules in clay. Additionally,
Middle Clastic
anhydrites grained are occurred as granules also but
they have never been formed as veins or veinlets.
Middle Clastic rock is a rock stratum overlying the
Commonly, the veins of gypsum will be formed fibrous
Middle Salt and overlain by Upper Salt. All or almost
texture.
contents are dark reddish brown.
253
Figure 2 General stratigraphy of Maha Sarakham Formation.
Clear crystal aragonite and white pink chalcedony may be be dark gray clay due to reduction zone. This may begin
found in the Middle Clastic also. They are unusually at the middle portion of the unit and interbedding with
found a lot in the declined shaft of trial mine at Bamnet dark reddish brown and pale olive gray thoroughly and
NaronArea. Unconsolidated sand and gravel may be will be completely changed to be entire dark gray clay
found interbedded also in clay but very rare. near the lowermost contact. The dark gray clay thickness
The bottommost near the lower contact with Middle Salt, at the bottom may range from 1-3 or up to 5-7 meters.
the dark reddish brown clay will be changed its color to
254
At the interval of interbedding dark gray and light olive fractured appearing like breccias, but fragments isolated
gray clay, the texture commonly displays pseudo- within halite still orient the same layer. Additionally, there
lamination which has many folds and microfolds are some microfolds occurring in anhydrite stringers.
appeared. Smoky dark bands of halite constitute 15-20% of the
The contact of Middle Clastic with Middle Salt sequence and milky white halite as much as 30-40%. The
underlying varies in two different types of sharp and grains or crystals of milky white halite, where they occur,
gradational contact. are larger than in the upper portion of the sequence attain
diameters of 0.5 to 1.0 cm. and exhibit a zonal texture,
Middle Salt which this milky white halite are not brittle and easily
broken like the Upper Sequence.
The Middle Salt is a salt bed stratified between the Middle Flowage textures are common in this sequence and
and Lower Clastic. The Middle Anhydrite may either flattened grains have dimensions of 0.1-0.2 cm. wide by
cover or uncover on this salt layer. 1.0 cm. in length. These made the halite easily broken
In general, the Middle Salt seldom has complete along the flattened grains.
sequences. It is usually found only from Middle to Lower The bottom of this sequence is defined with the base of
Sequence. However, in some holes, the Upper Sequence Middle marker Anhydrite (Suwanich, 1978). The average
can occur. Generally, the characteristic of the Middle Salt thickness of the sequence is about 40 - 80 meters
is similar to the Upper Salt but helping of geochemistry of (Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982).
KBr content can separate them. In Lower Sequence of Middle Salt, it extends
Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks (1982) divided the Middle downward from the base of Middle marker Anhydrite of
Salt bed into 3 Sequences of Upper, Middle and Lower Middle Salt. The principal mineral of this sequence is the
Sequence, which the contact between sequences, are moderate to dark honey halite containing dark orange and
gradational contact. Upper Sequence of Middle Salt smoky dark halite bands. Anhydrite stringers and milky
The average thickness of this sequence is about 20 - 30 white halite are very rare or disappear.
meters (Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982). The Near the bottom contact with Lower Clastic, the salt will
uppermost portion is found as white and clear salt, rather be changed to all moderate to dark orange color or nay be
pure; the crystals and grains are interlocked tightly. Once interbedded with smoky dark halite bands about 5-10 cm.
in the blue moon, some orange carnallite spots are of each band.
associated. A few associations of carnallite spots are Accessory minerals may include local occurrences of
brought to the assumption of potash zone supposed that sylvite and carnallite. The majority of the sylvite is cloudy
had ever occurred on the Middle Salt but been destructed white and enclosed within orange spotted or, locally blue
nearly all over. The evidences supporting this hypothesis halite. The carnallite is orange red, purple red and pale
are a thin sylvite bed which is found in only one hole of orange and is characterized by equigranular relations with
RS-2.18, Banmet Narong District, Chaiyaphum Province, white and honey halite. The two minerals are also
and the KBr examination in other holes can illustrate the characterized by an amoeboidal texture. In general, their
tendency of having potash deposited. size are about 0.3,- 0.8 cm. diam. but sylvite may be
When the depth increases, the white clear halite will bigger up to 1.0 cm. of recrystallization. Both of them
change gradually to pale, medium and dark honey halite. sometimes, are occurred as thin layers intarbedded in
In additional, milky white halite occurs as small grains halite or disseminated as grains in halite.
ranging from 0.1 to 0.3 cm. diam. or occasionally as The minor presence of potash minerals has led to the
intergranular masses or thin layers interbedded which assumption that this sequence may be reworked and
make these milky white halite intervals be weak and redeposited potash and halite of the Upper Sequence of
brittle and exhibits flow texture. Anhydrite stringers just Lower Salt that formed high domes or anticlines locally
appear a few with about 0.1 to 0.5 cm. thickness, occur and was destroyed at later between the periods of initial
every 60 to 90 cm. interval and usually associate with Middle Salt deposit.
smoky dark halite. All of them, milky white halite, smoky
dark halite and anhydrite stringers will increase their Lower Clastic
amount along the depth, However, locally large
recrystallized glassy halite are found interlayered with Lower Clastic rock is a rock bed lying between Middle
honey halite. Salt overlying and Lower Salt underlying or may has a
In Middle Sequence of Middle Salt, the common thin anhydrite layer between Lower Clastic and Lower
association of this, sequence is a moderate honey halite Salt. If there is only one salt bed in the boreholes, this
interbanded with smoky dark halite and anhydrite anhydrite may be formed as a thick bed of Cap Anhydrite.
stringers. However, minor orange halite is found Generally, the Lower Clastic is very similar to Middle
associated. Anhydrite stringers are thicker than in Upper Clastic which if they are contacted directly without
Sequence ranging from l.0 to 2.0 cm. thick or may up to interrupted by an anhydrite layer they are unable to be
5.0 cm. and occurring at intervals of 30 to 60 cm. or often separated.
to 10 to 15 cm. In places the thick anhydrite, sieve texture Commonly, clay in Lower Clastic is sticky, plastic,
of anhydrite, will occur and replaced by halite grained. At always dark, unconsolidated to semiconsolidated, dark
lower portion, the thick anhydrite stringers are mostly reddish brown to purple and very difficult to be observed
255
a bed because of very well compaction and homogeneous. The Several Colored Band Salt is a rather thin salt bed
But if it is interbedded by gray and dark gray clay, it will deposited between the Lower Clastic, an overlying bed,
show the bed dipping commonly 0-15 degree in the three- and the Potash Zone, an underlying bed (Suwanich,
salt-bed boreholes and dipping rather high to 20-60 degree 1978).
in one-and two-salt-bed holes. Because of its thinness it is not given the status of a
Mottled grayish green clay always found in reddish brown separated sequence, however, some boreholes such as at
clay but at the middle portion to the bottom of the unit, Ban Prakham, Khong District, Nakhon Ratchasima
there may be interbedded by thin layers (1-4 cm. thick) of Province, there is a thick bed of Several Colored Band
light olive gray or dark gray and deep red soapy and black Salt but it comprises of only clear halite interbedded with
carbonaceous clay in some holes. honey halite.
Fractures or jointed sets occur in various directions from The Several Color Band Salt is distinct from other salt
horizon about 30-40 degree and 60-70 degree or vertical beds. It usually occurs containing multi-color bands of
in sometimes. Some portions, a great deal of fractures red, orange, honey, gray, dark gray and colorless until be
make look-like brecciated which the fragments have the very dirty look liking. Each band has a range of I to 5 cm.
size about 0.2-1.0 cm. diam. A few small displacement of thick except the gray, honey and smoky dark nay up to 10
fault are appeared in the bed as about 4-mm. to 15 cm. thick. The glassy white halite shows
displacement. recrystallization in the upper part of the unit (Hite and
In the fracture planes, a few gypsum veins may be found Japakasetr, 1979). In the glassy white halite, a few red
replaced but less than in Middle Clastic. Commonly, the orange spots of carnallite may occur associated.
fracture plane will be filled by halite and carnallite veins Generally, the halite in this salt has a range of 0.5 to 0.8
and veinlets, which are much more than in, Middle cm. diam. in size, sometimes up to 3 cm. in size such as
Clastic. Sometimes, gypsum displays as fragments and K-80 borehole.
granules in the size of 0.1-1.0 cm. diam. whereas the Accessory minerals, including grayish green to dark gray
anhydrite will be to 0.1-0.8 or may be up 2.0-cm. diam. clay as thin bands and small fragments in salt, are thin
Rarely, anhydrite forms in veins. stringers of anhydrite and some dull white spots of
Halite in clay has many forms such as single granules or gypsum. The Several Colored Band Salt graded into the
crystals or aggregate of microcrystal scattering in clay, underlying Potash Zone.
veins and veinlets about 1-3 cm. or up to 10 cm. thick and In the Potash Zone, there are two types of potassium and
showing fibrous texture. In some intervals, halite forms as one type of magnesium minerals in the Potash Zone of
small lenses or occurs in cavities which mostly are clear Northeast Thailand. The two potassium minerals are
grains and crystals of colorless to pale orange or honey sylvite and carnallite and a one-magnesium mineral is
color. These lenses may be thick about 1 meter. tachyhydrite.
Besides halite veins, a typical type in Lower Clastic is However, if the minerals in Potash Zone are arranged as
carnallite veins and veinlets which occur much more than their origin, the carnallite and tachyhydrite will be a
in Middle Clastic. Carnallite veins occur as deep red, deep primary type and sylvite will be a secondary deposit
orange red in fibrous texture. The veins may-be up to 10 derived from the leaching of carnallite (Hite and
cm; thick. Pale yellow tachyhydrite veins are seldom Japakasetr, 1979).
found and formed in fibrous texture also in about 3 cm. In general, the Potash Zone occurs as a primary bed
thick. constructing of carnallite and tachyhydrlte which are
At the lower contact with Lower Salt or Several Colored usually found at sub-basin areas or in the completed three
Band Salt, the dark reddish brown clay will be changed to salt bed (Suwanich, 1985) which the sequence of this
be dark gray clay about 1-2 meters thick or may be up to primary deposit has behavior as follows
5-10 m. thick. Carnallite (Upper)
The contact of Lower Clastic with Middle and Lower Salt Carnallite (Lower)
usually is in horizon; however in many holes, the contact Usually, the carnallite has two beds. Upper and Lower and
is very sharp and tilted which it may be assumed as fault is interlayered by a tachyhydrite bed. Both of two
contact. carnallite beds have a difference in color and purity of the
minerals. The Upper Carnallite often has a dirty or
Potash Zone intensive color and its purity is lesser than Lower
Carnallite. The impurity in Upper Carnallite derived from
Actually, in the potash zone is composed of potassium the Lower Clastic of redbed and iron residual aesociated.
and magnesium minerals. The potassium and magnesium The tachyhydrite found at the middle portion of Potash
strata are a single bed combined by various minerals of Zone has a gradational contact with both Upper and
potassium and magnesium and called as Potash Zone Lower Carnallite.
(Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks; 1982; Suwanich, 1983; In the case of boreholes where sylvite are found
Suwanich, 1985; Suwanich, 1986). associated in Potash Zone, the position of boreholes
The Potash Zone occurs lying on the Lower Salt or should be at the flank of Salt Dome or Salt Horst which
beneath the Several Colored Band Salt and represents a will occur seriated in many forms such as following.
complete sequence as an economic potash stratum extends
widely spread almost throughout the Khorat Plateau.
256
1. Sylvite (Upper) Upper Sylvite is lower than in Lower Sylvite because
Carnallite (Upper) more halite associated in the layer. In addition to honey
Tachyhydrite and white halite, brilliant sapphire blue or violet blue
Carnallite (Lower) halite may be associated with sylvite, in places
2. Sylvite (Upper) abundantly. Nobody knows or explains clearly about the
Carnallite (Upper) occurring of the blue and violet halite which often occur
Tachyhydrite with potash both carnallite and sylvite. A theory may
Carnallite (Lower) assume because of distortion between the crystal faces of
Sylvite (Lower) halite. Another assumption may explain about the
3. Carnallite (Upper) impurity of radioactive minerals or some kinds of gases
Tachyhydrite associated. Thin dull red sylvite bands of about 2 cm.
Carnallite (Lower) thick were found alternating with brown halite with total
Sylvite (Lower) thickness of 8.35 m. in hole K-44. The grain size of
4. Sylvite (Upper) sylvite varies from 0.5 to 1.0 cm. diam. to 1.0 to 3.0 cm.
Carnallite (Upper) diam. or larger compare to that of halite. The fine-grained
5. Sylvite (Lower) halite is honey halite, which interlocks together as a dense
Carnallite (Lower) texture and has a range of size about 0.2 to 0.5 cm. diam.
6. Sylvite (Upper) The coarse-grained halite is white and has a range of size
Carnallite (Lower) about 2.0 to 3.0 cm. diam. However, the blue halite may
7. Carnallite (Lower) be fine-or coarse-grained. Accessory minerals include
Sylvite (Lower) occasional grains of dull white gypsums, dark gray halite
8. Carnallite (Upper) as thin bands and small fragments of dark gray clay.
Carnallite (Lower) In the Lower Sylvite layer, the sylvite is white to colorless
9. All Carnallite (Upper) with a few pale orange grains or failed to zero and is
10. All Carnallite (Lower) intergrown with white halite in an amoeboidal texture. If
11. Sylvite (Upper) the sylvite occurs below the Lower Carnallite, the contact
Sylvite (Lower) with it is sharp. The grain size of sylvite in this portion
12. All Sylvite (Upper) has a range about 0.5 to 0.8 cm. diam. and may up to 1.0
13. All Sylvite (Lower) to 2.0 cm. diam. whereas the white halite has about 2.0 to
5.0 cm. diam. This sylvite usually is higher percentage
Because the sylvite is a secondary deposit altered from than in the Upper Sylvite. The sole accessory mineral is
carnallite, therefore, the sylvite occurrence in various gypsum.
intervals following the carnallite beds. Particularly the However, there are abnormal thickest sylvite layer
carnallite forming as only one bed in the Potash Zone interbedded with halite through the thickness of 153.27
either upper or lower one or both will be changed sylvite meters of K-83, Ban Nong Prachak, Muang District,
overlying and overlain which it is dependent upon where - Udorn Thani Province. This characteristic may be a folded
is the weak zone of easy and possible leaching in the potash layer in many times or may be a new type of
carnallite interval (upper or lower contact). The detail will sylvite deposit as a primary one which there are no more
be discussed in the further chapter. detail surrounding borehole for comparing.
In the Potash Zone, both potassium and magnesium
minerals mostly exhibit an equigranular texture with
white, honey and gray halite or are intergrown with it to
form the characteristic amoeboidal texture. However, at
the base of the Potash Zone, the Lower Carnallite layer is
interbedded with white halite and grades into the Lower
Salt.
Following is the lithology of main minerals in the Potash
Zone both in primary and secondary deposits.
SYLVITE OR SYLVINITE
In general, the sylvinite exhibits as two layers of Upper

and Lower Sylvite beds. The Upper Sylvite is usually
cloudy white, surrounded by orange spots or aggregates of
spots. In places the sylvite is coarser-grained and is
vitreous and similar to the associated clear halite making
identification difficult by looking only. The sylvite and
halite are usually intergrown in an amoeboidal texture, but
may be interbedded with honey halite and coarse-grained
recrystallized white halite. Mostly the amount of sylvite in Figure 4 Core sylvinite minerals from drilling
257
At Ban Nachuak, Nachuak District, Maha Sarakham Tachyhydrite
Province (K-68) there are a lot of porous and
recrystallized sylvite, rather brittle and easily broken. It is The tachyhydrite bed usually occurs as a single bed
because the overturn folding which made the thickness of between the Upper and Lower Carnallite but sometimes
sylvite goes up to 24.81 meters. rarely does interbedded with carnallite but it has never
been at the first or the end of the Potash Zone or occurs as
Carnallite or carnallitite a single bed alone. The contacts of tachyhydrite with
Upper and Lower Carnallite are gradational contact.
The Upper Carnallite is generally orange red to deep red Fine-grained tachyhydrite at upper portion is associated
though some grains have an outer zone, which is deep red, with orange red carnallits. Further downward, the
brown to black. It forms an ainoeboidalintergrowth with percentage of carnallite decrease to absent until to the
white, gray or honey halite or is interbedded with it. middle porti.ori, the tachyhydrite portray large grains in
The grain size of carnallite is the same as halite and in the the order of 3.0 to 4,0 cm. diam, be yellow, orange,
range of 0.5 to 0.6 cm. diam., but sometimes the halite yellowish orange, orange yellow and locally white and are
grained size may be fine to a range of 0.1 to 0.2 cm. diam. rather pure. Deeper into the lower portion, the percentage
and make it is very tough. Accessory minerals include of pure tachyhydrite decrease, its grain size decrease also
gypsum spoted or aggregated disseminated disorderly in to 0.3 to 0.8 cm; diam. and its color change to brownish'
the bed, minor yellowish green, very hard boracite, very yellow while the corresponding percentage of halite and
thin bands of gray clay and anhydrite might be associated. carnallite increase. The tachyhydrite layer will grade
The Lower Carnallite bed contrasts with that of the Upper continuously into the underlying carnallite. Some blue
bed, in that it is pale, either pale pink, pale violet, pale halite crystals occur in this portion. Accessory minerals
orange or colorless. Since it is far from the clastic bed, include boracite and gypsum.
hence, there are a few clay and iron residual and solution
associated. Therefore; it is a pale color layer and high Lower Salt
grade in the range 80 to 90 % and is generaly intergrown
with glassy or white halite or alternative is intarbedded This salt stratum is the salt which occur as the bottommost
with it. If the Lower Sylvite is missing, interbedding of salt bed in Maha Sarakham Formation overlying Basal
carnallite and halite increase downwards through the Anhydrite and overlain by economic strata of Potash
Lower Carnallite bed and may form a gradational contact Zone. Its thickness is varied dependent on the topography
with the Lower Salt. The glassy-white halite has two of the distribution of basin depression and subsequent salt
kinds; one is large crystal might be up to 2 to 3 cm. diam., flowage. Localities of either the basin edge which is near
and another is' fine grains with it size of only 0.3 to 0.4 the redbed of Khok Kruat Formation exposed to the
cm. diam. The carnallite usually has a size range from 0.3, surface or basin center which received relatively thick
to-0.8 cm. diam. In some cases of many folding in the deposits of overlying clastic sediment now contain very
Potash Zone, the Upper and Lower Carnallite may be thin salt and vice versa as' salt flowed in response to
interbedded together thorough out the Zone. Locally, blue variation in load pressure. The high-pressure localities are
halite presents and boracites and gypsum occur as now represented by basin-salt and the lower pressure
accessory minerals. areas by salt Domes and salt Hosts.
Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks (1982) divided the Lower
Salt into, 3 Sequence of Upper, Middle and Lower
Sequences and these may in turn by subdivided into
Upper, Middle and Lower Sub-Sequences of each
Sequence by using the behaviors of physical properties
from hand specimen considered with KBr content of each
sequence. All of the sequences and sub-sequences have
gradational contacts and show individual variation in salt
unit thickness and wedge out.
The Lower Salt found below the Potash Zone may be
glassy-white, clear or translucent, colorless or white halite
with little or no impurity of carbonaceous matter. The
grain size is usually 0.2 to 0.5 cm. diam., but locally
occurs as large crystals in the range of 2.0 to 5.0 cm.
diam. containing fluid inclusion. Some gray bands of
smoky dark halite occur in the lower part of the section.
This portion is arranged into Upper Sub-Sequence and its
thickness is about 1-3 meters (Suwanich and
Figure 5 Core carnallite (red and pink portion) and Ratanajaruraks, 1982)
tachyhydrite (yellow portion) When the depth increases, the color of halite has been
changed gradually from white (above) to gray with 1-2%
of milky white halite grained. The unit marked by, the
258
appearance of anhydrite stringers up to 0.1 cm. thick. The In the bottommost unit of the Lower Salt, gypsum spots
dark smoky halite bands of the upper unit persist and and clusters decrease, to event zero in depth and the Sub-
increase in number slightly. The grain size of halite has a Sequence consists mostly of smoky dark halite
range of 0.2 to 0.5 cm. diam. This portion is arranged into interbedded with transparent halite to the base of the salt
Middle Sub-Sequence and has a range of 2-3 meters bed. The flowage texture dies out near the lower contact.
thickness (Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982). This Lower Sub-Sequence has a range of 10 to 30 meters
A long the depth, the density of anhydrite stringers thickness (Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982).
increases. The evidence is a closer lateral spacing and the In some boreholes, only Lower Salt bed is found through
thickness increases to about 0.1 to 0.4 cm. Dark smoky the total section. It is a huge salt dome or salt anticline.
halite bands, with which the anhydrite stringers are more
commonly associated, comprise about 5% of the unit as Structural Geology of Maha Sarakham Formation
do the milky white halite grained. The average thickness
of this unit has about a range of 5 to 30 meters thickness According to the geology of the Maha Sarakham
(Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982). Formation, it is composed of rock salt mainly. Since the
In the Middle Sequence of Lower Salt, the content of rock salt, as huge mass, can form itself plastic like,
smoky-dark halite increases with depth as does the therefore, the rock salt can move to any positions easier
number and thickness of 0.5 to 1.0 cm. of the anhydrite than other material. The salt can move or flow from the
stringers. Smoky dark bands increase in thickness of 0.3 rim of the basin to the central basin or flow from the
to 0.5 cm. while milky white halite grains increase in deeper level rising up to the shallower level. This is called
number and grain size. This is into Upper Sub-Sequence, salt tectonic.
which has a range of 7 to 20 meters thickness (Suwanich Because in period of the Lower Salt and/Potash Zone
and Ratanajaruraks, 1982). deposition, the Phu Phan Range initially generated by
In the middle part, the content of milky white halite gradual up-lifting quite smooth without breccias,
increases with depth to about 15 %. The salt-grains are fragments or any faults. The up lifting of Phu Phan may
recrystalized increasing to 0.3 to 0.7 cm. (diam). cause relative movement of rock salt to the two basins of
Anhydrite stringers increase to 1.0 to 1.5 cm. in thickness Khorat and Sakon Nakhon subsiding.
and smoky dark halite constitute 20 % of the Sub- Result of the relative movement would have been made
Sequence and resembles the very dark halite matrix. This salt flow into the two basins. The salt would be impacted
unit has average thickness of 10 to 30 maters (Suwanich together and was the cause of elementary arising of
and Ratanajaruraks, 1982). domes, anticlines or ridges at later. Perhaps, another cause
In the bottommost of Middle Sequence, anhydrite is due to the differential loading by clastic layers or salt-
stringers may increase to a thickness of 2.0 to 3.0 cm., self layer because of a few different thicknesses
but: are mostly fractured appearing like breccias, (Suwanich, 1983).
fragments isolated within halite or as a sieve texture in The figure 6 shows general structure of rock salt in Maha
which anhydrite is pseudomorphed by halite similar to in Sarakham Formation. The Khok Kruat Fm. is the
the Lower marker Anhydrite. The smoky dark bands basement of the 2 basins that hold Maha Sarakham Fm.
constitute 20 to 25 % of the Sub-Sequence and the milky The Maha Sarakham Fm., which comprised of
white halite grains persist. This Lower Sub-Sequence tremendous rock salt 3 layers and potash forms a lot of
includes the Lower marker Anhydrite (Suwanich, 1978) domes, anticlines or ridges structure. The Maha Sarakham
with constitutes the base of the Middle Sequence. By Fm. is covered to protect the dissolution from any
average, the Subsequence has a range of 15 to 40 meters precipitations by sandstone, siltstone and claystone of
thickness (Suwanich and Ratanajaruraks, 1982). Phutok Fm.
In Lower Sequence of Lower Salt, there are a lot of Therefore, there are 4 type of the boreholes drilled
differences in this sequence from others both in mineral through the Maha Sarakham Fm. as follows.
composition and number of them. 1. Three salt bed
Below the Lower marker Anhydrite, anhydrite stringers or 2. Two salt bed
fragments comprise a maximum of 1 % to zero of this 3. Potash-bearing one salt bed and
Upper Sequence. Gypsum appears in their place as dull 4. Potash-barren one salt bed
white spots 0.1 to 1.0 mm. diam (Suwanich and It can be concluded that the structure of salt domes and
Katauajaruraks, 1982). interdomes can be occurred many places in the Khorat and
The gypsum increases to 4 % of the sediment and may Sakhon Nakorn Basin. Wherever the three-salt bed is
occur as aggregates, which are not strata, bound or drilled that is interdome and wherever the potash-barren-
disseminate disorderly in the salt. The milky white halite one salt bed is found that is domes.
decrease to zero in depth though the smoky, dark halite However, if the two-salt bed and potash bearing one salt
still comprises 10 % of the rock. Flowage textures bed is drilled through that area is flank of domes or dome
increase such that the salt forms sheets which break easily shelf. If the two-salt bed is found it means the structure is
along the flowage direction. This Middle Sub-Sequence near interdomes and if potash-bearing one salt bed found
has a range of 30 to 60 meters thickness (Suwanich and it means the structure is near domes.
Ratanajaruraks, 1982).
259
Figure 6 General structure of rock salt in Maha Sarakham Formation.
In figure 7, to make it easy, the three salt bed type section the long period of gradually leaching by groundwater,
will be used as "A" as well as the two salt bed and the one sylvite should be a secondary one alterring from
salt bed with and without potash-bearing type section will carnallite. The brine perhaps has removed the MgCl2,
be done as "B", "C" and "D" being representatives which is the most easily to be dissolved, and left KC1
respectively. So, the general dome and interdome becoming sylvite in original bed.
structure in the salt basin is shown in the figure 7 below. Suwanich (1985) has cited some evidences assumed the
sylvite should be altered from carnallite as follows.
POTASH DEPOSITS AND 1. In some cores, a grain is composed of both sylvite and
DEFORMATION TO THE OCCURRENCE carnallite. The sylvite occurs at outer shell whereas the
carnallite does as a spot at inner one. It is probably
OF SYLVINITE DEPOSITS displayed that the alteration carnallite to be sylvite is still
uncompleted.
Hite and Japakasetr (1979), Hite (1982) and Suwanich
(1983) have offered that the carnallite and tachyhydrite in
original Potash Zone should be primary minerals and with
Figure 7 Salt domes is generally found in the salt basin of Khorat Plateau.
260
2. Sylvite when completely changed from carnallite shows A sylvite bed occurring at the middle portion of the
grains which are intergrown with halite and similar to Potash Zone seldom occurs since most of this layer is
carnallite grains which they show amoeboldal texture. tachyhydrite and may be not a weak zone altering.
3. In some holes, the sylvite is porous among grains. The However, although, mostly, the flank position of salt
pores are connected together. The evidence probably domes would be the best sylvite deposit but many domes
shows former water passages. might be not suitable properties to be formed sylvite at
4. If sylvite grains had been altered as long period, they their flanks. Some ones might be intruded too high, low or
would be formed as recrystallized ones, bigger than the tremendous until the condition that groundwater can reach
original carnallite and usually regrown and occurred in the down and leach the MgCl, is unsuitable.
pores according to the item 3. On the other hands, highly arising domes may be folded
5. The recrystallized and porous sylvite core is the most many times and overturned; therefore, the facies are
easily to be broken along the crystal plane when the complex and hard to follow the big sylvite deposit. The
drilling intersected. local drillings for detail exploration is the most necessity
6. The. recrystallized sylvite usually occurs with on the Khorat Plateau.
recrystallized halite.
Result of drilling to test quantity and property of
groundwater at front of trial mine, Bamnet Narong Area,
proved that a great deal of saturated brine tremendously
occur in anhydrite layers. This brine is stagnant or a few
movements except pumping out is done and fresher water
flows in from nearby and above instead. Most of
investigated drilling in both Khorat and Sakhon Nakorn
Basin confirm this groundwater portion in anhydrite,
particularly, at the contact between anhydrite and rock
salt. Hite (1982) hypothesized that the water in Cap
Anhydrite gradually flows downward to the flank of the
dome and leaches MgCl2 in carnallite. The left KC1 will
form sylvite or sylvinite facies around the dome by
following chemical reaction. Figure 8 Showing the reduction of volume from
Carnallite + H2O = Sylvite + MgCl2 (solution) carnallite (Y) to be sylvite (X)
However, the deeper area of salt syncline is still being the
original carnallite. In addition, the chemical alteration of POTASH RESERVE IN MAHA
carnallite to sylvite is also altered volume of the mineral.
Estimated 45 per cent of the volumes are lost. This
SARAKHAM FORMATION
phenomenon made a void space occurring. Therefore,
Suwanich (1986) try to calculate potash and rock salt
most of boreholes in this area ("C" type) usually occurs
reserve in the Maha Sarakham Formation.
fractured and brecciated rock as fragments either
Conclusively, the potential estimated reserves of potash
anhydrite or clastic rock above or probable rock salt
and rock salt on Khorat Plateau, both in Khorat and Sakon
intruding into a space. It is because of gradual subsidence
Nakhon Basin which is calculated from total 50,000 sq.
of rock strata due to decrease the volumes in the Potash
km. has at least, halite about 18 million million tones,
Zone (figure 8)
carnallite 400,000 million tones, sylvite 7,000 million
On the other hands, statistics of the "C" borehole type is
tones and tachyhydrite 200,000 million tones.
the highest sylvite occurrence, up to 53.33 per cent. The
position of the "C" is around flank of the domes.
Mostly, shape of sylvite ore body is a wedge (figure 8) CONCLUSION
where the thinner tip point into the Upper Carnallite due
to easily altered at the uppermost portion and be the There are 2 kinds of potash minerals in Thailand. The
contact plane between the clastic rock and the Potash common one is carnallite that is low potassium content.
Zone or Colored Salt. In this case, the sylvite would form Another lesser one is the best potash mineral in the world,
as the Upper Sylvite. However, sometimes, the wedge sylvite. These 2 kinds of the potash rock are difference in
may occur downward to the contact plane between the occurrence. The carnallite is the primary deposits whereas
Lower Carnallite and the Lower Salt. Thus, the Lower the sylvite is the secondary deposits altered from
Sylvite appears which this one probably occurs over the carnallite. The by product of the alteration is tachyhydrite,
Lower Carnallite. the Mg-rich mineral. The sylvite forms on the flank
In the case of the leaching that occurs both upward and around the salt dome, the carnallite form beyond deeper.
downward directions of the Potash Zone, the shape of The rock salt is deposited at the core and mostly body and
sylvite ore body will be ramified as two branches and the base of the salt domes.
drilling will intersect both the Upper and the Lower
Sylvite interbedded by remained Upper and Lower
Carnallite and some tachyhydrite.
261
REFERENCES Japakasetr, T., and Suwanich, P., 1982 ; Potash and rock salt in
Thailand; Appendix A. Nonmetallic Minerals Bulletin No.2
DMR.
Anderle, J.P., 1979: Consultant back - up work report; World
Japakasetr, T., and Suwanich, P., 1983 ; Potash and rock salt In
Bank Consultant, Bangkok, 32 p.
Thailand; Appendix B,F Nonmetallic Minerals Bulletin
Anderle, J.P., 1979: Proposed design of overall potash drilling
No.2 DMR.
program; prepared by a world Bank Consultant for the
Japakasetr, T., and Suwanlch, P., 1984 ; Potash and rock salt in
Dept. of Min. Res., Bangkok.
Thailand Appendix C, D Nonmetallic Minerals Bulletin
Hite, R.J., and Japakasetr, T., 1979 s Potash deposits of Khorat
No.2 DMR.
Plateau, Thailand and Laos; Econ. Geol. vol. 74, no.2, 448 -
Japakasetr, I., and Workman, D.R., 1981 s Evaporite Deposits of
.458 p.
Northeast Thailand,- Circum - Pacific Conferences, Hawaii,
Hite, R.J., 1982; Progress report on the potash. Deposits of the
pp. 179 - 187
Khorat Plateau, Thailand; U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geol.
Sattayarak, N. 1983; Continental Mesozoic stratigraphy of
Survey, 70 p.
Thailand; Conference on Geology and Mineral Resources
Hite, R.J., 1983 s Pleistocene? stream channel control of Khorat
of Thailand, Selly, R.C., 1976; An Introduction to
Plateau sylvite deposits; Conference on Geol, and Min,
sedimentology. Academic Press, London, New York, San
Resour, of Thailand,
Francisco, pp 145 - 168
Japakasetr, T., 1974 (in Thai); Potash investigation In Northeast
Suwanich, P., 1978 (In Thai); Potash In Northeast of Thailand;
Thailand; Progress Report, Econ. Geol. Div., Thai Dept. of
Econ. Geol. Div., Dept. of Min, Resour. 24 p.
Min. Resour., 37 p.
Japakasetr, T., 1975; Potash investigation in Northeast Thailand; Suwanich, P., 1983: Potash arid rock salt In Thailand;
Progress Report, Econ. Geol. Div., Thai Dept. of Min, Conference on Geology and Mineral Resources of
Resour.,39 p. Thailand, 10 p;
Japakasetr, T., 1978; Potash investigation in NE Thailand; Suwanich, P. 1985; The relationship between potash-deposits
Progress Report, Econ. Geol. Div., Thai Dept. of Min. and salt tectonic on Khorat Plateau, Thailand; World
Resour. Congress on Non-Metallic Minerals, Belgrade, Yugoslavia,
Japakasetr, T., 1980; Potash Deposits of Northeast Thailand; In pp 127 - 138
Sheldon, R.P. and Burnett, E.G., eds., Fertilizer mineral Suwanich, P., 1985; Potash and rock salt in Thailand 5
Potential in Asia and the Pacific? East - West Resources Appendix E, Nonmetallic Minerals Bulletin No. 2, DMR.
Systems Institute, East - West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, Suwanich, P. and Ratanajaruraks P., 1982; Sequences of rock
pp. 400 - 409 salt and potash In Thailand, Nonmetallic Minerals Bulletin
no.l, 32 p.
262
PRACTICAL IDENTIFICATION OF RARE GEM-QUALITY TAAFFEITE

AND MUSGRAVITE
Wilawan Atichat1, Thanong Leelawatanasuk1, Visut Pisutha-Arnond1,3,Boontawee Sriprasert1,2,
Pornsawat Wathanakul 1,4,Chakkaphan Sutthirat1,3, Chaniya Somboon1, Jirapit Jakkawanvibul1,
Nalin Narudeesombat1, Sureeporn Pumpang1, Monrudee Thavornmongkolkith1 and Namrawee Susawee1
1
The Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
2
3
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
4
Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
ABSTRACT
Musgravite and taaffeite are among the rare gem minerals of the world. Musgravite, the rarer gemstone of the two thus
commands a higher price, is known to be very difficult to distinguish from taaffeite. It is therefore quite crucial for a gem
laboratory to find practical and non-destructive techniques for positively separating these two mineral species. A number
of rare gem-quality musgravite (4 samples) and taaffeite (10 samples) with various cutting shapes have been acquired
into the gem collection of the GIT Gem Testing Laboratory (GIT-GTL). The samples were carefully investigated by using
both standard gemological instruments and advanced spectroscopic techniques. Microscopic examination of both gem
samples revealed some features commonly found in both mineral species such as growth tubes and transparent solid
inclusions. The physical and optical properties, such as specific gravity, colour, fluorescence, refractive index values and
inclusions, as well as their chemical data by EDXRF technique and UV-Vis-NIR spectra of both musgavite and taaffeite
are quite similar; hence they can not be practically used for distinguishing one from the other. Nonetheless, based on our
detailed study it was found that the non-destructive micro-Raman spectroscopy is the most distinctive method in
establishing the identity of these rare gemstones.
Keywords: rare gem mineral, physical and optical property,
INTRODUCTION of the structure is the same but their cycle along the
layering direction is different); however, from the studies
Among the rare minerals of the world, taaffeite and to date they are now assumed to be of independent species
musgravite have been considered to be one of the rarest having differences in both chemical composition and
gem species on earth. Only very few new deposits, crystal structure.
especially the gem quality ones, were reported since their Taaffeite is an exceptionally rare gem and very valuable
first discovered localities. In gem trade, these minerals are because the original taaffeite cut crystal was thought to be
rather the collectors’stones than gemstones for daily usage. a spinel but subsequent study showed that it was a totally
In general by comparing between these two mineral a new mineral species, discovered in Sri Lanka. It
species, the price of taaffeite in gem market is lower than crystallizes in the hexagonal system, has an SG of 3.6, RI
that of musgravite because of the fact that musgravite is of 1.718-1.723 and a Mohs’ hardness of 8. Mauves,
rarer than taaffeite. purples and lilacs are the most common colours with Fe3+
Musgravite is a mineral with general formula of (Mg, Fe, thought to be the colour causing agent along with trace
Zn)2Al6BeO12 . It was named after its first discovered amounts of Cr and V as well as Zn in some cases. Most of
locality at Ernabella Mission, Musgrave Ranges, South the world supply comes from Sri Lanka and the Uda-
Australia in 1967. It was later reported of being found in Walawe, Balangoda and Passara-Lunugala areas are best
Sri Lanka, Greenland and Madagascar as well. Taaffeite is known sources.
also another mineral which has general formula of As both taaffeite and musgravite are in the same mineral
Mg3Al8BeO16 and named after Count Edward Charles group, they thus have very close in physical and optical
Taaffe, gemologist of Dublin, who discovered the mineral properties such as refractive index values, hardness,
as a facetted stone in a collection in 1945. Later the type optical characters, color range, specific gravity and crystal
locality of taaffeite was found at Niriella Village, system. It seems impossible in gemological point of view
Ratnapura, Sabaragamuwa Province, Sri Lanka in 1951. to differentiate these two mineral species based solely on
Both taaffeite and musgravite belong to the same mineral information from standard gemological instruments alone.
group. (Hudson et al., 1967) However, because of the very strong demand from the
Earlier both musgravite and taaffeite had been thought to trade for the gem quality musgravite due to its very high
be a polytype (crystals possessing layered structure; each value, it is thus quite crucial for a gem laboratory to be
263
able to differentiate musgravite from taaffeite non-
destructively.
GENERAL GEOLOGY OF TAAFFEITE

AND MUSGRAVITE
Most of taaffeite and musgravite were reported as
associated minerals with corundum in the Ratnapura gem
field, which is the largest and the most famous gem
deposits in the Highland South-Western Complex of Sri
Lanka. This area is composed mainly of meta-sedimentary
rocks such as garnet sillimanite biotite gneiss, garnet
quartzo-feldspathic gneiss, charnokitic gneiss, biotite- Musgravite Taaffeite
hornblende gneiss and charnokites. Metasediments such
as marble and quartzite were found in few locations. All Table 1: Physical and optical properties of the
the lithological bands follow NW-SE trend. Structurally musgravite and taaffeite samples.
NW-SE trending synforms, antiforms and NNW-SSW
trending shear zones are common structural features of the Musgravite (4) Taaffeite (10)
area. Metasediments such as garnet- sillimanite gneiss, Weight (ct) 0.79 – 1.42 0.48-3.45
and marble, undifferentiated charnokitic gneiss and SG 3.58 – 3.66 3.58-3.65
charnokite are the dominant rock types of Elahera gem Colour Very light purple Very light
fields. NS trending antiforms and NW-SE trending faults - light purple purple - purple
are common structural features in this area. UV LW: inert – LW: inert –
Another occurrence of taaffeite and musgravite is from fluorescence weak green weak green
magmatic deposits: pegmatites. Pegmatites are coarse- SW: inert SW: inert
grained, felsic, granitic intrusions and several suites have RI: no 1.720 – 1.725 1.722-1.723
been intruded into the metamorphic bedrock of Sri Lanka ne 1.715 – 1.720 1.713-1.719
during several phases of activity throughout the
geological evolution of the island. They have been two minerals are quite similar. Most stones are
reported as the source rock for gem deposits in several transparent. The common internal features in both
locations. Beryl and chrysoberyl containing pegmatites minerals observed under magnification are growth tubes,
have been reported from Buttala area, some with some transparent solid inclusions and fingerprints. Hence
exceptionally high quality blue-green aquamarines up to these information data are still not helpful to clearly
800 carats in weight (Geological Survey Adm.Report differentiate between musgravite and taaffeite.
1968). Be-rich pegmatitic fluids are considered as the As would be expected for any minerals which have
source of such gem bearing pegmatites containing also different structures, these two gem species also have some
sinhalite???, taaffeite, musgravite, etc differences in their structural arrangements which could
be reflected by the variations of the Raman peak shift
MATERIAL AND METHOD positions. That is the taaffeite shows the peak positions at
around 415 , 435, 450, 490, 660, 710 ,761and 813 cm-1,
A number of musgravite (4) and taaffeite (10) samples while the musgravite shows at around 413, 445, 480, 490,
were acquired from the gem markets in Chanthaburi. 655 and 713 cm-1, respectively (Fig. 1).
These samples are collected at the GIT Gem Testing
Laboratory (GIT-GTL). The GIT-GTL has undertaken a DISCUSSIONS
careful detailed investigation of those samples using both
standard gemological instruments and advanced Even though the chemical analyses obtained by EDXRF
spectroscopic techniques. The advanced techniques used technique have shown some distinctions between
in this investigation are Laser Raman spectroscopy, musgravite and taaffeite as these two minerals have
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometer, slightly different chemical formula (Okano et al., 2006).
Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometer and In such a case careful and well-calibrated EDXRF
Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) analyses are required to make such the chemical
spectrometer. distinction. Though the X-ray powder diffraction technique
would also be another promising tool for identifying
RESULTS taaffeite and musgravite, the method, however, needs a
conventional destructive sample preparation. Other
As anticipated the physical and optical properties obtained technique of single crystal X-ray analysis for both
by basic gemological instruments, such as SG, colour taaffeite and musgravite introduced by Abduriyim and
range, fluorescence and RI values (Table 1), as well as Kobayashi (IGC Russia) 2007 would also have shown
UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra (not shown here) of those the possibility of the identification, such the technique
however not only requires a well-trained technician but
264
Figure 1. Representative Raman spectra of musgravite and taaffeite samples.
also the equipment is generally not available and still REFERENCES

considered not practical in most standard gem laboratories.
Nonetheless by using an advanced Laser Raman Abduriyim, A. and Kobayashi, T. , 2007, Application of x-ray
spectroscopic technique (which are commonly available diffraction to identification of taaffeite and musgravite,
in the well-equipped gemological laboratories), these two Proceeding of the 30th International Gemmological
mineral species can be separated fairly easily and non- Conference, 5 p
destructively due to the differences in their structural Hudson, D. R., Wilson, A. F., and Threadgold, I. M., 1967, A
new polytype of Taaffeite: a rare beryllium mineral from
arrangements. Hence, the Raman spectroscopic technique the granulites of central Australia, Mineralogical Magazine,
seems to be the best non-destructive and the most Vol. 36 No 279, 305-310 p.
practical method for gemological laboratory to distinguish Nickel, E, H. and Nichols, M. C., 2007, IMA/CNMNC List of
of these two mineral species (see also Schmetzer et al., mineral names. http://www.geo.vu.nl/users/ima-
2005 a, b and c; Okano et al., 2006) cnmmn/MINERALlist.pdf
Okano, M., Kitawaki, H. and Abduriyim, A., 2006, Taaffeite
CONCLUDING REMARKS and Musgravite (Gemstone in the latest
topic),http://www.gaaj-
zenhokyo.co.jp/researchroom/2006/2006_10a-01en.html
In conclusion, it is quite a challenge for a gem laboratory Schmetzer, K., Kiefert, L., Bernhardt, H., and Burford, M.
to be able to distinguish musgravite from taaffeite 2005a, Gem-quality musgravite from Sri Lanka. Journal of
practically and non-destructively. On gemological point Gemmology, Vol. 29, No. 5/6, 281-289 p.
of view, it is promising from this study that some Schmetzer, K., Kiefert, L., Bernhardt, H., Burford, M. And
diagnostic spectroscopic data, especially the Raman Gunasekara, D.P., 2005b, Iron-and Zinc-rich gem-quality
spectra, could be practically used as a diagnostic clue for taaffeites from Sri Lanka. . Journal of Gemmology, Vol.
separating musgravite from taaffeite and these techniques 29, No. 5/6, 290-298 p.
are available at the GIT-GTL. For mineralogical point of Schmetzer, K., Kiefert, L., Bernhardt, H. and Burford, M., 2005c,
Two remarkable taaffeite crystals from Sri Lanka. Journal
view, these two minerals have been formally renamed and of Gemmology, Vol. 29, No. 7/8, 461-466 p.
approved by International Mineralogical Association
(IMA) to be magnesiotaaffeite-2N’2S for taaffeite and
magnesiotaaffeite-6N’3S for musgravite in 1997 and 2002,
respectively (Nickel and Nichols,2007).
265
PRESERVATION OF 2004 INDIAN OCEAN TSUNAMI DEPOSITS AND

IMPLICATIONS FOR PALEOTSUNAMI RECORD ON ANDAMAN SEA
COAST OF THAILAND –PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Witold Szczuciński
Institute of Geology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland; witek@amu.edu.pl
The Indian Ocean tsunami on the 26th December 2004 caused deposition of a layer of sandy deposits reaching thickness
of more than 50 cm [1-3]. Few weeks after the tsunami, the deposits had still recognizable sedimentary structures and
were rich in salts and bioavailable heavy metals and arsenic [4]. The aims of the present study were two folds: (1) to
monitor changes of chemical composition of the tsunami layer in order to estimate its long term environmental impact,
and (2) to assess tsunami deposits layer preservation potential with its implication for paleotsunami studies.
The studies were conducted three times: shortly after the tsunami (Jan-Feb 2005), after one (Feb 2006) and two years (in
Feb 2007). In each of the following years, rainy season with rainfall of about 3000 mm/yr occurred. In regard to salt
content in water soluble fraction of the sediments, a rapid decrease was observed after the first rainy season [4] with
following slower decrease after the second [5]. The heavy metals and arsenic in bioavailable fraction of the sediments
were still sustained at relatively high level in comparison to the soils not covered by the tsunami [3-5]. The sedimentary
deposits were still well preserved after one year [1], however, after the second year soil forming processes and plant
grow caused major changes in the tsunami deposits. The delay in the changes is probably related to high salt content
before the first rainy season.
The above finding suggests that tsunami deposits may be partly preserved in their thickness is of an order of at least 20
cm. The search for paleotsunami deposits is, however, limited by the extensive placer deposits exploration along the
Andaman Sea coast. Paleotsunami deposits were found only in form of boulders close to Ao Klong Rian (Phang Nga
province) and were probably several thousands years old [6].
REFERENCES [4] Szczuciński, W., Niedzielski, P., Rachlewicz, G.,

Sobczyński, T., Zioła, A., Kowalski, A., Lorenc, S., Siepak, J.,
2005: Contamination of tsunami sediments in a coastal zone
[1] Szczuciński, W., Chaimanee, N., Niedzielski, P.,
inundated by the 26 December 2004 tsunami in Thailand.
Rachlewicz, G., Saisuttichai, D., Tepsuwan, T., Lorenc, S.,
Environmental Geology 49: 321-331.
Siepak, J., 2006: Environmental and geological impacts of the
[5] Szczuciński, W., Niedzielski, P., Kozak, L., Frankowski, M.,
26 December 2004 tsunami in coastal zone of Thailand –
Zioła, A., Lorenc, S., 2007: Effects of rainy season on
overview of some short and long-term effects. Polish Journal of
mobilization of contaminants from tsunami deposits left in
Environmental Studies, 15(5): 793-810.
coastal zone of Thailand by the 26 December 2004 tsunami.
[2] Hori, K., Kuzumoto, R., Hirouchi, D., Umitsu, M.,
Environmental Geology 53: 253-264.
Janjirawuttikul, N., Patanakanog, B., 2007: Horizontal and
[6] Kozak L., Niedzielski P., Szczuciński W., Kurzyca I.,
vertical variation of 2004 Indian tsunami deposits: an example
Sobczyński T., Lorenc S., in press: Monitoring of 2004 tsunami
of two transects along the western coast of Thailand. Marine
deposits chemical composition and their environmental
Geology, 239: 163-172.
implications. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.
[3] Fujino, S., Naruse, H., Suphawajruksakul, A., Jarupongsakul,
[7] Szczuciński W., Chaimanee N., Di Geromino S.I.,
Murayama, M., Ichihara, N., in press: Thickness and grain size
Jagodziński R., Saisuttichai D., Tepsuwan T., Yawsangratt S.,
distribution of Indian Ocean tsunami deposits at Khao Lak and
Kokociński M., Ruamtum S., Sungeon P., 2007: Boulder
Phra Thong Island, southwestern Thailand. In: Shiki, T., Tsuji,
deposits in coastal zone at Ao Klong Rian (Phang Nga province,
Y., Minoura, K., Yamazaki, T. (eds): Tsunamites – Features and
Thailand) from 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and from possible
Implications. Developments in Sedimentology, Elsevier Science
paleotsunami event. Asia Oceania Geosciences Society. 4th
B.V.
Annual Meeting, Bangkok.
266
PROCESSING OF RAYONG MIXED FELDSPARS FOR CERAMICS

Chairoj Rattanakawin 1 and Suraphol Phuvichit 2
1
Department of Mining Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand.
2
Department of Mining and Petroleum Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand.
E-mail: chairoj@eng.cmu.ac.th
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research is to study about the processing of Rayong mixed feldspars. The study includes
characterization, separation and evaluation. Characterization was carried out using hand lens, optical microscopic, X-
ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescent techniques. A selective flotation was used to separate feldspar from mica, iron-
bearing minerals and quartz respectively. Evaluation of the separation was done using data from yield of feldspar, X-ray
fluorescence and cone firing test. The feldspar yield was used to evaluate the process efficiency. Besides, the chemical
analysis, cone shrinkage, fired color and degree of vitrification were used to monitor the quality of the recovered
feldspars. The feldspars were furthermore compared with a standard sample of floated mixed-feldspar obtaining from a
ceramic manufacturer. Finally, the processed feldspars were graded for using in various kinds of ceramics in order to
secure our own sufficiency economy.
Key words: ceramics, flotation, mineral processing, mixed feldspars
INTRODUCTION for high grade ceramics. In order to upgrade the mixed

feldspars, a selective flotation can be applied to separate
Feldspar is one of the basic minerals used to make various feldspar from mica, iron-bearing minerals and quartz
types of ceramics, e.g. tiles, sanitary wares, table wares, respectively (Rattanakawin, 2006). The purpose of this
etc. It can be used as a ceramic body and glaze in order to research is to study about the processing of Rayong mixed
decrease firing temperature and to increase the degree of feldspars including characterization, separation and
vitrification. Due to the deficiency in potassium feldspar evaluation respectively.
for ceramic industries in Thailand, some of the feldspar is
imported from neighboring countries (Rattanakawin et al., METHODS
2005 and 2006). In order to be self-sufficient on the
supply of this ceramic raw material, the other sources of Characterization
alkaline minerals could be used. These minerals are
pottery stone (Chanyavanich, 2003), hornblende syenite Granitic rocks including aplite, pegmatite and aplite-
(Rattanakawin et al., 2007), and mixed feldspars from pegmatite complex were sampled from DFRY-9 at Ban
Tak (Thacom and Rattanakawin, 2007). Thai Department Shakrathon, Amphoe Ban Khai, Rayong (1415379N and
of Mineral Resources, DMR (2003) has also reported that 759000E, Sheet no. 5234 I of the Royal Thai Survey
the newly indicated resource of mixed feldspars at topographic map) as shown in Figure 1. The sampling site
Amphoe Ban Khai, Rayong is about 39 million metric is very close proximity to the DMR drill holes marked as
tons. This huge resource should be further developed in DFRY1 to DFRY8. Therefore, some of the petrographic
order to serve Thai ceramics industry and to secure our information would be inferred from the DMR’s report
own sufficiency economy. (2003).
Mixed feldspars are broadly identified as granitic rocks The samples were characterized for their petrographic
having approximately the same amount of K2O and Na2O. data and liberation size; mineralogical and chemical
They can be classified into various types regarding to composition; and ceramics properties. The petrographic
their textures: fine-grained, porphyritic, and both textures. study was carried out by using a hand lens. However, the
Aplite is a fine-grained granitic rock whereas pegmatite is liberation size was estimated by grain counting of each
typically a porphyritic, coarse grained granite. An aplite- sieve size fraction of ground samples using an ore
pegmatite complex is a mixture of both porphyritic and microscope.
fine-grained granitic rock. Therefore, the minerals
founded in mixed feldspars are the common constituents
in granite such as feldspars, quartz, micas and small
amount of iron-bearing minerals. However, most of
mixed feldspars can not be directly used as raw materials
267
Cone firing test was used to determine ceramics
properties of raw and processed mixed-feldspar samples.
The samples were coned and fired at 1280oC for 30 min.
After that shrinkage, fired color and degree of vitrification
of the cones were evaluated.
Separation
Processing of the mixed feldspars was conducted by

means of froth flotation. The flotation procedure was as
follows:
1. Ball milling 500 g. of mixed feldspars at 60% wt.
solids for 3 min. to about - 48 mesh (Tyler).
2. De-sliming by rinse out the suspended particles
having sizes - 200 mesh.
3. Adjust the ground pulp to 25-30% wt. solids.
4. Conditioning the pulp in a laboratory flotation cell
at 1,000 rpm for 3 min. with H2SO4 to pH 3, amine at
about 100 g/ton and pine oil at about 80 g/ton of mixed
feldspars.
S feldspar sampling locations
5. Removal of mica by using the above-mentioned
Figure 1: Topographic map showing the sampling location of
cationic flotation.
granitic rocks at DFRY-9. 6. Conditioning the residual pulp in the flotation cell
at 1,000 rpm for 3 min. with H2SO4 to pH 3, sulfonate at
The mineralogical study was done by X-ray diffraction about 100 g/ton and pine oil at about 80 g/ton of mixed
method using D8-Advance BRUKER linked with a feldspars.
microcomputer. The measuring conditions are as follows: 7. Removal of iron-bearing minerals by using the
Cu K-alpha radiation at 40 kV and 40 mA; start and stop above anionic flotation.
angles at 5 to 80 degrees; scanning speed of 0.2 sec./step 8. Conditioning the remaining pulp in the flotation
with increment of 0.02 degree; detection with scintillation cell at 1,000 rpm for 3 min. with HF to pH 2, amine at
counter. The -200 mesh mixed-feldspar sample was about 150 g/ton and pine oil at about 80 g/ton of mixed
packed into a hole on plastic plate. After that the well- feldspars.
packed sample was x-rayed with the above-mentioned 9. Acid flotation of feldspar from quartz for 5 min.
conditions. The intensity of detected signals was then 10. Filter and dry of the float and sink products.
plotted as a function of 2θ. Finally the intensity peaks 11. Removal of the iron contaminants from grinding
were selected, searched and matched with those of the and/or the remaining from the mixed feldspars themselves
standard minerals compiled by the JCPDS using the in the float product by using dry low-intensity magnetic
DIFFRAC PLUS program. separator.
Both raw and processed mixed-feldspar samples were
analyzed for their chemical composition by X-ray Evaluation
fluorescent method with the ED 2000 OXFORD and the
Oxford XpertEase WindowsTM. Primary X-rays were The finished float products were weighed, sampled,
generated using Rhodium Target. High voltage of 5 kV analyzed by X-ray fluorescence, and cone-fired
and 900 μA were set to measure Na, Mg, Al, Si and K at respectively. Evaluation of the separation was done using
the Very Light Elements condition. Instead, the voltage of the yield of feldspar and its chemical composition, cone
shrinkage, fired color, and degree of vitrification as
12 kV and 600 μA were used to investigate Ca, Ti, and Fe
criteria. The processed feldspars were furthermore
at the Solids (S-V) condition. The references and
compared with a standard sample of floated mixed-
measuring samples were separately excited with the
feldspar obtaining from the raw material section of a
primary X-rays for 100 sec. and the emitted secondary X-
ceramic manufacturer (Rattanakawin et al., 2005).
rays were detected with the lithium drifted silicon
Finally, the feldspars were industrially graded for using in
detector. Three certified reference feldspars; NCSDC
various kinds of ceramics.
61102, SRM 99a and SRM 70a (Rattanakawin et al.,
2005) were used to create standard calibration curves in
which the chemical analysis (% weight of oxides) of the
mixed-feldspar samples was compared and evaluated.
Loss on ignition was also included in the analysis by
determining the weight loss of the sample fired at 1000 oC
for one hour.
268
Materials for Thai Ceramics (Department of Mineral
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Resources (DMR), 2003).
Results of size analysis and grain counting of ground
Petrographic Study of Granitic Rocks aplite-pegmatite complex are shown in Table 1. It appears
from the grain counting of each sieve size fractions that
The rock samples are macroscopically categorized into an appropriate liberation size is about - 48 mesh (Tyler).
three types: aplite, pegmatite and aplite-pegmatite There is a large amount of locked feldspar-quartz particles
complex. The aplite is a light-gray aphanitic rock, fine- at the larger size. The - 48 mesh particles should be
grained, composed mainly of feldspars, quartz, muscovite suitable for separation by the selective flotation
and tourmaline with small amount of pink garnet. The efficiently. Therefore the aplite-pegmatite complex was
pegmatite is a gray porphyritic rock, composed of K- specifically ground to meet this passing size prior to the
feldspar, quartz and muscovite. The aplite-pegmatite flotation. This protocol was also applied to grind the
complex can be separated into two rock types; gray aplite and pegmatite having a liberation size of about - 48
porphyritic and fine-grained granitic rocks. The rocks mesh. A complete liberation of the locked minerals is not
consist mainly of K-feldspar, albite and quartz with small a normal practice in the separation. Further grinding will
amounts of tourmaline and muscovite. More details on increase a cost significantly and also generates more
microscopic description of these rocks are available on slime, leading to a high flotation reagent consumption and
proceedings of the Conference on Sources of Raw low production.
Table 1: The results of size analysis and grain counting of ground aplite-pegmatite complex.
Size Cum. Feldspar Quartz Feld.+Qtz. Muscovite Tourmaline

(mesh) % wt. retained (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
+20 4.92 30.32 14.60 50.59 4.48 0.01
-20+28 16.16 32.38 24.36 38.73 3.93 0.60
-28+35 35.13 40.52 39.99 14.91 3.38 1.20
-35+48 52.34 39.55 47.86 7.96 2.81 1.80
-48+65 65.43 40.02 41.42 5.89 5.56 7.10
Pan 100.00
X-ray Diffraction Study Separation by Selective Flotation
The XRD pattern of aplite-pegmatite complex is shown in The chemical composition; and cone shrinkage, unfired
Figure 2. The major minerals are orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), and fired color, degree of vitrification, and yield of
albite (NaAlSi3O8) and quartz with a small amount of processed feldspars were compared to those of raw and
muscovite. Orthoclase is K-feldspar while albite is Na- standard floated mixed-feldspar samples in Tables 2 and 3
feldspar. As a result, this complex could be characterized respectively.
as mixed feldspar. This is in accordance with the Comparing the chemical analyses, especially
chemical analysis determined by X-ray fluorescence %Na2O+K2O and %Fe2O3 of all floated products to those
shown in Table 2 in which the K2O and Na2O contents are of raw mixed feldspars, indicate that the flotation
not different significantly. technique can virtually upgrade the product qualities. For
examples, %Na2O+K2O increases from about 11 to 15
Chemical Analyses of the Rock Samples while %Fe2O3 decreases from about 0.20 to 0.03.
Furthermore, the amount of alkaline contents is greater
The chemical analyses of raw, processed and standard than that of the standard mixed-feldspar sample. The
floated mixed-feldspar samples are shown in Table 2. It iron contents are much less than those of the standard
can be directly deduced from the X-ray fluorescent results sample. It also appears from the cone firing test that all
that all the granitic rocks are mixed feldspars having floated products have white color, good to very good
approximately the same alkaline contents. vitrification, and higher % shrinkage on firing comparing
to the raw mixed feldspars. This appearance verifies the
effectiveness of the flotation technique to process mixed
feldspars. The ceramics-tinted minerals such as mica and
iron-bearing minerals can be removed by the cationic and
269
anionic flotation respectively. Reduction on quartz by feldspar. The yield of both feldspars is nearly the same at
acid flotation results in more vitreous and shrinkage of the about 50%.
fired cones. The overall quality of processed feldspars is
slightly better than that of the standard floated mixed-
Figure 2: The XRD pattern of aplite-pegmatite complex

(Q = quartz, O = orthoclase, A = albite and M = muscovite).
Table 2: Chemical analyses of raw, processed and standard floated mixed-feldspar samples.
Sample SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2 O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2O LOI Remark
DFRY-9-A 68.40 0.02 18.47 0.16 0.01 0.90 6.07 5.28 0.68 Aplite (Raw)
DFRY-9-P 68.72 0.02 18.08 0.24 0.01 0.56 5.56 6.10 0.72 Pegmatite (Raw)
DFRY-9-AP 68.81 0.02 18.57 0.19 0.02 0.88 6.30 4.65 0.56 Aplite-Pegmatite (Raw)
DFRY-9-AC 65.99 0.01 17.60 0.03 0.06 0.59 8.51 7.00 0.22 Aplite (Floated)
DFRY-9-PC 66.23 0.01 17.70 0.02 0.05 0.27 5.60 9.63 0.50 Pegmatite (Floated)
Aplite-Pegmatite
DFRY-9-APC 66.46 0.01 17.12 0.03 0.05 0.59 8.81 6.29 0.65
(Floated)
Standard floated
FK-AN/Body 68.47 0.01 17.84 0.10 0.03 1.37 5.81 5.94 0.44
mixed-feldspar
Evaluation of the Separation environmental, economic, and public conflict of interests

should be considered carefully. In conclusion, the
As shown in Tables 2 and 3, the processing of Rayong sustainable development of this mixed-feldspar resource
mixed feldspars yields approximately the same amount of will definitely secure our sufficiency economy.
feldspars compared to the standard floated mixed-
feldspar. However, the quality of the finished products is ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
better than that of the standard floated one in terms of
alkaline contents, iron contents, and ceramics properties. The authors would like to thank Director General of
These high quality products can be used as ceramic body Department of Primary Industries and Mines for his
and graze in tiles, sanitary and table wares. permission for using some data from the reports of
investigation referred below; Mr. Montri
CONCLUSIONS Luengingkasoot, DMR for his useful information about
Ban Khai feldspar deposits, Rayong; and Mr. Utit
Due to the huge resource of mixed feldspars at Ban Khai, Thongklueng, Department of Mining and Petroleum
Rayong, it is very promising to further develop this Engineering, Chulalongkorn University for his XRD and
feldspar deposits. From the mineral beneficiation XRF analyses. This paper is dedicated to, Associate
viewpoint, it is capable to apply selective flotation to Professor Thongchai Pungrassami, his first teacher in
process the Rayong mixed feldspars effectively. The Geology at the Department of Mining and Material
quality of floated feldspars is suitable for using in various Engineering, Prince of Songkla University.
high-grade ceramics. However, the other factors:
270
Table 3: Cone shrinkage, unfired and fired color, degree of vitrification, and yield of processed feldspars
comparing to those of raw and standard floated mixed-feldspar samples.
% Shrinkage Unfired Fired Degree of

Sample Fired Cone Yield
(on firing) Color Color Vitrification
DFRY-9-A Dark
30.69 White Moderate
(Raw) Brown -
DFRY-9-P Dark
32.75 White Moderate
(Raw) Brown -
DFRY-9-AP
27.87 Grey Brown Moderate
(Raw) -
DFRY-9-AC
45.25 Light Brown White Good 46.64%
(Floated)
DFRY-9-PC
47.14 Light Brown White Good
(Floated) 50.70%
DFRY-9-APC
51.14 Light Brown White Very Good 49.64%
(Floated)
FK-AN /Body about

47.67 Brown White Good
(Standard) 50%
Note Amounts of mica, iron bearing minerals, and quartz separated by flotation are about 7%, 4% and 24% by weight respectively.
REFERENCES Mining, Materials and Petroleum Engineering: The

Frontiers of Technology, Phuket, Thailand, p.59-64
Chanyavanich, C. 2003, Thai Raw Materials: Green-heart Thacom, B. and Rattanakawin, C. 2007, Froth Flotation of
Selection, Proceedings of the Conference on Advancing Mixed Feldspar, Proceedings of the 33rd Congress on
with Minerals for Ceramics, Chiang Mai, Thailand, p. 62 Science and Technology of Thailand: Science and
Rattanakawin, C. et al. 2005, Value-adding and Processing of Technology for Global Sustainability, Nakhon Si
Feldspar in Northern Region, Thailand. in Report of Thammarat, Thailand (Submitted)
Investigation for Bureau of Primary Industries, Department Thai Department of Mineral Resources, 2003, Potentiality of
of Primary Industries and Mines, Bangkok, Thailand. Feldspar at Amphoe Ban Khai, Rayong, Proceedings of the
Rattanakawin, C. et al. 2006, Value-adding and Processing of Conference on Sources of Raw Materials for Thai
Feldspar in Eastern Region, Thailand. in Report of Ceramics, Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok,
Investigation for Bureau of Primary Industries, Department Thailand, p.94-117.
of Primary Industries and Mines, Bangkok, Thailand.
Rattanakawin, C. 2006, Lecture Note MN 332: Flotation,
Department of Mining Engineering, Chiang Mai
University, Chiang Mai, Thailand, p. 230-242.
Rattanakawin, C., Phuvichit, S., Panjasawatwong, Y. and
Supapia, S., 2007, Processing of Hornblende Syenite for
Ceramics, Proceedings of the International Conference on
271
R&D ACTIVITIES OF KIGAM FOR SUSTAINABLE GROWTH IN

RESOURCES; GAS HYDRATE, GEOTHERMAL ENERGY,
GROUNDWATER
Kwang-Eun Kim
Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources, Daejeon, Korea, E-mail: kimke @kigam.re.kr
ABSTRACT
This document examines R&D programs and activities of KIGAM for sustainable growth in resources. These issues are
primary concerns of the authorities in Korea, a country poorly endowed with natural resources. KIGAM, as the only
government funded R&D institute for geoscience & mineral resources in Korea, has endeavored to balance the
fullfillment of national economic growth with the protection of the natural environment from a view–point of the
resources. In this document, national R&D programs and activities on three key topics for sustainable growth are
addressed – Gas Hydrates, Geothermal Energy, Groundwater.
Key words: KIGAM, Gas dehydrate, Geothermal energy, Ground water
GAS HYDRATE hydrate in the East Sea successfully using piston corer.
The water depth is 2072 m. Massive gas hydrate samples
Gas hydrates are solid, ice-like materials containing with thickness of 2~5 cm were found in the 3~8 m depth
molecules of gas bound in a lattice of water molecules. from sea floor.
Gas hydrates draw a great attention for the last 20 years as After drilling, the estimation of gas hydrate potential in
new clean energy resources substituting conventional oil the prospect area-I will be conducted using all kinds of
and gas. Many countries including U.S., Japan, Canada, information including geophysical and geological data.
Germany and India have launched extensive research The 2nd phase (2008~2011) project includes detailed
programs to study the characterization of gas hydrates and survey, drilling, reserve estimation in the prospective area
eventually to produce them from the ocean. Results of II (northern part) and basic research on production
preliminary survey by Korea Institute of Geoscience and technology. The 3rd phase project (2012~2014) includes
Mineral Resources (KIGAM) during the period of test production and research on the commercial
2000~2004 showed that gas hydrates can be present in production technology (Park, 2006). Production technique
deep sea area over 1,000 m water depth in the East Sea. by emission gas-swapping will be the main objective of
From this optimistic conclusion, Ministry of Commerce, our future study in addition to conventional hot-brine
Industry and Energy (MOCIE) of Korea initiated 10 Year injection and depressurization methods.
Gas Hydrates Development Program by establishing Gas
Hydrates R&D Organization in 2005. 10 Year Gas GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Hydrates Development Program consists of three stages
with the final goal of test production of gas hydrates in The ‘Alternative Energy Development Promotion Act’
2015 with joint cooperation of Korea National Oil was enacted in 1987 and the ‘New and Renewable Energy
Corporation (KNOC), Korea Gas Corporation (KOGAS) Technology Development Project’ was launched in 1988.
and KIGAM In addition, the act was amended to the ‘Alternative
To identify the potential area of gas hydrates in Korea, Energy Development and Use Promotion Act’ in 1997 to
2-D and 3-D seismic surveys were conducted by KIGAM promote the use of new and renewable energy and to
in 2005 and 2006. Drilling strategy for gas hydrates launch case supply projects (subsidizing program) as well
formation is determined by the target depth below sea as to offer long-term low-interest loans, tax benefits and
floor. The first step of drilling strategy targets the gas government/public funds for those using new and
hydrates near the sea floor, less than 10 m depth using renewable energy. The ‘Second Basic Plan for the
short gravity and piston corer. The second step aims for Development, Use and Supply of New and Renewable
the gas hydrates within the upper part of the gas hydrate Energy Technology (2003~2012)’ was established in
stability zone, less than 100 m depth below sea floor. 2003 along with detailed promotional plans for the annual
PROD (Portable Remotely Operated Drill) was used for development and supply of new and renewable energy
this purpose and about ~140 m core sample was acquired sources to achieve the goal of increasing the use of new
and analyzed. The final step targets drilling through the and renewable energy to 3% of the total primary energy
BSR, of which depth often exceeds 200 m below sea floor. consumption by 2006 and 5% by 2011.
In June, 2007, KIGAM research team sampled natural gas The Pohang low-temperature geothermal development
272
project, the first large-scale geothermal program in Korea (i) Technology development on securing massive, clean
for district heating and cascade utilization, has made a groundwater resources: This project is the representative
remarkable progress in 2006. The production well BH-4 ‘Top Brand Project’ in KIGAM which is named by
has reached its final depth of 2,383 m at the end of the Ministry of Science and Technology. The 1st phase of
year. Original target depth was 2,000 m and the research period is 3 years from 2007 to 2009 with a total
temperature at the depth of 1,980 m was 82.5 °C. Detailed of 9 year project. The ultimate goal of this study is to
logging, pumping test and other necessary borehole present the potential areas for development of clean,
survey will be followed to characterize the geothermal massive groundwater resources.
water reservoir in 2007. The R&D program also includes (ii) Integrated analyses of groundwater occurrence in Jeju
demonstration of groundwater source heat pump using Island: A complementary geological survey was
alluvial and river water. In Korea, amount of groundwater conducted to obtain more detailed information about
use for residence and industry reaches up to 5 million groundwater resources. 3D subsurface geological maps
tonnes per day that will possibly produce a huge amount were made to find out geological factors that control
of thermal energy for heating and cooling the buildings groundwater flow, storage pattern, and subsurface
nearby. The fact that it does not need any drilling cost geological distribution.
when using alluvial and river water as geothermal source The researches of groundwater resources are to be further
may offer great opportunity of expanding geothermal carried out with relation of conservation of
utilization. eco-environments. For this, fundamental, new, scientific
Increasing interests in geothermal heat pump from technologies need to be developed to minimize the
government and public sectors will continue to lead impacts of contaminant source on water systems, and are
steady investment. Private business of installing and therefore scaleable with tremendous potential for
consulting the geothermal heat pump is also rapidly commercialization, technology transfer, a legacy of
increasing although it is not yet comparable to other knowledge in research products as well as favorable
renewable energy such as biomass, small hydro, solar and effects in world environmental markets.
wind yet. Recent R&D funding trend indicates that the
geothermal research in Korea will continue to be active at REFERENCES
least for the next five years and we expect the geothermal
utilization in Korea contribute to world-wide statistics to Park, K.P., 2006, Gas hydrate exploration in Korea, Proceedings
some extent by the 2010. of 2nd international symposium on Gas Hydrate
Technology, , p.15-22.
GROUNDWATER
According to the ‘Groundwater Act’, the Korean
Government (Ministry of Construction and
Transportation) has the responsibility of devising a
comprehensive plan for groundwater and contriving the
reasonable policies in order to have high quality
groundwater available to all the people of the nation
through efficient preservation and management of the
groundwater. Ministry of Environment is in charge of
‘Drinking Water Management Act’ and has authorities for
groundwater protection, preservation and water quality
management policies. On the other hand, Ministry of
Agriculture and Forestry is in charge of groundwater
exploration and development for irrigation through ‘Rural
Area Consolidation Act’. The groundwater management
policy in Korea follows the basic concept that
groundwater shall be systematically and sustainably
developed and utilized under the consideration of local
hydrogeologic characteristics and usage conditions. The
Groundwater Management Master Plan (GMMP) came to
be formulated in 1996 based on the Article 6 of the
‘Groundwater Act’.
As a main groundwater R&D organization, the KIGAM
has continued to conduct several R&D programs. The
R&D programs are primarily focused on the development
of technologies understanding groundwater system to
sustain high quality and quantity of groundwater
resources. The key on-going research projects are
described as the followings:
273
REGIONAL TECTONIC SETTING AND SEISMIICITY OF THAILAND

WITH REFERENCE TO RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTION
Punya Charusiri*1, Brady P. Rhodes2, Preecha Saithong3, Suwith Kosuwan3, Santi Pailopli1, Weerachat
Wiwegwin3, Veerote Doarerk1, Chaiyan Hinthong3, Supawan Klaipongpan4,
1
Department of Geology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand, *E-mail: cpunya@chula.ac.th
2
Department of Geological Sciences, California State University,CA 92834, USA
3
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
4
Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand, Nonthaburi 11130 Thailand
ABSTRACT
The overall tectonic patterns in Thailand and SE Asia are essentially controlled by collision between the Indo-Australian
plate, the Eurasian plate, and the West Pacific plate. Major southeastward displacement of Indochina relative to South
China blocks occurred along the Red River Fault during Eocene times. The collision of India and Asia causing a major
clockwise rotation of SE Asia during Oligocene-Miocene mark the essential tectonic evolution of SE Asia. Movements of
major fault systems in the region have been attributed to the Western Burma / Shan-Thai (70-80 Ma), and Indo-Burma /
Western Burma (40-55 Ma) continental collision. These tectonic activities as well as epicentral distribution define three
distinct seismic-source zones in Thailand i.e., zone L in central-western Thailand,and zone G and zone H in northern
Thailand. Zone L is dominated by the NW- trending Three-Pogoda, NNW-trending Si Sawat and NW-trending Mae Ping
Faults whereas zone G is considered to be influenced by the N-trending Mae Hong Son Fault, and zone H by the ENE-
trending Chiang Rai and NE-trending Mae Tha, Li and Phrae Faults. Some earthquakes are attributed to movements
along these faults. Two essential mechanisms of quakes are inferred: stress release by fault movement and adjustments
due to reservoir impoundment. We propose that Reservoir-Induced Seismicity (RIS) is responsible for several quakes with
epicenters in Thailand since 1980 and this perhaps play a more important role than movement along fault planes.
Eventhough some of the major faults seem presently inactive; they appear to constitute weak zones in the crust and need
to be taken into account when large man-made structures, such as dams and reservoirs are constructed.
Key words: seismicity, seismic source zone, earthquake mechanism, plate tectonic
INTRODUCTION REGIONAL TECTONIC FRAMEWORK

Earthquakes worldwide are known to be associated with During either the Late Triassic (Charusiri et al., 1991,
tectonic setting, and tectonic activities both regional and 2000), Permo-Triassic (Hutchison, 1983, Bunopas and
local scales. However the causative mechanism of Vella, 1983) or even earlier (Helmke, 1985), Thailand and
earthquakes are not always understood and can only be her adjoining countries occupied major parts of the two
deduced on the basis of geotectonics, field investigation, major blocks joined together by continent-continent
and past historical earthquakes. The aims of this paper are
collision (Fig. 1). These two microcontinents, which were
two fold (1) describe and critically review the tectonic once part of Gondwanaland and attached to the Australian
activities of Thailand and mainland SE Asia, and continent (Bunopas, 1981), include: the Shan-Thai (-
relationship between tectonics and seismicity of Thailand
Malay) craton (western half of Thailand); eastern
and adjacent areas and (2) to discuss occurrence of
Myanmar; the northwest Malay Peninsula; and the
seismicity related to reservoir impoundment. So in our
Indochina craton (eastren half of Thailand, Laos,
study, we complied all available and existing information
Kampuchea, southern Vietnam, and eastern Malay
form both publish geological works. Then we analyzed
Peninsula) (Bunopas, 1981, Bunopas and Vella, 1983,
the space-borne image data particularly those of
Charusiri et al., 2002). The Lampang-Chiang Rai and
LANDSAT TM5, JERS, and SPOT together with ground
Nakhon Thai blocks, lie along the western and eastern
- truth surveys.
parts of the Shan-Thai and Indochina blocks, respectively
(. 1). Both blocks which consists principally of oceanic
crustal materials (see Tulyatid and Charusiri, 1989,
Charusiri et al. 2002), have been dislocated by gigantic
274
sinistral strike-slip faults and their N-trending have been collision of the two microcontinents. This suture (or the
modified by sinistral oroclinal bending associated with so-call “tectonic line” in this paper) may extend
this faulting (Fig.1). These faults are thought to have been southward (Fig.1) to the Sra Kaew zone in eastern
active during 70 - 80 Ma, 55 Ma and 45 Ma (Charusiri, Thailand, the Bentong - Raub zone in Malaysia
1989). The Nan River suture zone (Barr & Macdonals (Hutchison, 1983) and northward into Laos and southern
1987) in northern Thailand, is also the result of the
Fig. 1. Tectonic map of Southeast Asia showing major structures, basins, and tectonic blocks (modified after Charusiri et al., 2002,
Morley, 2004, Curray, 2005). 1 = Mae Ping Fault, 2 = Three Pagoda, 3 = Red River Fault, 4 = Song Ma Fault, 5 = Mae Tha
Fault, 6 = Nan- Uttaradit Fault or Suture, 7 = Ranong Fault, 8 = Klong Marui Fault, 9 = Bentong - Ruab Fault or Suture, 10
= Malacca Faul, 11 = Mergui Fault, 12 = Indo - Burma Thrust, 13 = Tertiary Volcanic Belt, 14 = Pegu - Yoma (Sagaing)
Belt,15 = Sumatra Fault, 16 = Khorat Monoclin, 17 = KhoratBasin, 18 = Chao Phraya Basin,
S = Sukho Thai Fold Belt, L = Loei Fold Belt.
China (Huang, 1984. Other, and probably more important, modification between 20-30 Ma (Suensilpong et al., 1981)
tectonic lines are the tectonic activities of SE Asia are and 45-55 Ma (Charusiri, 1989). These younger tectonic
thought to be very intricate with a major and rapid activities are regarded to have been superimposed on the
275
older activities and some of them have, to some extent,
destroyed their earlier imprints, as visualized from space-
borne images. The changes in tectonic style caused the
Shan-Thai and Indochina blocks as well as the Western
Burma and Indo-Burma blocks (Mitchell, 1981 & 1985,
Charusiri et al., 1991a) united together to form a southern
part of the Eurasian plate (Fig. 2) prior to 45-55 Ma when
the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate. GPS and
seismicity data have recently defined the modern tectonic
geometries and strain rates (Chamot – Rooke et al., 1999,
Vigny et al., 2003, 2005).
Plate tectonic setting and tectonic history

Fig. 2. Index map of Southeast Asia showing three major
The present-day tectonic framework of SE Asia or more tectonic plates (modified after Suensilpong, 1971and
Polachan, 1988).
regionally eastern Asia (Fig. 2) is dominated by the
interaction of three adjoining major lithospheric plates: The collision of continental India with Asia could have
the continental-oceanic Indo-Australian plate in the west caused the extrusion (1,000 km displacement) to the
and the south; the continental Eurasian plate in the southeast and the clockwise rotation of Indochina and
middle; and the oceanic West Pacific plate in the east Sunda shelf during Oligocene-Miocene (20-30 Ma). This
(CCOP-IOC, 1974). It is also recognized (Metcalfe, 1997,
phenomenon eventually accounted for the sinistral
Charusiri et al., 1999, 2002) that particularly in the displacement along the large-scale strike-slip faults in SE
Eurasian plate there exist few smaller combined crustal
Asia. Such displacement may have led to the opening of
blocks whose motions, at present, bear only weak
relationship to those of the larger plates. According to the South China, the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman seas
prior to the late Miocene Epoch and is thought still active.
Reading (1980), Thailand is part of the Eurasian plate
whose boundary is marked by an active east-dipping Similar deductions were also made by Polachan (1988),
Polachan and Satayarak (1989) and Curray (2006),
subduction zone extending from north India (Himalaya
regarding the evolution of the Mergui Basin and the
Frontal Thrust), passing to west Myanmar and west of development of several Tertiary basins in Thailand. As the
Andaman - Nicobar island, and swinging eastward to Indo-Australian plate was subducting obliquely beneath
southward to southward along the Sumatra-Java trench the SE Asian plate (Eurasian plate) in the Andaman Sea,
(Fig. 3). The major plate intra- and inter-plate actions are the Mergui Basin developed rapidly during 25 Ma (Late
inferred to have been established during Mesozoic, but Oligocene) as a result of NW-NNW-trending rifting and
their structures in the existing arc-trench zone have been
ocean-floor spreading (Fig. 3). The Mergui basin
overprinted by the major Tertiary tectonic-orogenic
developed as a series of N-trending half - grabens
activities which in several cases are still active.
simultaneously with the development of N-trending
Major changes in tectonics of Thailand may have
extensional normal fault system. The associated syn-
occurred at the end of Mesozoic (Bunopas and Vella,
sedimentary fault system is interpreted to have occurred
1983, Charusiri et al., 2002, Morley, 2004) and are likely
as a result of the transtensional dextral shear movement
to have coincided with or be related to the north to
along the NW-trending Sumatra (or Semanko) fault
northeastward progressive collision of the Indian plate
with the Eurasian plate (Rhodes et al., 2000).. The system, bounded to the east by the sinistral Ranong-Klong
occurrence of a major southeastward displacement of Marui fault system. The shear movement was eventually
Indochina relative to South China along the Red River accommodated within the NNW-trending Mergui fault
fault zone (Fig.3) by the Indian-Eurasian collision during system and the NNE-trending echelon normal fault
Eocene (40 -50 Ma, Searle et al., 1987) possibly marks system.
the major tectonic evolution of east and southeast Asia. A similar situation has also been documented for the
development of Tertiary basins in Thailand. These
sedimentary basins are mainly N - trending, pull-apart
grabens or half-grabens which are inferred to have been
developed since Late Oligocene (20 - 25 Ma) by the
movement along the strike slip faults. Such ages range of
276
Fig. 3 Tectonic map of SE Asia showing major fault systems and the relative movement of crustal blocks in response to India-Asia
collision (modified from Poolachan, 1989) (Notes: SFS = Sumstra Fault Zone; MFZ = Mergui Fault Zone; SFZ = Sagaing-
Namiyim Fault Zone; UFZ = Uttaradit Fault Zone; RKFZ = Ranong-Klong Marui Fault Zone; RRFZ = Red River Fault Zone;
NTFZ = Northern Thailand Fault Zone; and M = Mergui Basin).
basin development has been geochronologically proved Bunopas and Vella, 1983). This phenomenon led to the
by von Braun et al. (1976) and Charusiri et al. (1991b) The movement along the large-scale strike-slip faults with the
structural framework of these basins as revealed on associated development of transtensional, S-shaped basins
surface geology maps and by seismic exploration data, is in northern Thailand and Z-shaped basin in the Gulf ((see
undoubtedly controlled by the N-trending, extensional also Poolachan, 1988, Uttamo et al., 2003).
syn-sedimentary normal fault system which is spatially
and temporally closely related to the movement along the History of Major Fault Movements
NW- and NNE- trending, conjugate strike-slip faults that
have been reactivated during the Oligocene Epoch. The Most of the Tertiary basins in Thailand are dominated by
basin development is attributed either to the collision of normal and NW- and NNE-trending strike-slip faults, and
the Indian plate with southern Asia (Poolachan and N-trending, extensional syn-sedimentary suggesting that
Sattayarak, 1989) or to the collision of the Indo-Burma they are pull-apart basins formed by simple- shear
block with Eastern Burma block (Charusiri et al., 1992) tectonics rather than by simple extension process, e.g.,
during 48-50 Ma, or even younger (Middle-Late Miocene; Bunopas (1981), Charusiri (1989), Polachan and
277
Sattayarak (1989) and Charusiri et al. (1993). The MODERN SEISMITECTONIICS OF
geometrical relationship of these strike-slip and THAILAND
extensional fault, the evidence of clock-wise rotation of
SE Asian crustal blocks (Fig.3), and recent earthquake Judging from the distribution of earthquake epicenters in
analyses (Fenton et al., 1997, 2003; Bott et al., 1997) fits South and Southeast Asia, Thailand lies close to the east
a regional dextral shear system. Movement of major NW- of the Andaman-Sumatra (or Alpine) earthquake belt. One
and NE- trending strike-slip fault systems in the SE Asian can argue, as shown in Fig. 8, that Thailand is located
region are ascribed to the continental collision of the mainly in an aseismic zone (Fig. 8) because not all of the
Western Burma and Indo-Burma blocks with the Shan- larger South East Asia earthquakes have been felt in
Thai block (or Eurasian plate) during 70-80 and 40-55 Ma, Thailand. However, the awareness and fear of the vilent
respectively (see also Charusiri et al., 1991a). Either the and sudden hazard they pose undoubtedly stimulate the
study of earthquakes in this region. This led to the
Cenozoic northward movement of India past Sundaland
(Topponier et al., 1986) or the Indo-Burma block past systematic compilation of the historical earthquake
database in Thailand and adjoining areas by Charusiri et
western Burma block (Mitchell, 1985) is considered
al. (2004).
responsible for the dextral strike-slip motion along the N-
So far there have been only few studies on earthquakes in
trending Sagaing Fault in central Burma, for the Thailand (e.g., Nutalaya et al., 1985, Siribhakdi, 1986,
clockwise rotation of SE Asia (Achache and Courtillot,
Prachuab, 1990, Hinthong, 1991, Charusiri et al., 1991b,
1985), and the sinistral movements along NE - trending as
well as the dextral movements along NE-trending faults. Koesirikulkit, 1990). The historical earthquakes in
Thailand were first summarized in a chronological order
At present the NW-trending faults, namely the Red River,
by Nutalaya et al. (1985) from the historical texts, annals,
the Mae Ping, the Three-Pagoda and the Sumatra stone inscriptions and astrological documents in the Thai
(Semangko) Faults, represent the major dextral, strike-slip language. Only about 50 earthquakes had occurred in
faults, and the NE - to NNE - trending faults, including Thailand and Myanmar since 623 B.C. The records yield
the Northern Thailand fault zone (Mae Tha, Li, Long, only the locations where the earthquakes were felt and not
Thoen and Phrae Faults), and the Southern Thailand fault the true epicentral locations, and the earthquake
zone (the Ranong and the Klong Marui Faults), are intensities were assigned by Nutalaya et al. (1985) using
regarded as sinistral faults which are inferred as conjugate the Modified Mercalli scale (MM) varying from V to IX.
sets. The largest historical earthquake in Thailand was in the
Consequently, the movement along the NW- and NNE- Chaing Saen area in 460 A.D. (Nutalatya et al., 1985,
trending, conjugate strike-slip fault systems have changed Fenton et al., 2003), and the largest instrumentally
from left to right and right to left, respectively, in recorded earthquake in SE Asia occurred in 1941 in the
Miocene (Tapponier et al., 1986, Charusiri et al., 2002). It Andaman Sea. In addition, fifty historical quakes with
is inferred that the change in stress field of the region epicenters in the Yunan area (southern China) occurred
from transtension to transpression regimes have occurred between 1446 to 1909 A.D. (U.S. National Geophysical
as a result of the collision of Indo-Australia with SE Asia and Solar-Terrestrial Data Center, 1983).
(Charlton, 1986) which in turn caused the changes in
sedimentation regimes in most Tertiary basins from lake- Seismicity related to fault activity
dominated to coarse-clastic sediments (see also Knox and
Wakefield, 1983). The NW-trending Mae Ping (or Moei- Nutalaya et al. (1985) were the first to systematically
Uthai Thani) fault changed its sense of movement from identify the seismic-source zones in SE Asia and
left to light shortly after middle Miocene, as deduced characterize earthquake recurrence in Thailand. The zones
from the study of fault plane solution of a recent have recently been modified by Koesirikulkit (1992)
earthquake located approximately on the fault (Le Dain et integrating the geological setting, geological structure,
al., 1984, Nelson et al., 2004), from our field investigation tectonic setting and seismological information (Fig.. .4)
at Lansang, Tak (see also Hinthong, 1991) and from the According to Koesirikulkit (1992) and this paper, three
recent structural maps with satellite image interpretation significant seismic-source zones in Thailand may be
(Morley, 2004). Sinistral movement can also be clearly defined; zone L, central-western Thailand; zone G,
recognized along the NE-trending Ranong and Klong northern Thailand; and zone H, in the Sukhothai-Loei
Marui fault zones, which transect granitoid rocks at region. All these zones are significant and are closely
several places (Garson et al., 1975, Charusiri, 1989,
related to active tectonic structures. Fig. 5 illustrates these
Khantaprab et al., 1991).
three seismic-source zones and their associated major
faults and lineaments. Details of the three seismic-source
zone (L, H and G) are discussed below.
278
Seismic Subzone L The three seismic-source zone can be to exclude zone L from zone F. However the original zone
differentiated on the basis of distinct patterns of faults F described earlier by Nutalaya et al. (1985) includes zone
(Fig. 5). These faults are considered to be active during L into it.
Cenozoic time (Hinthong, (1991) In zone L, there are Mae Ping Fault: Two major earthquakes along the Mae
three large-scale strike-slip faults that probably control Ping Fault occurred on 23 September 1993 and 17
this seismic-source zone, namely the NW-trending Three- February 1975 (see Fig. 10). The 1993-earthquake was
pagoda Fault, NNW-trending Si Sawat Fault and NW- erroneously reported to be felt in Mae Sod District, Tak
trending Mae Ping (or Moei-uthai thani) Fault. According province. The duration of ground motion was about 1
to Nutalaya et al. (1985), these three fault zone extend minute. However, due to the fact that there are two
northwestward, to join and become part of the N-trending different locations of epicenters, we, therefore cannot
count it as earthquake event. The 1975-earthquake with
Taunggyi and NNW-trending Pan Luang Faults. However,
the magnitude of 5.6 Richter scale and the intensity of VI
our Landsat and SPOT interpretation clearly indicates that
Mercalli scale, took place in Tae Song Yang district, Tak
the strike-slip faults in zone L, eventhough extending their
province, was felt throughout central Thailand and caused
associated discontinuous branches into zone F miner damage. Bunopas (1976) and Nutalaya et al. (1985)
(Tenasserim Range), was cross cut by the "younger" N-
reveal that the fault has sinistral displacement.
trending, Taunggyi Fault. This leads Charusiri et al. (1991)
Figure 4. Major seismic-source zones in Mainland SE Asia (Charusiri et al., 1991).
279
However, as stated in the previous section, Poolachan and Klaipongpan et al., 1988) lead us to accept the high
Satayarak (1989) argue that these strike-slip faults are possibility of reservoir-induced seismicity (RIS)
dextral. In our opinion, the faults may have changes their phenomenon. The latest movement of the large-scale, right
sense of movement from sinistral to dextral immediately lateral, NW-trending Three Pagoda Fault is considered of
after the mid-Miocene. Of significance are the ages of Early Pleistocene (Klaipongpan et al., 1988) as determined
fault movements as determined by thermoluminescence by Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) dating. In addition, this
(TL) dating on the Mae Ping (or the Moei - Uthai Thani)
fault was also dated by thermoluminescence (TL) dating to
Fault Zone. Such TL age-data, especially from the faults
be older than 1 Ma (Chaturongkawanich, 1989 and Won-
in the vicinities of Ban Mae Salit-Mon Krathing and Ban
in, 1999). It is therefore emphasized that the NW-trending
Mae Ramat, indicate that their fault activities can be dated
sequentially as of 0.16, 0.21, 0.22, 0.37, 0.49 0.50, 0.58, Three-Pagoda Fault, which borders the southern part of
and 1.17 Ma (see also Hinthong et al., 1992). zone L and was once believed to account for earthquakes
Sri Sawat and Three Pagoda Faults: Three other (Nutalaya et al., 1985) is not considered presently active and
earthquakes have been recorded along the dextral Sri is not the fault controlling the focal mechanism of
Sawat and Three-Pagoda Faults in western Thailand. tremors near the Khao Leam reservoir. Rather, the activity
These two faults appear to control the Kwae Yai and is due to movement on smaller conjugate sets of faults as
Kwae Noi Rivers which flow SE towards the Gulf of a result of surface loading by the reservoir.
Thailand.. The frist earthquake occurring on 21 March in
the Klongdo district, Kanchanaburi province, at the Kwae Seismic Subzone G The two other distinctive subzones
Noi River. A newspaper reported at that time, ground of which zone can be recognized on the basis of recent
cracking and fountains of water being ejected from the seismicity with the magnitude ranging from 3 to 5 in
ground. Richter scale. These include zone G; Northern Thailand,
The second earthquake took place in April, 1983 at the and zone H; Sukhothat-Loei zone. The former is restricted
Srinagarind reservoir, Kanchanaburi, western Thailand. along the N-trending Mae Hong Son Fault and Thrust
Two tremors of magnitude of 5.6 and 5.8 in Richter scale (Charusiri, 1989) which aligns roughly parallel to the Mae
were recorded on 15 and 22 April 1983, respectively.. They Sariang-Mae Hong Son basin. Based on 40Ar/39Ar age
caused widespread panic and some damage to buildings data, Charusiri et al. (1992), proposed a mid-Miocene
in the city and nearby districts. Grounds cracks and displacement as a fault cuts of basaltic extrusion, which
landslides were also reported in Kanchanaburi area. occurred in Late Tertiary (Charusiri, 1989) and marks the
However, a 7 year investigation by Electricity Generating climax of the tectonic activity (Bunopas, 1981), indicates
Authority of Thailand (EGAT) using seismic geologic that the fault activity may be much younger.
parameters led Klaipongpun et al. (1988) to conclude that
the seismicity could be due to reservoir impoundment, Seismic Subzone H The other subzone (zone H; the
and the subsequent release of the pre-existing strain Sukhothai-Loei) is characterized by a series of NE-ENE-
energy. The E-trending surface rupture is considered the trending, sinistral faults, known as the northern Thailand
fault plane for the main shock and is modeled as a reverse faults (Polachan, 1989), which mark the zone boundary.
fault marking the southern end of the reactivated NW- The zone H is bounded in the north by the Mae Chan
trending fault. Fault, in the south by the Phrae Fault, and in the west by
the Mae Tha Fault. The latter is a N- to NNE-trending
A third earthquake event took place on 22 January 1985, at
arcuate west-dipping fault. Takashima and Maneenai
Khao Laem reservoir. This was followed by a magnitude
(1995) dated some fault-related materials by
3.9 earthquake on 11 July the same year. These two events
thermoluminescene (TL) and reported that fault
had the modified Mercalli intensity of V. Another long-
movements associated with the Mae Tha Fault took place
term investigation on earthquakes occurring at or near as early as > 1.43, 0.77 Ma and as late as 0.19, 0.31 and 0.40
Khao Laem reservoir was done by EGAT. Klaipongpan et
Ma. In addition, the Thoen, and the Li faults are also
al. (1988) and Hetrakul et al. (1988) based on the
included in this seismic-source zone. A study on the
epicentral trends and hypocentral distribution of
distribution of epicenters in the Chaing Mai area by
earthquakes. They interpreted the NE-trending nodal
EGAT (1989) discusses the occurrence of more than 70
planes as faults with sinistral displacement for most of the
microearthquakes scattered throughout the Chaing Mai
earthquake swarms. It was noted that these followed
basin to the west of the Mae Tha Fault.
reservoir impoundment. Our Landsat TM5, JERS, and Twenty microearthquakes ranging from magnitude (ML) 3
SPOT investigations around the reservoir strongly support to 4 were recorded in the Phrae basin during 1980-1983
the existence of an echelon discontinuous fracture system
(Fenton et al., 1997).. It is considered from our study based
in the NE-NNE direction. The results obtained from
upon epicental distribution, that the Mae Tha, the Chaing
several investigations (e.g., Hetrakul et al., 1988 and
Rai, and the other NE-trending large faults (e.g., Phrae and
280
Li faults) are still active.. This is also supported by an with the Phrae Fault, which was active during the
offset in Quaternary gravel beds exposed on the road cut Pleistocene. Our field investigations on minor NE-trending
of the Lampang - Den Chai Highway, possibly located faults, such as Kaeng Sua Ten reveal that they are mostly
along the Theon Fault (Hinthing, 1991). Additionally, active. Special attention needs to be paid on the hot-spring
several faults thought to be associated with the Thoen distribution (Ramingwong et al., 1980) and terrestial heat-
Fault (see Fig. 5) were dated, by Udchachon et al. (2005).. flow data (Thienprasert and Raksaskulwong, 1984). It is
These studies showed the faulting as early as 1 Ma and as worth noting that the locations of hot springs (Fig. 5) and
late as 20ka. This strongly supports the view that most of relatively high heat flow in this region (Fig. 6) are, to some
the activities on the Thoen Fault took place in the extent, associated with the NE- and NW-trending major
Pleistocene time. Only one TL date of 0.49 Ma has been fault zones
determined so far, and this is believed to be associated
Figure 5 Distribution of hotsprings, faults, and earthquakes in northern Thailand

and adjacent countries (modified from Ramingwong et al., 1980).
281
Figure 6 Contour map of terrestial heat-flow in northern and north-eastern Thailand
(1 ucal cm-2 5-1 = 41.9 mW/m2) (Thienprasert & Raksaskulwong, 1984).
Seismicity Related to Reservoir Gumbel’s Extreme Value Theory (Gumbel, 1967 and
Impoundment Table 1), asymptotic distribution, the maximum amplitude
of earthquake-induced ground motion, and maximum
velocity in base rocks (Table 2). The map includes
Seismic records and reservoirs From the geological and seismological data from the years 1901 to 1977 with
seismological information discussed above and from the assumed magnitude from 4 to 6 and focal depth of 20 km.
map in Fig. 7, it is inferred that Thailand, with the According to this map (Fig. 8) six seismic-risk zones
exception of the northern part of the country, is located in were recognized ranging from first-degree (greatest risk)
the stable and aseismic zone of the Indochina peninsula. to fifth-degree zones (least danger), the sixth being an
Japan International Cooperation Agency or JICA (1989) area with no seismic risk. Northern and western Thailand
made a detailed study on seismicity and proposed a fall into the fourth-and fifth-degree seismic zones
seismic-risk map of Thailand (Fig. 8) based upon
282
showing that seismic activity in Thailand is remarkably significant and caused some damages. Fig. 10 illustrates
low compared with adjoining regions such as Myanmar, the epicentral distribution of earthquakes and the
southern China, and Andaman Sea. locations of fracture systems. It reveals that most of the
earthquakes felt had epicenters in Myanmar and the
Andaman Sea and that several events on land may have
occurred as a result of active-fault movement in the 500
km radius region. Our detailed analyses discussed above
shows that the Mae Ping fault does not appear to
contribute to the seismicity of the area, although it is
believed the fault is still active. According to available
seismic data, only three medium-size earthquakes, with
magnitudes of 3 to 5, were recorded during 1975-1984 in
the vicinity of the area, indicating a low probability of
earthquake recurrence.
Figure 7. Distribution of aseismic areas in South and East

Asia (modified after JICA, 1989).
Fig. 9. Index map showing epicentral distribution in Thailand

and adjacent areas
(modified after Prachaub. 1990).
Future reservoirs Maximum acceleration

experienced during 1959 to 1987, as determined by JICA
(1989), using four different models and equations (Table
1) together with earthquake magnitude and hypocentral
distance data, shows that only the 1975 magnitude 5.6
earthquake, recorded with an epicentral displace of 19 km
and with a depth of 6 km, is important. Table 2 shows the
maximum acceleration excepted at the Nam Yuam area,
Mae Hong Son for 4 return periods (i.e., 50, 100, 200,
500 years) as reported by JICA (1989) using various
F g. 8. Seismic zoning map for Thailand and the adjacent
region based upon Vmax value (JICA, 1989)
equations. The results from these as can de seen are
(Notes: A = 1st degree, B = 2nd degree, C = 3rd degree, relatively similar. The average value is nearly the same as
D = 4th degree, E = 5th degree, and F = no degree). the 1975 earthquake suggesting that if a similar size
earthquake occurred in the future, it would not create a
As shown in Fig. 9, earthquakes of magnitudes 3 to 6 in serious problem.
Richter scale have been recorded by JICA during the The damsite proposed by EGAT and located in the Nam
period from 1900-1991 in Thailand. Also several Yuan area on the Mae Ping Fault, which is regarded as a
historical earthquakes and tremors, with epicenters near weak zone, could possibly result in a release of local
Thailand, have been felt and caused damage. One stress at a future time. The impoundment of the reservoir
earthquake (with ML close to 6) in Kanchanaburi is water may trigger microseismic activity in the area as in
the case of the Srinagaring and Khao Laem Dams. The
283
reservoir-triggered seismicity (RTS, or reservoir-induced provide information from far-field earthquakes which
seismicity - RIS) is inferred herein to be the result of the could contribute to damage at the damsite.
combined effect of several geological and hydrological
factors. The crust beneath the study area must be Table 1 Maximum annual acceleration of the Nam Yuam
fractured resulting from the relaxation of plate area, Mae Hong Son Province during from 1959 to 1987.
adjustments after continental collision. Such crust within
the hydrological regime of the reservoir must be stressed Year Eq. (1) Eq. (2) Eq. (3) Eq. (4)
sufficiently prior to water impoundment. A gradual 1959 0.22 3.53 0.30 0.99
increase in stress, due to reservoir loading plus changes in 1960 0.19 3.32 0.28 0.95
effective stress appears to be sufficient to trigger the 1961 0.27 3.97 0.35 1.11
release of energy along pre-existing planes of weakness; 1962 0.40 5.43 0.52 1.78
the NE-trending dextral faults in this case. We, therefore, 1963 0.22 3.62 0.31 1.06
strongly believe that the local microseismic activity 1964 0.58 6.98 0.71 2.45
occurring in the Khao Laem and Srinakarin regions in 1965 0.77 7.44 0.80 2.29
Kanchanaburi resulted directly from the effects of RIS. 1966 0.93 8.31 0.93 2.58
1967 0.44 5.32 0.51 1.55
1968 0.50 5.29 0.52 1.39
1969 0.44 4.95 0.48 1.30
1970 0.55 7.52 0.77 1.30
1971 0.72 6.64 0.69 2.00
1972 0.72 7.12 0.75 2.17
1973 0.46 6.04 0.59 2.07
1974 0.45 5.09 0.49 1.36
1975 53.77 120.67 80.38 67.52
1976 0.67 6.34 0.67 1.71
1977 0.53 5.53 0.55 1.47
1978 1.38 11.02 1.35 3.78
1979 0.90 8.42 0.93 2.75
1980 0.57 6.21 8.63 1.86
1981 0.47 4.86 0.48 1.18
1982 0.67 6.13 0.65 1.57
1983 2.24 13.86 1.99 4.48
1984 0.59 6.09 0.62 1.92
1985 2.75 14.74 2.41 4.36
1986 0.56 5.86 0.59 1.63
1987 0.42 4.86 0.47 1.32
N.B.
Eq.1 Olivera ‘s equation: Log A = 3.090+ 0.347M-2Log
(R+25);
Eq.2 McGuire ‘s equation: Log A = 2.674+ 0.278M – 1.301 Log
Figure 10. Epicentral distribution of main earthquake events (R+25);
and major fracture zones about 500 km radius around the Eq.3 Esteva and Rosenbluthe ‘s equation: Log A = 2.041+
1975-earthquake Nam Yuam raea, Mae Hong Son. 0.347M – 1.6 Log R; and
Eq.4 Katayama ‘s equation: Log A = 2.308 + 0.411 M – 1.637
Log (R+30).
It should be pointed out that the maximum RIS at Khao
Where A= peak ground acceleration (gal), M= earthquake
Laem and Srinakarin dams occurred within the first five magnitude (Richter scale),
to six years after impoundment and the maximum and R = hypocentral distance (km).
earthquake magnitude did not exceed 6. Since several
dams prepared by EGAT are, to some extent, situated Table 2 Maximum Acceleration of Earthquakes Expected at
directly on faults or weak planes, a concrete-faced rockfill the Nam Yuam Damsite for 4 Return Periods (gal)
dam is recommended as the best type because of this
designs inherent high resistance to seismic loading. It is Return Period (Year)
also recommended, owing to the changes in water levels Attenuation Model 50 100 200 300
which may cause periods of increased seismicity, that a (1) Oliveira’s 56.0 57.2 57.8 58.0
seismic monitoring network be installed around the (2) McGuire’s 123.2 124.4 124.8 125.1
impoundment to detect any reservoir induced seismicity. (3) Esteva & 82.5 83.4 83.7 83.8
This can be expected to continue for several years after Rosenbluthe’s
impoundment. This proposed network is also essential to (4) Katayama’s 69.3 70.1 70.4 70.5
284
CONCLUSION Braun, E. Von, Besang, C., Eberle, W., Harre, W., Krenzer, H.,
Lenz, H., Muller, P., and Wendt, I., 1976. Radiometric age
determinations of granites in northern Thailand:
Our conclusions, reached on the bases of the above- Geologischen Jahrbuch, B 2, p.171-204.
mentioned geological and seismological information, are Bunopas, S. 1976. Geology and Mineral Resources of
below. Pittsanulok Quadrangle: Royal Thai Department of Mineral
(1) Two major types of earthquake activities exist in Resources, Report of investigation no.16, 217 p.
Thailand - one as a result of stress release resulting Bunopas, S. 1981. Paleogeographic History of Western Thailand
movement along the fault planes, and the other is and Adjacent Parts of Southeast Asia; A Plate Tectonics
triggered by the impoundment of reservoir water. Interpretation; Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Victoris
(2) Several small- to medium-scale earthquake events University of Wellington, New Zealand, 810 p. reprinted
taking places after 1980 in Thailand are considered to be 1982, Geological Survey Paper, no.5, Geological Survey
Division, Royal Thai Department of Mineral Resources,
caused by reservoir induced seismicity rather than fault
Bongkok.
movement. Bunopas, S. and Vella, P. 1983. Tectonic and geologic evolution
(3) Natural earthquake occurrences are generally of Thailand: In Proceedings of the Workshop on
associated with the major dextral strike-slip faults serving Stratigraphic Correlation of Thailand and Malaysia, Haad
as planes of weakness of the crust. Yai, Thailand, September 1983, p.307-37-27.
(4) The occurrences of major faults clearly define three Chalton, T. R. 1986. A plate tectonic model of the eastern
new significant seismic-source zones in Thailand. These Indonesia collision zone. Nature. v.319, p. 394-396.
are located in the northern and central parts of the Chamot-Rooke, N., Le Pichon, X., Rangin, C., Huchon, P.,
country. Pubellier, M., Vigny, C., and Walpersdorf, A. 1999.
Sundaland motion in the global reference framedetected
(5) The major faults are considered to be caused by the
from GEODYSSEA GPS measuremens: Implications for
Western Burma and Shan-Thai micro-continental relative motion at the boundaries with the Australo – Indian
collision, forming the southernmost part of the Eurasian plates and the South China block. In P. Wilson, G. W.
plate. Michel (eds.) The Geodyanamic of S and SE Asia
(6) Present-day tectonic activities of Thailand and SE (GEODYSSEA) Project, Final report of the GEODYSSEA
Asia are governed by the interaction of the Western project to the EC, GeoForchungsZentrum, Postdam,
Pacific, Eurasian and Indo-Australian plates. Germany, p. 39-74.
(7) Major earthquakes, with epicenters located in the Charusiri, P. 1989. Lithophile Mettallogenic Epochs of
Andnman Sea, have been caused by the east-dipping Thailand: A Geological and Geochronological
Investigation: Unpublished PH.D Thesis, Queen’s
Indo-Australian plate sudducting beneath the Eurasian
University, Kingston, Ontaric, Canada, 819 pp.
plate and occur more frequent than land earthquakes Charusiri, P., Pongsapich, W. and Khantaprab, C. 1991a.
which have been produced by intra-plate strike slip Granite Belts in Thailand: New evidences from 40Ar/39Ar
movement. dating. Mineral Resources Gazettes. v. 36, no.1, p.43-62 (in
Thai)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Charusiri, P., Clark, A. H. and Farrar. E. 1991b.
Geochronological and fluid inclusion studies of the tin and
tungsten mineralization of the Mae Lama-Tae Song Yang
The project research is financially supported by the
area, northern Thailand. In Proceedings of the Annual
National Research Council of Thailand and Thailand Technical Meeting 1989 and IGCP 246, Department of
Research Fund (TRF.) through P. Charusiri. Thanks go to Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Thailand,
the Department of Geology, Chulalongkorn University for Feb. 1989, Special Pub. No.9, p.7-16.
logistic support. We would like to express our sincere Charusiri, P., Clark, A. H. and Farrar, E. 1991c. Miocene
gratitude to Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (Oligocene) events in Thailand: Evidences from 40Ar/39Ar
(EGAT) and Department of Mineral Resources (DMR). and K-Ar geochronology. In Proceedings of the Annual
Our high appreciation and acknowledgement go to Technical Meeting 1989 and IGCP 246, Department of
Professor I. Takashima, Akita University, Japan, for Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Thailand,
providing valuable TL age instrument and data. R.H. Feb. 1989, Special Pub. No.9, p.17-26.
Charusiri, P., Daorerk, V., Archibald, D., Hisada, K., and
Findley is thanked for reviewing this manuscript. We are
Ampaiwan, T., 2002. Geotectonic Evolution of Thailand: A
also indebted to K. Kaovisate for manuscript preparation. New Synthesis. Journal of the Geological Society of
Thailand, No. 1, 1-20.
REFERENCES Chaturongkavanich, S. 1989. Report on the training course of
TL dating method in Japan. In An Open File Report of the
Achache, J. and Courtillot, V., 1985. A preliminary upper Geological Survey Division. Department of Mineral
Triassic paleomagnetic pole for the Khorat Plateau Resources, Bangkok, Thailand, 14 p. (in Thai).
(Thailand); Consequences for the accretion of Indochina Curray, J. R., 2005. Tectnics and history of the Andaman Sea
against Eurasia: Earth & Planetary Science Letters, v.73, region. Journal of Asian earth sciences, 25, 187 – 232.
p.147-157. CCOP-IOC. 1974. Metallogenesis, Hydrocarbons and tectonic
Barr, S. M. and Macdonal, A. S. 1987. Nan river suture zone, patterns in Eastern Asia: United Nation Development
northern Thailand, Geology, v. 5, p.987-990. Programme (CCOP), Bangkok, 158 p.
285
Fairbridge, R. W. 1981. The concept of neotectonic - An Le Dain, A.Y., Tapponior, P., and Molnar, P. 1984. Active
introduction. Z. Geomorph, N.E., suppl. –Bd 40, Berlin, faulting and tectonics of Burma and surrounding region:
December 1991, p.VII-XI. Journal Geophysical Research, v. 89, p. 453-472.
Fenton, C. H, Charusiri, P., Hinthong, C., LumJuan, A., Mitchell, A. H. G. 1981. Phanerozoic plate boundaries in
Mangkornkarn, B., 1997. Late Quaternary faulting in mainland SE Asia, the Himalayas and Tibet: Journal
northern Thailand. Proceedings of the International Geological Society of London, v. 16, p. 323-334.
Conference on Stratigraphy and Tectonic evolution of Mitchell, A. H. G. 1985. Collision - related fore - arc and back-
Southeast Asia and the south Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, arc evolution of the northern Sunda arc. Tectonopgysics. V.
p. 436 - 452 16, p.323-334.
Fenton,C. K., Charusiri, P., and Wood, S. H, 2003.Recent Morley, C. K., 2004. Nested strike – slip duplexes, and other
paleoseismic investigations in Northern Thailand. Annuals evidence for Late cretaceous – Paleogene transpressional
Geophysics, 46, 957-981. tectonics before and during India – Eurasia collision, in
Garson, M.S., Young, B., Mitchell, A. H. G. and Tait, B. A. R. Thailand, Myanmar and Malaysia. Journal of the
1975. The Geolgy of the Tin Belt in Peninsular Thailand Geological Society of London, 161, 799 – 812.
around Phuket, Phang Nga and Takua Pa; Institute of Nelson, C., Chamote – Rooke, Rangin, C., and the Andaman
Geological Sciences, Overseas Memoir no. 1, 112p. Cruise Team, 2004. from partial to full strain partitioning
Helmcke, D. 1985. The Permo-Triassic “Paleotethys” in along the Indo-Burmese hyper-oblique subduction. Marine
mainland Southeast Asia and adjacent parts of China: Geology, 209, 303 – 327.
Geologische Rundschau, v.74, p.318-328. Nutalaya. P., Sodsri, S. and Arnold, E. P. 1985. Series on
Hetrakul, N., Sittipod, R., Tanittiraporn, B., and Vivattananon, Seismology Volume TT-Thailand: Southeast Asia
P. 1988. Post evaluation on Reservoir Triggered Seismicity Association of Seismology and Earthquakes Engineering,
of Khao Laem Dam. 403 p.
Hinthong, C. 1991. Role of Tectonic Setting in Earthquake Nuttee, R., Charusiri, P., Takashima, I., and Kosuwan, S., 2005.
Events in Thailand: A paper presented at the Asean-EC Paleo-earthquakes along the southern segment of the Sri
Workshop on Geology and Geophysics Jakarta, Indonesia, Sawat fault, Kanchanaburi, Wesdtern Thailand:
7-11 October Morphotectonic and Tl dating evidence. In Proceedings of
Hinthong, C., Siribhakdi, K., Klaipongpan, S., and Chittrakarn, the Internartional Symposium on geology, Geotechology,
P. 1992. Study on Geology, Earthquake, and Mineral and Mineral resources of Indochina (GEOINDO 2005), 28-
Resource of the Nam Yuam River Basin Project: A Report 30 November 2005, Kon Khaen, Thailand,542-554.
Prepared on Behalf of the EGAT-DMR Joint Research Poolachan, S. 1988. Summary of the structural evolution of the
Program under the work Plan No. 6 of the National Mergui Basin, S,E. Andaman Sea and the development of
Committee on Earthquake of Thailand (in press). Tertiary basins in Thailand: Newsletter, Chiangmai
Huang, J. 1984. New Researches on the tectonic characteristics Univeraity, 1 p (unpublished).
of China: in Yanshin. A. L. (ed.), Tectonics of Asia, Poolachan, S. and Satayarak, N. 1989. Strike-slip tectonics and
collouquium 05; International Geological Congress, 27th, the development of Tertiary basins in Thailand. In
Moscow, Reports, v.5, p.13-28. Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Hutchison, C., 1983. Multiple Mesozoic Sn-W-Sb granitoids of Intermontane Basin: Geology and Resources, Chiang Mai,
SE Asia: in Roddict, J.A. (ed.), Circum Pacific Plutonic Thailand, 30 Jan-2 Feb 1989, p.243-253.
Terranes: Geological Survey of America Memor 159, p.35- Piyasin, S. 1991. Tectonic events and radiometric dating of the
60. basement rocks of Phisanulok basin: Journal of Thai
JICA. 1989. Feasibility Study on Nam Yuam River Basin Geoscience, v. 1, no. 1, P. 41-48.
Integrated Hydroelectric Development Project: An Prachaub, S. 1990. Seismic data and building code in Thailand:
unpublished report submitted to the Electricity Generating Technical Document No.550. 341-01-1991, Thai
Authority of Thailand, Kingdom of Thailand by Japan Meteorological Department, 34 p (in Thai).
Internation Cooperation Agency. Ramingwong, T., Ratanasathien, B., Wattananikan, K.,
Khantaprab, C. and 12 Colleagues. 1990. Geological Tantisukrit, C., Lerdthusnee, S., Thanasuthipitak, T., and
Accessment on the Potential of Rare-earth–bearing Mineral Pitragoul, S. 1980: Geothermal resources of northern
Resource in Thailand: First Progress Report submitted to Thailand: San Kamphaeng, Fang, and Mae Chan
the Office of the National Research Concil, Bangkok, 71 p. Geothermal System: A Final Report submitted to the
(in Thai). Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand, 244 p.
Klaipongpan, S. 1986. Khao Leam – A dam on fault: in the 3rd Reading, H. G. 1980. Characteristics and recognition of strike-
International Symposium and Workphop on Regional slip fault system, spec. publ. Ass. Sediment, v. 4, p. 7-26.
Crustal Stability and Geological Hazards, IGCP Project Searle, M. P., Windley, B. F., Coward. M. P., Copper. D. J. W.,
250, Kanchanaburi, Thailand, December 6-13, 1988. Rex, A. J., Tingdong, L., Xuchang, X., Jan, M. Q., Thakur,
Klaipongpan, S. Pinrode, J., Chakramanont, V., and Chittrakarn, V. C. and Kamer, S. 1987. The closing of Tethys and the
P. 1988: Geological and Seismicity Evaluation of tectonics of Himalaya. Geological Society of America
Srinagarin Dam, (unpublished), Electricity Generating Bulletin, v. 98, p. 678-701.
Authority of Thailand report, Nonthaburi, 26 p. Siribhakdi, K. 1986. Seismogenic of Thailand and periphery.
Knox, G. J. and Wakefield, L. L. 1983. An introduction to the In Panitan Lukunaprasit et al. (eds.), Proceeding of the 1st
geology of the Phitsanulok basin: In Proceedings of the Workshop on Earthquake Engineering and Hazard
International Conference on the Geology and Mineral Mitigation, Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University.
Resources of Thailand, Bangkok, 19-28 November 1983, 9 November 1986, p.151-158.
p.
Koesirikulkit, N. 1992. The Proposed Seismic-Source Zones in
Thailand. Senior Project, B. Sc. Degree, Department of
Geology, Chulalongkorn University, Vol. I and II, 510 p.
286
Suensilpong, S., Putthapiban, P., and Mantajit, N. 1981. Some U.S. National Geophysical and Solar -Terrestial Data Center.
aspects of tin Granites and its relationship to tectonic 1983. Earthquake Data File: A computer printed output, 23
setting: Geological Society of America Bulletin, Special p.
volume 1981, 9 p. Uttamo, W., Elders, C. F., Nicols, G. J., 2003. Relationship
Takashima, I. and Maneenai., W., 1995. Result of analyses of between Cenozoic strike – slip faulting and basin opening
TL dating of some faults from Thailand: Preliminary TL in northern Thailand. In: Storti, F., Holdsworth, R. E., and
age date from fault samples of Thailand: Preliminary data Salvini, F. (eds). Intraplate strike - slip deformation belts.
personally conveyed to DMR staff, Nov. 1991. Special Publication of the Geological Society of London
Tapponier, P., Peltzer, G. and Armijo, R. 1988. On the mechanics 210, 89 – 108.
of the collision between India and Asia: In M. P. Coward Vigny, C., Souquet, A., Rangkin, C., Chamot-Rookie, N.,
and A. C. Ries (eds.), Collision Tectonics: Geological Pubellier, M., Bouin, M. N., Bertrand, G., and Becker, M.,
Society of America Bulletin, Special Publication, No. 19, 2003. Present-day crustal deformation around Sagaing
p. 115-157. Fault, Myanmar, Journal of Geophysical research, 108,
Thienpraset, W. ans Raksaskulwong, M. 1984. Heat flow in doi:10.1029/2002JB001999.
Vigny, C., Simons, W.J.F., Abu, S., Bamphenyu, R., Satirapod,
northern Thailand: Tectonophysics, v. 103, p. 115-157.
C., Choosakul, N., Subarya, C., Socquet, A., Omar, K.,
Udchachon, M., Charusiri., P., Daorerk, V., Won- in, K., and Abidin, H. Z., and Ambrosius, B. a. C., 2005.Insight into
Takashima., I., 2005. Paleoseismic studies along the the 2004 Sumatra – Andaman earthquake from GPS
southeastern portion of the Phrae Basin, northern Thailand. measurement in southeast Asia. Nature 436, 201 – 206.
In Proceedings of the Internartional Symposium on Won-in, K. 2000. Neotectonic evidence along the Three Pagoda
Geology, Geotechology, and Mineral resources of Fault Zone, Changwat Kanchanaburi. M. Sc. Thesis,
Indochina (GEOINDO 2005), 28-30 November 2005, Kon Department of Geology, Chulalongkorn University.
Khaen, Thailand,511-519.
287
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MAHASARAKHAM FORMATION AND

HIGH TERRACE GRAVELS ALONG THE KHON KAEN-KALASIN
PROVINCES
Manop Raksaskulwong and Denckok Monjai
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok 10400, Thailand, E-mail : manop@dmr.go.th
ABSTRACT
The non-marine sedimentary rock in the studied area along the Khon Kaen – Kalasin Provinces, northeastern Thailand,
comprises seven rock formations in ascending order. The Phra Wihan Formation composes of yellowish-white quartzitic
sandstone, siltstones and conglomerates of thickness ranges 150-170 m aged Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous. The
Sao Khua Formation composes of various cycles of reddish brown and maroon mudstones, siltstones, fine-coarse
grained sandstones and conglomerates with thickness ranges 280-420 m aged Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous. The
Phu Phan Formation comprises pale gray, yellowish-white conglomerates, conglomeratic sandstones and coarse grained
sandstones with thickness ranges 120-150 m. aged Lower Cretaceous. The Khok Kruat Formation composes of reddish
brown and maroon sandstones, siltstones, mudstones and conglomerates with thickness ranges >100-350 m. aged Lower
Cretaceous. The Maha Sarakham Formation composes of five cycles of depositions in descending order, upper rock salt-
middle mudstone-middle rock salt-lower mudstone-lower rock salt, thickness ranges 610-1,000 m aged Lower Upper
Cretaceous. The Phu Thok Formation composes of sandstones, siltstones and mudstone, orangish to reddish brown,
chocolate with thickness ranges 100-475 m aged Upper Cretaceous to Lower Tertiary. Rock contact of the seven rock
formations is conformably underlain and overlain except the Khok Kruat is unconformably underlain the Maha
Sarakham Formation.
Quaternary stratigraphy sequences of the Khorat basin from older to younger unit begin with residual deposit composed
of sands and clayey sands. Terrace deposits are divided into high and low terraces. Debris flood origin of proto Phong
and proto Chi rivers are presumed to be location of the high terrace gravels where a great variety of pebbles are found.
There are tektites and petrified wood deposited in the high terrace gravels and dating yielded 700,000 to 900,000 yr.B.P.
Loess situates on top of the high terrace gravels where dating gave an age between 8,190 yr.B.P.at Khon Kaen and 6,620
yr. B.P.at Udon Thani provinces. Sediments in the low terraces are gravel sets in sand and silt matrix, with hard pan
layer of laterite on the upper part. Holocene deposits are organic clays in swampy area during 5,400-5,200 yr.B.P.
The high terrace gravels occur in a discontinuous series of low-elongate high terrace towards the north and northwest of
the Phong and Chi rivers at elevations vary between 210 m from west to 150 m to east. Thickness of the high terrace
gravels yields between 40-60 m. The gravels are hypothesized to be contacted between the Maha Sarakham and the Khok
Kruat Formations. Towards southern direction of present Phong and Chi rivers flow along low terrace and alluvial flat
plain, is believed to be contacted between the Maha Sarakham and Phu Thok Formations.
Key words: northeastern Thailand, Khorat basin, Maha Sarakham Formation, high terrace gravels
INTRODUCTION Suwanich (1986) divided the Maha Sarakham Formation

sequence in ascending order : (1) Lower rock salts (2)
Mesozoic rocks in Thailand comprise marine and non- Lower mudstones (3) Middle rock salts (4) middle
marine deposits. The non-marine Mesozoic rocks are mudstones (5) upper rock salt (6) upper sedimentary rock
widespread exposed in northeastern Thailand or in the and indicated that potash can be found only in the lower
Khorat plateau area. The rocks are grouped as the Khorat rock salt layer.
Group and composed of nine formations. Cooper et al., (1989) reported that the Khorat basin began
Ward, Bunnag (1964) studied red beds along 5 locations during Late Triassic after extension release of the
in the Khorat Plateau and named these rocks as the Khorat Indosinian Orogeny. Sediments were deposited during
Group. The Khorat Group is divided into 7 formations in late Triassic – Late Cretaceous followed by Himalayan
ascending age : the Nam Phong, Phu Kradung, Phra Orogeny in Early Tertiary caused uplifted of the Khorat
Wihan, Sao Khua, Phu Phan, and un-named rock. Garder Plateu and Phu Phan uplift.
et al. (1967) studied lithologic cuttings from ground water Sattayarak and Polachan (1990) propose tectonic of the
wells at the Maha Sarakham province and surroundings Maha Sarakham Formation in the Khorat basin, at western
then named rock salt layers as the Maha Sarakham edge is gradually uplifted and sea water is intruded from
Formation. Suwanich, Ratanajaruraks (1982) and the east into the Khorat basin during Cretaceous. The
Maha Sarakham is deposited until Late Cretaceous. Sea
288
water is regressed then the Phu Thok Formation is then the geologic map bounded between 102° 30′ - 103°
deposited. The northeastern Thailand is uplifted during 45′ E and 16° 00′ - 16° 50′ N, taken from geologic map
Early Tertiary to form the Khorat Plateau and Phu Phan scale 1:1,000,000 is illustrated (Fig. 1, DMR, 1999). The
ranges. Mouret et al. (1993) point out that uplift period of rocks range between the Nam Phong to Phu Thok
the Khorat Plateau ranged 96-46 ma. by using Apatite Formations to high terrace gravels and to alluvial
Fission Track analysis and predict that erosion after uplift sediments. The Nam Phong and Phu Kradung Formations
until present is between 3,000-3,500 m from original are not exposed in the study area then the formation
thickness. thickness is taken elsewhere in northeastern Thailand
Salyapongse et al. (1994) studied tektites in high terrace while thickness for the rest of the rocks is taken from
gravels and depicted age as 760,000 ma. Montreal (1996) drilled wells.
studied petrified wood in the high terrace gravels and The Nam Phong Formation comprises reddish brown
summarized that deposited environment of the terraces siltstones, sandstones and claystones, where thickness is
changed between arid and raining period. varied from 100-1,500 m (Meesook, et al., 2002). Age is
Boonsener (2002) divided Quaternary sediments in the given, stratigraphically conformably overlain on the Huai
Khon Kaen province into 9 units (1) Mahasarakham Shale Hin Lat Formation and faunal assemblages, as Rhaetian
(2) Weathered Mahasarakham Clay (3) Bedded Iron (Uppermost Triassic). The rock formation is believed to
Oxides and Limonitic Mottled Clay (4) Gravel Bed (5) be deposited in an alluvial fan and then changed to
Laterites (6) Red/Yellow Loessial Soil (7) Alluvium (8) meandering river systems having channel and floodplain
Lake Deposit and (9) Wind Blown Sand Deposit. deposits in semi-arid paleoclimate. The Phu Kradung
This paper is aimed to briefly summarize on rocks of the Formation consists of maroon siltstones, claystones,
Khorat Group and depositional environments. Evolution sandstones and conglomerates, where thickness ranges
of Phu Phan uplift caused erosion of the Khok Kruat, 800-1,200 m Calcrete nodules, caliches and nodular
Maha Sarakham and Phu Thok Formations is discussed. silcretes are found on top of the claystones. Age is given,
The debris flood sediments of high terrace gravels deposit stratigraphically conformably overlain on the Nam Phong
as seen in present day and Quaternary sediments along the Formation and fossils, as Middle-Upper Jurassic. The
present Phong and Chi rivers are hypothesized as rock formation is interpreted to be deposited by
dissolution of the Maha Sarakham Formation. meandering river with high energy level along paleo-
channels followed by deposition in floodplains, ponds and
GEOLOGY lakes in semi-arid paleoclimate (Meesook, 2000).
Study Area Geology of the Study Area
Study area covers seven geographical map sheets scale Rock types and stratigraphic thickness of the Phra Wihan
1:50,000 : sheet 5541 I, 5541 II, 5641 I, 5641 III, 5641 IV, Formation until Phu Thok Formation are demonstrated on
5642 I, 5642 II, bound between latitude 16° 00′- 17° 00′ table 1. The Phra Wihan Formation composes of
and longitude 102° 45′- lat 103° 30′ with total area of yellowish white, fine to coarse grained, well sorted and
5,188 sq.km (Fig. 1). Topography of eighty five percent well rounded quartzitic sandstone, siltstones and
of the area is undulating and flat plain, elevation ranges conglomerates while thickness ranges 150-170 m Age is
135 – 210 m above sea level. Topography of the other given, stratigraphically conformably overlain on the Phu
area located in northern part of the study area is Kradung Formation and fossil assemblages, as Upper
intermontane and hilly where the highest peak is 369 m Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous. The rock formation is
above sea level. interpreted to be deposited by braided and occasional
meandering rivers in slightly humid condition (Meesook,
General Geology 2000).
The Sao Khua Formation composes of various cycles of
The non-marine sedimentary rock in Thailand is wide reddish brown and maroon mudstones, siltstones, fine-
spread exposed in northeastern Thailand. The rock is coarse grained sandstones and conglomerates with
grouped as the Khorat Group and composed of 9 thickness ranges 280-420 m Caliches, calcrete nodules,
formations namely in ascending order, the Huai Hin Lat, thin-bedded and nodular silcretes are always exposed
Nam Phong, Phu Kradung, Phra Wihan, Sao Khua, Phu and/or occurred in the formation. Generally, the formation
Phan, Khok Kruat, Maha Sarakham and Phu Thok has more reddish brown and conspicuous calcrete horizon
Formations. Age of the Khorat Group is biostratigraphical than those of the Phu Kradung and Khok Kruat
using vertebrates (Buffetaut et al., 1997) bivalves Formations. Age is given, stratigraphically conformably
(Meesook, et al., 1995) and palynomorphs (Racey et al., overlain on the Phra Wihan Formation and fossil
1994, 1996) ranged between Upper Triassic to assemblages, as Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous. The
Cretaceous-Tertiary. rock formation is interpreted to be deposited by
Geology of the study area does not cover every high meandering rivers in semi-arid paleoclimate (Meesook,
terrace gravels along the Khon Kaen - Kalasin provinces, 2000).
289
Figure 1 Geologic map demonstrates quaternary sediments and the Maha Sarakham-Khok Kruat Formations
exposed between the Khon Kaen - Kalasin provinces, modified from DMR (1999).
The Phu Phan Formation comprises pale gray, yellowish- occasional meandering rivers of higher energy in slightly
white, thick-bedded, plannar and trough cross bedding, humid to semi-arid paleoclimate (Meesook, 2000).
moderated to well rounded, poor sorted of conglomerates, The Khok Kruat Formation composes of reddish brown
conglomeratic sandstones and coarse grained sandstones and maroon sandstones, siltstones, mudstones and
with thickness ranges 120-150 m. Quartz is mainly conglomerates with thickness ranges >100-350 m.
mineral compositions in sandstone while conglomerate Caliches and calcrete are exposed on top of conglomerates
pebbles consist of quartz, igneous rocks, various color and mudstones. Age is given, stratigraphically
chert and jasper. Age is given, stratigraphically unconformably underlain the Maha Sarakham Formation
conformably underlain the Khok Kruat Formation and (Sattayarak et al., 1991) and vertebrate fossils, as Abtain
fossil assemblages, as Lower Cretaceous. The rock to Albian (Lower Cretaceous, Capetta, et al., 1990). The
formation is interpreted to be deposited by braided and rock formation deposited by meandering river system in
semi-arid to arid (Meesook, 2000).
290
The Maha Sarakham Formation composes of five cycles Quaternary is a period of Cenozoic Era, begins at 1.8
of depositions in descending order, upper rocksalt-middle m.yr.B.P. to 10,000 yr.B.P., and Holocene epoch from
mudstone-middle rock salt-lower mudstone-lower rock 10,000 yr.B.P. to present. Quaternary stratigraphy
salt (table 1). Mudstones are reddish brown color and the sequences of the Khorat basin from older to younger unit
Maha Sakham thickness ranges 610-1,000 m. Age is begin with residual deposit composed of sands and
given, stratigraphically conformably underlain on the Phu clayey sands which are product of weathered
Thok Formation and palynomorphs, as Cenomanian conglomerates to mudstones of the Khorat Group. Terrace
(Lower Upper Cretaceous, Sattayarak et al., 1991). The deposits are divided into high and low terraces. High
rock formation is interpreted to be deposited by saline terrace gravels comprise a great variety of rocks e.g.
water in lakes and ponds in arid paleoclimate (Meesook, quartz, banded chert, flint, andesites, rhyolites, hornfel,
2000). quartzite, limestones and petrified wood and tekkite are
The Phu Thok Formation composes of three cycles of also found in this sequence. Montreal (1996) studied high
depositions in descending order, Phu Thok Noi member- terrace gravels in northeastern Thailand and denoted that
Kham Ta Kla member-Na Wah member (table 1). Rocks debris flood origin of the proto Phong and the proto Chi
are sandstones, siltstones and mudstone, orangish to rivers brought a great deal amount of sediments to deposit
reddish brown, chocolate, various sizes of cross bedding, along and nearby water channels. Wongsomsak (1987)
moderate to well sorted, thick bedded and lamination, studied Quaternary stratigraphy in the Buri Ram province,
bioturbation and thickness ranges 100-475 m. Age is southeast of the study area and pointed out that one of the
given on basis of stratigraphy as Upper Cretaceous to inferred loess sediments major compositions are 10-15%
Lower Tertiary. The rock formation is interpreted to be clay content with low levels of montmorillonite but
deposited by both occasional meandering rivers and winds significant amount of kaolinite. Loess dating of two
in semi-arid to arid paleoclimate (Meesook, 2000).
Table 1 Lithostratigraphy and thickness of rock formations taken from drilled wells located in the study area,
modified from Suwanich (1986) and department of ground water resources.
Formation Member Thickness(m) Lithostatigraphy Description

Qa - 4-40 Alluvium, gravel, sand, silts and clay
Loess-like sediments, clays to fine sands, reddish
Qt Qt2 2-10 colour
Terraces, pebbles, gravels of quartz, chert, andesite,
Qt1 2-40 sandstone etc. and sands
unconformity
Phu Thok Sandstone : Orangish brown, fine-medium grained,
?
Noi thick bed, well sorted, mega cross bedding
Mudstone, siltstone : maroon, bioturbation perceive,
Kham Ta
Phu Thok >20-310 Sandstone : fine-medium grained, orangish brown,
kla
reddish brown, cross bedding
Mudstone, claystone : reddish brown, chocolate, thick
Na Wah >30-475
bed to massive
Upper
0-17 Rock salt : transparent to smoky, no potash
rock salt
Middle Mudstone, claystone, Reddish brown, massive, no
42-54
mudstone carnalite veinlet
Maha Middle Mainly halite, transparent to smoky, occasionally
17-94
Sarakham rock salt anhydrite and gypsum interbedded
Lower Mudstone, claystone, Reddish brown, massive,
17-54
mudstone greenish mottle, carnalite and halite veinlet
Lower Most thick rock salt layer, thick bed rock salt, potash
80-1,075
rock salt intercalated unconformity
Khok Mudstone, siltstone : maroon, Sandstone :reddish
- >100-350
Kruat brown, pale yellow, conglomerate
Conglomerate, light brown-yellowish, pebble of
120-150
Phu Phan - quartz, chert, sandstone, jasper, andesite, various cross
mottles
bedding sizes
Mudstone, siltstone : maroon, Sandstone : fine-coarse
Sao Khua - >280-420
grained, reddish brown, limestone clast conglomerate
Sandstone : quartzitic, pale yellow-pink-white,
Phra
- >150-170 medium-cross grained, thick bed, prominent cross
Wihan
bedding
291
14 of the Phong and Chi rivers to migrate southwards are
charcoal samples at a two meter depth using C
technique near the Khon Kaen province gave an age of illustrated in figure 3. Dissolve of the Maha Sarakham
8,190 a B.P. (Udomchoke, 1989) and another charcoal Formation, contacted with the Khok Kruat and Phu Thok
sample at a 2.5 m depth in a 7.5 m section of red loess in Formations has played an important role for evolution of
Udon Thani province gave an age of 6,620 a B.P. (Sonsuk terrace and rivers in this model. Time frame and sequence
and Hastings, 1984). Sediments in the low terraces are of events is summarized in 4 stages.
gravel set in sand and silt matrix, with hard pan layer of 1. Horizontal deposit of the Khok Kruat, Maha Sarakham
laterite on the upper part (Fig. 2). Holocene deposits are and Phu Thok Formations during the Lower Cretaceous to
organic clay in swampy area that given the date of 5,400- Lower Tertiary of different environments. At this period,
5,200 yr.B.P. (Sinsakul et al., 2002). Moreover, recent the proto terrace is existed elsewhere near low lying
flood and fluviatile deposits are also suggested as topography and main proto rivers.
Holocene deposit. 2. Phu Phan uplift separated the Sakon Nakhon and the
Khorat basins. The Himalayan Orogeny, ranged 96-46 ma,
PATTERN OF HIGH TERRACE caused upwelling of the Khorat Plateau and Phu Phan
uplift. The uplift moved the Maha Sarakham Formation to
GRAVELS rise near or expose on surface and at the same time caused
stretch and pull apart of the Maha Sarakham Formation.
The high terrace gravels occur in a discontinuous series of Rock salt in the Maha Sarakham Formation is plasticity
low, elongate hills and high terrace towards the north and then it may be pushed up to form dome structure in some
northwest of the Phong and Chi rivers. Elevations vary areas vice versa basin in the other areas. Proto Chi river
between 210 m from the west to 150 m to the east. The and proto Phong river is anticipated to situate somewhere
nearly east-west alignment of the gravels to the north of towards south of the Phu Phan anticlinorium near or at
the Nam Chi river is believed to be coincident with major contact of the Maha Sarakham and Khok Kruat
winds and water gaps from the Phong Neeb situated Formations. Rocks on top of the Phu Phan uplift is eroded
westward of the study area, presently is the site of the and weathered in conjunction with erosion of rocks from
Ubon Ratana dam. These gaps might be channel that western side of the study area (Petchabun province) then
brought a great deal amount of sediments to deposit along poured into the rivers. This process may begin during
water way as an alluvial fan. Remarks the present alluvial Early Pleistocene where climate at the Khorat Plateau is in
fan at central Thailand towards the west of the Chao an increasing aridity period.
Phaya river or at foot slope of mountaineous ranges in the 3. The Maha Sarakhm Formation near the Khok Kruat
west can be perceived in the ternary radiometric map. It is Formation or at foot hill of the Phu Phan anticlinorium
worth to note that every location of high terrace gravels continue to dissolve, weather and subside, gravels and
situates on the Maha Sarakham Formation, mainly rock trees were wiped out then poured into the proto Chi and
salts. Additional evidence in support of this view is Phong rivers. Wood is soaked with siliceous and
provided by the fact that there is a progressive decrease in converted to petrified wood and deposited with gravels
gravel size but better roundness along the series of and sediments. This event is coincident with an
exposures from west to east (fig. 2). The concentration of occurrence of tektike, widespread discover in northeastern
gravels and vast area cover in the former valley floors Thailand, during 700,000 to 900,000 yr. B.P. (Bunopas et
converging in the Khorat basin has led to an inversion of al., 2002, Klongsara, 2002, Haines, et al., 2004, Punpate,
relief in recent times. Great resistance in weathering and et al., 2005). The proto Chi and Phong rivers are
erosion of the gravels result in their remaining as higher suggested to be contacted between the Khok Kruat and
elevation units in the landscape – the so called “high Maha Sarakham Formation and is the present location of
terrace”. Additionally, erosion, weathering and dissolve of the high terrace gravels. This event is suggested to be
soluble rock salts or the other word “subsidence” may during Early to Late Pleistocene. Ground water wells
control migration of river way to lower elevation. drilled along exposed and non-exposed high terrace
gravels confirm that the gravel thickness is between 40-60
OCCURRENCE OF HIGH TERRACE m and cover wide area.
GRAVELS 4. The Phong and the Chi rivers move southwards to
present location. Debris gravels were flooded and filled up
Question on the studied by Montreal (1996) of high lower plain of the proto Phong and proto Chi rivers.
terraces gravels in northeastern Thailand where he Ground water from the porous Phu Thok Formation in
denoted that the debris flood origin of the proto Phong sounthern region of the terrace has been flown down and
and the proto Chi rivers brought a great deal amount of sprung out as artesian well near the Chi river. This
sediments to deposit along and nearby water channels is artesian and seepage water dissolves rock salt then
very controversial. Thickness of sediments that flood over coincident with move downward of the Chi river due to
the large area is insisted by ground water drilled wells filled up of the proto Chi and Phong rivers. Ground water
yielded between 40-60 m thick (Panjasutharos, personal as well as surface runoff from the filled up sediments
communication). move down and southwards penetrated through rock salt
Hypothesis in changing of geomorphic systems in the of the Maha Sarakham Formation. In other word, dissolve,
Khon Kaen and Kalasin provinces that causes movement erosion and weather of the Maha Sarakham Formation
292
a b
c d
e f
g h
Figure 2 Size and roundness of gravels collect from different locations along Khon Kaen to Kalasin Province (a) Reddish brown
loess-like soil overlies high terrace gravels, size 2-7 cm, sub angular, at grid 263288E/1824539N (b)Laterite overlies high terrace
gravels, size 2-6 cm, subangular-rounded, utm 280516E/1821683N (c) Petrified wood buries in high terrace gravels, size 0.5-3.0 cm,
subrounded-rounded, at utm 331153E/1806379N (d) Laterite of high terrace gravels, size 0.5-3.0 cm, subrounded-rounded,
at utm 288454E/1825521N (e) Laterite overlies high terrace gravels, size 0.2-3.0 cm, subrounded-rounded, caliche intercalated,
at utm 319495E/1817283N (f) Laterite overlies high terrace gravels, size 0.3-1.5 cm, subrounded-rounded, at utm
333188E/1810566N (g) Laterite overlies high terrace gravels, size 0.2-1.5 cm, subrounded-rounded, at utm
324216E/1807179N (h) Laterite overlies high terrace gravels, size 0.1-1.0 cm, fairly rounded, at utm 326731E/1805838N
293
KTpt
1. Kms
Kkk
Uplift of the Phu Phan anticlinorium
Khorat basin Sakon Nakhon basin
KTpt Kkk KTpt

2. Kms Kms
Present Chi river Proto Chi river
KTpt Qa KTpt Qt Kkk

northern edge of the Khorat basin
3-4. Kms at the Phu Phan anticlinorium side
Figure 3 Cartoon sketch indicates evolution of the Maha Sarakham and the Khok Kruat Formations contact followed by
filled of the terrace gravels and shifted of the Phong and Chi rivers and Quaternary sediments deposit.
move towards contact between the Maha Sarakham and slightly humid condition. The Sao Khua Formation
Phu Thok Formation. The filled up sediments is gradually composes of various cycles of reddish brown and maroon
uplift or contact between the Maha Sarakham and Phu mudstones, siltstones, fine-coarse grained sandstones and
Thok is subsided. Present Phong and Chi rivers flow conglomerates, thickness ranges 280-420 m. Age is given
along low terrace and alluvial flat plain to deposit recent as Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous. The formation is
sediments during less than 6,000 yr.B.P. Mean while, interpreted to be deposited by meandering rivers in semi-
gentle and some time strong winds during the semi-arid to arid. The Phu Phan Formation comprises pale gray,
arid in northeastern Thailand blew fine sand to mud yellowish-white, thick-bedded, plannar and trough cross
sediments of residual soils and terrace sediments and bedding, moderated to well rounded, poor sorted of
deposit on top of the high terrace gravels. This sequence conglomerate, conglomeratic sandstone and coarse
is controversial as loess sediments deposited less than grained sandstone, thickness ranges 120-150 m. Age is
10,000 yr.B.P. given as Lower Cretaceous. The formation is interpreted
to be deposited by braided and occasional meandering
CONCLUSIONS rivers of higher energy in slightly humid to semi-arid. The
Khok Kruat Formation composes of reddish brown and
The study area lies along the Khon Kaen and Kalasin maroon sandstones, siltstones, mudstones and
provinces in northeastern Thailand, bound between conglomerates, thickness ranges >100-350 m. Age is
latitude 16° 00′- 17° 00′ and longitude 102° 45′- lat 103° given as Lower Cretaceous. The rock formation is
30′ with total area of 5,188 sq.km. Eighty five percent of interpreted to be deposited by meandering river system in
the area is undulating and flat plain, elevation ranges 135 semi-arid to arid. The Maha Sarakham Formation
– 210 m. composes of five cycles of depositions in descending
The non-marine sedimentary rock in Thailand is wide order, upper rocksalt-middle mudstone-middle rock salt-
spread exposed in northeastern Thailand. The studied area lower mudstone-lower rock salt. Mudstones are reddish
comprises seven rock formations in ascending order. The brown color and the Maha Sakham thickness ranges 610-
Phra Wihan Formation composes of yellowish white, fine 1,000 m. Age is given as Lower Upper Cretaceous. The
to coarse grained, well sorted and well rounded quartzitic formation is interpreted to be deposited by saline water in
sandstone, siltstones and conglomerates of thickness lakes and ponds in arid. The Phu Thok Formation
ranges 150-170 m. Age is given as Upper Jurassic to composes of sandstones, siltstones and mudstone,
Lower Cretaceous and the rocks is interpreted to be orangish to reddish brown, chocolate, various sizes of
deposited by braided and occasional meandering rivers in cross bedding, moderate to well sorted, thick bedded and
294
lamination, bioturbation, thickness ranges 100-475 m. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Age is given as Upper Cretaceous to Lower Tertiary. The
formation is interpreted to be deposited by both The authors would like to express special thanks to the
occasional meandering rivers and winds in semi-arid to director of the Geological Survey Bureau “Ms.
arid. Benjawan Charukalas” and the director general “Mr.
Contact of the seven formations is conformably underlain Apichai Chvajarernpun” of the Department of Mineral
and overlain except the Khok Kruat is unconformably Resources for offering facilities and permission to publish
underlain the Maha Sarakham Formation. the data. Mr. Sunthorn Panjasutharos generously provide
Quaternary stratigraphy sequences of the Khorat basin and discuss on relationship of the Khok Kruat, Maha
from older to younger unit begin with residual deposit Sarakham and Phu Thok Formations.
composed of sands and clayey sands. Terrace deposits are
divided into high and low terraces. High terrace gravels REFERENCES
comprise a great variety of rocks e.g. quartz, banded chert,
flint, andesites, rhyolites, hornfel, quartzite, limestones
Boonsener, M., 2002, Quaternary geology of northeastern
and found petrified wood and tektike in this sequence.
Thailand - Loess : a dangerous soil. Department of
There are tektites and petrified wood deposited in the high
Geotechnology, Khon Kaen University, 143 p. (in Thai)
terrace gravels and dating as 700,000 to 900,000 yr.B.P.
Buffetaut, E., Suteethorn, V., Tong, H., Chaimanee, Y. and
Loess situates on top of the high terrace gravels is Khunsubha, S., 1997, New dinosaur discoveries in the
controversial and dating samples near Khon Kaen gave an Jurassic and Cretaceous of northeastern Thailand, in
age of 8,190 yr.B.P. while red loess in Udon Thani Dheeradilok, P., Hinthong, C., Chaodumrong, P.,
province gave an age of 6,620 yr.B.P. Sediments in the Putthaphiban, P., Tansathien, W., Utha-aroon, C.,
low terraces are gravel set in sand and silt matrix, with Sattayarak, N., Nuchanong, T. and Techawan, S., (eds.),
hard pan layer of laterite on the upper part. Holocene Proceedings of the International Conference on
deposits are organic clay in swampy area that given the Stratigraphy and Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia and
date of 5,400-5,200 yr.B.P. the South Pacific (Geothai 97), Department of Mineral
Resources, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 177-187
The high terrace gravels occur in a discontinuous series of
Bunopas S., Vella, P., Hada, S., Fontaine, H., Burrett, C., Haines,
low, elongate hills towards north and northwest of the P., Khositanont, S. and Howard, K.T., 2002, Australian
Nam Phong and Nam Chi rivers. Elevations vary between tektites and catastrophic products enclosed in impact ejecta
210 m from the west to 150 m to the east. horizon from the Buntharik impact event in Thailand on old
Hypothesis in geomorphic system changes at the Khon surface gravel beds marked real-time Asia Quaternary
Kaen and Kalasin and exposure of the high terrace gravels correlation : In: N. Mantajit, editor-in-chief. Proceedings of
are proposed in 4 stages. 1. Horizontal deposit of the the Symposium on Geology of Thailand, Department of
Khok Kruat, Maha Sarakham and Phu Thok Formations Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand p. 181-187.
during Lower Cretaceous to Lower Tertiary. 2. Phu Phan Capetta, H., Buffetaut, E. and Suteethorn V., 1990, A new
uplift separated the Sakon Nakhon and the Khorat basins, hypodont shark from the Lower Cretaceous of Thailand :
caused uplifted of the Khorat Plateau and Phu Phan uplift. Neues Jahrbuch for geologie andPaleontologie,
Proto Chi and proto Phong rivers are anticipated to situate Monatshefte, volumn 11, p. 659-666.
somewhere towards south of the Phu Phan anticlinorium Cooper M. A, Herbert R. and Hill G. S., 1989, The structural
near or at contact of the Maha Sarakham and Khok Kruat evolution of Triassic intermontane basin in NE Thailand.
Formations. 3. The Maha Sarakhm Formation continues In: Thanasuthipitak T., Ounchanum P., editors.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on
to dissolve, weather and subside, gravels and trees were Intermontane Basins: Geology and Resources, Chiang
wiped out the poured into the proto Chi and Phong rivers. Mai: Department of Geological Science, Faculty of
This event is coincident with an occurrence of tektike, Science, Chiang Mai University, p. 231-242.
widespread discovered in northeastern Thailand, during Department of Mineral Resources, 1999, Geological map of
700,000 to 900,000 yr.B.P. The proto Chi and Phong Thailand, scale 1:1,000,000 : Department of Mineral
rivers is suggested to be contacted between the Khok Resources, Bangkok, Thailand.
Kruat and Maha Sarakham Formation and is the present Gardner L. S, Harworth H. F. and Na Chiangmai P., 1967, Salt
location of the high terrace gravels. This event is Resources of Thailand. Report of Investugation no.11.,
suggested to be during Early to Late Pleistocene. 4. The Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, 100 p.
Phong and Chi rivers move southwards to present location Haines, P.W., Howarrd, K.T., Ali, J.R., Burrett, C.F. and
and suggest close to contact between the Maha sarakham Bunopas, S., 2004, Flood deposits penecontemporaneous
and Phu Thok Formations. The rivers flow along low with ∼ 0.8 Ma tektite fall in NE Thailand: impact-induced
terrace and alluvial flat plain to deposit recent sediments environmental effects? Earth and Planet Science Letter
225, Elsevier, p. 19-28.
during 6,000 yr.B.P. to present Mean while, gentle and
some time strong winds during semi-arid to arid in Klongsara, N., 2002, Thermoluminescence dating of tektites
northeastern Thailand blew fine sand to mud sediments of from Ban Mai, Tambon Ta Chang, Amphoe Chalerm
residual soils and terrace sediments, deposited on top of Phrakiet, Chankwat Nakhon Ratchasima, unpublished B.Sc.
the high terrace. This sequence is controversial as loess report, Department of Geology, Chulalongkorn University,
sediment deposited less than 10,000 yr.B.P. 62 p.
295
Meesook A., Suteethorn, V. and Wongprayoon, T., 1995, Early Salyapongse, S., Sinsakul, S., Thaptimthong, B. and Putthapiban,
Cretaceous non-marine bivalves of the Sao Khua P., 1994, Tektites in some parts of northeastern Thailand.
Formation, Khorat Group, northeastern Thailand, 3rd Annual meeting, Geological Survey Division, Dapartment of
symposium, IGCP 350, Manila, Philippines : Program and Mineral Resources, Bangkok, p. 81-92.
Abstract Volume, p. 10-11. Sattayarak N. and Polachan, S., 1990, Rocksalts underneath the
Meesook A., 2000, Cretaceous environments of northeastern Khorat Plateau. Proceeding DMR annual meeting, Bangkok,
Thailand : in Okada H. and Mateer, N.J., (eds.), Cretaceous Thailand (in Thai).
environment of Asia, Elesevier Science B.V., p. 207-223. Sattayarak N., Srigulwong, S. and Patarametha, M., 1991,
Meesook A., Suteethorn, V., Chaodumrong, P., Teerarungsigul, Subsurface stratigraphy of the non-marine Mesozoic Khorat
N., Sardsud, A. and Wongprayoon, T., 2002, Mesozoic Group, NE Thailand : The seventh regional conference on
rocks of Thailand, in Mantajit, N., (ed-in-chief), Geology, Mineral and Energy Resources of Southeaset Asia
Proceeding of the Symposium on Geology of Thailand, (GEOSEA VII) , Geological Society of Thailand, Bangkok,
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand, p. Thailand, Abstract Volumn, p. 36.
82-94. Sinsakul, S., Chaimanee, N. and Tiyapairach, S., 2002,
Montreal, J. T. P., 1996, The high terrace gravels, Northeast Quaternary geology of Thailand: in Mantajit, M., editor-
in-chief, Proceedings of the Symposium on Geology of
Thailand – a re-evaluation and an integrated theory of their
Thailand, Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok,
origin. Geomorph, Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin, Stuttgart, Thailand, p. 170-180.
40-2, p. 145-175. Sonsuk, M. and Hastings, P.J., 1984, An age from the Yasothon
Mouret, C., Heggemann, H. and Gouadain, J., 1993, Geological soil series in the Sakhon Nakhon basin : Journal of
history of the siliciclastic Mesozoic strata of the Khorat Geological Society, Thailand, v.7-1, p. 1-11.
Group in the Phu Phan Range area, northeastern Thailand. Suwanich P and Ratanajaruraks P., 1982, Sequence of Rock salt
Proceeding of International Symposium on Biostratigraphy and Potash in Thailand. Non metallic Mineral Bullentin no.
of Mainland SEA: Facies & Paleontology, Chiangmai, 1, Economic Geology Division, Department of Mineral
Thailand, p. 23-49. Resources, Bangkok, 32 p.
Punpate, N., Pailoplee, S., Takashima, I. and Charusiri, P., 2005, Suwanich P., 1986, Potash and rock salt in Thailand. Non
Age of layered tektites and tektite-bearing sediments in metallic Mineral Bullentin no. 2, Economic Geology
Buntharik area, Ubonratchathani, northeast Thailand. in Division, Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, 339
Wannakao, L., Srisuk, K., Youngme, W., Lertsirivorakul,
p.
R., editors, Proceedings of the International Conference on
Udomchoke, V. 1989, Quaternary stratigraphy of the Khorat
Geology, Geotechnology and Mineral Resources of
plateau area, northeastern Thailand. Proceeding of the
Indochina (GEOINDO 2005), Department of
workshop on Correlation of Quaternary successions in
Geotechnology, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen,
South, East and Southeast Asian, Bangkok, p. 69-94.
Thailand p. 517-523.
Ward D. E. and Bunnag D., 1964, Stratigraphy of the Mesozoic
Racey A., Goodall J. G. S., Love, M. A., Polachan S. and Jones Khorat Group in northeastern Thailand. Report of
P. D., 1994, New age data for the Mesozoic Khorat Group Investugation no .6, Department of Mineral Resources,
of northeastern Thailand. in Angsuwathana, P., Bangkok, 95 p.
Wongwanich, T., Tansathien, W., Wongsomsak, S., Wongsomsak, S., 1987, Quaternary stratigraphy in northeast
Tulyatid, J., (eds.), Proceedings of the International Thailand – stratigraphic research in Changwat Buri Ram :
Symposium on Stratigraphic Correlation of Southeast Asia : Progress in Quaternary Geology of East and Southeast
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand, p. Asian – Proceedings of the CCOP Symposium on
245-252. Development in Quaternary Geology Research in East and
Racey A., Love M. A., Canham A. C., Goodall J. G. S., SE Asia during the last decade, Bangkok, p. 179-196.
Polachan S. and Jones P. D., 1996, Stratigraphy and reservoir
potential of the Mesozoic Khorat Group, northeastern
Thailand. J. Petroleum Geology, p. 5-40.
296
RESISTIVITY SURVEYS OF RANONG – KHLONG MARUI FAULTS

Jarin Tulyatid, Pakawat Sriwangpon, Apichat Paiyarom and Wanwisa Boonsungnone
ABSTRACT
The geophysical survey on the Ranong Fault (RNF) and Khlong Marui Fault (KMF) in the Thai South Peninsula is an
initial part of the Active Fault Study Project of the Department of Mineral Resources for the fiscal year 2007. The
objective of this survey is to identify the exact location of the shallow subsurface fault ruptures located along the still-
active RNF and KMF in six provinces, which are Prachuab Khirikhan, Chumphon, Suratthani, Ranong, Krabi and
Phang Nga, for further detailed active fault study. The operation includes 4 steps, which are: area selection; field
surveys on reference marks and orientation of survey lines; geophysical surveys; and data compilation and
interpretation. The area selection makes use of landforms that indicate the presence of active faults. There are a total of
10 survey areas selected for further study, five of them distributed along the RNF and the rest of the areas located along
the KMF. Survey lines were placed for the geophysical surveys, which include resistivity techniques. The former were
applied for both semi-detailed (2 m survey interval) and detailed (1 m survey interval) surveys and then supported by the
detailed surveys of the latter. The survey results show that there are a total of 8 successful cases (out of 10 cases) in
locating subsurface fault ruptures.The selected areas are not well represented the major fault rupture but the minor ones.
The survey results will be very useful for those who will be conducting a detailed study of active fault in this area.
297
RESPONSES TO TERRITORIAL EFFECTS OF NATURAL HAZARDS AND

CLIMATE CHANGE - EXAMPLES FROM THE EUROPEAN UNION
This abstract is shortened form a text submitted for publication.
Philipp Schmidt-Thomé and Jaana Jarva

Geological Survey of Finland, Finland, E-mail : philipp.schmidt-thome@gtk.fi, jaana.jarva@gtk.fi
EXTENDED ABSTRACT
In the search for appropriate instruments for mitigating used) (Greiving 2006, Olfert et al. 2006). A first approach
impacts of natural hazards and climate change, as well as for defining the vulnerability of regions tested the
risks, the integration of these factors into spatial planning application of a rather simple definition of vulnerability
practices is constantly receiving higher attention. (GDP per capita and population density per region)
Presently, the focus of most approaches lies on single (Schmidt-Thomé et al. 2006a). Since the simple approach
hazard and climate change mitigation strategies. The did not yield satisfying results, several factors were used
current paradigm shift from mitigation to adaptation is to develop an integrated vulnerability map (Kumpulainen
supported by several project activities that focus on 2006). The resulting risk maps, i.e. combination of
natural hazard and climate change adaptation concepts for aggregated hazards map and vulnerability map proved to
regional development. Of great importance in the be extremely challenging in their analysis, and were
stakeholder communication process is the definition and eventually disregarded for practical applications and are
applicability of the terms natural hazard, vulnerability nowadays used mainly for academic purposes. Examples
and risk. Risk concepts are many-fold and complicated of aggregated hazards map, vulnerability map and
and their application in spatial planning has to be analyzed resulting aggregated risk map are presented here. Flood
most carefully (e.g. Schmidt-Thomé 2006a). risk maps produced by the ESPON 1.3.1 Hazards project
Currently, the linkages from both natural hazards and and DG Regio (JRC) are also presented.
climate change to planning and decision-making are not Better data availability and more resources could have
well developed. For example, climate change adaptation easily enhanced the project's results. In future research
and natural hazards have entered European regional policy approaches on natural and technological hazards, all
relatively recently but are quickly growing in importance. indicators developed by the ESPON 1.3.1 Hazards project
The new Territorial Agenda of the European Union should be revised. The main challenge for indicator
mentions hazard related risk management as key role in development was the required large geographical
European regional development. On a European scale, coverage. Example hazard indicators would have been
projects related to natural hazards, climate change and feasible to produce for selected areas with sound scientific
regional development conducted under the European background. Another challenge was the compulsory
Spatial Planning Observation Network (ESPON) reporting on NUTS3 level, as hazards usually do not
(http://www.espon.eu) and in cooperation with the respect political boundaries, also vulnerability and
INTERACT initiative have supported the development of resulting risk patterns are difficult to produce on man
risk oriented policy recommendations made limitations (Schmidt-Thomé (ed.) 2006b). This
(http://www.gtk.fi/projects/espon) and the Evidence presentation shows the example maps of forest fire, flood,
document of the Territorial Agenda. storm surge and winter storm hazards.
An integrated approach to defining all hazards that are In the case of the European wide hazard and risk maps,
spatially relevant is a challenging task. The ESPON the potential and limitations of the maps were outlined
thematic project “Hazards” (project 1.3.1) used risk precisely by the ESPON 1.3.1 Hazards project. The single
schemes to identify all natural hazards that concern spatial hazard maps, that display the hazards at the level of
planning (Fleischhauer 2006). All hazards were mapped regions, can be used to identify which regions are affected
individually on a European scale (Schmidt-Thomé & by which hazards in order to show regional hazard
Kallio 2006). They were also combined into aggregated typologies and corresponding (municipal) responsibilities
hazard maps and subsequently with vulnerability patterns for hazard assessment. It was clearly underlined that the
to produce risk maps (Schmidt-Thomé (ed.) 2006b). The applicability of the maps is only on European scale, since
development of multi (aggregated) hazard maps used a a detailed hazard assessment can only be carried out
special methodology of weighting the importance of locally (Schmidt-Thomé (ed.) 2006b). A downscaling and
hazards from a European perspective, as the included analysis of the results of the ESPON 1.3.1 Hazards project
hazards were not simply added up but aggregated with the into a single country (Finland) showed that generally
help of a weighting system (so-called Delphi-method was many of the results were correct but that the further
298
assessment and corrections of the data are necessary be of relevant for territorial development. Time should be
(Schmidt-Thomé 2005, Schmidt-Thomé et al. 2006b). taken to define all potential natural hazards and processes
The ESPON 1.3.1 Hazards project identified 11 natural affecting a region, as individual mitigation or adaptation
hazards that can be considered the most relevant for strategies for each hazard are different. Eventually, the
spatial development (Fleischhauer 2006). Using those as a single hazards can be combined into multi-hazard maps.
base, a joint INTERACT ESPON project has developed a The multi-hazard concept is challenging but important, as
database including INTERREG hazard and risk projects it is vital for spatial planners to obtain information on all
of all strands A, B, and C. The data has been has been kinds of potential threats. Natural hazard maps and
plotted into maps and cross analysed with the spatial overlays with climate change impacts lead to an enhanced
patterns of hazards identified in the ESPON 1.3.1 Hazards understanding of future potential threats to territorial
project. The aim has been to identify such regional hazard development. Vulnerability concepts are a valuable tool to
patterns that are of interest for future Objective 3 of the assess risks and foster interdisciplinary communication.
new INTERREG IV programmes (Tarvainen et al. 2006, Nevertheless, one of the most important aspects is the
Schmidt-Thomé et al. 2006d, Schmidt-Thomé et al. communication process, as hazard data are very
2006e). Examples of forest fire and floods related complicated and broad acceptance for decision making
INTERREG projects are presented. can only be achieved with a sound basis of understandable
On regional and local scale, the Baltic Sea Region’s and comprehensive sources of information. This also
INTERREG IIIB projects SEAREG (Sea Level Change applies to the communication and integration of
Affecting the Spatial Development of the Baltic Sea uncertainty aspects. Since marking vulnerability and risk
Region – http://www.gtk.fi/projects/seareg) and ASTRA concepts in maps is very critical and difficult, it should be
(Developing Policies and Adaptation Strategies to Climate left for spatial planners and other stakeholders to carefully
Change in the Baltic Sea Region – http://www.astra- consider and decide if they need such concepts and
project.org) used climate change scenarios to develop corresponding data. Finally, the question of the specific
local climate change impact scenarios. The scenarios purpose of risk maps, in particular the choice of variables
comprise, for example, sea level rise and changing flood used to measure vulnerability needs to be evaluated
prone areas, which are analyzed in interdisciplinary carefully. It might often turn out that it is easier to avoid
cooperation. Both projects have found entry into the risk mapping and to use only hazards maps instead, in
Green Paper of Commission of European Communities on combination with a sound vulnerability assessment, as a
Adapting to Climate Change in Europe. They are basis for decision making.
mentioned as examples of existing initiatives on raising
awareness and adaptation of climate change within the REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Baltic Sea Region.
The science- stakeholder communication process Cutter, S. L. 1996. Vulnerability to environmental hazards. In:
developed under the SEAREG project resulted in a set of Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 20, No. 4, 529-539.
tools that bridges the gap between climate change European Commission 2004. Risk prevention: A priority for the
scenarios and spatial planning by specifically addressing Structural Funds 2007-13. In: Inforegio Panorama No. 15.
integrated scenario interpretation and uncertainty issues, Brussels, 23-25. Available at:
the so-called Decision Support Frame (DSF – http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/panor
ama/pdf/mag15/mag15_en.pdf, visited 09.08.2006.
http://www.gtk.fi/slr). The DSF applies GIS applications European Commission 2006. Proposal for a Council decision on
and models, but these are only one part of the entire DSF Community strategic guidelines on cohesion {SEC(2006)
process. The other pillars of the DSF contain a 929}. Brussels, 65 p. available at:
vulnerability analysis, a knowledge base and a discussion http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docoffic/2007/o
platform. The vulnerability assessment and the discussion sc/com_2006_0386_en.pdf, visited 17.08.2006.
platform particularly focus on the communication process European Commission 2007. Green Paper from the Commission
and thus distance the DSF from pure computer based to the Council, the European Parliament, the European
decision-making. Both the vulnerability analysis and the Economic and Social Committee and the
discussion platform do not only help to identify the Committee of the Regions. Adapting to climate change in
Europe – options for EU action. {SEC(2007) 849}.
specific stakeholders to be addressed, but seek to identify Brussels, 27 p. Available at: http://eur-
and clarify climate change impacts, with the aim to take lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2007/com2007_0354
uncertainties into account in decision making processes. en01.pdf, visited 13.9.2007.
The SEAREG approach is successfully further developed Fleischhauer, M. 2006. Spatial relevance of natural and
by the ASTRA project. For example, some of the cities technological hazards. In: Natural and technological
and municipalities in the Baltic Sea Region have already hazards and risks affecting the spatial development of
taken decisions on future land use which were directly European regions. Geological Survey of Finland. Special
derived from SEAREG and ASTRA project results. Paper 42. Espoo: Geological Survey of Finland, 7-16.
Examples from Pärnu (Estonia) (Klein & Staudt 2005), Fleischhauer, M., Greiving, S. & Wanczura, S. (eds) 2006.
Natural hazards and planning in Europe, Dortmund, 203 p.
Gdansk (Poland) (Schmidt-Thomé & Kaulbarsz 2007), Greiving, S. 2006. Integrated risk assessment of multi-hazards :
Kokkola and Espoo (Finland) are presented. a new methodology. In: Natural and technological hazards
Integrating hazard, climate change and risk concepts into and risks affecting the spatial development of European
regional development and spatial planning has proven to
299
regions. Geological Survey of Finland. Special Paper 42. http://www.environment.fi/default.asp?contentid=210888&
Espoo: Geological Survey of Finland, 75-82. lan=EN Visited 13.9.2007.
Halsnæs, Kirsten. 2006. Climate change and planning. In: Schmidt-Thomé, P., Klein, J., Aumo, R., & Hurstinen, J. 2006c.
Planning theory and practice, Vol. 7, No.2, 227-230. Report: Technical Glossary of a Multi-Hazard Related
Klein, J. & Staudt, M. 2006. Evaluation of future sea level rise Vulnerability and Risk Assessment Language. Unpublished
impacts in Pärnu / Estonia. In: Sea level change affecting Deliverable 4.1.1 of ARMONIA project. Briefing paper
the spatial development of the Baltic Sea Region. available at:
Geological Survey of Finland. Special Paper 41. Espoo: http://www.armoniaproject.net/html4/modules.php?op=mo
Geological Survey of Finland, 71-81. dload&name=UpDownload&file=index&req=viewdownloa
Kumpulainen, S. 2006. Vulnerability concepts in hazard and risk d&cid=2 Visited 13.9.2007.
assessment. In: Natural and technological hazards and risks Schmidt-Thomé, P., Klein, J. & Schmidt-Thomé, Kaisa 2006d.
affecting the spatial development of European regions. Environmental Hazards and Risk Management – Thematic
Geological Survey of Finland. Special Paper 42. Espoo: Study of INTERREG and ESPON activities. INTERACT
Geological Survey of Finland, 65-74. Point Qualification and Transfer and ESPON. 52 p.
Marttila, V., Granholm, H., Laanikari, J., Yrjölä, T., Aalto, A., Available at: http://www.interact-
Heikinheimo, P., Honkatuki, J., Järvinen, H., Liski, J., eu.net/download/application/pdf/1093050 Visited
Merivirta, R. & Paunio, M. (eds). 2005. Finland's National 14.9.2007
Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change. Ministry of Schmidt-Thomé, P., Klein, J. & Schmidt-Thomé, Kaisa 2006e.
Agriculture and Forestry, Helsinki. 280 p. Available at: Hazard patterns and hazard related project activity analysis
http://www.mmm.fi/sopeutumisstrategia/, visited to support funding programmes. In: 5th European Congress
08.08.2006. on Regional Geoscientific Cartography and Information
Munich Reinsurance Company. 2004. Great Natural Systems : earth and water, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain,
Catastrophes, Topics geo 1/2004: Annual Review of Natural June 13th - 16th 2006 : proceedings. Barcelona: Institut
Catastrophes 2003. Munich. 60 p. Cartogràfic de Catalunya : Institut Geològic de Catalunya,
Olfert, A., Greiving, S. & Batista, M.J. 2006. Regional multi- 428-430.
risk review, hazard weighting and spatial planning response Schmidt-Thomé, P. & Greiving, S. 2007. Response towards
to risk - results from European case studies. In: Natural and Natural Hazards and Climate Change in Europe. Book
technological hazards and risks affecting the spatial contribution submitted to the Lincoln Society (USA), 2007.
development of European regions. Geological Survey of Schmidt-Thomé, P. & Kaulbarsz, D. 2007.Climate change
Finland. Special Paper 42. Espoo: Geological Survey of adaptation and decision support – communicating
Finland, 125-151. uncertainty. Book contribution submitted to the Geological
Schmidt-Thomé, P. 2005. Luonnon ja teknologian aiheuttamat Society Books (UK), 2007.
hasardit – Euroopan tason tarkastelun suhteuttaminen Tarvainen, T., Jarva, J. & Greiving, Stefan 2006. Spatial pattern
Suomeen. In: Eskelinen, H. & Hirvonen, T. (eds). ESPON of hazards and hazard interactions in Europe. In: Natural
etenee. University of Joensuu, Reports of Karelian Institute and technological hazards and risks affecting the spatial
5/2005, Joensuu, 20-38. development of European regions. Geological Survey of
Schmidt-Thomé, P. (ed.) 2006a. The Spatial Effects and Finland. Special Paper 42. Espoo: Geological Survey of
Management of Natural and Technological Hazards in Finland, 83-91.
Europe – final report of the European Spatial Planning and Territorial Agenda of the European Union. 2007. Available at:
Observation Network (ESPON) project 1.3.1. Geological http://www.bmvbs.de/Anlage/original_1005295/Territorial-
Survey of Finland. Espoo, 197 p. Agenda-of-the-European-Union-Agreed-on-25-May-2007-
Schmidt-Thomé, P. (ed.) 2006b. Sea Level Changes Affecting accessible.pdf Visited 13.9.2007
the Spatial Development of the Baltic Sea Region. Territorial State and Perspectives of the European Union. 2007.
Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 41, Espoo. A background document for the Territorial Agenda of the
154 p. European Union. Available at: http://www.territorial-
Schmidt-Thomé, P. (ed.) 2006c. Natural and Technological agenda.eu
Hazards and Risks in European Regions, Geological Survey United Nations. 2004. International Strategy for Disaster
of Finland, Special Paper 42, Espoo. 167 p. Reduction. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly
Schmidt-Thomé, P. 2006. Integration of Natural Hazards, Risk 58/214 on the report of the Second Committee
and Climate Change into Spatial Planning Practices. (A/58/484/Add.5). 4 p. Available at:
Academic dissertation No. 193 of the University of http://www.unisdr.org/wcdr/back-docs/docs/a-res-58-214-
Helsinki. Geological Survey of Finland, 31+107 p. eng.pdf, visited 02.08.2006.
Schmidt-Thomé, P. & Kallio, H. 2006. Natural and UNDP. 2004. Reducing disaster risk – A challenge for
technological hazard maps of Europe. In: Natural and development. United Nations Development Programme,
technological hazards and risks affecting the spatial Bureau for Crisis and Recovery. New York, 149 p.
development of European regions. Geological Survey of Vries, de, J. 2006. Climate change and spatial planning below
Finland. Special Paper 42. Espoo: Geological Survey of sea-level: Water, water and more water. In: Planning theory
Finland, 17-63. & practice, Vol. 7, No.2, 223-226.
Schmidt-Thomé, P., Greiving, S., Kallio, H., Fleischhauer, M.,
& Jarva, J. 2006a. Economic risk maps of floods and
earthquakes for European regions. In: Quaternary
International 150, 103-112.
Schmidt-Thomé, P., Jarva, J., Haanpää, S., Lehtonen, S. &
Peltonen, L. 2006b. A country without hazards? In:
Positioning Finland in a European space. Helsinki: Ministry
of the Environment : Ministry of the Interior, 121-135.
Available at:
300
SHALE GAS DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITY IN THAILAND

Phumee Srisuwon
Department of Mineral Fuels, Ministry of Energy, Bangkok, Thailand, Email: phumee@dmf.go.th
ABSTRACT
Producing gas from the shale is still very new technology for Thailand whereas America has been producing for at least
two decades. Producing gas from the old formation is definitely more expensive than those from Tertiary formation and
also is needed higher technology. It is quoted that about 1.6% of the gas producing in USA is from gas shale and the
reserves are approximately 2.3% of the total gas reserves in the States. The amount of gas in place from shale formations
in the USA have been estimated as high as 500-600 Tcf. The recoverable reserves are recently estimated ranging from
31-76 Tcf. Production rate in America is currently about 380 Bcf/d and is rising at roughly 10% a year. The gas shale
seems to be more important because the discovery of conventional petroleum fields has been limited and more difficult.
The unconventional sources such as tight sand, coal bed methane, oil shale, gas shale etc. are going to be other
alternative sources of energy. The mentioned unconventional sources are really needed higher technologies to bring out
gas and oil. These are directly effected the production cost which make energy per unit cost higher than those produced
from conventional types. Therefore, the government sector should have some incentive to make the gas produced from
unconventional sources can be competitive to others. The soaring of crude price is one of the most important factors to
expose the era of other unconventional sources. The gas shale in Thailand is still very new but some of the basins in the
northeastern part are somewhat very interesting because of the available data from the drilled well and seismic profile
seem to be very promising. A very thick dark shale within the Sakonnakorn Sub-basin has been believed to be a very
good source rock. In this study just proposes the idea how to determine the amount of gas in place by using of the
available data. It shows that approximately 4 Tcf is the amount of gas in place in the Sakonnakorn Sub-basin. Moreover,
there are still have some isolated Triassic half-grabens are waiting more new seismic data and some incentive or some
petroleum law which may be helpful to the operators in the near future. Even though it is still very new to Thailand, we
have to prepare earlier such as in the developed countries.
301
SITE SELECTION FOR NUCLEAR FACILITIES IN THAILAND

FROM A (GEO)SCIENTIFIC VIEWPOINT
Duerrast, H.
Department of Physics, Prince of Songkla University, HatYai, 90112, Thailand, E-mail : helmut.j@psu.ac.th
INTRODUCTION general safe and secure environment with good road

and/or rail access for the transportation of relevant
There was the discussion on nuclear power option for materials.
Thailand during the past several years and it has been re- Thailand is situated close to the major plate boundary
emerged again in 2005 and intensified in late 2006 and between the Indian-Australian and the Eurasian Plate with
2007. Until now, the use of nuclear material is limited to the Sunda Subduction Zone in the Andaman Sea to the
medical and research purposes, following the Ministerial southwest. The northern extension of the zone is a fault
Regulation No.2 (B.E. 2504) of 10 July 1961, and later running northwards into Myanmar. Frequent minor to
the Ministerial Regulation No.6 (B.E. 2517) of 9 August intermediate magnitude earthquakes are produced along
1974. the boundary and sometimes cause devastating ones, like
Nuclear power is of great concern to many people due to the one of magnitude Mw 9.3 on 26 December 2004. The
the risks involved in operating a nuclear power plant. The frequent earthquakes in Kanchanaburi and northern
Chernobyl accident on 26 April 1986 was the worst Thailand are related to this northern fault zone.
disaster causing by the use of nuclear energy. Another Further more, the 26 December 2004 Earthquake resulted
case was the Three Mile Island accident in the U.S.A. on in plate movement of the Eurasian Plate, where Thailand
28 March 1979. Most of the accidents are the result of is located on. For example, during the earthquake Phuket
operating and maintenance failures or design flaws of the moved 26 cm westwards and in one year after totally 45
nuclear facilities. Newer and safer technologies are now cm. The earthquake also produced earthquakes in
available, like the new Framatome ANP's 1600 MWe southern Thailand, especially in the area of Ranong and
European Pressurized Water Reactor (EPR) in Finland. Khlong Marui Fault Zones, covering the provinces of
However, risks remain due to operating failures or Chumphorn, Ranong, Sura Thani, Phang Nga, Phuket and
external factors, like earthquakes. Recently, the largest Krabi.
nuclear facility in the world, located in Japan, had to be Therefore, any power plant should not be located in one of
shut down because of damages resulted from a nearby the last mentioned provinces, also not in the western and
earthquake. Earthquakes are frequent in Japan and were northern provinces due to the direct or indirect effects of
accounted for during the planning phase of that reactor, earthquakes from the subduction zone and related fault
but the degree of the damage was not expected. zones.
Another great concern is the nuclear waste from the Thailand has a long coastline in its southern and eastern
operation of nuclear power plants and the related part where the sea water can be used or cooling the power
transportation of nuclear material from and to plants. However, the Andaman Sea and some parts of the
reprocessing plants, like the Le Havre site in Northern Gulf of Thailand coastlines are major tourist destinations,
France. Transportation of nuclear material is now a day a like Krabi, Phang Nga, Phuket, Sura Thani, Chumphorn,
routine, with engineering solutions for safety and security. Chonburi, Rayong and Trat.
On the other hand, nuclear waste repositories are not fully North-South running rivers in the central part, like the
available in most of the countries, even the ones with a Chao Phraya River, can also provide the necessary
longer record in nuclear power generation, like the U.S.A. cooling water. But the river of Thailand passes through
Standard solutions are not available as any storage facility Bangkok or major cities. In northeastern Thailand, two
would be under ground, and the geological conditions are major rivers run West-East and then flow into the Mekong
varying from country to country. River. However, the water level of these rivers is not
constant. During summer, the rainfall is minimal then the
Site selection for nuclear power plants water level is low. With lower water levels, the water
temperature in these rivers rises so that the water cannot
The site selection for any nuclear power plant is not only be used anymore for sufficient cooling. A similar situation
the concern of (a) natural hazards, like earthquakes and occurred in Europe a few years ago during a hot summer.
tsunamis, but they play a major role. Further Several power plants, nuclear and non-nuclear, had to be
considerations are (b) access to cooling water, like rivers shut down for a certain period.
or oceans, (c) proximity to the customers, like cities and Most of the population and industries in Thailand as
industrial locations in case of any accident, and (d) possible customers for nuclear power are concentrated in
302
a few major cities and areas, like the capital Bangkok and Another choice is the rocksalt in the Northeastern part of
the adjacent areas, including Chonburi in the further SE Thailand. Rocksalt is mechanically ductile and has a very
with important industries in the Map Tha Put Industrial low permeability. This means that it is not easy for any
Estate and other industrial estates. Further concentrations fluid to go through the rocksalt. Nuclear waste
are in the vicinity of Chiang Mai province, the Phuket- repositories in salt exist in Germany, where the salt is
Sura Thani land bridge area and Hat Yai in the far South. much deeper than in Thailand. Recently, they reported a
Any location of a nuclear power plant far away from these major water influx in one of the subsurface rocksalt
areas would increases the transmission losses. caverns where the waste is stored, but it cannot fully be
Safety and security is still an issue in Thailand. Nearly all explained so far. A feasibility study of the potential of the
of the direct border regions cannot be considered as safe, rocksalt in Northeastern Thailand as a nuclear waste
especially in the North, West and South. A specific repository has been already carried out and recently
security problem exists with daily violence in the three discussed during the First Thailand Rock Mechanics
southernmost provinces of Narathiwat, Pattani and Yala Symposium in Nakhon Ratchasima.
and in parts Songkhla. The security situation is not likely
to improve significantly in a shorter term, possibly in an Concluding remarks
intermediate and longer time frame.
The decision whether Thailand will have a nuclear power
SITE SELECTION FOR A NUCLEAR plant will be a political (and economical) issue, where
WASTE REPOSITORY other factors are more important than the ones discussed
here. Also, the often used ‘low greenhouse gas emission’
The main parameter for the site selection of a nuclear argument is not further discussed here, because the
waste repository is to find a place where the nuclear waste technology of modern coal fired power plants would have
can be stored safely for several 10,000 to 100,000 years to be outlined, too, as engineering solutions for CO2
without reaching the surrounding environment or any removal in these plants exist. However, they price might
humans, directly or indirectly. Preferable places are in the be high.
subsurface, granite, shale or rocksalt. These are the rock The decision where (when if) to build a nuclear power
types which other countries, like Sweden, France, plant, and even more important a nuclear waste repository
Germany or U.S.A. are currently using for their nuclear in Thailand, would have to incorporate the necessary
waste repository. Any export of the waste is either scientific data as outlined above. Any discussion about a
prohibited or will be opposed by the majority of the site selection needs to be put on a scientific fundament,
international community. rather than on belief and unbelief or like and dislike. If the
Thailand has a significant area covered by granitic bodies, fundaments for any site selection are strong then the
mainly in the northern, western and southern part. In the acceptance among the people and communities might be
past, tin mining was frequently associated with these so, too.
granites. But Thailand also has a large number of
hotsprings, which are located in the similar areas like the
granites. The hotsprings indicate that hot fluids are
circulating in the subsurface. These fluids will corrode
any waste repository very fast and will distribute the
radionuclides in the subsurface.
303
SPECTROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION OF
BELLATAIRE AND ILJIN HPHT TREATED DIAMONDS
Boontawee Sriprasert1,2, Wilawan Atichat2, Pornsawat Wathanakul2,3, Visut Pisutha-Arnond2,4,
Chakkaphan Sutthirat1,4, Thanong Leelawattanasuk2, Sunki Kim5, Chedthawat Jakkawanvibul2,
Sakrapee Saejoo2, Patra Srithunayothin2, Chotima Kunwisutthipan2, and Namrawee Susawee2
1
2
The Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
3
Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
4
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok10330, Thailand
5
Hanmi Gem Lab, Seoul, South Korea
ABSTRACT
A number of near colorless and fancy color HPHT treated diamonds with various cutting shapes from Bellataire (USA)
and Iljin (South Korea) Companies were carefully studied in the GIT_GTL by using both standard gemological
instruments and advanced spectroscopic techniques. Microscopic examination of diamonds from both sources reveals
some features commonly found in the HPHT treated diamonds; such as strain pattern, small feather-like fractures, dark
inclusions.
The Bellataire HPHT treated diamonds used in this study (14 samples) weigh from 0.19 to 0.34 ct. in different cutting
styles. Color grades of these diamonds range from J to M with IF to SI1 clarity grades. The Infrared spectra (FTIR)
indicate that all of them are of type IIa diamonds (Nitrogen free to below the detection limit of FTIR). The
Photoluminescence spectra (PL) show peaks at 637 (NV-) and 575 (NV0) nm and the ratio of 637/575 PL peak is
generally greater than 1. In addition, there seems to be some relationships between PL data and the color grades; that is
the lower is the 637/575 PL peak ratios, the better is the color of these Bellataire HPHT treated diamonds.
The Iljin HPHT treated diamonds (15 samples) weigh from 0.20 to 0.27 ct. in round brilliant cut shapes. Color grades of
those diamonds range from brownish yellow, greenish yellow to yellowish green with clarity ranging from VVS to SI and
commonly show green luminescence. The FTIR spectra indicate the types IaAB, IaB and IaA diamonds with the B
aggregate dominant over the A aggregate and all of them also show 1344 cm-1 absorption. The presence of 1344 cm-1
absorption peak (C center) of the Iljin HPHT treated diamonds is by itself a typical defect features of HPHT treated Ia
diamonds. The PL spectra also show peaks at 637 (NV-), 578, and 575 (NV0) nm similar to those the type IIa HPHT
treated diamonds. Surprisingly for being the HPHT treated diamond of type Ia, the Iljin HPHT treated diamonds give the
values of 637/575 PL peak ratio between 4 to 30 which are higher than those of the type IIa HPHT diamonds and others.
These are also in contrast to the natural brown to yellow type Ia diamonds and near colorless type IIa diamonds which
were investigated earlier in the GIT_GTL that the 637 and 575 PL peaks were not detected. The UV-Visible spectra
taken at cryogenic temperature show the absorption peaks at 415(N3), 494, 503(H3), 986(H2) nm. From this
investigation there seems to be some relationships between PL and UV-Vis data; that is the greater is the 637/575 PL
peak ratios, the higher intensity of 494, 503 nm of these Korean HPHT treated diamonds.
Keywords: HPHT treated diamond, FTIR spectra, UV-Visible spectra, Photoluminescence spectra
INTRODUCTION yellow to greenish yellow and their weights are normally

less than 2 carats. They may appear in different cutting
It has already been known that type Ia and IIa diamonds styles (round, octagon, oval, marquise, and pear) and may
can be treated by HPHT technique to change their color cause the confusing in the diamond trade. As the
(Moses, et al., 1999; Smith, et al., 2000; Fisher and Spits, GIT_GTL(Gem Testing Laboratory of GIT) is one of the
2000; Reinitz, et al., 2000; Collin, 2001). Currently, it is forefront gem laboratory in Thailand and well equipped
also found that commercial HPHT treated diamonds form with many sophisticated instruments capable of
various producers or with several trade names can be seen investigation of such treated diamonds, we therefore has
in every color such as colorless, yellow, greenish yellow, launched a research project with the purpose of finding
yellow-green, pink, red and blue(Hall and Moses, 2000; the rapid and low cost methods to distinguish such treated
Smith, et al., 2000; Hainschwang, et al., 2005; Wang, et diamonds from the natural counterparts. Having such
al., 2005). However, the majority of HPHT treated goal, this article is thus an output of on-going research
diamonds in the gem market are colorless/near-colorless, which is primarily deal with the study on two series of
304
diamonds known in the trade as “Bellataire” and “Iljin” and 8.5-9.5 KV was used to investigate the luminescence
HPHT treated diamonds. property of all diamonds.
MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULT FROM STANDARD

GEMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
In this study, fourteen near colorless HPHT treated
diamonds from Bellataire company (USA) and fifteen Bellataire HPHT treated diamonds
brownish yellow to yellowish green HPHT treated
diamonds from Iljin company (South Korea) with various The colors of studied diamonds range from J to M with IF
cutting shapes were carefully investigated and tested by to SI1 clarity grades. Their weights are from 0.19 to 0.27
using both standard gemological instruments and ct. The general appearances of these diamonds are
advanced spectroscopic techniques. The advanced illustrated in Figure 1. Microscopic examination reveals
techniques used in this investigation are some features commonly found in the HPHT treated
Photoluminescence (PL), Fourier Transform Infrared diamonds; such as strain pattern, small feather-like
(FTIR), Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopies and fractures (Fig. 2). There is however no special
Cathodoluminescence (CL). characteristic under SWUV and LWUV luminescence.
All diamonds were analysed by using Perkin Elmer UV- Table 1 shows the standard characteristics and properties
VIS-NIR Spectrophotometer, Model Lamda 800, under of the Bellataire HPHT treated diamonds.
near 77 K condition of liquid nitrogen. The wavelength
range used in this investigation is from 200 to 1000 nm in Iljin HPHT treated diamonds
the absorbance mode. The FTIR analysis was done by
using the Nicolet Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) The colors of the studied diamonds range from brownish
spectrometer, Model 670, with He-Ne Laser as the yellow, greenish yellow to yellowish green. Their
reference source. The measuring wavenumber range is weights are from 0.20 to 0.34 ct. in round brilliant shapes
between 400-5000 cm-1 in absorbance mode and 0.5 cm-1 and the clarity ranges from VVS to SI. The general
resolution with scanning time of 128 seconds. appearance of these diamonds are shown in Figure 3.
The Photoluminescence (PL) analysis was carried out by Microscopic examination reveals strain pattern, small
using RANISHAW microscopic Raman spectroscope feather-like fractures, color zoning and dark inclusions in
system 1000 with low temperature condition (near 77 °K). some stones (Fig. 4). Under normal light and long wave
The Ar/Ar 514.5 nm was used as exciting laser and the ultraviolet light (LWUV), the green stones commonly
measuring wavelengths are between 500-1,000 nm. show a greenish transmission luminescence (Fig. 5).
The Cathodoluminoscope (CL) model CLmk4 of Table 2 shows the standard characteristics and properties
Cambridge Image Technology Limited with 280-330 MA of the Iljin HPHT treated diamonds.
HPHT01 HPHT02 HPHT03 HPHT04 HPHT05 HPHT06
HPHT13 HPHT14
Figure 1. Bellataire HPHT treated diamonds.
305
Figure 2. Some features commonly found in the Bellataire HPHT treated diamonds.
DKS01 DKS02 DKS03 DKS04 DKS05 DKS06
DKS07 DKS08 DKS09
Figure 3. Iljin HPHT treated diamonds.
Figure 4. Features commonly found in the Iljin HPHT treated diamonds.
Table 1 General characteristics and properties of the Bellataire HPHT treated diamonds.
Bellataire HPHT treated diamonds
NO. HPHT 01 HPHT 02 HPHT 03 HPHT 04 HPHT 05 HPHT 06 HPHT 07
Weight (ct) 0.26 0.34 0.23 0.26 0.19 0.19 0.19
Shape Emerald Rectangular Marquise Emerald Round Round Round
Color Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless
Type IIa IIa IIa IIa IIa IIa IIa
Fluorescence (SWUV) Inert Inert Inert Inert Inert Inert Inert
Fluorescence (LWUV) Inert Inert Inert Weak Inert Inert Inert
chalky blue
NO. HPHT 08 HPHT 09 HPHT 10 HPHT 11 HPHT 12 HPHT 13 HPHT 14
Weight (ct) 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.29 0.20
Shape Round Round Round Round Round Round Square
Emerald
Color Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless
Type IIa IIa IIa IIa IIa IIa IIa
Fluorescence (SWUV) Inert Inert Inert Inert Inert Inert Inert
Fluorescence (LWUV) Inert Inert Inert Inert Inert Inert Inert
306
Table 2 General characteristics and properties of the Iljin HPHT treated diamonds.
Iljin HPHT treated diamonds

NO. HPHT 16 HPHT 17 HPHT 18 HPHT 19 HPHT 20 HPHT 21 DKS 01 DKS 02
Weight (ct) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.20 0.20 0.2 0.27 0.26
Shape Round Round Round Round Round Round Round Round
Color Brownish Yellow Yellow Green Brownish Yellowish Yellow Yellowis
yellow green yellow green h green
Type IaAB IaB IaAB IaAB IaAB IaA IaAB IaA
Fluorescence (SWUV) Inert Moderate Strong Moderate Slightly Strong Inert Moderat
green green green green green e green
Fluorescence (LWUV) Inert Slightly Strong Strong Inert Strong Inert Strong
green green green green green
NO. DKS 03 DKS 04 DKS 05 DKS 06 DKS 07 DKS 08 DKS 09
Weight (ct) 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.23 0.23 0.22
Shape Round Round Round Round Round Round Round
Color Yellowish Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellowish Green Yellowis
green green h green
Type IaAB IaAB IaAB IaB IaAB IaAB IaAB
Fluorescence (SWUV) Moderate Inert Inert Slightly Moderate Moderate Moderat
green green green green e green
Fluorescence (LWUV) Strong Inert Inert Slightly Strong Strong Strong
green green green green green
637/575 PL peak showed a broad absorption band at

about 270 nm (Fig. 8).
The FTIR spectra indicate that the studied diamonds are

of the types IaAB, IaB and IaA diamonds (Fig. 9) with the
B aggregate dominant over the A aggregate and all of
them also show 1344 cm-1 absorption. The PL spectra
also show peaks at 637 (NV-), 578 and 575 (NV0) nm
(Fig. 10) similar to those of the HPHT treated type IIa
diamonds. The UV-Visible absorption peaks taken at
cryogenic temperature are 415(N3), 494, 503(H3),
986(H2) nm (Fig 11). Table 3 shows all spectroscopic
data of the studied diamonds.
Figure 5. The greenish stones of Iljin HPHT treated diamonds
commonly show a green transmission luminescence under LW
and normal light.
RESULT FROM ADVANCED

GEMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
The FTIR spectra indicate that they are all type IIa
diamonds (Nitrogen free to below the detection limit of
FTIR) (Fig. 6) and the PL spectra also show peaks at 637
(NV-) and 575 (NV0) nm (Chalain, et al, 2000; Fisher and Figure 6. The FTIR spectra from some of Bellataire HPHT
Spits, 2000). This is in contrast to PL spectra of natural treated diamonds.
type IIa diamonds that are generally shows weak or
almost vanished 637nm peak. Change is mainly seen in
N-V centre before and after the treatment, as (negatively
charged N-V defect) 637nm peak is likely to become
stronger (Fig. 7).
The UV-Vis spectra taken at cryogenic temperature
however showed no distinct absorption peaks except some Figure 7. PL spectra from some of Bellataire HPHT treated
samples with lower color grade (M) or higher ratio of diamonds.
307
Surprisingly for being the HPHT treated type Ia diamond,
the Iljin HPHT treated diamonds give the values of
637/575 PL peak ratio between 4 to 30 which are higher
than those of the HPHT treated type IIa diamonds(e.g.,
higher ratio in yellow color to lower ratio for green color).
This is also reflected by the fact that the Full Width at
Half Maximum (FWHM) values of the 637 nm PL peaks
are essentially greater than that of the 575 nm PL peaks in
all samples. Moreover, the FWHM values of these two
PL peaks (637 and 575) of all diamonds are generally
greater than 1 which are different from those of Bellataire
HPHT treated diamonds and other HPHT treated type IIa
diamonds. These are also in contrast to the natural brown
to yellow type Ia diamonds which were investigated
earlier in the GIT_GTL that the 637 and 575 PL peaks
were not detected. Again based on these PL
investigations, there seems to have clear distinctions
between HPHT treated type Ia diamonds and their natural
counterparts as well as the HPHT treated type IIa
diamonds. The UV-Visible absorption peaks taken at
cryogenic temperature are 415(N3), 494, 503(H3),
986(H2) nm, which are the typical spectra related to
HPHT treated Ia diamonds (Reinitz, et al, 2000; Collin,
2000, 2001; Zaitsev, 2001; Deljanin and Semenets, 2003;
Wang, et al., 2005). There are some relationship between
PL and UV-Vis data as well; that is the greater is the
637/575 PL peak ratios, the higher intensity of 494, 503
Figure 8. UV-Vis spectra from some of Bellataire HPHT
nm of these Korean HPHT treated diamonds. From this
treated diamonds. investigation, the 1344 cm-1 absorption peak which
indicate to C form of Nitrogen (C center) in Ib natural
diamonds is found in all Iljin HPHT treated diamonds.
DISCUSSIONS
This defect is the characteristic feature commonly found
in HPHT treated Ia diamonds (Collin, 2001).
As usually expected for any HPHT treated type IIa
diamonds, these Bellataire HPHT treated diamonds give
the values of 637/575 PL peak ratio greater than 1 (e.g., CONCLUDING REMARKS
1.18 for K color to 3.02 for M color). This is also
reflected by the fact that the Full Width at Half Maximum In conclusion, it is quite a challenge to be able to
(FWHM) values of the 637 nm PL peaks are essentially distinguish HPHT treated diamonds from their natural
greater than that of the 575 nm PL peaks in all samples. counterparts. On gemological point of view, it is
Furthermore, the FWHM values of these two PL peaks promising from this study that some diagnostic
(637 and 575) of all diamonds are generally less than 1. spectroscopic data, especially the PL, could be practically
These are in contrast to the brown tinted natural type IIa used as a diagnostic clue for separating HPHT treated
diamonds which were investigated earlier in the diamonds from the natural ones and these techniques are
GIT_GTL, the 637 PL peaks were not detected and the available at the GIT_GTL.
FWHM values of 575 nm PL peaks were very low (<0.5).
Further information from this investigation are that there ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
seems to be some relationship between PL data and the
color grades; that is the lower is the 637/575 PL peak This costly instrument-based research will not be possible
ratios, the better is the color. Hence there are clear without the full support from the GIT for the sophisticated
distinctions between HPHT treated type IIa diamond and equipment, funding as well as manpower for which the
their natural counterparts based on these PL authors would like to express their thankfulness.
investigations. The UV-Vis spectra taken at cryogenic
temperature, on the contrary, show no diagnostic
absorption peaks that can be use as an indication for the
HPHT treatment, except some samples with lower color
grade(M) or higher ratio of 637/575 PL peak showed a
broad absorption band at about 270 nm. This absorption
band may be due to the formation of a small amount of
single nitrogen (Smith, et al, 2000; Collin, 2001).
308
3107 cm-1 1344 cm-1
3107 cm-1 1344 cm-1
HPHT 18
HPHT 19
DKS 03
DKS 07
DKS 08
DKS 09
Figure 9. The FTIR spectra from some of Iljin HPHT treated diamonds.
309
575 nmNV 637 nmNV
575 nmNV 637 nmNV
HPHT 18
HPHT 19
DKS 03
DKS 07
DKS 08
DKS 09
Figure10. PL spectra from some of Iljin HPHT treated diamonds.
310
HPHT 18
HPHT 19
DKS 03
DKS 07
DKS 08
DKS 09
Figure 11. UV-Vis spectra from some of of Iljin HPHT treated diamonds.
311
Table 3 Summary of spectroscopic data of some studied diamonds using the advanced instruments.

NO. HPHT01 HPHT04 HPHT05 HPHT06 HPHT07 HPHT08 HPHT12
Infrared peaks 668,1011,3106 668,1016 1015 1017 No 1016 668
important
peak
UV-VIS_NIR peaks 229,235,268, No important 695 229,235, No No 271
271,415 peak 415 important important
peak peak
Intensity of PL 637>575 637>575 637>575 637>575 637>575 637>575 637>575
peaks(637,575 nm)
637/575 peak ratio 3.02 1.18 1.71 2.59 1.50 2.29 2.39
Cathod Luminescence

NO. HPHT17 HPHT18 HPHT21 DSK03 DSK06 DSK07 DSK08
Infrared peaks 1011,1095, 1016,1097, 1095,1180, 1010,1095,1 1010,1095, 669,1010, 1010,1095,
1281, 1331, 1172, 1281, 1282, 1360, 174, 1282, 1174,1332, 1095, 1174, 1174,1332,
3106,1011 1331,3106 3106 1331,1360 1344 1282, 1332 3107
3106 1360
UV-VIS_NIR peaks 415,637,745 415,637,745, 415,494, 415,494,503 415 415,494, 415,494,
780 503, 794 503 503, 637
Intensity of PL peaks 637>575 637>575 637>575 637>575 637>575 637>575 637>575
(637,575 nm)
637/575 peak ratio 14.78 4.19 5.36 0.96 1.81 1.92 10.13
Cathod Luminescence
REFERENCES Smith, C.P., Bosshart, G., Ponahlo, J., Hammer, V.M.F.,

Klapper, H. and Schmetzer, K., 2000, GE POL diamonds:
Before and after, Gems & Gemology, Vol. 36, No.3, p.192-
Chalain, J-P, Fritsch, E., and Hänni, H.A., 2000, Identification
215.
of GE POL diamonds: a second step, The Journal of
Wang, W., Smith, C. P., Hall, M.S., Breeding, C. M. , and
Gemmology, Vol. 27 No 2, p. 73-78.
Moses, T. M., 2005, Treated-Color Pink-to-Red Diamonds
Collin, A.T., 2000, Spectroscopy of defects and transition metals
in diamond, Diamond and Related Materials, Vol. 9, No. from Lucent Diamonds Inc., Gem & Gemology, Vol.41,
3/6, p. 417- 423. No.1, p.6-19.
Collin, A.T., 2001, The colour of diamond and how it may be Zaitsev, A.M., 2001, Optical properties of diamond: A Data
changed, The Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 27, No.6, p. Handbook, Springer Verlag, 502 p.
341-359.
Deljanin, B. and Semenets, E., 2003, HPHT-processed diamonds
from Korea, Gem News, Gems & Gemology, Vol.39, No.3, p.
240-241.
Fisher, D., Spits, R. A., 2000, Spectroscopic evidence of GE
POL HPHT- Treated natural type II diamond, Gems &
Gemmology, Vol.36, No.1, p. 42-49.
Hall, M., and Moses, T., 2000, Gem Trade Lab Notes: Diamond-
blue and pink HPHT annealed, Gems & Gemology, Vol.36,
No.3, p. 255.
Hainschwang, T., Katrusha, A., and Vollstaed, H., 2005, HPHT
Treatment of different classes of type I brown diamond,
The Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 29, No.5, p. 261-273.
Moses, T.M, Shigley, J.E., McClure, S., Koivula, J. and Van
Daele, M., 1999, Observation on GE-Processed Diamonds:
A Photographic Record, Gems & Gemology, Vol.35, No.3,
p.14-22.
Reinitz, I. M , Buerki, P. R., Shigley, J. E., McClure, S. F., and
Moses, T. M., 2000, Identification of HPHT-treated yellow
to green diamonds, Gems & Gemology, Vol. 36, No.2,
p.128-137.
312
STRATIGRAPHY AND FACIES OF PYROCLASTIC ROCKS IN THE

ABANDONED KAOLIN MINE, PAK FANG VILLAGE, MUANG UTTARADIT
DISTRICT, UTTARADIT PROVINCE, NORTHERN THAILAND
Y. Panjasawatwong*, B. Srithai, J. Khanmanee, and K. Metprasopsan
Department of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
E-mail: scgli005@chiangmai.ac.th
ABSTRACT
A pyroclastic pile with a total thickness of 62.12 m in the abandoned kaolin mine at a grid reference of
47QPV288555, Pak Fang Village, Muang Uttaradit District, Uttaradit Province can be separated into three rock units, from
bottom to top, as A, B and C. Petrographic study shows that the rock unit A is a welded pumice flow deposit, and that the
rock units B and C are non-welded pumice flow deposits. The rock units B and C represent the upper, colder part with a slow
cooling rate, whereas the rock unit A represents the lower, hotter part with a fast cooling rate in the initial stage and slow
cooling rate in the final stage.
Piyasin (1974), the mine is underlain by the rock unit
INTRODUCTION mapped as “Triassic rhyolite, tuff and agglomerate” (Fig. 2).
The recent database for geological maps of the Geological
The incoherent volcanic rocks presented in this Survey Bureau, Department of Mineral Resources, however,
study are from the abandoned kaolin mine at a grid shows that these volcanic rocks and pyroclastic equivalents
reference of 47QPV288555, Pak Fang Village, Muang to post-Triassic. The rocks have partly experienced
Uttaradit District, Uttaradit Province. The mine is located at alteration, leading to kaolin in many places. A quarry
the eastern flank of a small hill, appeared on a 1:50,000 section of the abandoned kaolin mine, with a total thickness
topographic map sheet 5044 III (Changwat Uttaradit), of 62.12 m, was carefully examined in this study to achieve
published by the Royal Thai Survey Department (1999), as stratigraphy. Volcanic facies analysis was carried out on the
shown in figure 1. According to the 1:250,000 geological basis of field observation and petrographic study.
map sheet NE47-11 (Changwat Uttaradit) compiled by
Figure 1. Part of 1:50,000 topographic map sheet 5044 III (Changwat Uttaradit), published by Royal Thai Survey Department (1992),
showing the location of the abandoned kaolin mine presented in this study (solid circle).
313
Figure 2. Part of 1:250,000 geological map sheet NE 47-11 (Changwat Uttaradit),
compiled by Piyasin (1974), shows the study location (solid circle).
VOLCANIC STRATIGRAPHY AND FACIES 202º/40ºSE and can be divided into three rock units, from
bottom to top, as follows: A, B and C (Fig. 3).
The rocks in the abandoned kaolin mine are all Rock unit A has a total thickness of 30 m and is
pyroclastic, and partly have similar features to clastic characterized by pronounced spherulitic textures (Fig. 4a).
sedimentary rocks. They have an attitude of bedding of The pyroclastic rocks of this unit are severely altered,
314
Figure 3. Graphic log shows stratigraphy and facies of the studied pyroclastic deposit.
leading to sandy and gravelly clastic appearance or clay clasts in the reddish purple beds have coarser sizes than
mineral in part. Although they have experienced intensive those in the light green beds. The gravel-grade clasts in the
alteration, spherulitic relicts are still well preserved. These pyroclastic rocks of rock unit B have finer sizes relative to
spherulites have rounded shapes with sizes ranging from 0.5 those of rock unit C. The constituents of finer-grained
to 2 cm across. Following McPhie et al. (1993), the matrix include abundant clay mineral and subordinate sand-
occurrence of spherulites implies that the rock unit A was to silt-grade clasts. The reddish purple and light green
originally made up essentially of glass. The glassy rocks pyroclastic rocks are partly altered to clay mineral. The
have been subsequently devitrified at high-temperature, alteration intensity of this rock unit is lesser than that of the
giving rise to spherulites. The rocks could be either coherent above rock unit C.
facies volcanic rocks or apparent coherent facies pyroclastic Rock unit C is on top of Rock unit B without a
rocks. The sandy clastic appearance might has been stratigraphic break and has a total thickness of 17.76 m.
developed by low-temperature recrystallization. The unit is made up of coarser-grained, reddish purple
Rock unit B conformably overlies rock unit A and pyroclastic rocks interbedded with finer-grained, whitish
is 14.4 m in total thickness. The unit comprises interbedded pyroclastic rocks (Fig. 4c). Thickness of individual bed is
of reddish purple and light green pyroclastic rocks (Fig. 4b). up to 1.5 m. Upper part of the unit generally has thicker
Individual bed has thickness varying from 20 cm to 3 m. beds relative to the lower part. The pyroclastic rocks of this
Both the reddish purple and light green pyroclastic beds are unit are poorly sorted, and almost totally altered to clay
poorly sorted, consisting of variably sized, gravel-grade mineral. The reddish purple pyroclastic rocks contain 20-25
clasts loosely in the finer-grained matrix. The gravel-grade modal% gravel-sized, angular to subrounded clasts (sizes up
315
to 10 cm across), whereas the whitish pyroclastic rocks have and whitish pyroclastic rocks is a mixture of abundant clay
10-15 modal% gravel-sized, angular to subangular clasts mineral and subordinate sand- to silt-grade clasts.
(sizes up to 3 cm across). The matrix of the reddish purple
a b
Figure 4. Photographs of (a) spherulites in pyroclastic rocks, with sandy gravelly clastic appearance (rock unit A),
(b) interbedded of reddish purple and light green pytroclastic rocks (rock unit B), and (c) interbedded of
coarser-grained, reddish purple and finer-grained, whitish pyroclastic rocks (rock unit C).
PETROGRAPHY micropoikilitic quartz, lithophysa and eutaxitic textures

signify that the host rock prior to devitrification and
Rock Unit A recrystallization was a welded pyroclastic flow deposit that
has undergone high-temperature devitrification. Subsequent
low-temperature recrystallization gives rise to granophyric
A number of pherulites have been picked up from quartz and feldspar intergrowths (MacPhie et al., 1993).
the spherulitic-textured rock unit A. The collected
spherulites have rounded shapes with diameters in a range Rock Units B and C
of 0.5 – 1 cm. Petrographic study has been carried out on
spherulite samples and the result shows that they have The petrographically studied rock samples of rock
granophyric intergrowths of quartz and feldspar, with unit B cover coarser-grained, reddish purple and finer-
radiate fibrous relicts (Fig. 5a) or eutaxitic-textured relicts grained, light green pyroclastic rocks. In the same manner,
(Fig. 5b and 5c), or aggregates of micropoikilitic quartz the studied rock samples of rock unit C are coarser-grained,
(Fig. 5d). The spherulite consisting of granophyric quartz reddish purple and finer-grained, whitish pyroclastic rocks.
and feldspar with eutaxitic-textured relicts contains a central These pyroclastic rocks have similar constituents, and are
cavity that is sealed by drusy mosaic quartz, typical of non-welded pumice flow deposits or non-welded
lithophysa. The occurrences of radiate fibrous aggregates, ignimbrites, although they are different in color, grain size
316
0.5 mm 0.5 mm
0.5 mm 0.2 mm
Figure 5. Photomicrographs of granophyric mosaic of quartz and feldspar, with a relict radiate-textured spherulite (a), relicts of
eutaxitic texture in ordinary light (b) and between crossed polars (c) and a micropoikilitic aggregate (d) in rock unit A.
and alteration intensity. They are constituted almost totally features, while feldspars are subhedral, and partly replaced
by juvenile magmatic clasts and the very fine-grained by clay mineral and/or sericite.
matrix of which grain sizes are less than 0.05 mm across. The very fine-grained matrix might has been glass
The juvenile magmatic clasts are much less abundant fragments that have experienced low-temperature
relative to the very fine-grained matrix and include pumice recrystallization, producing granophyric quartz-feldspar
fragments, crystals and crystal fragments, and/or glass mosaic, and then sericitization, leading to abundant sericite.
shards. Fragments of siltstone and sandstone may be
occasionally present in very few samples. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
Pumice fragments are the predominant juvenile
magmatic clasts of the studied pyroclastic rocks. Their The pyroclastic rocks exposed in the abandoned
shapes and sizes are highly variable, and may be completely kaolin mine at a grid reference of 47QPV288555, Pak Fang
replaced by granophyric quartz-feldspar aggregates (Fig. 6a, Village, Muang Uttaradit District, Uttaradit Province have a
6b, 6c and 6d). The granophyric quartz-feldspar aggregates total thickness of 62.12 m. They can be separated, on basis
are believed to have been formed by low-temperature of field observation, into three rock units, from bottom to
recrystallization (MacPhie et al.,1993). top, as follows: A, B and C. The rock unit A is a welded
Glass shards generally have sizes less than 0.01 pumice flow deposit or welded ignimbrite as evidenced by
mm across and show platy and cuspate shapes (Figures 6e spherulites that has been developed by high-temperature
and 6f). They are all totally replaced by granophyric quartz devitrification. The other evidences for high-temperature
and feldspar aggregates as the result of low-temperature devitrification include lithophysa and micropoikilitic quartz.
crystallization (MacPhie et al., 1993). In addition, perlite The rock unit A has also experienced subsequent low-
fragments (hydrated glass) have been detected in very few temperature recrystallization, resulting in the occurrence of
samples. granophyric quartz-feldspar mosaic, and the hydrothermal
Crystals and crystal fragments are quartz and process “sericitization”. The rock units B and C are non-
feldspars. Quartz shows anhedral outlines with corroded welded pumice flow deposits or non-welded ignimbrites
that have undergone low-temperature recrystallization to
317
0.5 mm 0.5 mm
0.5 mm 0.5 mm
0.5 mm
0.5 mm
Figure 6. Photomicrographs of non-welded pumice flow deposits (rock units B and C) show replacement of pumice clasts by
granophyric quartz and feldspar in ordinary light (a) and crossed polars (b), variably sized and shaped pumice fragments
that are replaced by granophyric quartz and feldspar in ordinary light (c) and crossed polars (d), and glass shards with platy
and cuspate shapes that are totally replaced by granophyric quartz and feldspar in ordinary light (e) and crossed polars (f
granophyric quartz-feldspar mosaic, and the hydrothermal REFERENCES

process “sericitization”. The stratigraphic positions of the
rock units show that the rock units B and C represent the McPhie, J., Doyle, M. and Allen, R., 1993, Volcanic Textures –
upper, colder part with a slow cooling rate, whereas the A Guide to the Interpretation of Textures in Volcanic
rock unit A represents the lower, hotter part with a fast Rocks. Tasmanian Government Printing Office, Hobart.
cooling rate in the initial stage and slow cooling rate in the Piyasin, S., 1974, Geological Map of Changwat Uttaradit scale
final stage. It is expected that the pyroclastic deposits just 1:250,000. Geological Survey Division, Department of
below the rock unit A would be a non-welded pumice Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand.
Royal Thai Survey Department, 1999, Topographic map sheet
flow deposit that represents the lower, colder part with a 5044III (Changwat Uttaradit) scale 1:50,000. Royal Thai
slow cooling rate. Survey Department, Bangkok, Thailand.
318
STRATIGRAPHY AND TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THAILAND

Pol Chaodumrong
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand: E-mail-pol@dmr.go.th
EXTENDED ABSTRACT
Thailand, tectonically consists of two major Gondwana derived terranes, namely Shan-Thai to the west, and Indochina to
the east, that were amalgamated along Nan-Uttaradit suture (Fig. 1) during Late Triassic (e.g., Bunopas, 1981; Burrett
and Strait, 1985; Panjasawatwong, 1991; Chaodumrong, 1992), although opinions on moving history vary. Different in
their stratigraphies, particularly during Carboniferous to Triassic, strongly supported this interpretation.
Indochina terrane drifted away from the Gondwana in Late Devonian, as suggested by radiolarian assemblages from
chert in the suture zone (Metcalfe, 1997; Hada et al., 1997). These were continuously followed by Carboniferous clastics
and Permian platform carbonates exhibited Cathaysian affinity. While Shan-Thai terrane was adjacent to NW Australian
part of the Gondwana till Early Permian, as evidenced by not only stratigraphic similarity from Cambrian to Early
Permian but also close faunal affinities in particular during Cambrian to Devonian (Burrett et al., 1990).
Discovery of Devonian to Middle Triassic deep sea thin-bedded chert, and Cathaysian fauna in Carboniferous to Permian
limestones in northern Thailand (Fontaine, 2002) where formerly mapped as part of the Shan-Thai terrane (3 in Fig. 2),
led to interpretation of major Paleotethys ocean with occurrence of seamount limestones in low latitude area.
Occurrences of Lower Paleozoic clastics and fauna in the northern Thailand similar to those of Shan-Thai terrane (Fig. 2)
suggest they were also derived-fragments of the Gondwana. Subsequently, new suture zones of the Paleotethys have also
been proposed in Chiang Mai and Mae Sariang areas (Caridroit et al., 1993; Sashida et al., 1993, Ueno, 2003). However,
westward subduction of the Indochina terrane beneath the Shan-Thai terrane along the Nan-Uttaradit suture is preferred.
This interpretation is strongly supported not only by the presence of magmatic arc, Permian to Middle Triassic deep sea
thin-bedded chert, Triassic forearc sediments and ophiolite rocks but also occurrences of syn- and post-subduction related
plutonics.
Precambrian rocks have been mapped with regard to their Cathaysia. During Late Permian, it still remained at a
degree of high grade metamorphism. Sedimentary distance from the Indochina terrane, as suggested by
protolith from paragneiss was dated as around 600 ma faunal differences such as Shanita and fusulinadean.
(Salyapongse, 2002). This was challenged by In the northeastern Thailand, hiatus occurred extensively
metamorphic core complex model that indicated the during Early to Middle Triassic. By the Late Triassic,
protoliths of orthogneiss were Late Triassic-Early Jurassic extensional basins were formed, and followed by a
granites, experienced low pressure metamorphism and thermal subsidence that resulted in the continental
migmatitization in Late Cretaceous and Early Miocene deposition of Jurassic-Cretaceous red beds (Cooper et al.,
(Barr et al., 2002). In the Shan-Thai, Upper Cambrian 1989).
shallow marine siliciclastics with Trilobite cropped out Effect of continental collision between the Shan-Thai,
only at Tarutao island, next to Malaysian border, whereas then as a part of the Eurasia, and Western Burma terrane
on the mainland consists mainly of quartzite. They were along the Shan Boundary during Cretaceous, and later
conformably overlain by Ordovician shallow marine during Tertiary from India and Eurasia that created huge
carbonates and Silurian-Devonian fine-grained sediments Himalayan mountain belt, had greatly enhanced the
with graptolite and tentaculite. Only in the southern complexity of geological structures in this region, in
peninsula, there were overlain conformably by Lower particular northern Thailand. As a result, oroclinal “S-
Carboniferous fine-grained sediments containing shaped” structural trends and clockwise rotation of NE
Posidonomya sp. Stratigraphic break or hiatus occurred Thailand caused by crustal movement was created prior to
widely on the Shan-Thai terrane during Late wide development of extensional Tertiary basins in the
Carboniferous. Lower Permian glacial marine sediments region.
cropped out mainly in the Peninsula, particularly the Granites in Thailand occurred in three north-south belts.
western part (1 in Fig. 2) that could be traced northward to The Eastern belt contains small batholiths of I-type
Burma and southwestern China, and southward to Triassic granites. The Central belt consists of major
Malaysia and Sumatra. Depositional environment batholiths showing S-type Triassic granites. The Western
gradually changed to carbonate platform during Middle to belt contained mixed population of S-type and I-type
Upper Permian. Faunal evidences indicated that during Cretaceous granites.
Middle Permian, the Shan-Thai terrane moved northward
to a warm-temperate area between Gondwana and
319
Caridroit, M., 1993, Permian radiolaria from NW Thailand. In T.
Thanasuthipitak , ed., Proceedings International
Symposium on Biostratigraphy of mainland Southeast Asia:
Facies and paleontology, Chiang Mai University, Thailand,
83-96.
Chaodumrong, P.,1992, Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and
Tectonic Setting of the Lampang Group, Central North
Thailand. unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of
Tasmania, 230 p.
Chaodumrong, P., Assavapatchara, S. and Jongautchariyakul, S.,
2004, Final report on Comparative research on Permian
strata and fauna between West Yunnan and West Thailand.
Research project funded by National Research Council of
Thailand, 235p.
Cooper, M.A., Herbert, R. and Hill, G.S., 1989, The structural
evolution of Triassic intermontane basins in northern
Thailand. In T. Thanasuthipitak, and P. Ounchanum, eds.,
Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Intermontane Basins: Geology and Resources, Department
of Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang
Mai, Thailand, January 30-February 2, p.231-242.
Fontaine, H., 2002, Permian of Southeast Asia: an over view.
Journal of SE. Asian Earth Science, v.20, n 6, p. 567-588.
Hada, S., Bunopas, S., Ishii, K. and Yoshikura, S, 1997, Rift-
drift history and the amalgamation of Shan-Thai and
Indochina/East Malaya Blocks. In P. Dheeradilok, C.
Hinthong, P. Chaodumrong, P. Putthaphiban, W.
Tansathien, C. Utha-aroon, N. Sattarak, T. Nuchanong, and
S. Techawan, eds., Proceedings of the International
Conference on Statigraphy and Tectonic Evolution of
Southeast Asia and the South Pacific (Geothai'97),
Bangkok, Thailand, August 19-24, v.1, p.273-286.
Metcalfe, I., 1997, The Palaeo-Tethys and Palaeozoic-Mesozoic
tectonic evolution of Southeast Asia, In P. Dheeradilok, C.
Figure 1 Map showing distribution of continental terranes in Hinthong, P. Chaodumrong, P. Putthaphiban, W.
Thailand and adjacent areas Tansathien, C. Utha-aroon, N. Sattarak, T. Nuchanong, and
(data from Wang et al., 2001; Fontaine, 2002; Ueno, S. Techawan, eds., Proceedings of the International
2003; Chaodumrong et al., 2004). Conference on Stratigraphy and Tectonic Evolution of
Southeast Asia and the South Pacific, Bangkok,
Department of Mineral Resources, p.260-272.
REFERENCES Panjasawatwong, Y., 1991, Petrology, geochemistry and
tectonic implications of igneous rocks in the Nan Suture,
Barr, M., Macdonald, A.S., Miller, B.V., Reynolds, P.H., Thailand, and an empirical study of the effects of Ca/Na,
Rhodes, B.P. and Yogart, B., 2002, New U-Pb and Al/Si and H2O on plagioclase – melt equilibria at 5 – 10 kb
40Ar/39Ar ages from the Doi Inthanon and Doi Suthep pressure: University of Tasmania, unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
Metamorphic Core Complexes, northwestern Thailand. In 239 p.
N. Mantajit ed in chief, Proceedings of the symposium on Salyapongse, S., 2002, Precambrian rocks of Thailand. In N.
Geology of Thailand, Bangkok, Department of Mineral Mantajit ed in chief, Proceedings of the symposium on
Resources, p. 284-294. Geology of Thailand, Bangkok, Department of Mineral
Bunopas, S., 1981, Paleogeographic history of Western Thailand Resources, p. 14-15.
and adjacent parts of Southeast Asia - A plate tectonics Sashida, K., Igo, H., Hisada, K.I., Nakornsri, N. and
interpretation. Ph.D. thesis, Victoria University of Amphornmaha, A., 1993, Preliminary report of the
Wellington, New Zealand., 810 p.; reprinted 1982 as occurrence of Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic radiolaria
Geological Survey Paper no.5, Geological Survey Division, from Thailand, Journal of SE. Asian Earth Science, v.8,
Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand. p.97-108.
Burrett, C. and Stait, B., 1985, Southeast Asia as part of an Wang, X. D., Sugiyama, T. and Fang, R. S., 2001,
Ordovician Gondwanaland - apalacobiogeographic test of Carboniferous and Permian coral faunas of West Yunnan,
the tectonic hypothesis. Earth Planet Science Letters 75, Southwest China: implication for the Gondwana/ Cathaysia
p.67-77. divide. Bull. Tohoku univ. Museum, No. 1, pp. 265-278.
Burrett, C., Long, J. and Stait, B., 1990, Early-Middle Ueno, K., 2003, The Permian fusulinoidean faunas of the
Palaeozoic biogeography of Asia terranes derived from Sibumasu and Baoshan blocks: their implications for the
Gondwana. In W.S. McKerro and C.R. Scottese, eds., paleogeographic and paleoclimatologic reconstruction of
Palaeogeography and Biogeography, Geological Society the Cimmerian Continent. PALAEO 193, 1-24.
Memoir no.12, p.163-174.
320
Figure 2 Stratigraphic correlation of 5 structural belts in Thailand: 1) Upper peninsular,
2) western to peninsular, 3) northern, 4) Phetchabun-Sra Kaeo, and 5) northeastern.
321
STUDY ON THE ESTIMATION OF STRONG GROUND MOTIONS – CASE

STUDY USING NAM MA FAULT EARTHQUAKE
Akira Kitazumi1, Suwith Kosuwan2, Preecha Saithong2, Weerachat Wiwegwin2, Burin Wechbunthung3,
Tirawat Boonyatee4
1
JICA Senior Volunteer, E-mail:kitazumi@pop12.odn.ne.jp
2
Depertment of Mineral Resources, Bangkok 10400, Thailand, E-mail:suwith@yahoo.com
3
Thai Meteorological Department, Bangkok 10260, Thailand, E-mail:burin_tmd@yahoo.com
4
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand, E-mail:dr.terawatt@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Identification of active faults as well as capability to estimate size and shape of seismic wave caused by them are
important for earthquake disaster prevention. In this study, an effort is made for applying semi-empirical Green’s
function method (SEGFM) to estimate strong earthquake ground motion in Thailand.
The study is conducted by using seismic record of May 16th 2007 earthquake which had epicenter in the northwestern
part of Laos. The seismic record is obtained from TMD Chiang Mai observation station.
Procedure of the estimation starts from defining fault parameters of target earthquake and divides the target fault into a
number of sub-faults according to scaling laws. Then, synthesis of main shock is made using the aftershock of seismic
record as seed signal.
By comparison between the estimated and observed main shock, we conclude that the SEGFM is adaptable for
estimating of strong earthquake motion in Thailand.
Key words: strong ground motion, northwestern Thailand, seismic wave form, epicenter
INTRODUCTION Toward these goals, a case study has been conducted

using seismic record of previously mentioned earthquake
Recently, earthquake becomes an uncommon on May 16th. The data (thereafter, referred to as Nam Ma
phenomenon for Thais. On May 16th, a number of people record) is obtained from Chiangmai observation station of
took refuge outside of high-rise buildings in the center of TMD (Thai Meteorological Department).
Bangkok due to earthquake. The earthquake propagated For investigating purpose, the data was divided into two
from epicenter in Laos with magnitude of 6.3. An parts that are main shock and aftershock parts. The
accelerometer (TSA-1) installed at Chulalongkorn aftershock part is used for Green’s function to synthesis
University reveals that dominant period of the seismic strong ground motion during earthquake, or in other
ground motion was rather long (about 2-3 seconds). words, predicted main shock. Then, the predicted and
Based on recent earthquake activities and available measured main shocks were compared to verify the
subsoil data, it is thought that earthquakes with rather synthesis model.
long period might be the most disastrous type of
earthquake for Bangkok area. In this regards, the authors METHODOLOGY
have initiated two research projects involving; (1)
Synthesis model for generating long period earthquake The focus of this report is on development of a synthesis
motion, specifically those radiate from “Three pagodas” model that would be able to predict the bedrock motion of
and “Sri Sawat” fault zones. (2) Prospecting of Vp and Vs Bangkok basin. The synthesis model is based on the SEGFM.
profiles of Bangkok basin. A seismic wave at ground surface can be thought as the
Three pagodas and Sri Sawat fault zones are selected convolution of bedrock motion with impulse response of
because they are the nearest to Bangkok. Both of them are destination site. The bedrock motion, in turn, is
on the west, located in Kanchana Buri province. The obtainable from the convolution of seismic wave at
synthesis model is based on semi-empirical Green’s source with impulse response of propagation medium. In
function method (SEGFM). The SEGFM is commonly sum, a seismic wave at ground surface is the convolution
used to predict strong earthquake ground motion and also of seismic wave at source with the impulse responses of
to generate “Scenario earthquake” in Japan. propagation medium and destination site as shown in figure 1.
In this article, the authors would like to verify whether it As a result, understandings of bedrock motion and
is possible or not to apply the SEGFM for prediction of velocity profiles of Bangkok basin become necessary in
earthquake ground motion in Thailand, and to detect order to apply the convolution process and the SEGFM to
problems that may arise during implementation. Bangkok area.
322
moderate earthquakes, lengths of target fault and
sub-fault, widths of target fault and sub-fault, number of
divisions, respectively.
Step_4 Select starting point of rupture and dislocation
pattern.
Step_5 Synthesis was done parametrically using
parameter discussed in step 3 and 4.
Step_6 Synthetic wave is compared with the main shock
of Nam Ma record.
SEISMIC WAVES AND FAULT

PARAMETERS
Figure 1 Observed seismic waves as the convolution of source
Nam Ma earthquake is the earthquake of M6.3 occurred
with impulse responses of propagation medium
and destination site. on 08:56(UTC) May 16, 2007 at northwest of Laos.
Epicenteral distance is about 260Km. The earthquake
Green’s function is basically used to express how record is chosen for study since the observation station is
disturbance occurred at a point would be at other points. almost on the line extended from the target fault.
In this regards, it can be thought of as the impulse Therefore, effect of directivity appears as one of
response of propagation medium. Although, the important features of this waveform. It is noted that the
fundamental of Green’s function has been well relation between target fault and observation station is
established, it is still difficult to analytically apply to also geometrically similar to the ones between Three
complex topological as well as geological boundary Pagoda fault or Sri Sawat fault and Bangkok area.
conditions. The main shock of Nam Ma record is shown in figure 2.
Harzel (1978) proposed that strong earthquake motion It is noted that there is only few cycles of long period
could be synthesized by using small and medium wave on seismogram. In this study, a portion of about 40
earthquake records. In his report, a strong earthquake seconds as enclosed by a rectangle in figure 2 will be
motion due to San Andreas fault was successfully used for comparison with synthesis wave.
synthesized by the following procedure; (1) Waveforms
observed at targeted observation station of small and
medium earthquake radiated from targeted fault is used as
the Green’s function (aftershock records were used), (2)
Earthquake generating fault was divided into a number of
small area, (3) Strong earthquake ground motion was
synthesized by superposition of radiated wave from each
sub area with consideration of rupture time delay.
Although Harzel’s work showed a possibility of using
small and medium earthquake records as empirical
Green’s function, a problem of how to express the rupture
process of the fault was left. As a result, Irikura (1983)
proposed an extension to Harzel’s work by introducing
scaling laws, between large and moderate earthquakes, of
source parameters and seismic wave spectrum. The
extended method is called semi-empirical Green’s
function method. Procedure of the SEGFM and our
parametric study are as follows;
Step_1 Collect records of small or medium seismic wave Figure 2 Main shock of Nam Ma earthquake
radiated from target fault that are observed at the site we observed at Chiang Mai (2m30s).
want to forecast strong seismic waveform.
In this study, the aftershock of Nam ma record was used. The epicenters of main shock and aftershock of Nam Ma
Step_2 Determine the size of fault that could generate record as well as the observation station are shown in
earthquake of desired magnitude. figure 3. It can be presumed that the earthquake generated
In this study, the fault that generated main shock of Nam from Nam Ma fault (strike N60E, left lateral, Fig. 3). The
ma record was used. vertical sections parallel to Nam Ma fault are shown in
Step_3 Divide the target fault into small sub-faults figure 4. Fault Parameters used for synthesis are as
according to scaling law follows; Strike=N55E, Dip=70S (USGS report is quoted),
1 L=15Km,W=11Km,number of divisions=11x11
⎛M ⎞ 3
L W
⎜ ⎟ = = =n (according to scaling law).
⎝m⎠ l w
where M, m, L, l, W, w, n are seismic moment of large and
323
Figure 3 DMR Chiang Mai observation station and epicenters
of main shock and aftershock of Nam Ma earthquake. Figure 6.Dislocation patterns.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Figure 7-A and 7-B show EW and NS component of
observed main shock and synthetic waveforms, when the
rupture starting point is assumed at asterisk (Fig-5).
Noting that magnitudes of the synthetic waves are
normalized to match with observed waves.
From these figures, it is thought that the synthetic waves
agree well with the observed waves. However, it is also
observed that the difference in position of peaks between
observed and synthetic waves gradually increases with
time. Moreover, the initial part of synthetic wave, which
reflects arrival of S wave, does not match well with the
Figure 4 Section parallel to the fault line. observed one. Therefore, further investigation of S wave
velocity and rupture velocity in this region and asperity of
fault are necessary.
Figure 5 Sub faults and rupture starting points.
Regarding rupture starting point, three points have been

selected and used for parametric study. These points are at
(1) center bottom, (2) left bottom and (3) right bottom
(Fig-5). Dislocation pattern is set to radial type as shown
in Fig-6-B. Besides rupture starting point, parametric
studies are also done on the number of divisions and
dislocation of conjugate fault (Strike=N325, Dip=90).
For input seismic waves, the appropriate ones should Figure 7 Synthesized and observed waveforms.
have as small amplitude as possible. The reason is
because of the assumption of point source by the As previously mentioned, the effect of directivity is also
synthesis model. However, a moderate aftershock an important feature of the record. Due to this geometric
(16/May 15:24, velocity waveform) was used in this relation, seismic wave from each sub-fault will
study because of its optimal signal to noise ratio. successively overlap with the others while propagating in
strike direction toward the observation point. It can be
324
seen from the locus of observed main shock shown in imperfect match between synthetic and observed
Fig.- 8 that the particle vibrated transversely to direction waveforms, particularly, the heading part. Therefore,
of propagation from the epicenter and seems to be the various aspects of the input data will be investigated
characteristic of S or Love wave. further. The synthesis algorithm should also be refined in
order to improve the accuracy of predicted waveform.
Through the study, we propose that the followings are
essential for studying of earthquake activity in Thailand;
(1) Study of underground Vp and Vs structure of Thailand
(2) Research on source characteristics of earthquake that
occurs in this country (Asperity and dislocation behaviors
of active fault).
As seismic record is an indispensable data for any further
researches, it is thought that development of dense and
accurate seismogram network is of the highest priority.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figure 8 Particle orbit of horizontal component The “Semi Empirical Green’s Function Method”
computer code used in this study was provided by Dr.
Based on these specific natures, the effect of directivity Irikura, professor emeritus of Kyoto University. The
can be assumed. Since these characteristics can also be authors would like to express their great appreciation
reproduced by our synthesis model, it is thought that the herein.
proposed method successfully predicted the observed
waveform. REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS Hartzell, S.H., 1978, Earthquake aftershocks as Green’s function,

Geophys. Res. Lett., v. 5, no.1 p.1-4.
From earthquake engineering view, it can be concluded Irikura, K., 1986, Prediction of strong acceleration motion using
empirical Green’s function method, Proc. of 7th Japan
that the synthesis model successfully reproduced Earthquake Eng. Symp., p.151-156.
observed main shock. However, we also aware of
325
SUSTAINABLE PERSPECTIVES FOR THAILAND GOLD RESOURCES

Jitisak Premmanee 1 and Nikhom Chaiwongsaeng2
1
Formerly: Bureau of Mineral Resources, DMR. Present address: Amanta Minerals Co., Ltd.
2
ABSTRACT
Gold was found throughout Thailand, but low production records. The production has increased dramatically in 2002
because of the opening of 2 modern gold mines: first “Chatree”, central Thailand, operated by Akara Mining Co. Ltd.
and later “Phuthapfa” northeastern Thailand, operated by Thung Kum Co., Ltd. Partnership among the working
personnel both government officials and private sectors is the key of this fruitful outcome. Nowadays, high gold price
gives good opportunity for both government and private sectors to accelerate gold exploration and development,
generating win-win situation. In order to sustain Thailand gold resources, relevant government officials shall
understand the nature of exploration and set up a practical, clear and understandable regulation for investors. As well,
concerned entities should help to assembling regulations and geological information in usable forms. Some propose
benchmarks, every year government issues new exploration licenses covering area of >160 square kilometers, and every
5 year, private sectors discover new gold deposits of combined 1 million ounce.
Keywords: sustainable perspective, gold, Thailand
BACKGROUND INFORMATION entities, such as geological maps of various scales,

prospecting reports on occurrences, as well as the
“Suvarnabhumi” is not only the name of the newest countrywide airborne geophysical survey during 1984-
Thailand’s international airport but also the early name of 1989. As results, two successful investors, Akara Mining
Thailand. Suvarnabhumi means “the land of gold”. The Co., Ltd. (subsidiary of Kingsgate Consolidated) and
“gold” means people live happily in this country as well Thungkum Co., Ltd. (subsidiary of Thongkah Harbour),
as plenty of mineral “gold” in its territory. Figure 1 discovered two gold deposits: Chatree and Phuthapfa
shows the gold distribution in Thailand, it occurs almost respectively. Since then, gold production increases
throughout the country, but the northeast plateau and dramatically (Fig. 2), both, have produced approximately
central plain. These occurrences are hosted by igneous 25 tons of gold, since 2001.
(either intrusive or extrusive), sedimentary and meta-
sedimentary rocks of various ages. Not only the GEOLOGY, EXPLORATION AND
secondary occurrences but also more than 70 primary DEVELOPMENT
sources have been identified (Premmanee, 2003). These
occurrences relate to epithermal or mesothermal quartz Potisat (1994) has outlined 5 belts of gold potential
vein types, sedimentary hosted and skarn related deposits. (Figure 1), including 1) Loei - Petchabun - Prachin Buri,
Before the year 2000, little gold production has been 2) Chiangrai – Phrae – Tak, 3) Chon Buri – Narathiwat 4)
recorded in Thailand, totally 2.3 tons (Fig. 2). Major part Chiangrai – Lampang – Mae Hong Son and 5) Kanchana
of this production (2 tons) came from very early historical Buri – Prachuap Khiri – Khan – Phangnga. The paper
records and from three abandoned gold mines, Bansaphan, considered to be classical illustration of gold occurrences
Prachuap Kirikhan, Bothong, Prachi Buri and Tomo, in Thailand. It pointed out that the zone of Loei-
Narathiwat. After, the Ministry of Industry (MOI) Petchubun-Prachin Buri is the most promising one where
announcement on policy of gold exploration and the two gold mines are in operation (November 2007):
development, 4 July 1987 (Saengmanee, 1998), many Chatree deposit, Pichit province, central Thailand and
Thai and international gold mining investors have Phutapfa deposits, Loei province, northeastern Thailand.
involved in gold exploration in Thailand with modern At Chatree, gold occurs mainly in epithermal quartz veins
technology throughout the country, such as Newmont with beginning resources of 1 million ounces and
Mining (USA), CRA (Australia), Phelps Dodge extension of 1 more million ounces to the north of
(Australia), Kingsgate Consolidated (Australia), previous one namely “Chatree North” deposit. At
Thongkah Harbour (Thailand), Padaeng Industry Phutapfa, gold disseminates in skarn with identified
(Thailand), Ban Pu (Thailand) etc. (Premmanee and resources of 0.2 million ounces. Furthermore, an
Potisat, 1999). They have been using or based on massive Australian company, Oxiana Ltd., who operated a gold–
and good geological information produced by the copper mine in Sepon, Laos, has announced the findings
Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) and related of 1.6 - 5.2 g/t gold at 4 - 10 m interval at Central Ridge,
326
Figure 1 Gold distribution in Thailand.
327
Figure 2 Thailand gold production records and deposit names.
Chatree gold district, Pichit - Petchabun areas, Central To learn from the past, Figure 3 also shows some historic
Thailand (Oxiana, 2007), the mineralization is epithermal development on both government and private investors.
vein systems similar to the Chatree gold deposits. Government via Ministry of Industry (MOI) reacted to the
Currently, many investors maintain prospecting licenses increasing price of gold, 200% within a year of 1979 to
in Thailand, totally 61 Special Prospecting Licenses, 1980, by announcing the first two gold potential areas
covering 855 square kilometers in Phichit, Phetchabun, (Narathiwat and Prachin Buri) in 1984. Later, in 1987,
Phitsanulok, Satun and Chantaburi (Department of MOI had issued policy on gold exploration and
Primary Industry and Mine, 2007). The major holders are development. In order to generate more interest and
Akara Mining, Amanta, Richaphum Mining and Thai accelerate the exploration and development activities,
Global Ventures which are subsidiary of international MOI has decreased royalty from 10% to 2.5% in 1993.
mining companies: Kingsgate, Amanta Resources and As well, the significant paper on gold occurrences in
Oxiana. Moreover, there are many others Thai and Thailand “Prospectivity – Suwanna Phum Land of Gold”
International investors hove filed application for was published in an international conference in 1994.
exploration licenses throughout the country. Hopefully, These generated many interest internationally. As the
some of them may proceed to mining stage. results, the first modern gold mine was in operation in late
2001, Chatree gold deposit and later, the second one in
EXPERIENCES 2006, Putapfa gold deposit.
These two modern gold mines were the results of devoted
The motivation of gold exploration and development working personnel of both government officials and
worldwide depend on gold price (Fig. 3). It clearly shows private sectors involved during the time, 6 years for
that gold price, now, is attractive and looks good for the Chatree deposit and 12 years for Putapfa deposit. They
years to come, so many investors rush for gold have worked together as partner with a common objective,
everywhere, including Thailand. the establishment of gold mines in Thailand with modern
328
technology. Cooperation among the working personnel environmental measures to the world standard on
and react to the problems enthusiastically are the keys of development and mining. This circumstance gives
this fruitful work. opportunity for any countries in the world for encouraging
Nowadays, gold price and others metal commodities have global investors to look at their land for minerals
increasing significantly (Fig. 3). The high price may not resources exploration and development, generating win-
last forever, concurrent with time consuming for the win situation.
fruitful outcome, government entities should ease up its
regulation on exploration as well as strengthen up its
Figure 3 Gold price and some key events.
SUSTAINABLE PERSPECTIVES nature of exploration and set up a practical, clear and

understandable regulation for investors to follow.
The sustainable perspectives for Thailand gold resources, Concerned entities should help to accelerate the activities
in this context, means continuation of gold production for by assembling regulations and geological information in
a long period of time (see the estimated production graph usable form for investors. This includes sufficient public
in Fig. 2), may be 30 years and also mining with relation as well.
environmental and social care altitude. The relevant To continue gold production, exploration activities have
government official at all level, shall understand the to be maintained in a certain level. Some benchmarks
329
were proposed. Every year, new exploration licenses Potisat, S., 1994: Prospectivity – Suwanna Phum – Land
covering area of more than 160 square kilometers, should of Gold. South East Asia Mining Conference on
be issued. This will give more change of finding new “Gold and Base Metal Law and Prospectivity”, 21-23
deposits with economic grade and tonnage, such as Febuary, 1994, Bangkok, Thailand.
Premmanee, J., 2003: Gold Deposits in Thailand, Bureau
finding just enough, every 5 year, new deposits of of Mineral Resources Publication No 12/2546,
combined 1 million ounce may be discovered. This will Department of Mineral Resources, July 2003, 46 pp.
make our dream come true and proud of being Thai, living (in Thai)
in “Suvarnabhumi” land of gold. Premmanee, J. and Potisat, S.; 1999: Gold Exploration and
Development Opportunities in Thailand, Symposium
REFERENCES on Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources of
Thailand: Toward the Year 2000, 28-29 October
1999, Bangkok, Thailand.
Department of Primary Industry and Mine, 2007: Thailand
Saengmanee, W., 1998: Special Prospecting License
prospecting licenses list, accessed at http://
Database in Thailand, Mineral Resources
www.dpim.go.th/ayb/premn.php on 27 October 2007.
Development Division Technical Publication No
Oxiana, 2007. Quaternary report for the months ending 30
7/2541, Department of Mineral Resources,
September 2007, accessed at http://www.
September 1998, 30 pp. (in Thai)
oxiana.com.au/_data/docs/announcements/2007/qrtly_sep_
2007.pdf on 27 October 2007.
330
TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THE KAMPAENGSAEN BASIN, NAKORN

PATHOM, CENTRAL THAILAND, FROM PTTEP SEISMIC DATA
Passakorn Pananont Punya 1, Charusiri 2 and Prinya Putthapiban 3
1
Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences and Geoscience Program, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
2
Department of Geology, Chulalongkorn University)
INTRODUCTION AND GEOLOGIC transtensional system on major NW SE orientated strike

SETTING OF THE STUDY AREA slip faults (e.g. Three Pagodas and Mae Ping Fault Zones
and generated during the collision of India and Asia (i.e.
The Kampaengsaen basin is one of the onshore Tertiary Goldflam et al., 1987). Seismic interpretation and
sedimentary basins located in central Thailand (Fig. 1). correlation with well data suggest that the main part of the
The basin is a part of the PTTEP1 project, small oil sedimentary fill within the basin is Late Eocene to Recent,
production fields operated by the PTTEP since 1991. The and entirely non marine in origin. In the Kampaengsaen
Kampaengsaen basin is located in Nakhon Pathom Basin the thickness is approximately 4000 m.
province, about 70 km northwest of Bangkok. Pre- The Kampaengsaen basin is located near the Nan-Uttardit
Tertiary rocks crop out to the west and north of the suture, developed during the early to middle Triassic
Kampaengsaen basin. To the west, within 10 km, of the (Macdonald and Barr, 1984; O’Leary and Hill,1989) on
basin are outcrops of Siluro Devonian metasediments, the Shan – Thai continental block and lies between the
including phyllites and quartzites. The latter are a major strike-slip fault zones of the Mae Ping fault zone to
potential source of coarse elastic material in the Tertiary the north and Three Pagoda faults zone to the south (Fig.
basin fill. To the north and northwest are numerous 3). Most of the Tertiary basins in Thailand from the
outcrops of Ordovician recrystallized limestone (Fig. 2). northern border into the Gulf of Thailand are north-south
Well BP 1-1 entered massive limestones at 2,175.5m, trending (Morley et al., 2001, Goldflam et al., 1987,
which are interpreted to be pre-Tertiary. Several authors Polachan and Satayarak, 1989).
proposed that the Kampaengsaen basin is thought one of a
series of small pull-apart basin opened within a dextral
Figure 1. A location map of study area in Nakorn Pathom provinces with projections of the Three Pagodas and Mae Ping Faults.
Note that the Three Pagodas Faults terminate about 40 km to the western side of the study area.
(Topographic map are generated from Google Earth, 2006)
331
Figure 2. Location of seismic data used in this study with geology of the surrounding area. (After DMR, 2006)
Seismic Stratigraphy and Sequence Identification western flanks of the basin where structure are profoundly
distinguished by basin boundary normal faults.
Five major stratigraphic units are identified in the seismic
data and traced throughout the study area. We use letters North-South Trending Normal Fault Systems
to denote these sequences, which correspond with The most prominent structure associated with the
sequences in the Kampaengsaen basin described by Kampaengsaen basin is a series of north-south trending,
Herbert (1989) who correlated the seismic stratigraphy to east dipping normal fault along its western flank. We
the lithologic samples from the 2.4 km long BP1-1 name this fault the Kampaensaen Western Boundary
borehole. The units are described from uppermost (K10) Normal (KWBN) fault. This fault is thought a basin-
to lowermost (K70) and Pre-Tertiary unit (Table 1). controlled fault (Fig. 4)
The KWBN is obvi ous on the northeast-southwest
Structural Interpretation striking seismic lines. This faults traverses approximately
from north to south for the entire length of the basin on
Overall, the quality of seismic data is very good in the the western flank of the basin. In the Kampaengsaen
center of the basin. For example, seismic lines AY-737 basin, on seismic line AY-737, (Fig. 4) the fault is
(Figure 4) reveal over 2.5 s of semi-parallel reflections, defined, where an east-dipping package of reflections
with intervals of strong and continuous reflections in the truncates subhorizontal reflections immediately to the
Kampaengsaen basin. For the most part, reflections are west. The KWBN dips about 30 degrees on this seismic
deformed at the edge of the basin, especially at the line. The dip angle of the KWBN is however less steep
332
Figure 3. Regional tectonic map of western Southeast Asia (after Morley et al., 2001).
The Kampaengsaen Basin are indicated with an arrow.
333
Table 1. Generalized stratigraphy of the Kampaengsaen Basin. rate. There was a small east-west compression that
(After Goldflam et al., 1987). shortens the basin slightly During the Pliocene to Recent.
Relations of faults system in the Kampaengsaen basin

Stratigraphic Age Lithologic to major strike-slip faults
Unit Descriptions
The majority of the faults systems in the Kampaengsaen
K10 and K20 Pliocene to sandstones with basin have due north-south trends. Although the
Recent mudstone and orientations of these faults (north-south) support the
siltstone and current regional stress filed orientations; north-south
unconsolidated compression and east-west extension as those of the (right
sediment of clays, lateral; current movement) Mae Ping and Three Pagodas
sands and gravels faults (northwest-southeast) to the north and to the south
K25-30 Middle to Late interbedded of these basin respectively, there are no evidences of these
Miocene mudstones and major strike-slip faults cutting into either basin. Some
sandstones authors suggest that the Kampaengsaen basin originated
K40 Middle organic-rich as pull-apart basin cased by these right lateral faults (e.g.
Oligocene to mudstones and Polachan et al., 1991). However, other authors argued
Middle thin sandstones in against this concept (e.g. Morley et al., 2000, Morley et
Miocene the upper part and al., 2001) for the reason that the magnitude of the offsets
hightly altered, caused by both Three Pagodas and Mae Ping faults are
unknown age small and not enough to cause the pull-apart basin. The
dolerite sills in the fact that no evidences of the Three Pagodas Fault cutting
lower part into the basin area may suggest the termination of this
K60 Late Eocene to interbedded fault to the western side of the study area. However, it is
Early-Middle sandstones and possible that the Three Pagodas Fault may exist to the
Oligocene mudstones south of the study area (southeastern part of Kanchanaburi
K70 and Pre- Pre-Tertiary to marked by and part of Ratchaburi Province).
Tertiary Unit Early unconformity and
Oligocene Carboniferous A Structural model of the Kampaengsaen basin
limestone in the
upper part and Distinct structural episodes of the Late Eocene to Recent
mudstones and age molded the Kampaengsaen basin (Figure 6). In this
breccias with section, we tie the basin-scale structural episodes to a
calcite vein in the regional tectonic framework.
lower part The first structural episode recognized in the
Kampaengsaen basin span the Late Eocene to Early
towards the north from about 30 degree to less than 10 Oligocene, with an initiation of the basin bounding, east
degrees. The KWBN offset the Paleozoic basement dipping normal fault that offset the basement at the
vertically for over 3.4 km (calculated by velocity data in western flank of the basin. This deformation produced a
the adjacent well). The KWBN generally exists with the small degree of tectonic subsidence in the Kampaengsaen
set of west-dipping antithetic faults near by. basin and continued through the Middle Oligocene where
In addition to the KWBN, several east and west dipping unit K60 accumulated in a half graben. During the Early
normal faults also exist in the Kampaengsaen basin. These to Middle Miocene, extension across the KWBN fault (2.8
faults offset the shallow sections of the basin, cutting the km basement offset) occurred along the western flank of
Sequence K20 in most part and cutting up to unit K10 in the Kampaengsaen basin. This episode resulted in a thick
some part in the basin. These faults, however do not affect accumulation of unit K40. In addition, dolerite sills were
the thickness of the strata on both sides of their flanks so discovered in the K40 unit in this basin, which agrees
it suggests that these faults have small degree effect on with the adjacent basin, Phetchabun Basin, approximately
basin evolution and could be either syn-rift or post-rift 200 km to the north, where diorite and diabase intrusives
faulting. were observed and were thought to reflect periods of
igneous activity during the Early and Late Middle
Timing of Basin Subsiding Miocene (Remus et al.1993).
From the Middle to Late Miocene, extension in the basin
Seismic data indicates that the Kampaengsaen basin continued, but slow down which resulted in accumulation
opened up in the Early Oligocene and has been subsided of unit K25-30. Accommodating west-dipping antithetic
gradually along the western flank since the basin origin faults initiated during this time.
through the Miocene until the onset of the unit K20, the
Late Miocene when the basin subsided at much slower
334
Figure 4 Uninterpreted (top) and interpreted (bottom) seismic sections of the Kampaengsaen Basin (seismic line AY-737) showing
the basin thickness of over up to 2.5 second two-way travel time. Note the major bounding fault at the western flank of the basin.
Location of the seismic line is shown in Figure 2
The extension appears to stop during the time between the ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Late Miocene to Pliocene as the thickness of the Unit K20
seems to have constant thickness in the basin, with onlap We would like to thank the PTT Exploration and
onto the top of unit K25-30 at the eastern end of seismic Production Public Company Limited for providing
line AY-737. Accommodating west-dipping antithetic seismic data and the SEISMIC MICRO-TECHNOLOGY,
faults continued throughout this time. INC for supporting the Kingdom Suite seismic
From the Pliocene to Recent, the Unit K1interpretation
0 software used in this work. This research is
accumulated. During this time the hanging wall strata appear to
funded by the Thai Research Fund and the Office of the
slid down slightly, generating rollover structure along thCommission
e for Higher Education (grant # MGR
western flank of the basin. Accommodating west-dippin4780071).g
antithetic faults continued throughout this time.
CONCLUSIONS
Seismic interpretation suggests that the Kampaengsaen basin
developed during the Tertiary due to extension. The major
bounding faults have due-north-south orientations. There are no
evidences of the major western strike-slip faults penetrating into
the study area which could suggest a termination of this fault to
the west of the study area.
335
North
KWBN
10 km
Figure 5. Subsurface faults orientations in the Kampaengsaen basin. Note the due- north-south direction
of these faults for both west-dipping and east-dipping faults.
REFERENCES Hinthong, C., 1995. The study of active faults in Thailand:

Department of Mineral Resources Technical
Conference on the Progression and Vision of Mineral
Charusiri, P., Kosuwan, S., Lumjuan, A., and Wechbunthung,
Resources Development, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 129-
B., 1999. Review of active faults and seismicity in
140.
Thailand, In: Proceedings of the Ninth Regional
Kosuwan, S., Charusiri, P., Takashima, I., and Lumjuan, A.,
Conference on Geology, Mineral and Energy
1998. Active tectonics of the Mae Chan Fault,
Resources of Southeast Asia, Geological Society of
northern Thailand. In: Proceedings of the Ninth
Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Geol. Soc. Malaysia Bull.
Regional Conference on Geology, Mineral and Energy
43 December 1999, p. 653-665.
Resources of Southeast Asia, Geological Society of
Charusiri, P., Ampaiwan, T., Hisada, K., Khaowiset, K.,
Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, p. 16-20 (extended abstract).
Kosuwan, S., Doorerk, V., 2002. Geotectonic
Miller, R., Steeples, D. W., 1996. Evaluation of fault scarp at
Evolution of Thailand: Compilation and New
Harlan County Lake, Harlan County, Nebraska using
Synthesis, Journal of Scientific Research,
high resolution seismic reflection surveying, Kansas
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Vol.1, No.1,
Geological Survey Open-file Report 96-32.
p.69-108
Nutalaya, P., Sodsri, S., and Arnold, E. P., 1985. Seeries on
Fenton, C. H., Charusiri, P., and Wood, S., 2002. Recent
seismiology, Volume II – Thailand: Southeast Asia
paleoseismic investigations in northern and western
Association of Seismology and Earthquake
Thailand, paper for submission to Annali di Geofisica,
Engineering, 430 p.
ILP Paeloseismology Special Issue, June 2002.
Remus, D., Webster, M., and Keawkan, K., 1993, Rift
Goldflam, P., Herbert, R., and O’Leary, J., 1987, Kampaeng
architecture and sedimentology of the Phetchabun
Saen Basin Evaluation, BP Petroleum Development
Intermontane Basin, central Thailand, Journal of
Limited Thailand Branch Internal Report.
336
Southeast Asian Earth Sciences, v. 8, no.1-4, Geological Drilling into the Chelungpu Fault After the
p. 421-432. 1999 Chi-Chi Earthquake, Taiwan, TAO, vol. 13, no.
Tulyatid, J.,1997. Application of airborne geophysiscal data to 2, p. 153-170.
the study of Cenozoic Basin in Thailand. An unublised PTTEP Geophysics Department, 2001, 3D Seismic
Ph. D. thesis, School of Earth Sciences, The interpretation U-Thong Filed, Suphan Buri Basin,
University of Leeds, 243 p. PTTEP Internal Report.
Wang, C. Y., Tanaka, H., Chow, J., Chen, C. C., and Hong, J.
H., 2002. Shallow Reflection Seismics Aiding
Figure 6. Schematic model showing the evolution of the Kampaengsaen basin since Late Eocene to Present time.
The model was constructed through a seismic line AY-737.
337
THE CERATOPSIAN DINOSAUR PSITTACOSAURUS IN THE

EARLY CRETACEOUS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA:
A REVIEW OF OLD AND RECENT FINDS
Eric Buffetaut1, Varavudh Suteethorn2, Sasidhorn Khansubha2
1
CNRS (UMR 8538, Laboratoire de Géologie de l’Ecole Normale Supérieure), 75013 Paris, France,
E-mail : eric.buffetaut@wanadoo.fr
2
ABSTRACT
The ceratopsian dinosaur Psittacosaurus was first found in Southeast Asia in the Khok Kruat Formation (Aptian) of
northeastern Thailand. The material was described as a distinct species, P. sattayaraki. Subsequently, psittacosaurids
were reported from an equivalent of the Khok Kruat Formation in southern Laos. New specimens of Psittacosaurus from
the Khok Kruat Formation of Khon Kaen Province, northeastern Thailand. In Southeast Asia, Psittacosaurus seems to be
restricted to the Aptian, whereas it has a broader stratigraphic distribution in Mongolia and China. It may have
dispersed into Southeast Asia after the deposition of the Sao Khua Formation, in which it is unknown. The relative
scarcity of Psittacosaurus in the Khok Kruat Formation may be due to a fluvial depositional environment, which was not
the preferred habitat of that dinosaur, often found in lacustrine settings in other parts of Asia.
The primitive ceratopsian dinosaur Psittacosaurus was first described from the Early Cretaceous of Mongolia (Osborn,
1923), and later turned out to be widespread at localities of that age in many parts of central and northern Asia, ranging
from Siberia to Manchuria and Shandong in eastern China, and possibly Japan (see Lucas, 2006, and Averianov et al.,
2006, for recent reviews).The presence of Psittacosaurus in Southeast Asia was first reported by Buffetaut et al. (1989),
on the basis of material from the Khok Kruat Formation of Chaiyaphum Province in northeastern Thailand. Elsewhere in
Southeast Asia, psittacosaurids have been briefly reported from the Early Cretaceous of southern Laos by Allain et al.
(1999), but this material has not yet been described.
In the present paper, we briefly review previous finds of Psittacosaurus from Southeast Asia and describe additional,
newly discovered specimens from Thailand, and discuss the significance of the occurrence of this early ceratopsian in
Southeast Asia. All the specimens from Thailand discussed in the present paper are kept in the collections of the
Sirindhorn Museum at Sahat Sakhan, Kalasin Province, Thailand.
Key words: dinosaur, northeastern Thailand, South East Asia
PSITTACOSAURUS SATTAYARAKI FROM inaccuracies and reasserted the validity of Psittacosaurus

THE KHOK KRUAT FORMATION OF sattayaraki. Despite this, You and Dodson (2004, p. 492)
regarded the report of Psittacosaurus from Thailand as
THAILAND “unsubstantiated”. There is no need to reproduce
here at full length the evidence supporting the validity of
The genus Psittacosaurus was first reported from Psittacosaurus sattayaraki, as it has already been
Thailand by Buffetaut et al. (1989) on the basis of jaw discussed by Buffetaut & Suteethorn (2002). Attribution
elements found by Nares Sattayarak in conglomeratic to Psittacosaurus is supported by typical tooth
sandstone of the Khok Kruat Formation (Early morphology, including fan-shaped tooth crowns bearing a
Cretaceous, Aptian) at Ban Dong Bang Noi in bulbous median ridge. The erection of a distinct species
Chaiyaphum Province, northeastern Thailand. That for the material from Ban was justified by the morphology
material was described by Buffetaut and Suteethorn of the dentary, with a markedly convex alveolar border in
(1992) as a new species of Psittacosaurus, P. sattayaraki, lateral or medial view and an incipient ventral flange.
the type specimen being a well preserved right dentary Despite the doubts about the validity of Psittacosaurus
(Fig.1). However, the validity of this identification was sattayaraki expressed by a few authors (see above), this
doubted by Dodson (1996, p.233), who expressed some taxon was accepted as a valid species of Psittacosaurus in
reluctance "to accept this referral on the basis of such an the recent reviews by Lucas (2006) and Averianov et al.
incomplete specimen”. Sereno (2000) rejected the referral (2006). Comparison with the material described from
to Psittacosaurus and concluded that the Thai specimens Siberia by Averianov et al. (2006) shows resemblances in
could only be referred to “Ceratopsia incertae sedis”. the morphology of the dentary that confirm that the Thai
Buffetaut and Suteethorn (2002) showed that Sereno’s material does belong to Psittacosaurus.
discussion of the Thai material contains numerous
338
NEW PSITTACOSAURUS MATERIAL
FROM THAILAND
In the last few years, additional Psittacosaurus specimens
have been discovered at two localities in the Khok Kruat
Formation of northeastern Thailand by researchers from
the Department of Mineral Resources. They are described
below.
Phu Hin Rong, Khon Kaen Province:
The Psittacosaurus specimens, which may belong to a
single individual, were found in red siltstones of the Khok
Kruat Formation. The locality has also yielded teeth of
spinosaurids and other theropods, a sauropod rib and
possibly iguanodontian remains.
Psittacosaurus is represented at Phu Hin Rong by an
isolated tooth, a dentary fragment, a dorsal vertebra and a
fragmentary sacrum.
The isolated tooth, apparently from the dentary, is
relatively well preserved although the enamel has suffered
some abrasion. The root is long and hollow, compressed
anteroposteriorly, with a convex lingual edge and a more
or less straight labial margin. The crown is broader than
the root, and somewhat fan-shaped. On the lingual face,
there is a strong median ridge which appears double, with
a more or less flat central area. The crown is slightly
asymmetrical, with three ridges on one side of the median
ridge, the most marginal one being especially prominent
and bordered by a deep groove. On the other side, the
marginal ridge is apparently incompletely preserved. It is
separated from the bulbous median ridge by two rather
faint ridges. The ridges terminate apically in rather worn
serrations along the top of the crown. Oblique incipient
wear facets are present on the labial side of the crown near
Fig.1. Type specimen of Psittacosaurus sattayaraki Buffetaut its tip. No enamel is left on the labial side. The fan-shaped
& Suteethorn, 1992: right dentary from Ban Dong Bang Noi, crown and the bulbous median ridge are characteristic of
Chaiyaphum Province, Thailand, Sirindhorn Museum n° TF Psittacosaurus teeth.
2449a, in lingual (a), dorsal (b) and labial Apicobasal length 19 mm.
(c) views. Scale bar: 10 mm. Maximum breadth 8 mm.
The jaw fragment is the anterodorsal part of a right
PSITTACOSAURIDS FROM LAOS dentary showing the anterior part of the tooth row (Fig.2
a, b, c). Five alveoli are preserved, with broken teeth in
The occurrence of psittacosaurids in the Early Cretaceous four of them. In the anteriormost alveolus, part of the
of the Muong Phalane area of southern Laos was briefly crown of a replacement tooth, showing ridges terminating
reported by Allain et al. (1999). This material has not yet in serrations, can be seen in lingual view; it shows a
been described, but examination of a cast of a jaw bulbous median ridge and three more anterior ridges
displayed at the Musée des Dinosaures in Savannakhet (Fig.2 d). The crown of the following tooth is missing,
(Laos) confirms that psittacosaurids are indeed present in only the hollow root is preserved. The following alveolus
the Early Cretaceous of Laos. This is not surprising, as the is empty. The crown of the next tooth is broken at its
“Grès Supérieurs” Formation of southern Laos clearly is apex, but a well marked oblique wear facet is visible,
an equivalent of the Khok Kruat Formation of covering most of what is left of the labial face. The wear
northeastern Thailand, which has yielded Psittacosaurus facet is perfectly flat and oriented apicolingually
sattayaraki (Buffetaut, 1991). Detailed comparison /labiobasally. In the following tooth, the crown is broken
between the Thai and Lao forms will have to wait until a and the root is visible as an apicobasal section; it is
full description of the material from Muong Phalane is hollow, with a convex lingual margin and a straight labial
published. margin, which makes it very similar in shape to the root of
the isolated tooth described above. The ventral part of the
dentary is missing. The lingual face of the fragment is
convex, with perforations through the bony wall exposing
tooth roots or replacement teeth. The labial face is nearly
flat in its dorsal part, then forms a “step” marked by a
339
series of fairly large foramina. This appears to have been However, the specimen from Phu Hin Rong is from a
the ventral limit of the “cheek pouch”. This dentary larger individual than the type of Psittacosaurus
fragment is similar to the corresponding part of the type of sattayaraki.
Psittacosaurus sattayaraki. As in the latter, the alveolar
(or dorsal) margin of the dentary is markedly convex.
Fig.2: Tooth and jaw fragment of Psittacosaurus from the Khok Kruat Formation at Phu Hin Rong, Khon Kaen Province,
northeastern Thailand: a, isolated tooth (scale bar: 10 mm); b, c, d: fragment of right dentary in labial (b), lingual (c) and posterior
(d) views (scale bar: 10 mm); e, replacement tooth in jaw fragement, showing ridges (scale bar: 5 mm).
Length as preserved: 17 mm with the first sacral. It has a heart-shaped outline. The
Maximum height of bone as preserved: 20 mm neural canal is higher than broad. The transverse process
Apicobasal length of most posterior tooth as is placed in an elevated position on the side of the neural
preserved: 14 mm arch.
Dorsal vertebra: it consists of the centrum plus the right Length of centrum: 18 mm
part of the neural arch (Fig.3 a, b). The anterior articular Height of anterior face: 15 mm
face is flat and U-shaped in outline. The centrum bears a Breadth of anterior face: 11 mm
well-marked ventral ridge. On the right side of it there is a Breadth of posterior face: 17 mm.
rounded puncture, perhaps a bite mark, going through the Height of posterior face: 13 mm
cortex of the bone. The posterior articular face is much
broader than the anterior one, probably for articulation
Fig.3. Psittacosaurus postcranial remains from the Khok Kruat Formation of Khon Kaen Province, northeastern Thailand.: a, b,
posterior dorsal vertebra from Phu Hin Rong in anterior (a) and right lateral (b) views (scale bar: 10 mm; c, d, fragmentary
sacrum from Phu Hin Rong in left lateral (c) and ventral (d) views (scale bar: 10 mm); e: right femur from
Amphoe Nam Phong in cranial view (scale bar: 50 mm).
340
Fragmentary sacrum: it consists of the first sacral THE STRATIGRAPHICAL
vertebra, plus part of the second (Fig.3 c, d). The anterior DISTRIBUTION OF PSITTACOSAURUS IN
articular face of the first sacral is oval, flat, broader than
high. The neural arch is low (but possibly incomplete). SOUTHEAST ASIA
The opening of the neural canal is circular and large. The
first sacral ribs are sutured to the centrum and neural arch, Despite doubts expressed by a few authors (see above),
they are tall but thin anteroposteriorly. The ventral face of the presence of Psittacosaurus in Southeast Asia is well
the centrum bears a longitudinal ridge. The second sacral established on the basis of material from both Thailand
vertebra is incomplete, and fused to the first one at the and Laos. As already noted by Buffetaut et al. (1989), this
level of both the centrum and the neural spine, with a considerably extends the distribution of the genus
large circular opening in between. There is a ridge on the southward, beyond the regions of Mongolia, northern
ventral face of the centrum, which appears “pinched”, as China and Siberia where it was first described. In view of
that of the first sacral. The sacral ribs are weak. This the palaeogeographical history of Asia, this distribution is
specimen closely resembles the anterior part of the not surprising, since the Indochina Block, to which the
Psittacosaurus sacrum from Shestakovo described by Psittacosaurus localities of northeastern Thailand and
Averianov et al. (2006). southern Laos belong, has been in contact with China
Total length as preserved: 30 mm since the Triassic (Metcalfe, 1998). The Late Triassic,
Breadth of anterior articular face: 22 mm Jurassic and Cretaceous vertebrate faunas of northeastern
Height of anterior articular face: 15 mm Thailand show distinct Laurasian affinities (Buffetaut &
The material from Phu Hin Rong is referred to Suteethorn, 1998).
Psittacosaurus on the basis on characters of the teeth and However, a closer examination of the stratigraphical
jaw. The fan-shaped tooth crowns with a bulbous median distribution of Psittacosaurus in Southeast Asia reveals
ridge are characteristic of that genus. Although the some interesting features. As shown by Lucas (2006,
dentary is far from complete, its features also agree with Fig.4), in various parts of Mongolia and China,
those of Psittacosaurus. Identification at the specific level Psittacosaurus occurs through a succession of formations
is difficult, but the markedly convex alveolar margin of covering a significant time span. On the basis of this
the dentary is reminiscent of Psittacosaurus sattayaraki. distribution, Lucas (2006) has defined a “Psittacosaurus
Amphoe Nam Phong, Khon Kaen Province: biochron”, encompassing part of Barremian, all of Aptian
The material consists of a right femur (Fig.3 e) found in and part of Albian time, with a duration of about 20 myr.
the Khok Kruat Formation, in the banks of the Nam This time interval corresponds to all of the Tsagantsabian
Phong river. The bone is well preserved, but the articular and part of the Khukhtekian Land Vertebrate Faunachrons
surfaces have suffered some abrasion and the lateral distal (Lucas, 2006). Averianov et al. (2006) accept an even
condyle is missing. The proximal articular head is longer duration for the Pisttacosaurus biochron,
confluent with the greater trochanter, forming a surface beginning in the Hauterivian stage; this is based on the
which is concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly in possible Hauterivian age of at least part of the
proximal view. The lesser trochanter forms a splinter-like Psittacosaurus-bearing Yixian Formation of northeastern
process separated from the greater trochanter by a narrow China, which is considered as either Hauterivian-
fissure. It is incomplete proximally. The shaft is bowed in Barremian (Sha, 2007) or Barremian-Aptian (Yang et al.,
the anteroposterior plane. There was a thin fourth 2007) in age.
trochanter in the proximal half of the shaft along the By contrast, in Thailand and Laos, Psittacosaurus appears
medial margin, ending distally at about mid-length of to be restricted to a single formation, the Khok Kruat
shaft. It is broken so that its exact shape cannot be Formation (and its equivalent in Laos, to which the same
reconstructed. Lateral to it, there is a well-marked name can be applied, since the dinosaur-bearing beds of
elongate depression on the anterior surface of the shaft. Laos are clearly a continuation of the Khok Kruat
The distal condyles are separated by a narrow groove on Formation across the Mekhong River, within the same
the anterior surface, and a deeper and broader one on the sedimentary basin: see Buffetaut, 1991, for details). The
posterior surface. The medial condyle strongly projects Khok Kruat Formation is referred to the Aptian on the
posteriorly. basis of freshwater sharks and palynomorphs (Cappetta et
This specimen agrees in all respect with the description of al., 1990; Racey et al., 1996; Buffetaut et al., 2005), so
the femur of Psittacosaurus provided by You & Dodson that the Psittacosaurus specimens from Thailand and
(2004) and is very similar to the femur of a Psittacosaurus Laos are from the middle part of the Psittacosaurus
cast from China in the Sirindhorn Museum. It also closely biochron as defined by Lucas (2006). Whether
resembles the femur of Psittacosaurus from Siberia Psittacosaurus subsisted longer in Southeast Asia cannot
figured by Averianov et al. (2006). It is therefore referred be determined because in northeastern Thailand and Laos
to the genus Psittacosaurus. the Khok Kruat Formation is currently the latest Mesozoic
Length: 155 mm formation to have yielded vertebrate body fossils.
Proximal breadth: 34 mm In northeastern Thailand, however, there are geologically
older dinosaur-bearing formations, corresponding to lower
levels of the Khorat Group, which provide evidence
constraining the stratigraphical distribution of
Psittacosaurus in Southeast Asia. The Sao Khua
341
Formation is of especial importance in this respect. It is REMARKS ON THE TAPHONOMY AND
separated from the Khok Kruat Formation by the Phu PALAEOBIOLOGY OF PSITTACOSURUS
Phan Formation, which has yielded only dinosaur
footprints and a few bones, most of them indeterminate, Another noteworthy point about the occurrence of
with the exception of a sauropod limb bone. The Sao Psittacosaurus in Southeast Asia is its relative scarcity.
Khua Formation is particularly rich in vertebrate remains Although it has been found so far at three localities in
and has yielded hundreds of dinosaur bones belonging to Thailand and one in Laos, it remains a “rare” dinosaur in
several taxa of sauropods and theropods (Buffetaut & the Khok Kruat Formation. It is currently unknown at
Suteethorn, 1999; Buffetaut et al., 2006). Curiously several otherwise productive fossil localities. For instance,
enough, however, no ornithischian remains have so far no conclusive evidence of Psittacosaurus has yet been
been found in the Sao Khua Formation. Although it found at the richly fossiliferous Khok Pha Suam locality,
clearly belongs to the Early Cretaceous, the exact age of in the Khok Kruat Formation of Ubon Ratchathani
the Sao Khua Formation remains uncertain. A Province (northeastern Thailand), which has yielded
Hauterivian-Valanginian age has been suggested, but it thousands of vertebrate remains. This is in sharp contrast
may be as recent as Barremian. The time span represented with the abundance of often more or less complete
by the Phu Phan Formation may not be very long and the Psittacosaurus skeletons at various localities in Mongolia,
Sao Khua and Khok Kruat Formations may not be northern China and Siberia. The reason for this scarcity of
separated by a very long time interval. Faunal Psittacosaurus remains in Southeast Asia may be sought
resemblances between the Sao Khua and Khok Kruat in the palaeobiology of this dinosaur. According to Suslov
dinosaur assemblages include the presence in both of (1983), in Mongolia Psittacosaurus occurs in abundance
similar spinosaurid theropods (Siamosaurus suteethorni in lacustrine sediments, which suggests aquatic or semi-
from the Sao Khua Formation and a yet unnamed form aquatic habits. The abundance of Psittacosaurus in the
from the Khok Kruat Formation: see Buffetaut et al., Early Cretaceous lake deposits of northeastern China
2005) and nemegtosaurid sauropods (Phuwiangosaurus (Yixian and Jiufotai formations) is in agreement with this
sirindhornae from the Sao Khua Formation and conclusion, which is shared by Averianov et al. (2006).
Tangvayosaurus hoffeti from the Khok Kruat Formation Unlike the lacustrine Psittacosaurus-bearing formations
of Laos). No remains of Psittacosaurus are known from in central and northern Asia, the Kok Kruat Formation of
the Sao Khua Formation, and this absence is probably Thailand and Laos, consisting of conglomerates,
significant in view of the large number of vertebrate sandstones and siltstones, corresponds to a fluvial
specimens collected from that formation. This would depositional environment (Racey et al., 1996). If indeed
indicate that Psittacosaurus first appeared in Southeast Psittacosaurus was primarily an inhabitant of lakes or
Asia after the deposition of the Sao Khua Formation. This lake shores, this difference is sedimentary setting may
can be explained in two ways: either the Sao Khua explain why it is much less common in the Khok Kruat
Formation is too old for Psittacosaurus to be present in it Formation of Thailand and Laos than in lacustrine
(in other words, it predates the Psittacosaurus biochron), formations in Mongolia and China.
or it is coeval with Psittacosaurus-bearing formations
elsewhere in Asia but for some reason Psittacosaurus was
not present in Southeast Asia at that time. There is some
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
evidence in favour of the second hypothesis. First, there is
some palynological evidence to suggest that the Phu Phan This work was supported by the Department of Mineral
Formation is at most late Barremian in age (A. Racey, Resources, a joint project of Thailand Research Fund and
pers. com.), so that the the Sao Khua Formation may be as the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, and the
recent as early Barremian. Secondly, one of the main ECLIPSE Programme of CNRS. We thank all those who
differences between the dinosaur assemblages from the took part in the excavations at Phu Hin Rong.
Sao Khua and Khok Kruat formations is the occurrence in
the latter of abundant advanced iguanodontians REFERENCES
(hadrosauroids), which are well attested both in Laos
(Hoffet, 1944; Buffetaut, 1991) and in Thailand Allain, R., Taquet, P., Battail, B., Dejax, J., Richir, P.,
(Buffetaut et al., 2005, 2006). This can be interpreted as Veran, M., Limon-Duparcmeur, F., Vacant, R.,
the result of dispersal of hadrosauroids into Southeast Mateus, O., Savarath, P., Khenthavong, B. and
Asia, possibly from more northern parts of Asia, after a Phouyavong, S. 1999. Un nouveau genre de
period of relative faunal isolation of Southeast Asia, dinosaure de la Formation des Grès Supérieurs
corresponding to the period during which the Sao Khua (Aptien-Albien) du Laos. Comptes Rendus de
Formation was deposited. If this scenario is correct, l’Académie des Sciences de Paris, II, 329, 609-616.
Psittacosaurus may be considered as an immigrant from Averianov, A.O., Voronkevich, A.V., Leschchinskiy, S.V. &
northern Asia that entered Southeast Asia together with Fayngertz, A.V. 2006, A ceratopsian dinosaur
hadrosauroids after the deposition of the Sao Khua Psittacosaurus sibiricus from the Early Cretaceous of West
Formation. Siberia, Russia and its phylogenetic relationships. Journal
of Systematic Palaeontology, 4, p. 359-395.
342
Buffetaut, E. 1991, On the age of the Cretaceous dinosaur- Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie Monatshefte,
bearing beds of southern Laos. Newsletters onStratigraphy, 1990, 11, 659-666.
24, p. 59-73. Dodson, P. 1996. The Horned Dinosaurs. Princeton University
Buffetaut, E., Sattayarak, N. and Suteethorn, V. 1989, A Press, Princeton, 346 pp.
psittacosaurid dinosaur from the Cretaceous of Thailand Hoffet, J.H. 1944, Description des ossements les plus
and its implications for the palaeogeographical history of caractéristiques appartenant à des avipelviens du Sénonien
Asia. Terra nova, 1, p. 370-373. du Bas-Laos. Bulletin du Conseil des Recherches
Buffetaut, E. and Suteethorn, V. 1992, A new species of the Scientifiques d’Indochine, p.179-186.
ornithischian dinosaur Psittacosaurus from the Early Lucas, S.G. 2006, The Psittacosaurus biochron, Early
Cretaceous of Thailand. Palaeontology, 35, p. 801-812. Cretaceous of Asia. Cretaceous Research, 27, p. 189- 198.
Buffetaut, E. & Suteethorn, V. 1998, The biogeographical Metcalfe, I. 1998, Palaeozoic and Mesozoic geological evolution
significance of the Mesozoic vertebrates from Thailand. In of the SE Asian region: multidisciplinary constraints and
R. Hall & J.D. Holloway (eds), Biogeography and implications for biogeography. In R. Hall & J.D. Holloway,
Geological Evolution of SE Asia, Backhuys, Leiden, p. 83- J.D. (eds), Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE
90. Asia, Backhuys, Leiden, p. 25–41.
Buffetaut, E. & Suteethorn, V. 1999, The dinosaur fauna of the Osborn, H.F. 1923, Two Lower Cretaceous dinosaurs from
Sao Khua Formation of Thailand and the beginning of the Mongolia. American Museum Novitates, 95, p. 1-10.
Cretaceous radiation of dinosaurs in Asia. Racey, A., Love, M.A., Canham, A.C., Goodall,
Palaeogoegraphy, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 150, J.G.S.,Polachan, S. and Jones, P.D. 1996, Stratigraphy and
p.13-23. reservoir potential of theMesozoic Khorat Group, NE
Buffetaut, E. and Suteethorn, V. 2002, Remarks on Thailand. Part 1: Stratigraphy and sedimentary evolution.
Psittacosaurus sattayaraki Buffetaut & Suteethorn, 1992, a Journal of Petroleum Geology, 19, p. 5-40.
ceratopsian dinosaur from the Lower Cretaceous of Sereno, P.C. 2000, The fossil record, systematics and evolution
Thailand. Oryctos, 4, p. 71-73. of pachycephalosaurs and ceratopsians from Asia. In M.J.
Metcalfe, I. 1998, Palaeozoic and Mesozoic geological evolution Benton, M.A. Shishkin, D.M. Unwin & E.N. Kurochkin,
of the SE Asian region: multidisciplinary constraints and E.N., The Age of Dinosaurs in Russia and Mongolia,
implications for biogeography. In R.Hall & J.D. Holloway Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 480-516.
(eds), Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE Asia.
Backhuys, Leiden, p. 25–41. Sha, J. 2007, Cretaceous stratigraphy of northeast China: non-
Buffetaut, E., Suteethorn, V., Le Loeuff, J., Khansubha, S., marine and marine correlation. Cretaceous Research, 28, p.
Tong, H. and Wongko, K. 2005, The dinosaur fauna from 146-170.
the Khok Kruat Formation (Early Cretaceous) of Thailand. Suslov, Y. V. 1983, The burial of psittacosaurs at Khamryn-Us
In Wannakao, L., Youngme, W., Srisuk, K. & (Eastern Gobi, MPR). Trudy Sovmestnoi Sovetsko-
Lertsirivorakul, R. (eds), Proceedings of the International Mongol’skoi Paleontologicheskoi Ekspeditsii, 24, p. 118–
Conference on Geology, Geotechnology and Mineral 120. [In Russian]
Resources of Indochina, Khon Kaen University, p. 575- Yang, W., Li, S. & Jiang, B. 2007, New evidence for Cretaceous
581. age of the feathered dinosaurs of Liaoning: zircon U-Pb
Buffetaut, E., Suteethorn, V. and Tong, H. 2006, Dinosaur SHRIMP dating of the Yixian Formation in Sihetun,
assemblages from Thailand: a comparison with Chinese northeast China. Cretaceous Research, 28, p. 177-182.
faunas. In J. Lü, Y. Kobayashi, D. Huang & Y.N. Lee (eds), You, H. and Dodson, P. 2004, Basal Ceratopsia. In:
Papers from the 2005 Heyuan International Dinosaur Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P. and Osmolska, H. (des), The
Symposium, Geological Publishing House, Beijing, p. 19- Dinosauria (Second Edition), University of California
37. Press, Berkeley, p. 478-493.
Cappetta, H., Buffetaut, E. and Suteethorn, V. 1990, A new
hybodont from the Lower Cretaceous of hailand. Neues
343
THE HOLOSTEI FISH RECORD (ACTINOPTERYGII) FROM THAILAND

Lionel CAVIN1, Uthumporn DEESRI2, Varavudh SUTEETHORN3
1
Department of Geology and Palaeontology, Muséum d’Histoire naturelle, 1211 Genève 6, Switzerland
2
Phu Kum Khao Dinosaur Research Centre, The Sirindhorn Museum, Sahat Sakhan District, Kalasin 46140, Thailand
3
ABSTRACT
This first overview of the semionotid fish record from the Jurassic and Cretaceous continental deposits of Thailand
reveals the highest diversity, with 8 forms of fish from several sites, in four different Formations (Khlong Min, Phu
Kradung, Sao Khua and Khok Kruat Fms.). Two of these taxa have already been diagnosed and described, and one is
well-preserved enough to be diagnosed in the future. However, the other taxa are represented by fragmentary and
isolated remains so far. There is only Phu Kradung Formations has no button-shaped crushing teeth of Lepidotes-like
fish.
Key words: continental fish, Khorat plateau, Mesozoic
INTRODUCTION Formation, overlying by the Lam Thap, Sam Chom and

Phun Phin Formations (Meesook et al. 2002). The Mab
Bony fish remains represent an important part of fossils Ching locality in the Khlong Min Formation has yielded
discovered during palaeontological prospecting and lungfishes (Martin et al. 1997), temnospondyls (Buffetaut
excavations conducted in the continental Jurassic and et al. 1994), mesosuchian crocodiles and the turtle
Cretaceous deposits of Thailand for more than twenty five Siamochelys (Tong et al. 2002). This Formation was dated
years. They have been mentioned in several publications to the Middle or Late Jurassic on the basis of charophytes
as component of the vertebrate assemblages, but they and palynomorphs (Buffetaut et al. 1994, Lei 1993), an
rarely have been properly described, except for a handful age confirmed by the turtles (Tong et al. 2002.) The
of taxa known by more complete material. No overview Khorat Plateau in northeastern Thailand has non-marine
of the succession of the fish assemblages throughout the sediments deposited during the Mesozoic. A recent study
Mesozoic deposits from Thailand has been published so (Carter & Bristow 2003) restricted the Khorat Group to
far. Here we describe the fossil record of semionotid five Formations: the Phu Kradung, Phra Wihan, Sao
fishes from the Middle or Late Jurassic of the Phu Khua, Phu Phan and Khok Kruat Formations in ascending
Kradung Formation up to the Early Cretaceous Khok order. The main lithologies of the rocks are reddish brown
Kruat Formation in the Khorat Plateau. Triassic fishes are to light grey sandstones, conglomeratic sandstones,
known in Thailand, but they are not reviewed here siltstones, claystones and conglomerates. The rocks are
because they belong to different assemblages, separated interpreted as having been deposited by meandering and
from the Jurassic assemblages by a large startigraphic gap. braided rivers in semi-arid conditions (Meesook 2000). In
All specimens described in this article, except if specified the Khorat Plateau, three of the five Formations have
otherwise, are housed in the Siridhorn Museum, Sahat yielded vertebrate body fossils. The Phu Kradung
Sakhan, Kalasin Province. Formation provided no conclusive fossils for datation, but
as it is conformably overlain by the Early Cretaceous Phra
GEOLOGICAL SETTING Wihan Formation, which contains palynomorphs at its
base, the Phu Kradung Formation is regarded as Late
The bony fish remains described below were found in Jurassic or Early Cretaceous in age (Racey et al. 1996).
several localities of the Khorat Plateau in northeastern The top-most Formation of the Khorat group, the Khok
Thailand and in one locality in southern Thailand, Mab Kruat Formation, is Aptian in age thanks to palynomorphs
Ching. The main tectonic units in Thailand comprise two (Racey et al. 1996) and vertebrates (Cappetta et al. 1990).
continental blocks or microcontinents (Fig. 1): the eastern The Sao Khua Formation overlays the Phra Wihan
part (the Khorat Plateau) belongs to the Indochina block, Formation and is separated from the Khok Kruat
and the western part (the southern peninsula) is part of a Formation by the Phu Phan Formation. Its age is thus
block called “Shan-Thai” or “Sibumasu”. The stratigraphy constrained to the Early Cretaceous, probably Hauterivian
of the non-marine sediments in southern Peninsula to Barremian in age.
Thailand has been recently reviewed (Teerarungsigul et
al. 1999). These clastic red beds are known as the Trang
Group which is now subdivided into a basal Khlong Min
344
Phu Kradung Formation
The Phu Kradung Formation yields a rich semionotid

fauna. Two species, Lepidotes buddhabutrensis Cavin et
al. 2003 and Isanichthys palustris Cavin & Suteethorn
2006 have been described from the Phu Nam Jun locality
on the basis of articulated specimens, and will not be
mentioned here, except for purpose of comparison. It is
noteworthy that L. buddhabutrensis has been referred with
caution to the genus Lepidotes, but a study in progress
shows that it is not closely related to the type species, L.
elvensis (Blainville 1818), and it will probably be
assigned to a new genus. Two other localities from the
Phu Kradung Formation yield abundant semionotid
remains: Khok Sanam and Chong Chat. Apart from
numerous isolated thick and smooth ganoid scales and
some skull bones (among them a probable extrascapula),
the locality of Khok Sanam yielded five fragment of a
single Lepidotes-like individual (Fig. 3). Each piece
shows large diamond-shaped ganoid scales. The almost
complete left opercle is preserved (Fig. 4 A). The bone is
1.7x deeper than long and its surface is marked with faint
grooves diverging from the center of ossification. The
articular facet is large, slightly protrudes from the anterior
margin and its external side is marked by a thickening of
the bone. The dorsal margin of the bone is straight and
horizontal. The posterior margin is regularly curved and
the bone tapers to a point ventrally. The anterior margin is
slightly convex. An area along the anterior border of the
bone forms a plan which marks an angle with the main
body of the bone; this surface was covered by the
preopercle. The shape of the opercle of this Lepidotes-like
fish differs from the one in L. buddhabutrensis, which is
almost square in shape and has no ventral tapering (Fig. 4
Figure 1. Map of southeast Asia (in part), with location of the B). The individual from Khok Sanam shows a fragment
geological Formations yielding fossils described in the text.
of an elongated bone, slightly shifted, with a “L” section
reminiscent of the cleithrum. Another piece contains the
SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOY left cleithrum, still embedded in matrix with scales and
fragment of bones.
Holostei sensu Grande, 2005 Chong Chat yielded numerous isolated semionotid
Semionotiformes sensu Cavin & Suteethorn, 2006 material and a sub-complete specimen, which is currently
“Semionotidae” under description. Preliminary observations of the teeth
The Semionotidae are a poorly diagnosed family and on the lower jaw (held vertically) and of the opercle,
probably paraphyletic as currently defined (Thies 1989). which is deeper than long with a pointed ventral
Pending a better diagnosis of that taxa, we refer here to extremity, and other characters such as the head
“semionotids” all fish remains that share with Semionotus proportions show that this specimen differs from L.
and Lepidotes similar gross morphology of the scales and buddhabutrensis. It can also be distinguished from I.
dentition. palustris by its deeper body, with at least 30 rows of
scales along a vertical series in the middle of the body,
Khlong Min Formation while I. palustris has only 20, among other characters. It
is not possible to recognize both semionotiform taxa from
The locality of Mab Ching in Peninsular Thailand, on the Chong Chat and from Khok Sanam on the basis of the
Shan-Thai block, yielded smooth ganoid scales and some available osteological material so far.
skull fragments assigned to a semionotid fish. Some Dan Luang, Phu Dan Kaeng, Lam Payang (Phu Klang)
scales are large, more than 2.5 cm in length, and and Wan Din So are other localities from the Phu
correspond to individuals that were over 1 meter in length. Kradung Formation yielding smooth ganoid Lepidotes-
A small isolated tooth, with a bulbous crown and a like scales. It is worth to point out that no button-shaped
conical cap of acrodine, is referred with caution to that crushing teeth are known from the Phu Kradung
taxon (Fig. 2). No button-shaped tooth has been reported Formation so far.
from the Khlong Min Formation so far.
345
Fig. 2 Diversity of semionotid remains in the Jurassic and Cretaceous of Thailand. Only selection of localities and of specimens
are shown. The succession between localities within each formation does not correspond to the stratigraphic succession. The two
lines of scales in the Khok Pha Suam correspond to the two recognised taxa known in that locality (ridges scales and smooth
scales). All specimens are at the same scale (scale bars: 5 mm), except if specified.
Sao Khua Formation

The Khok Pha Suam locality has yielded the most
The localities of Phu Wiang, Phu Phan Thong, Phu Mai abundant semionotid material from the Khok Kruat
Paw in the Sao Khua Formation have yielded smooth Formation. Thousands of isolated scales have been
ganoid scales and button-shaped crushing teeth referable collected. They can easily be separated into two sets,
to semionotids (Fig. 4). The localities of Phu Kum Khao which probably correspond to two different taxa (Fig. 2).
(K4) and Phu Phok, from the Sao Khua Formation, both One set is represented by smooth ganoid scales, with the
yielded a single button-shaped tooth referable to lateral face showing a narrow band without ganoin that
semionotid (Phu Phok contains numerous ganoid scales, was covered by the anterior scale. The other set consists
but most of them probably belong to sinamiids). Cuny et of slightly larger scales in average, and the ganoid surface
al. (2006) reported button-shaped and hook-shaped is ornamented with parallel or slightly diverging grooves
pharyngeal teeth in the Phu Phan Thong locality that are that sometimes marks the posterior edge of the ganoin
referable to Lepidotes. The button-shaped teeth are with a denticulate pattern. These scales are deeper in
rounded or ovoid, with a smooth surface and sometimes a average than scales from the other set, they have better-
small pit at their apex (Fig. 2). We are not able to marked edges, and the anterior ganoin-free area that was
distinguish several taxa among the available semionotid covered by the preceding scale is proportionally larger. In
remains from the Sao Khua Formation so far. well-preserved scales, the anterior margin bears dorsally
and ventrally a pair of well-developed pegs. Dorsal ridge
Khok Kruat Formation scales of semionotids are abundant Khok Pha Suam and
346
show a great variety of shape. These have been used to In the locality of Lam Pao Dam is a large Lepidotes-like
distinguish species, or populations, among semionotid fish known by button-shaped crushing teeth and thick
assemblages of the Late Triassic of USA (McCune 1987). ganoid scales, with the surface ornamented with parallel
However, this diagnostic feature cannot be used on the rows of small pits. An indeterminate piece of bone from
Khok Phu Suam material so far, as long as articulated the skull shows a rather similar ornamentation, indicating
specimens are not available. that this pattern probably covered the whole body. This
No button-shaped crushing teeth are known from the pattern is unique among semionotids from Thailand and
Khok Phu Suam so far. This is probably not a sampling probably corresponds to a particular taxon.
artefact, as these teeth are extremely resistant and the
collecting effort was important in this site.
Fig. 3 Indeterminate actinopterygians, Khok Sanam, Phu Kradung Formation. A, Portion of an articulated specimen. Scale bar:
30 mm. B-D, Portion of an articulated specimen and isolated elements from a single specimen. B, collection of isolated scales.
Scale bar 15 mm. C, disarticulated scales on a slab. Scale bar: 30 mm. D, fragment of the skull. Scale bar: 30 mm.
SUCCESSION OF THE JURASSIC AND

CRETACEOUS SEMIONOTID FISH
ASSEMBLAGE IN THAILAND
Table 1 shows an overview of the Semionotid fish
assemblages from the Jurassic and Cretaceous of
Thailand. The diversity, with 8 forms, is higher that
previously suspected. Fishes from the Khlong Min
Formation are still poorly known. The bony fish fauna
provides few evidence to confirm or invalidate dating of
the Mab Ching locality and to test palaeogeographic
scenario in the Middle-Late Jurassic. The occurrence of
Ferganoceratodus is in agreement, however, with a
terrestrial connection between southern Thailand and
Central Asia at that time. The Phu Kradung contains the
most diverse bony fish fauna so far. At least three
semionotids are present. For the time being, we are not
able to assess the palaeogeographic affinities of this taxa.
Dinosaurs from the Phu Kradung Formation shows
affinities with dinosaurs from the Upper Shaximiao
Fig. 4 A, left opercle and fragment of squamation of a Formation and Shishugou Formation of Sichuan and
Lepidotes-like fish, Khok Sanam, Phu Kradung Formation. B, Xinjiang respectively (Buffetaut et al. 2006), and further
left opercle of Lepidotes buddhabutrensis, Phun Nam Jun, studies should allow testing if semionotids from the Phu
Phu Kradung Formation, K12-2 (holotype). Scale bar: 30 mm. Kradung Formation also show close relationships with
semionotids from the Late Jurassic of West and South
China. The osteology of the semionotid with button-
shaped teeth from Sao Khua Formation is not sufficiently
347
known so far to assess if it has affinities with other different from assemblages of the preceding Formations,
semionotid with similar teeth, or if this pattern is due to especially with a new diversification of the freshwater
convergence. The Khok Kruat bony fish assemblage is semionotids.
Table 1. The overview of the Semionotid fishes from The Jurassic and Cretaceous of Thailand.
(smooth
Semio indet. 5 (button teeth

Semio indet. 4 (ridged scales)
Semio indet. 2 (button teeth)
L. buddhabutrensis
Semio new species
& pits on scales)

Semio indet.
Semio indet. 1
I. palustris
scales)
Khok Kruat Fm X X X
Sao Khua Fm X
Phu Kradung Fm X X X
Khlong Min Fm X
CONCLUSION thermochronology: A study of the Khorat Plateau Basin,

Eastern Thailand. Basin Research, 15, 271–285.
Cavin, L., & Suteethorn. V. 2006. A new Semionotiform
Isolated semionotiform fossils constitute a large (Actinopterygii, Neopterygii) from Upper Jurassic - Lower
component of the vertebrate remains from Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits of North-East Thailand, with
Cretaceous localities of Thailand. Figure 4 provides an comments on the relationships of Semionotiforms.
overview of the main types of scales and teeth in the Palaeontology, 49, 339–353.
succession of Formations. Although few taxa are Cavin, L., Suteethorn, V., Khansubha, S., Buffetaut, E. & Tong,
sufficiently known to be diagnosed, eight different forms H. 2003. A new Semionotid (Actinopterygii, Neopterygii)
can be distinguished: a large semionotid in the Khlong from the Late Jurassic- Early Cretaceous of Thailand.
Min Formation, at least three taxa in the Phu Kradung Comptes Rendus Palévol, 2, 291-297.
Formation (two in Phu Nam Jun, one in Chong Chat and Lei, Z. 1993. The discovery and significance of the Late Jurassic
sporopollen assemblage in peninsular Thailand. In :
possibly in Khok Sanam), one with crushing teeth in the Thanasuthipitak, T. (ed.) Proceedings of the international
Sao Khua Formation, three in the Khok Kruat Formation Symposium on Biostratigraphy of Mainland Southeast Asia:
(two in Khok Pha Suam, one in Lam Pao Dam). Fascies and Paleontology. Chiang Mai University, Chiang
This article is based on material collected by the Thai- Mai, 361-379.
French palaeontological team for more than 25 years. McCune, A. R. 1987. Toward the phylogeny of a Fossil Species
Numerous people are involved in this work and they Flock: Semionotid Fishes from a Lake Deposit in the Early
cannot be named individually here. We want to thank all Jurassic Towaco Formation, Newark Basin. Peabody
these persons, who have participated to the collecting and Museum of Natural History, Yale University, 43, 1-108.
preparation of the fossils. Meesook, A., 2000. Cretaceous environments of Northeastern
Thailand. In: Okada, H. & Mateer, N.J. (eds.) Cretaceous
environnent of Asia, Elesevier Science B.V., 207-223.
REFERENCES Racey, A., Love, M. A., Canham, A. C., Goodall, J. G. S.,
Polachan, S. & Jones, P. D. 1996. Stratigraphy and
Buffetaut, E., Raksakulwong, L., Suteethorn, V. & Tong, H. reservoir potential of the Mesozoic Khorat Group, NE
1994. First post-Triassic temnospondyl amphibians from Thailand. Part 1: Stratigraphy and sedimentary evolution.
the Shan-Thai Block: intercentra from the Jurassic of Journal of Petroleum Geology, 19, 5–40.
peninsular Thailand. Geological Magazine, 131, 837–839. Teerarungsigul, N., Lertsin, T. & Chaiyudh K. 1999.
Buffetaut, E., Suteethorn, V. & Tong, H. 2006. Dinosaur Reconsideration of lithostratigraphy of non-marine
assemblages from Thailand: a comparison with Chinese Mesozoic rocks in Thung Yai-Khlong Thom area, Southern
faunas. In : Lu, J., Kobayashi, Y. & Hunag, D. & Lee, Y. Thailand. Proceedings, Symposium on Mineral, Energy
(eds) International Dinosaur Symposium, 2005, Heyuan, and Water resources of Thailand: Towards the year 2000.
Geological Publishing House, Beijing, 19-37. Bangkok: Department of Mineral Resources.
Cappetta, H., Buffetaut, E. & Suteethorn, V. 1990. A new Thies, D. 1989. Lepidotes gloriae, sp. nov. (Actinopterygii:
hybodont from the Lower Cretaceous of Thailand. Neues Semionotiformes) from the Late Jurassic of Cuba. Journal
Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte, 11, of Vertebrate Paleontology, 9(1), 18-40.
659–666. Tong, H., Buffetaut, E. & Suteethorn, V. 2002. Middle Jurassic
Carter, A. & Bristow, C. 2003. Linking hinterland evolution and turtles from southern Thailand. Geological Magazine,
continental basin sedimentation using detrital zircon 139(6), 687-697.
348
THE MESOZOIC FOSSIL RECORD OF SHARKS IN THAILAND
Gilles Cuny1, Varavudh Suteethorn2, Suchada Kamha3, Komsorn Lauprasert4, Paladej Srisuk5, Eric Buffetaut6.
1
Natural History Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen K, Denmark, E-mail : gilles@snm.ku.dk
2
3
4
Srisuk’s House Museum, Phetchaburi 76140, Thailand
5
CNRS (UMR 8538 - Laboratoire de Géologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure), 75013 Paris, France
ABSTRACT
Mesozoic sharks are known in Thailand both in the Indochina and Sibumasu (Shan-Thai) terranes, and represent at least
21 species, many of which have not yet been named, distributed in 14 genera. The vast majority of these fossils belong to
hybodont sharks. Fossil remains from the Triassic are still in need of study, while the Jurassic has yielded teeth of a
primitive batoid, as well as those of hybodont sharks. The Cretaceous is mostly characterized by freshwater hybodont
sharks endemic to Asia. In total 30 fossiliferous sites yielding Mesozoic sharks have been recorded across the country so far.
Keywords: Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Thailand, Chondrichthyes
INTRODUCTION Family: Hybodontidae Owen, 1846

Subfamily: Hybodontinae Owen, 1846 sensu Maisey,
We provided in 2005 a review of the hybodont sharks 1989
found in the Mesozoic of Thailand (Cuny et al., 2005), Genus: Hybodus Agassiz, 1839
but the recent results of our international project aiming at Hybodus spp.
studying Thai palaeobiodiversity make an update of this Occurrences: Chong Chat, Nong Bua Lamphu Province
list desirable, as both new sites and new taxa were (Cuny et al., 2003); Phu Nam Jun, Kalasin province;
recently found. To protect the fossiliferous sites, their Wang Din So, Phitsanulok Province (Srisuk, 2002); Kham
exact locations are not provided in this article. For Phok, Mukdahan province; Ban Ao Kalang, Ko Kut, Trat
scientific purposes, these locations can however be province.
obtained on request from the second author. The material Comments: The material is so far quite scanty and
mentioned in this work is housed in the Sirindhorn represented mainly by broken teeth. It is probable that
Museum (Department of Mineral Resources, Kalasin more than one species is represented, but this cannot be
Province), as well as in the Srisuk’s House Museum, a ascertained for the time being. More collection efforts are
private museum in Khao Yoi (Phetchaburi Province). needed.
Although quite far away from the Khorat Plateau, the
REVIEW OF THE FAUNAS southeast coast of Ko Kut, where the fossiliferous site of
Ban Ao Kalang was found is mapped as belonging to the
Indochina Terrane Phu Kradung Formation (Krong Khemarak Phoumin
Geological Map of the Department of Mineral resources
1. Huai Hin Lat Formation (Norian) (DMR), scale 1/250000). The fauna of the site not having
Class: Chondrichthyes Huxley, 1880 yet been studied in details, we cannot discuss thoroughly
Subclass: Elasmobranchii Bonaparte, 1838 its age, and pending further studies, we follow here the
Elasmobranchii incertae sedis opinion of the DMR.
Occurrence: Chulabhorn Dam, Chaiyaphum Province.
Comments: Srisuk (2006) mentioned a single dermal Subfamily: Acrodontinae Casier, 1959 sensu Maisey,
denticle (SHM-CD29) from Chulabhorn Dam, which 1989
indeed appears to belong to a fossil shark. Unfortunately, Genus: Acrodus Agassiz, 1837
isolated dermal denticles bear little taxonomic value, and Acrodus sp.
it is impossible, based on the specimen at hand, to get any
insight on which kind of sharks were present on the Occurrences: Chong Chat, Nong Bua Lamphu Province;
Indochina terrane during the Triassic. More collection Wang Din So, Phitsanulok Province (Cuny et al., 2003,
efforts are needed in this area. 2005).
2. Phu Kradung Formation (Late Jurassic – Early
Cretaceous) Family: Lonchidiidae Herman, 1977
Order: Hybodontiformes Maisey, 1987 Genus: Lonchidion Estes, 1964
349
Lonchidion sp. they may as well belong to Hybodus, Acrodus or
Occurrence: Wang Din So, Phitsanulok Province (Srisuk, Lonchidion.
2002).
Comments: See Cuny et al., 2005. 3. Sao Khua Formation (Early Cretaceous)
Family: Hybodontidae Owen, 1846
Genus: Lissodus Brough, 1935 Subfamily: Hybodontinae Owen, 1846 sensu Maisey,
Lissodus sp. 1989
Occurrence: Kham Phok, Mukdahan province. Genus: Hybodus Agassiz, 1837
Comments: 15 fragmentary teeth show a crown more Hybodus spp.
ornamented and wider labio-lingually than that of Occurrence: Phu Phan Thong and Phu Wat, Nong Bua
Lonchidion, suggesting they belong to Lissodus. The Lamphu Province; Phu Noi, Sakhon Nakhon Province
material is however too fragmentary to allow an (Cuny et al., 2005, 2006).
identification at the species level. Comments: At least two different species of Hybodus are
present in the Sao Khua Formation, and one of these
Family: Lonchidiidae Herman, 1977 species might belong to the genus Egertonodus rather than
Lonchidiidae indet. to Hybodus (Cuny et al., 2006).
Occurrences: Khok Sanam, Kalasin Province; Kham
Phok, Mukdahan province. Family: Lonchidiidae Herman, 1977
Comments: Only five fragmented crowns showing a Genus: Lonchidion Estes, 1964
labial peg have been recovered so far at Khok Sanam, Lonchidion khoratensis Cuny et al., 2006
which do not allow a more precise identification to be Occurrence: Phu Phan Thong, Nong Bua Lamphu
made. Some incomplete crowns from Kham Phok appear Province (Cuny et al., 2006)
not to fit the genus Lissodus, and might indicate that Genus: Parvodus Rees & Underwood, 2002
another genus of Lonchidiidae, perhaps Lonchidion, is Parvodus sp.
present at this site. Occurrence: Phu Phan Thong, Nong Bua Lamphu
Province (Cuny et al., 2006).
Family: Ptychodontidae Jaekel, 1898
Genus: Heteroptychodus Yabe & Obata, 1930 Genus: Isanodus Cuny et al., 2006
Heteroptychodus sp. Isanodus paladeji Cuny et al., 2006
Occurrences: Chong Chat, Nong Bua Lamphu province; Occurrences: Phu Phan Thong, Nong Bua Lamphu
Kham Phok, Mukdahan province; Ban Ao Kalang, Ko Province; Phu Noi, Sakhon Nakhon Province (Cuny et al.,
Kut, Trat province. 2005, 2006)
Comments: The material from Chong Chat and Kham Comments: The presence of Isanodus at Phu Noi was
Phok is still scarce (1 tooth from Chong Chat and 19 teeth confirmed in 2006 by the discovery of two more teeth (see
from Kham Phok) and consists only of fragmentary Cuny et al., 2005).
crowns, so that identification at species level is not yet
possible. Family: Ptychodontidae Jaekel, 1898
The teeth from Ko Kut have not yet been studied. They Genus: Heteroptychodus Yabe & Obata, 1930
were first reported in 1983 by Buffetaut & Ingavat, but Heteroptychodus steinmanni Yabe & Obata, 1930
were thought to be similar to those of Bdellodus by Occurrences: Phu Phan Thong, Phu Wat, Huai Dua and
Cappetta (in Buffetaut & Ingavat, 1983). The teeth in the Huai Lao Yang, Nong Bua Lamphu Province (Cuny et al.,
collection of the Sirindhorn Museum, as well as those 2005, 2006); Phu Wiang 1A, Khon Kaen Province; Phu
collected in March 2007 by our team, show however the Kum Khao (Fig. 1) and Phu Mai Paw, Kalasin Province;
typical ornamentation pattern of Heteroptychodus (Cuny Phu Phok and Phu Noi, Sakhon Nakhon Province; Non
et al., 2003; Cappetta et al., 2006). Liam, Chaiyaphum Province (Cuny et al., 2003).
Comments: The fact that Heteroptychodus teeth have
Hybodontiformes indet. been found in many more sites than any other hybodonts
Occurrences: Kham Phok, Mukdahan province; Wang from the Sao Khua Formation may be due to the large size
Din So, Phitsanulok Province. of its teeth. Hence they were easily recovered from sites
Comments: Kham Phok has yielded several fragments of where no screen-washing of sediment was performed
dorsal fin spines. However, it is difficult to say whether (Fig. 2). It should be noted however that screen washing
these fin spines belong to Hybodus, Heteroptychodus or to revealed only teeth of Heteroptychodus at Phu Phok. No
a Lonchidiidae, isolated teeth of which have been found in other hybodont shark teeth were found at this site.
this site. Indeed isolated dorsal fin spines are almost Hybodontiformes indet.
impossible to identify at genus level. One of these fin Occurrence: Phu Noi, Sakhon Nakhon Province.
spines appears however to be pathological as its posterior Comments: One of us (PS) found two incomplete dorsal
wall, bearing two rows of enamelled hooks, is convex, fin spines at Phu Noi (Fig. 3), the largest being 115 mm
rather than being concave. Two hybodont dorsal fin long (Fig. 4).
spines were also found by one of us (PS) at Wang Din So.
Srisuk (2002) attributed these fin spines to Lissodus, but
350
Fig.1: Tooth of Heteroptychodus steinmanni from Phu Kum Khao in apical view. The unusual elongated shape
of this tooth indicates that it is a posterior tooth. Scale bar: 10 mm.
Fig. 2: Teeth of Heteroptychodus steinmanni as found in situ. A: Anterior tooth at Wat Wang Sai, Khok Kruat Formation. B:
Lateral tooth at Huai Dua, Sao Khua Formation. Scales in mm. A: Photo courtesy of Haiyan Tong.
Fig.3: Hybodont dorsal fin spine from Phu Noi in A: lateral and B: posterior views. Scales are in mm.
Fig. 4: Hybodont dorsal fin spine from Phu Noi in A: lateral and B: anterior views. Scale is in mm.
351
4. Khok Kruat Formation (Aptian-Albian) Comments: Dr. Apsorn Ampornmaha from the DMR had
Family: Hybodontidae Owen, 1846 recovered some fossil shark remains in the Chaiburi
Subfamily: Hybodontinae Owen, 1846 sensu Maisey, Formation at Khao Phanomwang and Khao Thammalai in
1989 Phatthalung province while sampling for conodonts
Hybodus nov. sp. (Ampornmaha, 1995). Based on conodonts, this
Occurrence: Khok Pha Suam, Ubon Ratchathani Formation is dated from Early to early Late (Carnian)
province (Cuny et al., 2003, in press). Triassic. The material is quite scanty, encompassing a few
teeth and dermal denticles. Some teeth may pertain to a
Family: Ptychodontidae Jaekel, 1898 Hybodontiformes (Hybodus or Polyacrodus?) or to
Genus: Heteroptychodus Yabe & Obata, 1930 Synechodus, a primitive neoselachian shark. A tooth with
Heteroptychodus steinmanni Yabe & Obata, 1930 a well developed lingual peg at the base of the main cusp
Occurrences: Khok Pha Suam, Ubon Ratchathani appears quite similar to those of “Polyacrodus”
province (Cuny et al., 2003; Cappetta et al., 2006); San contrarius, and might indicate the presence of
Ram and Wat Wang Sai, Khon Kaen Province; Lam Pao Wapitiodidae in Thailand (Mutter et al., 2007).
Dam, Kalasin Province. Unfortunately, this tooth has been lost by the senior
author. Srisuk (2007) also recovered shark dermal
Family: Thaiodontidae nov. fam. denticles at Khao Phanomwang. Furthermore,
Genus: Thaiodus Cappetta, Buffetaut & Suteethorn, 1990 Lonchidiidae might be present in the Chaiburi Formation
Thaiodus ruchae Cappetta, Buffetaut & Suteethorn, 1990 at Khao Ok Thalu, Phattalung province (Cuny et al.,
Occurrences: Khok Pha Suam, Ubon Ratchathani 2005; Srisuk, 2005). The potential of the Chaiburi
province, Ban Khok Kruat and Ban Sapan Hin, Nakhon Formation for recovering new shark material appears
Ratchasima Province (Cappetta et al., 1990; Cuny et al., therefore high and more fieldwork is needed in this
2003); San Ram, Khon Kaen Province. geographic area.
New genus and species # 1 2. Khlong Min Formation (Mid to Late Jurassic)
Occurrence: Khok Pha Suam, Ubon Ratchathani Family: Hybodontidae Owen, 1846
province (Cuny et al., 2003). Subfamily: Hybodontinae Owen, 1846 sensu Maisey,
Comments: This new genus has been assigned to the new 1989
family Thaiodontidae on the basis of the following Genus: Hybodus Agassiz, 1837
characters: asymmetry of the crown, teeth elongated Hybodus spp.
mesio-distally, ornamentation of the crown limited to its Occurrences: Mab Ching and Ao Min, Nakhon Si
upper half, and teeth from the same family narrowly Tammarat Province (Tong et al., 2002); Khlong Thom,
interlocked (Cuny et al., in press). Krabi Province (buffetaut et al., 2005).
Comments: The genus Hybodus is represented in the
Family: incertae sedis Khlong Min Formation by at least two different species, a
small one which is restricted to the lower part of the
Acrorhizodus khoratensis Cappetta et al., 2006 Formation (Mab Ching and Ao Min), and a large one that
Occurrence: Khok Pha Suam, Ubon Ratchathani is found only in the upper part of the Formation (Khlong
province (Cappetta et al., 2006). Thom). Dorsal fin spines which might belong to Hybodus
Comments: Acrorhizodus khoratensis was listed by Cuny have also been found at Mab Ching (Cuny et al., 2005).
et al. (2005) as new genus and species # 2.
Subfamily: Acrodontinae Casier, 1959 sensu Maisey,
Hybodontiformes incertae sedis 1989
Occurrence: Khok Pha Suam, Ubon Ratchathani Genus: Asteracanthus Agassiz, 1837
province (Cuny et al., 2003). Asteracanthus sp.
Comments: Most of the teeth assigned by Cuny et al. Occurrences: Ao Luk, Krabi Province; Ao Min, Nakhon
(2003) to their new genus and species # 3 are in fact Si Tammarat Province.
posterior teeth of Acrorhizodus khoratensis (Cappetta et Comments: The anterior tooth reported from Mab Ching
al., 2006; Cuny et al. in press). Only one tooth (TF 7651) by Cuny et al. (2005) came in fact from Ao Min, a site
does not fit any of the hybodonts described so far from the located 4 km South of Mab Ching. Two cephalic spines of
Khok Kruat Formation. This tooth probably represents a this genus were also recovered from Ao Min by one of us
new genus and species, but a single tooth is not sufficient (PS). So far, there is no record of Asteracanthus at Mab
to erect a new taxon, and it is left in open nomenclature Ching. The Asteracanthus teeth recovered from the
pending the discovery of more material. Khlong Min Formation at Ao Luk and Ao Min appear
very similar to those of the European species A. magnus
Sibumasu (Shan-Thai) Terrane and A. medius, which are restricted to the Bathonian-
Callovian interval (Rees & Underwood, in press).
1. Chaiburi Formation (Early to early Late Triassic)
Occurrences: Khao Phanomwang, Khao Thammalai and Family: Lonchidiidae Herman, 1977
Khao Ok Thalu, Phattalung Province. Genus: Lonchidion Estes, 1964
352
Lonchidion nov. sp. cachet. The Cretaceous has so far yielded only freshwater
Occurrence: Ao Min, Nakhon Si Tammarat Province. hybodont sharks, the vast majority of which are endemic
Comments: This new species of Lonchidion, known from to Asia. The level of endemicity appears to increase from
226 isolated teeth, appears most similar to the English the Phu Kradung to the Khok Kruat Formation, a fact
species L. breve and L. crenulatum from the Berriasian- illustrated by the disappearance of the family
Barremian of England (Rees & Underwood, 2002). Lonchidiidae in the latter Formation. This family of rather
small and unspecialized sharks is well represented during
Hybodontiformes incertae sedis most of the Mesozoic in North America, Europe and
Occurrences: Mab Ching and Ao Min, Nakhon Si Africa (Rees & Underwood, 2002), as well as in the
Tammarat Province (Cuny et al., 2005). Jurassic and Early Cretaceous of Thailand. It is absent in
Comments: Well ornamented dermal denticles recovered the Khok Kruat Formation, apparently replaced by more
from Mab Ching and Ao Min (see Cuny et al., 2005, fig. specialized endemic hybodont sharks. The faunas from
3) show a morphology different from those known in the Phu Kradung and Sao Khua Formations, as well as
Asteracanthus, Hybodus, and Lonchidion, teeth of which those from the Jurassic in the Sibumasu terrane, show
were recovered from these sites. Their precise affinities some European affinities (Cuny et al., 2006).
remain therefore difficult to decipher.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Subcohort: Neoselachii Compagno, 1977
Superorder: Batoidea Compagno, 1973 This work was supported by the Danish Natural Science
Order: Rhinobatiformes Compagno, 1990 Research Council and the TRF-CNRS Special Program
Incertae familiae for Biodiversity Research and Training Programme
Genus: Belemnobatis Thiollière, 1854 (BRT/BIOTEC/NSTDA) Grant BRT R_245007, as well
Belemnobatis nov. sp. as by the Carlsberg Foundation, the Department of
Occurrence: Ao Min, Nakhon Si Tammarat Province. Mineral Resources in Bangkok, the ECLIPSE Programme
of CNRS, the University of Maha Sarakham and a
Comments: This new species of Belemnobatis, known French-Thai Hubert Curien Joint Project. We are more
from 126 teeth and one dermal denticle, appears most particularly indebted to Eric Buffetaut for his support over
similar to B. stahli and B. kermacki from the Bathonian of the last ten years and to Wanchai De-Eknamkul and Reon
England (Underwood & Ward, 2004). A single tooth Somana for their support at Maha Sarakham University.
might also indicate the presence of a second species of We would like to thank all the persons who took part in
Belemnobatis at Ao Min. field works, including Pasakorn Bunchalee, Lionel Cavin,
Suwanna Chitsing, Julien Claude, Utoomporn Deesri,
3. Huai Hin Fon Formation (Tithonian?) Sasidhorn Khansubha, Jean Le Loeuff, Marc Philippe,
Family: Hybodontidae Owen, 1846 Tida Saenyamoon, Christel Souillat, Paladej Srisuk,
Subfamily: Acrodontinae Casier, 1959 sensu Maisey, Suravech Suteethorn, Haiyan Tong, Somkiat Trisivakul,
1989 and Songwut Uthensut.
Genus: Asteracanthus Agassiz, 1837
Asteracanthus sp. REFERENCES
Occurrence: Pha Dang Zinc Mine, Tak Province.
Comments: The Huai Hin Fon formation was dated as Ampornmaha, A., 1995, Triassic carbonate rocks in the
Tithonian by rare ammonites found in a single location Phatthalung area, Peninsular Thailand, Journal of Southeast
(Fontaine, 1990). The Asteracanthus tooth is however Asian Earth Sciences, 11, p. 225-236.
very similar to those of A. medius, which would suggest Buffetaut, E., and Ingavat, R., 1983, Vertebrates from the
an older Bathonian-Callovian age for this Formation continental Jurassic of Thailand, CCOP Technical Bulletin,
(Rees & Underwood, in press). 16, p. 68-75.
Buffetaut, E., Suteethorn, V., Tong, H. and Kosir, A., 2005, First
dinosaur from the Shan-Thai block of SE Asia: a Jurassic
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION sauropod from the southern peninsula of Thailand. Journal
of the Geological Society, 162, p. 481-484.
The Thai Triassic shark faunas remain very inadequately Cappetta, H., Buffetaut, E., Cuny, G. and Suteethorn, V., 2006,
known, although evidence of their presence has been A new elasmobranch assemblage from the Lower
found in the Huai Hin Lat and Chaiburi Formation. This is Cretaceous of Thailand. Palaeontology, 49(3), p. 547-555.
thus a promising topic for further research. Jurassic sharks Cappetta, H., Buffetaut, E. and Suteethorn, V., 1990, A new
are mostly known from the Sibumasu terrane, as it is hybodont from the Lower Cretaceous of Thailand. . Neues
Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie Monatshefte,
currently unclear whether the Phu Kradung Formation is
1990, 11, p. 659-666.
latest Jurassic or earliest Cretaceous in age. The Khlong Cuny, G., Suteethorn, V., Buffetaut, E. and Philippe, M., 2003,
Min Formation has so far yielded the only neoselachian Hybodont sharks from the Mesozoic Khorat Group of
shark, a primitive ray, recognized with certainty in the Thailand. Mahasarakham University Journal, 22, special
Thai Mesozoic, and it is also the first mention of the issue, p. 49-68.
genus Belemnobatis outside Europe. The whole of the
Jurassic Thai faunas actually show a rather European
353
Cuny, G., Suteethorn, V. and Kamha, S. 2005, A review of the Rees, J. and Underwood, C.J., 2002, The status of the shark
hybodont sharks from the Mesozoic of Thailand. genus Lissodus Brough, 1935, and the position of nominal
Proceedings of the International Conference on Geology, Lissodus species within the Hybodontoidea (selachii),
Geotechnology and Mineral Resources of Indochina Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 22(3), p. 471-479.
(GEOINDO 2005), Khon Kaen University. p. 588-593 Rees, J. and Underwood, C.J., in press. Hybodont sharks of the
Cuny, G., Suteethorn, V., Kamha, S. and Buffetaut, E. in press. English Bathonian and Callovian (Middle Jurassic),
Hybodont sharks from the Lower cretaceous Khok Kruat Palaeontology.
Formation of Thailand, and hybodont diversity during the Srisuk, P., 2002, Vertebrates of the Wang Din So locality (Phu
Early Cretaceous. In: Cavin, L., Longbottom, A. and Kradung Formation, Late Jurassic), Bulletin of the Srisuk’s
Richter, M. (eds.), Fishes and the break-up of Pangaea, House Museum, Series A (Paleontology), 4(2), p. 24-53.
Geological Society Special Publications, London. Srisuk, P., 2005, The first record of Triassic hybodontiform
Cuny, G., Suteethorn, V., Kamha, S., Buffetaut, E. and Philippe, sharks from Thailand, Bulletin of the Srisuk’s House
M., 2006, A New Hybodont Shark Assemblage from the Museum, Series A (Paleontology), 6(1), p. 27-34.
Lower Cretaceous of Thailand, Historical Biology, 18(1), p. Srisuk, P., 2006, A probable chondrichthyan dermal denticle
21-31. from the Huai Hin Lat Formation (Upper Triassic) of
Fontaine, H., 1990, The Upper Palaeozoic and Mesozoic fossils northeastern Thailand, Bulletin of the Srisuk’s House
of West Thailand. In: Ten years of CCOP research on the Museum, Series A (Paleontology), 7(2), p. 68-74.
pre-Tertiary of East Asia, Bangkok, CCOP technical Srisuk, P., 2007, Discovery of the Late Triassic microvertebrates
secretariat, p. 353-357. from southern Thailand, Bulletin of the Srisuk’s House
Mutter, R. J., Blanger, K. d., and Neuman, A. G., 2007, Museum, Series A (Paleontology), 8(1): p. 1-15.
Elasmobranchs from the Lower Triassic Sulphur Mountain Tong, H., Buffetaut, E. and Suteethorn, V., 2002, Middle
Formation near Wapiti Lake (BC, Canada), Zoological Jurassic turtles from southern Thailand, Geological
Journal of the Linnean Society, 149, p. 309-337. Magazine, 139(6), p. 687-697.
Underwood, C. J., and Ward, D. J., 2004, Neoselachian sharks
and rays from the British Bathonian (Middle Jurassic),
Palaeontology, 47, p. 447-501.
354
THE ORIGIN OF HOTSPRINGS IN RANONG PROVINCE,

SOUTHERN THAILAND
Lohawijarn, W., Sanmuang, E., Khoonphunnarai, P., and Duerrast, H.
Geophysics Group, Department of Physics, Prince of Songkla University, HatYai, 90112, Thailand,
E-mail : warawutti.l@psu.ac.th, helmut.j@psu.ac.th
INTRODUCTION Yo Hotspring (RN2), Ban Porn Rang Hotspring (RN3),

Khlong Bang Rin Hotspring (RN4), Rart Cha Grood
Ranong Province, located about 590 km south of Hotspring (RN5), HatYai Hotspring (RN6) and Ban Na
Bangkok, is famous for their hotsprings, which draw the Hotspring (RN7). The surface exit temperatures are
attention of local visitors and foreign tourists. Further, the between 40 and 75ºC (see Chaturongkawanich and
hot waters are currently also used for spa therapy and Leevongchareon, 2000).
medical treatment in a hospital in Ranong city. The local Previous geological studies reported that hotsprings are
and provincial administrations are promoting the associated with granite rocks as possible heat sources of
hotsprings in order to establish them as one of the these thermal systems, with heat generating from the
province brand names. radiogenetic heat of these granitic rocks (Fig. 1,
There are seven hotsprings reported in Ranong Province Chaturongkawanich and Leevongchareon, 2000).
(Fig. 1): Wat Thapotharam Hotspring (RN1), Ban Thung
RN6
RN1
Figure 1: Generalized geological map of Ranong Province and adjacent areas (based on Geological Map of Ranong,
Sura Thani, Chumpon, Scale 1:250,000, 1976; Geological Map of Thailand 1:1,000,000, 1999,
Department of Mineral Resources, and Chaturongkawanich and Leevongchareon, 2000).
355
FAULT INVESTIGATIONS and radiometric data of the study area through the
Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand (DMR)
Field studies have shown that at most of the hotsprings, conducted between 1985 and 1987, were processed and
where outcrops were available, the hot water came out interpreted. The airborne data were made available as
along faults. This confirms the earlier studies by paper copies and were then transformed into digital data.
Chaturongkawanich and Leevongchareon (2000). Figure 2 For the total magnetic field data, the 1980 IGRF field was
shows a photo from the HatYai Hotspring (RN6), located calculated at each point, and then subtracted from the
towards NE of Ranong city. The fault strikes NE-SW with original magnetic data at that point. The results are the
an orientation of 110/66 (dip direction/dip angle). Further, magnetic anomaly of the study area (Fig. 3).
the field studies have revealed that the fault orientations at
different hotspring locations can be varied significant. RESULTS
A large and prominent negative gravity anomaly appears
in the study area with lower than -300 g.u. values. Further
to the East in the direction to the Gulf of Thailand, the
Bouguer anomaly values increase with a high gradient, up
to +500 g.u. (Fig. 2, left). The center of the low Bouguer
gravity anomaly corresponds with a low magnetic
anomaly, -25 nT (Fig. 2, right). The negative magnetic
anomaly on the map appears much smaller in spatial
distribution than the gravity anomaly. However, the
magnetic anomaly values increase up to 35 nT, covering
nearly the size of the negative magnetic anomaly. This is
followed by a semi-circle of slightly lower magnetic
anomaly values, with 20 to 30 nT. Outside this semi-
circle, the magnetic anomaly values are in general about
40 nT and higher, with some exceptions in the southwest
of the study area.
Figure 2: Tthe HatYai Hotspring (RN6) seeps and flows from
Lower density rocks in the subsurface than the
the fault (dip direction 110/ dip angle 66 ) located at the east
into a man made enclosure. surrounding rocks cause the negative Bouguer gravity
anomaly, whereas the negative magnetic anomalies are
caused by rocks with higher magnetic susceptibilities than
GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS the surrounding rocks, due to the proximity of the study
area to the magnetic equator.
In Ranong Province and adjacent areas, geophysical and
The interpretation is done by fitting the measured data
geological investigations were conducted in order to
using subsurface bodies with different location, size and
determine location of heat source and pathways of the hot
shape and different physical properties than the
water rise to the surface. Measurements and field
surrounding rocks. These surrounding rocks are assumed
investigations cover and beyond the province boundaries
to have zero magnetic susceptibility and 2700 kg/m3
of Ranong were necessary in order to determine the
density.
regional distribution of the geophysical and geological
parameters.
Gravity measurement was carried out with a LaCoste & INTERPRETATION
Romberg gravity meter. Two hundred and seventy nine
stations were established with a spacing of about 0.5, 1 The negative Bouguer gravity anomaly is likely to be
and 5 km along accessible roads in the study area, which caused by an igneous body in the subsurface, in a depth of
is covering Ranong Province and parts of Chumphon and 10 to 25 km, with lower densities (2540-2600 kg/m3) and
Sura Thani Province. The measurements were conducted lower magnetic susceptibilities than the surrounding rocks
in leapfrog loops with 2 to 3 hour closing loop period. The due to higher temperatures (above Curie temperature).
location of measuring points was determined with a GPS Parts of this igneous body went further to the surface in
system. The elevation of measuring points was dike or pipe like channels. At shallower depth, the rocks
determined with an American Paulin Altimeter. The cooled down, resulting in an increase of the density,
measured gravity values were corrected for the effects of around 2700 kg/m3. Through the cooling, the rocks also
instrumental drift and tides, latitude, elevation, and gained their magnetic susceptibility, with around 0.03-
surrounding terrain (Telford et al., 1998). A regional 0.005 SI. These dikes caused the very low magnetic
gravity field was subtracted, which was interpolated from anomaly, as well as the lower ones in semi-circle
margin data. The final Bouguer anomaly map of the study distribution. Some of the igneous materials appeared to
area for qualitative and quantitative interpretation is have reached the surface, as igneous rocks have been
shown in figure 3. found at several locations in the study area. Weathering
Further, available regional airborne total magnetic field processes have altered and lowered the magnetic
susceptibility and the bulk densities of the near surface rocks
356
440000 460000 480000 500000 520000 440000 460000 480000 500000 520000
1140000 1140000
1120000 1120000
Gulf of Thailand
Gulf of Thailand
1100000 1100000
sea
sea
n
man
ama
1080000 1080000
a
And
And
1060000 1060000
1040000 1040000
1020000 1020000
440000 460000 480000 500000 520000 440000 460000 480000 500000 520000
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
g.u. nT
Figure 3: Contour maps of the Bouguer gravity anomaly in gravity units (g.u., left) and of the magnetic anomaly in nano tesla (nT,
right, based on data provided by the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand) of the study area.
The increase in the Bouguer gravity anomaly in the

direction to the Gulf of Thailand can be interpreted with ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the appearance of limestone in the Chumphon area
(average densities of 2750 kg/m3). At deeper depths and The authors would like to thank people in Ranong for
further to the West, this limestone shows signs of their valuable support. Financial assistance from the Thai
karstification (Nang Nuan oil field, Gulf of Thailand, Toray Foundation, the Department of Physics and the
Heward et al, 2000). The main igneous body is likely to Graduate School, Prince of Songkla University and the
be the source for the CO2 and acid water leading to this equipment supported by the International Science
karstification of the deep-burial origin. Program (ISP) of Uppsala University, Sweden, is highly
appreciated.
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
From the geophysical and geological investigations, the
origin of hot springs in Ranong Province can be Chaturongkawanich, S. and Leevongchareon, S. 2000. The
summarized as following: Cold meteoric waters Geothermal Resources of Changwat Ranong Southern
circulating in the subsurface are heated up by the igneous Thailand, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2000,
body, and then the hot water is transported along fault Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan, May 28-June 10, 2000, p. 1049-
zones to the surface, appearing as hotsprings. The granites 1052.
Heward, A.P., Chuenbunchom, S., Maeckel, G., Marsland, D.
in the area are not the heat source of the hotsprings. Taken
and Spring, L., 2000. Nang Nuan oil field, B6/27, Gulf of
into account the spatial distribution of the igneous body, Thailand: karst reservoirs of meteoric or deep-burial origin?
this scenario can be also applied for the origin of the Petroleum Geoscience, 6, p.15-27
hotsprings in southern Chumphon and Northern Sura Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., Sheriff, R.E. 1998. Applied
Thani Province. Further investigations are underway. Geophysics Second Edition, Cambridge University, New
The hotspring waters and the heat in the subsurface can be York, U.S.A., p. 10-18.
utilized as geothermal energy resources. For this option,
small- to medium-scale plants can be installed to provide
power for villages or small areas, like in Fang, northern
Thailand. Very small units can be set up even at village
scale. These geothermal energy resources can be seen as a
renewable source. However, any power plant activities
need to be in-line with the needs of people and the
promotion of tourism in this region.
357
THE STRATIGRAPHY OF BAN KHAO WONG PHRA CHAN AREA, A

POSSIBLE WESTERN FLANK OF ANOTHER TERTIARY BASIN IN
LOWER CENTRAL THAILAND ?
Prinya Putthapiban1 ,Somchai Pum-Im2, Passakorn Pananont1
Sutatcha Hongsresawat*, Patcharin Kosuwan*, Sujintana Chompusri*
1
Geoscience, Department of Physics, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
2
Department of Mineral Fuels, Ministry of Energy
EXTENDED ABSTRACT
It has been well documented and proven that on-shore Tertiary basins of Thailand are primary places where valuable
solid fuels and petroleum are located. Extensive studies leading to new discoveries of them or those intended to reveal
their detailed mechanisms are very important. Suphan Buri Basin used to be categorized as the western most Tertiary
basin of the lower Central Thailand region. The basin is approximately 800 sq.km.in size and is a half-graben
elongating in a north-south direction with fault bounded on the western flank (Pisutha-Anond et al.,1997). Our recent
geological investigation indicate remnant of another Tertiary basin located west of the Suphan Buri basin, at Ban Khao
Wong Phra Chan, Tambon Bo Fai, Amphoe Lao Khwan, Kanchanaburi, close to the border of Amphoe Dan Chang,
Suphan Buri. The short descriptions on geomorphology, geology and stratigraphy of the area are presented below.
Geomorphologically (Fig. 1.), the area is mountainous along the western part of the study area. Relatively low hill with
gentle slope are common in the middle and flat lands are located in the east. The mountain ridges along the far west are
arranged in north-south direction with the highest peak of 381 meters above mean sea level (MSL), at Khao Thung
Swang. The central part is the east-west trending paleo-alluvial fan like radial ridges with a highest peak of 282 m MSL
to the east of the Khao Si Sied. The flat land area is evenly elevated to approximately 130 m MSL
Keywords: Tertiary basin, lower central Thailand,
5
64000 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
Amphoe DanChang,
4938 IV
Ban Krap Yai,

4938 III
Figure 1 Topographic map showing general geomorphology of the study area

(modified from the topographic map scale 1:50,000, sheet 4938 III and 4938 IV).
On Geology and Stratigraphy of the regions, rock units figure 2. The Pre-Tertiary rocks formations are mainly
and their distribution of the study area are display in consisted of the Silurian-Devonian quartzite, quartz schist
358
occurring along with the western north-south mountain fragments, rock fragments, tree branches, and molluscan
ridges and the Triassic, coarse-grained porphyritic biotite fossils of various sizes up to 15 cm in length. Pebble of
foliated granite showing the intrusive contact to quartzite, quartzite rock fragments and quartz sands can be observed
along the valleys and foot ridges. Major features within occasionally. The middle rock unit is predominantly
the central part of the area are paleo-alluvial fan composed of poorly sorted sandstones, gravelly
containing Tertiary rocks which overlain un-conformably sandstones, and conglomerates containing sub-angular to
on the older rock formations. Their stratigraphic sub-rounded rock fragments. Channel filled and
succession is simplified and illustrated in the geologic coarsening-upward rock sequences can easily be observed
cross section, Fig. 2. The lower rock unit is mainly beds indicating a relatively high energy fluviatile environment
of pseudo-conglomerate make up of pisolites limestone of of deposition. The upper most unit is unconsolidated of
fresh water origin. These pisoids (pebbles) are round or gravels, sands, silts and clays of debris, colluvium and
ellipsoidal accretionary bodies constituted mainly of stream deposits of the Quaternary age.
calcium carbonate. The nuclei are made up of shell
Qt
Qt
Qt SD
Gr Qt
Tert
SD B
A
SD
Gr SD
Qt
SD Gr
400 400
A
200 SD SD Qt 200
Gr Tert B
0 0
Figure 2 Geologic map overlain on the topographic map showing lithostratigraphic rock unit of the study area.
SD = Silurian-Devonian quartzite and quartz schist, Gr = Triassic granite, Tert = Tertiary and Qt = Quaternary deposit.
Pisolites and clastic rocks
The fossils obtained from the pisolites rock unit (Fig.3.) comparable to those of Bellamaya Lampangensis n. sp.
are mainly molluscas whose morphology of this major Fig. 3a. top row, two fossils and Fig. 3b, two fossils on
group are resembled those of Melanoides cf. tuberculata the second pisoid from bottom) (Fig. 3a. top row, two
(Fig.3a, 2nd to 4th rows) of Middle Miocene, found in the fossils and Fig. 3b, two fossils on the second pisoid from
upper coal seam 1 bed of the Chiang Muan Basin (Ugai, bottom) of the Na Kham Formation of the Mae Moh
H., et al. 2006). A few complete fossil gastropods are Tertiarly basin (Ugai, et al., 2006).
359
Based on stratigraphic constraint and available fossils and Watanasak, 1989), we confidently proposed that the
evidences together with many other studies in other maximum age of the pisolite formation at Ban Khao
Tertiary basins (Buffetaut, et al., 1989; Chaodumrong and Wong Phra Chan is Middle Miocene.
Chaimanee, 2002; Ginsburg, 1983; Morley, et al., 2000
Figure 3a Pisoids samples with muclei molluscan fossils;

Bellamamaya Lumpangensis n. sp. (1st row, two pieces) and
Melanoides cf. tuberculata (2nd to 4 rows). Figure 3b. Pisoids with different nuclei and 2 Bellamaya
Lumpangensis n. sp fossils on the pisoid
C D
Figure 3c and 3d. Polished pisolites limestone showing interal structure of various muclei and
concentric layers of pisoids of different sizes and shapes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
We thanks Mahidol University, Faculty of Sciences and
the Department of Mineral Fuels for offering facilities and Buffetaut, E., Helmcke-Ingavat, R., Jaeger, J.J.,
encouragement. Asst. Prof. Nakorn Haema, Vice Jongkanchanasoonthorn, Y., Suteethorn, V., and Tong, H.,
President of the Regional Campus of the Mahidol 1989, Fossil vertebrates and the age of the intermontane
basins of Thailand. In T. Thanasuthipitak, and P.
University for his support. The Department of Mineral
Ounchanum (eds.), Proceedings of the International
Resources is thanks for inviting us to participate this Symposium on Intermontane Basins: Geology and
GEOTHAI 2007 event. Mr. Sirot Sulyapongse, Mr. Sahat Resources, Department of Geological Sciences, Chiang
Maunlek, Mr. Sin Sinskul, Mr. Nares Sattayarak and Mr. Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand, January 30-
Apichat Lumjuan are thanks for their valuable discussions. Febrauary 2, p. 187-195.
We are grateful to Mr. Manop Raksaskulwong for helping Chaodumrong, P., and Chaimanee, Y., 2002, Proceeding of the
organize the maps and manuscript. Our two senior Symposium on Geology of Thailand, N. Mantajit (Chief
students, Mr. PramoteNontharuk and Mr. Samart Sasook eds), Bangkok, 26-31 August, p. 156-169.
are thanks for helping during the field investigation.
360
Ginsburg, L., 1983, The land vertebrates and plants of the Ugai, H., Ratanasthien, B., and Silaratana, T., 2006, Cenozoic
Tertiary of northern Thailand : Stratigraphic and tectonic Freshwater Molluscan Fossils of Thailand, Journal of
implication, Symposium on Stratigraphy of Thailand, Geological Society of Thailand, No.1, p. 67-82.
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok. Watanasak, M., 1989, Palynological zonation of Middle Tertiary
Morley,C.K., Wonganan, N., Sankumarn, N., Hoon, T.B., Alief, intermontane basins in northern Thailand. In t.
A. And Simmons, M., 2000, Late Oligocene-Recent stress Thanasuthipitak, and P. Ounchanum, eds., Proceedings of
evolution in rift basins of northern and central Thailand: the International Symposium on Intermontane Basins:
implications for escape tectonics. Tectonophysics, 334: 115- Geology and Resources, Department of Geological Sciences,
150. Chiang Mai.
Pisutha-Arnond, S., Ukkakimapan, J., Klan-Ngern, S., Pisutha-
Arnond, V.,and Taiyaqupt, M., Precicting oil and water
interval in U-Thong field using thermal extraction-pyrolysis
gas chromatography. In P. Dheeradilok, C. Hinthong, P.
Chaodumrong, P. Putthapiban, W. Tansathien, C. Utha-
aroon, N. Sattayarak, T. Nuchanong, and /s. Techawan
(eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on
Stratigraphy and Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia and
the South Pacific (Geothai’97), Bangkok, Thailand, August
19-24, 1 : p. 543-559.
361
TRIASSIC TRACKWAYS FROM THAILAND

Jean Le Loeuff1, Tida Saenyamoon2 , Christel Souillat1 , Varavudh Suteethorn2 and Eric Buffetaut3
1
Musée des Dinosaures, 11260 Espéraza, France.
2
3
CNRS, cour du Liégat, 75013 Paris, France.
Triassic vertebrate footprints have been found in two

formations of Northeastern Thailand. The Norian Huai
Hin Lat Formation has yielded remarkable archosaur
trackways in Nam Nao (Changwat Phetchabun) whereas
dinosaur footprints are reported for the first time from the
overlying Late Norian or Rhetian Nam Pong Formation
(Changwat Loei).
The age of the Huai Hin Lat Formation is well constrained
by data from palynomorphs and vertebrates. The
vertebrates closely resemble those from the Norian of
Germany (Stubensandstein) with common genera of
fishes, amphibians, turtles and phytosaurs. Fossil
footprints have been known from a long time in a remote
place called Tad Huai Nam Yai, near Nam Nao in
Changwat Phetchabun, on the west of the Khorat Plateau.
A large slab of sandstone bears three long vertebrate
trackways; two of them are more than 100 meters long.
We have mapped the bottom of this slab in October 2003.
The Nam Nao track makers were wide-gauge
plantigradous animals (high pace angulation, large track
width, large metatarsal impression) with tetradactyl
mesaxonic pes and tetradactyl ectaxonic (?) manus, using
an asymmetrical gait. The systematic affinities of the track
makers are not yet clear but they could be some primitive
archosauromorph reptiles, possibly phytosaurs which are
known by skeletal elements in the Huai Hin Lat Fig 1: possible phytosaur trackway in Nam Nao
Formation. (Changwat Phetchabun).
We also report here the first Late Triassic dinosaur tracks
from South East Asia. The new site was discovered in
2007 on the banks of the Mae Nam Pong at Tha Song
Khon, in Phu Kradung district (Changwat Loei).
Sandstones of the Nam Pong Formation show five
tridactyl footprints of a large bipedal dinosaur. The
footprints are larger than wide (mean foot length 49 cm;
mean foot width 33 cm) with claw marks and can be
safely assigned to a theropod (carnivorous) dinosaur. The
trackway is narrow with a mean pace length of 140 cm.
The trackmaker’s height at hip can be calculated at about
200 cm. The total length of the trackmaker would have
been around 6 meters. It travelled at a low speed.
Two dinosaurs species are known from their skeletal
remains in the Nam Pong Formation: a prosauropod and
the sauropod Isanosaurus attavipachi Buffetaut et al.,
2000. Both were herbivorous quadrupedal dinosaurs. The
discovery in Tha Song Khon shows that a large theropod
dinosaur lived with these plant-eaters at the end of the
Triassic. Its bones are still to be found in the outcrops of
Fig 2: Theropod trackway in Phu Kradung (Changwat Loei).
the Nam Pong Formation of Northeastern Thailand.
362
CONCLUSION
Two kinds of vertebrate footprints are reported from the
Late Triassic Formations of Thailand, showing that the
biodiversity of this period was greater than previously
suspected. Although it is based on a limited
documentation, the evolutive pattern in the Late Triassic
of Thailand fits well with what is known elsewhere in the
world, i.e. a replacement of primitive archosaurs by
dinosaurs during the Latest Triassic.
REFERENCE
Buffetaut, E., Suteethorn, V., Cuny, G., Tong, H., Le
Loeuff, J., Khansubha, S. & Jongautchariyakul, S.
2000. The earliest known sauropod. Nature, 407: p.
Fig 3: a theropod footprint in Phu Kradung. 72-74.
363
TWO-DIMENSIONAL RESISTIVITY INVERSION

Weerachai Siripunvaraporn, Songkhun Boonchaisuk and Chatchai Vachiratienchai
Department of Physics, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand; E-mail: scwsp@mahidol.ac.th
EXTENDED ABSTRACT
The direct current (DC) resistivity method has been used for various application in hydrogeological, mining,
geotechnical investigations and environmental surveys (e.g., Ward, 1990; Daily et al., 1992, 1995; Ramirez et al., 1993,
1996; LaBrecque et al., 1996; among many others). The measured voltages caused by injected current bring out
information of the earth’s structure. The inversion program is then applied to interpret the measured voltage to obtain
the Earth’s resistivity structure. The development of DC Resistivity inversions has been successfully progress. Various
techniques have been proposed for the two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) DC resistivity inversion (e.g.
Pelton et al., 1978; Tripp et al., 1984; Nariida and Vozoff., 1984; Tong and Yang, 1990; Park & Van, 1991; Ellis and
Oldenburg, 1994; Sasaki, 1994; Oldenburg and Li, 1994; Loke and Barker, 1995; Zhang et al., 1995; Loke and Dahlin,
1997; Tsourlos et al., 1998; Jackson et al., 2001; Loke and Dahlin, 2002; Pain et al., 2002; Loke et al., 2003; Gunther
et al., 2006; Pidlisecky et al., 2007; among many others.).
Here we propose another technique to solve the multi-dimensional DC resistivity inverse problem using one of a variant
GN-technique, the Occam’s inversion. However, instead of solving the problem in model space as others (e.g. Constable
et al., 1987; Sasaki, 1994), we propose to solve the DC resistivity inverse problem in data space as in Siripunvaraporn
and Egbert (2000) and Siripunvaraporn et al. (2004; 2005). In order to test the feasibility and practicality of data space
approach to 3-D DC resistivity data, we developed the 2-D DC resistivity inversion before extending to 3-D in the future.
Here, for general readers the details of our algorithm are left out. Readers can consult Boonchaisuk et al. (2008),
Vachiratienchai et al. (2008) for further details.
EXAMPLES WITH SYNTHETIC DATA electrode spacing of 0.6 m was applied perpendicular to
AND REAL FIELD DATA the course of the drainpipe to obtain the 2-D data.
Figure 2a) displays the 452 observed data of the
To test the feasibility and practicality of our code, we Schlumberger configuration. The original Occam’s
make several tests on the synthetic examples. Figure 1a) inversion and our “new” inversion scheme were applied to
shows the pseudo-section data of the Wenner array the field data, along with the commercial software,
generated from the synthetic model which is a two blocks RES2DINV version 3.55 (Loke and Barker, 1996) using
with contrast resistivity. The left and the right block have default parameters of the program in order to provide a
reference to our inverted models and to show the accuracy
a resistivity of 100 Ω-m and 1 Ω-m, respectively. Both are
and robustness of our developed codes. The final inverse
buried inside the 10 Ω-m background host. After a few
solutions are shown in Figure 2b) for RES2DINV
iteration, we obtain models that fit the data within 1 RMS.
program, and 2c) for Occam’s code, and 2d) for our data
Figure 1b) shows the inverted model generated from the
space inversion scheme, respectively. All inverted models
“original” Occam’s inversion. Figure 1c) shows the
from our codes and commercial code show that there are
inverted model generated from our “new” algorithm. We
two layers beneath the surface and a high resistive portion
performed various tests using different configurations and
indicating the drainpipe. The high resistivity (100 Ω-m)
synthetic models. We come to the conclusion that our
top layer is about 1 m in depth lying on top of the
code can recover the anomalies relatively well and as
good as other available codes. conductive (10 Ω-m) layer. The high resistive layer is
Next, we show the flexibility, robustness and accuracy of interpreted as the top soil filled on top of the clay
our codes to the real observed data, which usually has conductive layer. The drainpipe is located directly in the
noise from many sources. The DC resistivity data is high resistive zone matching the location plotted in the
collected at the geophysical test area inside the Faculty of map.
Science, Mahidol University to detect the buried drainpipe
in which we priori know its position and depth. The CONCLUSION
circular drainpipe is 0.3 m in radius and is buried at depth
of 0.9 m (from the surface to the center). SYSCAL R1 We have developed a new inversion techniques based on
PLUS Switch-48 instrument was used to collect the the data space method introduced for MT data by
observed data. A profile array of 48 electrodes with an Siripunvaraporn and Egbert (2000). Our synthetic and real
field data tests show that our code has flexibility,
364
robustness and accuracy comparable to other existed REFERENCES
codes, both academic and commercial.
Boonchaisuk, S.,2007, Two-dimensional direct current
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS resistivity inversion: finite element method, M.sc. Thesis,
Mahidol University.
This research has been supported by Development and Loke, M. H., and Barker, R. D., 1996, Rapid least-squares
inversion of apparent resistivity pseudosections by a quasi-
Promotion of Science and Technology Talents Project Newton method: Geophys. Prosp., 44, 131-152.
(DPST) scholarship to SB and from the Thailand Siripunvaraporn, W., and Egbert, G., 2000, An efficient data-
Research Fund (TRF: RMU5080025). The authors would subspace inversion method for 2-D magnetotelluric data:
like to thank the Faculty of Science, Mahidol University Geophysics, 65, 791-803.
for their support in geophysics instruments. Siripunvaraporn, W., Egbert, G., Lenbury, Y. and Uyeshima,
M., 2005, Three-dimensional magnetotelluric inversion:
data-space method: Physics of the Earth and Planetary
Interiors, 150, 3-14.
(a) Pseudosection of the Wenner array generated from the two blocks model
(b) The solution model of the model space Occam’s inversion
(c) The solution model of the data space Occam’s inversion
Figure 1: The solution models of the original Occam’s inversion (b) and the “new” data space (c) calculated from synthetic data
shown in pseudosection (a) of the Wenner array. White lines indicate two blocks.
365
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 2: The solution models of RES2DINV (b), the Occam’s code (c), and our data space (d) methods calculated from real
observed data shown in pseudosection (a) of the Schlumberger array. White line indicates the circular drainpipe.
366
U-PB ZIRCON AGES AND GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

LAMPANG-PHRAE GRANITES;
IMPLICATIONS FOR PLATE TECTONIC INTERPRETATION
1
Somboon Khositanont, 1Prayote Ounchanum, 1Yuenyong Panjasawatwong,
1
Theerapongs Thanasuthipitak, 2Khin Zaw, 2Sebastien Meffre
1
Department of Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
2
CODES ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, 7005 Australia
ABSTRACT
The U-Pb zircon age determination indicates that the Lampang – Phrae granites, which have formed as isolated granite
plutons intruding N-S trending volcanic rocks in Sukhothai Fold Belt, northern Thailand. They were formed in Late-
Middle Triassic (224 ± 4 Ma and 228 ± 3 Ma). Na2O-K2O relations indicate that the Lampang – Phrae granites have I-
type affinity while the trace elements signature suggests that the granites have formed from lower crustal source with less
contamination from upper crust. The chondrite narmalised REE signature in conjunction with granitic texture indicates
that the Lampang – Phrae granites were formed by gradually cooling crystallisation process in a convergent plate
margins. These granites may have emplaced in the transition of subduction – collision environments in Late Triassic.
Key words: U-Pb zircon, LA ICP-MS, northern Thailand, Lampang-phrae granites
INTRODUCTION with volcanic rocks along the Lampang – Phrae volcanic

belt have been studied.
Formation of volcanic rocks and associated granites plays
important role for crustal development and evolution. GEOLOGY OF LAMPANG – PHRAE
Therefore, geochemical characteristics and formation ages GRANITES
of volcanic rocks and granites, in many cases, have been
applied to interpret geological settings and their The volcanic rocks and associated granites are widely
evolutions. The aims of this study are to clarify plate exposed in Thoen District in the southern part of the
tectonic model in relation to geochemical characteristics Lampnag –Phrae volcanic belt and locally exposed as
and U-Pb zircon age determination data of Lampang – small stocks in the northern part at Panjen - Mae Khaem
Phrae granites obtained by Laser Ablation Inductively Villages, Phrae Province. The granites intruded an arcuate
Couple Plasma Mass Spectrometer (LA ICP-MS) N-S trending volcanic belt, which are composed mainly of
analytical techniques, which have recently been applied rhyolitic andesite with subordinate amount of altered
for REE analyses and U-Pb isotopic age determination. rhyolite and rhyolitic tuffs. Intrusion of granite into the
andesitic host rocks initiated honfelsing along contact
PREVIOUS WORKS aureole in the volcanic host rocks and formation of
magnetite/hematite endoskarn and associated potassic
Barr et al., (2000) proposed the palaeotectonic setting of alteration inside the granite bodies. This study will focus
the Lampang – Phrae volcanic belt using the evidences only two granite bodies that well exposed along the
from studies of petrochemistry and U-Pb zircon age Lampang – Phrae highway in the northern part and along
determination of Doi Ton and Doi Luang volcanic belts the Thoen – Thung Saliam highway in the southern part
and comparison of geochemical characteristic of the named as Mae Khaem granite and Mae Mok granite (Fig.
Lincang – Jinghong volcanic belt in south China. The 1).
conclusions were made that the volcanic rocks along the
Lampang – Phrae belt were formed in a convergent plate Mae Khaem granite: Mae Khaem granite is widely
margin in Early-Middle Triassic and extended northward exposed along the Lampang-Denchai highway and
to Lincang – Jinghong belt. Finally, the Lampang – extends southward to Ban Pan Jaen area, Amphoe Wang
Lincang – Jinghong volcanic belt was interpreted to have Chin District. It intruded andesite volcanic host rocks and
similar age and tectonic setting to those of more mafic initiated hematite/magnetite skarn alteration along the
Loei – Petchabun volcanic belt in eastern part of Nan – margin. The marginal facies is fine- to medium-grained,
Uttradit suture. None of detailed study for geochemical equigranular with pink to purple K-feldspar and quartz.
characteristics and age determination of granite associated Biotite is the most abundant mafic mineral with
subordinate hornblende. Chlorite alteration can be
367
recognised by the present of chlorite replacement in the phenocrysts and groundmass is mostly euhedral and
mafic minerals. The main porphyritic facies is euhedral, varies in colour from pink to purple pink colour. Quartz is
coarse-grained, K-feldspar phenocrysts with biotite- translucent grey to transparent and present in single
hornblende porphyritic granite. Hornblende and biotite euhedral to subhedral forms.
were occasionally replaced by chlorite. Feldspar in both
Figure 1. A simplified geological map of the Lampang – Phrae volcanic belt showing distribution
of Mae Khaem and Mae Mok granite plutons.
Mae Mok granite: Mae Mok granite is widely exposed intergrowth. The rocks have undergone argillic alteration
along the Thoen-Thung Saliam main road. It is composed indicated by the present of chlorite replacement in the
of marginal facies and main granite facies. The marginal biotite groundmass and clay mineral replacement in
facies is reddish brown to light brown colour with feldspar.
anhedral, fine-grained texture. It is poor in biotite mafic
mineral. The main facies of Mae Mok granite is generally GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISITCS OF
coarse-grained, porphyritic biotite granite. It is composed THE LAMPANG-PHRAE GRANITES
mainly of euhedral to subhedral, reddish brown K-
feldspar phenocrysts floating in coarse-grained biotite, Geochemical characteristics of volcanic rocks and
plagioclase, K-feldspar and quartz groundmass. Biotite granites have played an important roles to the tectonic
generally occurs as single euhedral flakes and books setting interpretation. However, the chemical analyses
crystals. Plagioclase is generally chalky white colour with method has yielded a difficulty to many geoscientists due
euhedral to subhedral tablets crystal shape. K-feldspar to an in accurate result caused by analytical techniques
groundmass shows a similar crystal habit to those of and accuracy of the method and instruments. This study
phenocrysts. Quartz occurs as clusters with sub-rounded tried to eliminate errors caused by analytical method by
to sub-angular crystal shape. It is also noticeable that using an acceptable method and instrument developed at
graphic texture was observed under microscope by the the geochemical and isotope laboratory of the University
occurrence of interstitial quartz and K-feldspar of Tasmania.
368
Samples were collected from fresh outcrops of the Mae granites and to determine the U-Pb zircon age in order to
Khaem and Mae Mok plutons. The most suitable granite interpret the tectonic setting and evolution. ST-3
samples were cleaned prior to the delivery the University represents granite from Mae Mok pluton that exposed at
of Tasmania using distilled water. Representative samples Ban Mae Mok along Thoen – Thung Saliam main road,
collected from each plutons were sent to the geochemical whereas ST-6 represents the granite from Mae Khaem
and isotope laboratory at the University of Tasmania for Pluton that exposed at Ban Mae Khaem road junction
final analysis. Only two samples were selected as along the Lampang – Denchai highway.
representative sample for chemical analyses. The results of chemical analyses of the collected
Selected representative granite samples powder were representative Lampang – Phrae granites are shown in
reselected and analysed for major and trace elements Table 1.
using XRF and Laser Ablation ICP-MS analytical
techniques to determine chemical characteristics of the
Table 1. Geochemical analyses of Lampang – Phrae granite
CHEMICAL ANALYSES FOR LAMPANG - PHRAE GRANITE
MAJORS program (fusion discs) (Includes sulphide S)

Ident SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Loss Total S
ST3 76.80 0.09 12.34 1.23 0.03 0.18 0.11 3.69 4.59 0.02 0.67 99.74 0.01
ST6 75.00 0.16 13.19 1.46 0.04 0.17 0.12 3.81 4.85 0.04 0.97 99.81 <0.01
GOLD1 program (pressed powder pills) ppm

Ident Nb Zr Sr Cr Ba Sc V La Ce Nd
ST3 22 102 42 2 172 <2 <1.5 26 55 24
ST6 16 176 51 1 283 <2 4 33 65 25
MOCOMP3 program ppm

Ident Y U Rb Th Pb As Bi Zn Cu Ni
ST3 38 16 347 50 27 <3 <2 17 3 5
ST6 17 13 221 52 13 <3 <2 8 19 3
Major elements characteristics Trace elements characteristics
Major elements characteristics of the granitic rocks, in Nb-Y plots show that the Mae Mok granite is not a typical
many cases, have been used as a key for the interpretation volcanic arc derived or syn-collision granites, whereas the
of the origin of granites (e.g. Chappell and White, 1974 ). Mae Khaem granite is well fitted in the volcanic arc and
Major elements characteristics in the both Mae Khaem syn-collision granite field (Fig. 3, Pearce et al., 1984).
and Mae Mok granites are similar. The silica contents in
the both granites are relatively high (SiO2 75-77 wt. %),
which are consistent with the presence of large amount of
quartz in the groundmass. The rocks contain high Al2O3,
Na2O and K2O which are consistent with large abundance
of feldspar. On the other hand, the rocks contain relatively
low Fe2O3 and MgO, which may reflect less abundant
mafic minerals in these granites.
Na2O - K2O relation in Figure 2 is made to classify the
granites and its origin (Chappell and White, 1974).
The granites from the both Mae Khaem and Mae Mok
plutons are fitted within the model of I-type affinity. As a
result, the Mae Khaem and Mae Mok granites were
interpreted to be initially derived from magmatic sources.
Figure 2. Harkers plots of Na2O-K2O from Lampang-Phrae

granite (Chappell and White, 1974).
369
plots indicates plagioclase fractionation during the
crystallisation of granite from the magma. This
interpretation is supported by the presence of plagioclase
cumulating texture in the Mae Mok granite, whereas the
plagioclase cumulating texture in the Mae Khaem granite
is absent. Both granites show similar REE pattern of
moderately decline light REE patterns with flat heavy
REE patterns suggesting that the granites were formed in
calc-alkali series magma.
Figure 3. Nb and Y plots show typical fields of granite

environment of Mae Khaem and Mae Mok granites
(Pearce et al., 1984).
Rb-Y+Nb plots show that the Mae Mok granite is fitted

within the transition zone of syn-collisional plate tectonic
environments, whereas the Mae Khaem granite is fitted
with the transition zones of volcanic arc and syn-
collisional granite environments (Fig. 4, Pearce et al.,
1984). Figure. 5 Rock/MORB spider plots of trace elements of Mae
Khaem and Mae Mok granites (Pearce et al., 1983)
ST6
1000.00
100.00
ST6
10.00
1.00
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Figure 6. Chondrite normalised rare earth elements plots of

Mae Khaem granite.
Figure 4. Rb and Y+Nb plots show typical fields of granite

environment of Mae Khaem and Mae Mok granites
U-PB ZIRCON AGE DETERMINATIONS
(Pearch et al., 1984).
Zircon is the most resistant mineral that are usually more
Rock/MORB plots of trace elements of the Mae Khaem abundant in felsic and intermediate igneous rocks.
and Mae Mok granites in Fig. 5 show slightly Nb Zirconium is the most important element in the magma to
depletion suggesting that these granites were not affected form zircon in igneous rocks and can be substituted by
by upper crustal contamination. uranium and its products such as thorium and lead.
Therefore, the rate of decay of uranium in zircon can be
Rare earth elements characteristics used as a key to estimate the age of crystallisation of
igneous rocks.
The chondrite normalised plots for rare earth elements of The Mae Khaem and Mae Mok granites contain large
Mae Khaemand Mae Mok granite are shown in Figs. 6 amounts of euhedral zircon crystals. The scanning
and 7. The Mae Khaem granite shows slightly negative Eu electron microscope images for euhedral zircon do not
anomaly, whereas the Mae Mok granite shows stronger show crystal zonation indicating an absence of inheritance
negative Eu anomaly. The negative Eu anomaly in these zircon. The Laser Ablation Inductively Couple Plasma
370
Mass Spectrometer was applied in order to quantify the The 238U/206Pb-207Pb/206Pb Concordia plot for the
amounts of 238U, 207Pb and 206Pb. individual zircons from the Mae Khaem granite is shown
The 238U, 207Pb and 206Pb plots show less variation on in Fig. 8. They were clustered, within the error bar, on the
Concordia Curve (time line for the decay of 238U to 206Pb, Concordia curve suggesting that the age of zircon
Figs. 8 and 9). crystallisation in the Mae Khaem granite is 224 ± 4 Ma
(Middle Triassic). The results from zircon crystallisation
ST3 age suggest that the Mae Khaem granite was emplaced in
the Middle Triassic.
1000.00 A similar 238U/206Pb – 207Pb/206Pb Concordia diagram was
obtained for the zircon separated from the Mae Mok
granites suggesting that the Mae Mok granite was
100.00
emplaced in the Middle Triassic age (228 ± 3 ma).
ST3 The intrusion of Mae Khaem granite into the rhyolite and
andesite intercalation along the Lampang – Denchai
10.00
highway suggests that the formation of granite was
slightly younger than the formation rhyolite/andesite
1.00
volcanic in the Lampang – Phrae volcanic belt.
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
INTERPRETATIONS
Figure 7. Chondrite normalised rare earth elements plots
I-type affinity and signature of the Mae Khaem and Mae
of Mae Mok granite.
Mok granites showing in the Na2O-K2O diagram indicates
that the granites in the Sukhothai Fold Belt were derived
data-point error crosses are 1σ
from igneous origin as a result of magmatic differentiation
rather than partial melt of upper crustal origin.
0.07 ST6 Mean = 224±4 [1.8%] 95% conf.
The trace element geochemical characteristics of the Mae
Wtd by data-pt errs only, 0 of 12 rej. Khaem and Mae Mok granites suggest that the granite
MSWD = 7.8, probability = 0.000
were formed in a subduction – collision transition zones.
Pb/206Pb
In addition, the chondrite normalised REE geochemical

0.06
characteristics show strong negative Eu anomaly. The
aforementioned geochemical characteristics of chondrite
normalised REE pattern in conjunction with the presence
207
0.05 240 230

of plagioclase cumulative texture indicate plagioclase
220 210
fractionation during magmatic crystallisation. The strong
negative Eu anomaly signature in conjunction with the
presence of plagioclase cumulative texture may be an
0.04
25.5 26.5 27.5 28.5 29.5 30.5 31.5 evidence of gradual cooling by magmatic crystallisation.
238
U/206Pb A combination of geochemical characteristics and
signature and the results of U-Pb zircon age determination
Figure 8. The Concordia plots for 238U/206Pb-207Pb/206Pb of
separated zircon from Mae Khaem granite. of the Mae Khaem and Mae Mok granites in the
Sukhothai Fold Belt suggested that the volcanics and
data-point error crosses are 1σ granite in the Sukhothai Fold Belt may have formed
0.24
ST3 Mean = 228±3 [1.5%] 95% conf. earlier by a subduction process of Shan-Thai and
Wtd by data-pt errs only, 0 of 18 rej.
MSWD = 5.6, probability = 0.000 Indochina plates, followed by collision between Shan-
0.20
Thai and Indochina blocks in Middle Triassic period.
In addition, Barr et al. (2000) reported the age of 240 ± 1
0.16
Ma for rhyolite for Doi Luang volcanics in the Lampang –
207
Pb Phrae volcanic belt. This conforms to the field relation
206
Pb
0.12
observation along the Lampang – Denchai highway,
which indicates that the Doi Luang volcanic belt (240 ± 1
Ma) was intruded by the Mae Khaem granite (224 ± 4
0.08
Ma).
Therefore, formation of subduction related volcanics in
280
240
200
160
0.04
20 24 28 32 36 40 44 the Sukhothai Fold Belt may have formed in Lower
238
U/206Pb Triassic to Early-Middle Triassic while the collision
related granite may have formed in Early-Late Triassic
Figure 9. The Concordia plots for 238U/206Pb-207Pb/206Pb of (224 ± 4 Ma to 228 ± 3 Ma).
separated zircon from Mae Mok granite. The multi-episodes of subduction related volcanic
formation may have led to the gradual development of
fore arc (Lampang to Phrae) basins in Early to Late-
371
Middle Triassic which is evidenced by the present of REFERENCES
Daonella sp. (Early Middle Triassic) in Lampang basin
sediments and Halobia sp. (Late Triassic) in Phrae basin Barr, S. M., Macdonald, A. S., Dunning, G.R., Ounchanum, P., and
sediments (Chaodamrong and Burrett, 1997). Yaowanoiyothin, 2000. Petrochemistry, U-Pb (zircon) age,
The presence of older subduction-related volcanic rocks in and palaeotectonic setting of the Lampang volcanic belt,
the western part and the collision-related granites in the northern Thailand. Journal of the Geological Society,
eastern part may be an evidence to support the west ward London, Vol. 157, p. 553-563.
dipping subduction model which has been proposed by Bunopas, S., 1981. Palaeogeographic history of western
Thailand and adjacent parts of Southeast Asia; A plate
many researchers (e.g. Bunopas et al, 1983; Hutchison, tectonics interpretation. PhD thesis, Victoria University of
1989). It is also noticeable that this westward dipping Wellington, New Zealand.
subduction model is conflicting with eastward dipping Bunopas, S., and Vella, P., 1983. Tectonic and geologic evolution of
subduction proposed by others. Thailand. Proceedings of a workshop on stratigraphic
correlation of Thailand and Malaysia, 1. Geological Society
CONCLUSIONS of Thailand, Bangkok/Geological Society of Malaysia,
Kualalumpur, p. 307-322.
Chaodamrong, P., and Burrett, C. 1977. Early Late Triassic
The Na2O – K2O geochemical characteristics of Lampang continental colliding between Shan-Thai and Indochina
– Phrae granites show an I-type affinity indicating that the terranes as indicated by occurrence of fan delta red beds of
Lampang – Phrae granites were derived from igneous Pha Daeng Formation, central north Thailand. Proceedings
origin. Trace elements geochemical characteristics of the of the International Conference on Stratigraphy and
Lampang – Phrae granites indicate that they were formed Tectonic evolution of Southeast Asia and the South Pacific.
in subduction to collision environments. The chondrite Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand, p. 143-157.
normalised REE geochemical characteristics show strong Chappell B. W., and White, A. J. R., 1974. Two contrasting
Eu negative anomaly suggesting high pressure granite types, Pacific Geology, V. 8, pp. 173 -174.
environment of crystallising magma. Hutchison, C. S., 1989. Geological Evolution of South-east Asia.
Clarendon Press, Oxford.
The evidence from Laser Ablation ICP-MS analyses for Pearce, J. A., Harris, N. B. W., and Tindle, A. G., 1984.
U-Pb zircon age determination indicates that the Mae Traceelement discrimination diagram for tectonic
Khaem and Mae Mok granites in Lampang – Phrae interpretation of granitic rocks, Journal of Petrology, V. 25,
granites were emplaced in Late-Middle Triassic (224 ± 4 p. 956 – 983.
Ma and 228 ± 3 Ma).
The age of granite emplacement in Late-Middle Triassic
in conjunction with the geochemical characteristics of the
Lampang – Phrae granites suggest that the subduction -
collision of Shan-Thai and Indochina Terranes may have
occurred in the Late-Middle Triassic. This interpretation
is consistent with the presence of Lampang (Lower-
Middle Triassic) and Phrae (Lower-Late Triassic)
sedimentary basins. The evidences from this study support
the westward dipping subduction between Shan-Thai and
Indochina Terranes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the Department of Mineral
Resources, and the Director of Bureau of Geological
Survey for their in-kind support to carry out this research.
The Chiang Mai University and the Department of
Geological Sciences are appreciated for encouraging the
authors to carry out the study.
The authors also thank CODES Centre of Excellence in
Ore Deposits, University of Tasmania for the accessibility
to the Laser Ablation ICP-MS to carry out the chemical
and isotope analyses.
Great thank will be delivered from the authors to the
GEOTHAI’2007 organising committee for their
conference organization and allow the authors to submit
this paper as well as to present at the conference.
372
WHAT HAPPENS AT THE NORTHERN END OF THE SHAN-THAI TERRANE;

WHERE DOES IT GO FROM THERE?
A.J. Boucot
Department of Zoology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA.
ABSTRACT
Scattered Cambrian through Early Devonian lithofacies and biogeographic data from Himalayan Trend strata are consistent
with the Shan-Thai Terrane having originally been an eastern extension of the former. The original eastern extension of the
southern end of the Shan-Thai Terrane in Sumatra is poorly known with the southern half of New Guinea being a possibility.
Keywords: Shan-Thai Terrane, eastern extension, lithostratigraphy, biogeography, paleogeography
INTRODUCTION and adjacent Langkawi Islands adjacent to the Thai-

Malaysian Boundary. Information about well dated
There is agreement among most geologists that the Shan- Cambrian to the north, northwest and west although limited
Thai Terrane extends from about central Sumatra on the does provide a basis for drawing conclusions about
south to Northern Thailand, the Shan States of adjacent lithological and faunal-biogeographic comparisons.
Myanmar (Burma) and the Baoshan Terrane of western For the Ordovician the situation is worse than for the
Yunnan, China on the north. The question is just where do Cambrian owing to the lack of adequate data for
the relatively unique Shan-Thai Terrane stratigraphic comparisons either along the Himalayan Trend or to the
sequence and faunas go both to the south and to the north. north in eastern Xizang, Qinghai and western Sichuan.
To the south it is fair to say that there is very little However, it is worth mentioning that from southern
information. The best that one can do is to speculate based Thailand and adjacent northwestern Malaysia north into
on inferred Paleozoic paleogeographies. If Sumatra, or at northwestern Thailand and adjacent parts of eastern
least that portion of it including the southern part of the Myanmar extending into the Shan States, there is an
Shan-Thai Terrane, was relatively close to the northwestern Ordovician sequence of limestones that do have
border of present day Australia then one can infer that the counterparts along the Himalayan Trend in Nepal, southern
hypothetical prolongation might have been into the southern Xizang and Kashmir. However, there is not enough detailed
portion of modern New Guinea where Paleozoic rocks and information about either lithostratigraphy or faunal
fossils have been recognized, although still so poorly known sequence cum biogeographic information to be certain about
both lithostratigraphically and faunally as to make this overall relations between the Himalayan Trend Ordovician
possibility very speculative. So much for the hypothetical and that of the Shan-Thai Terrane. The Thai Ordovician
southern prolongation. limestones grade easterly into siliciclastic strata with faunas
For the north we are in a much better position. It is clear of South China biogeographic type (Fortey, 1997; Rong
regionally that the areas to the north and northwest involve Jiayu in Boucot, 2002, p. 9, probable Llanvirn Saucrorthis
modern mountain ranges trending to the north into eastern from the Kanchanaburi area), with the siliciclastic
Xizang and Qinghai in China and to the west in the Ordovician of the northern Shan States (Cocks and Zhan-
Himalayan Trend. Where in this vast, mountainous region Ren-Bin, 1998) presumably doing the same.
do we find lithostratigraphic and faunal sequences similar to For the Silurian, Devonian and earlier Permian, though,
those present in the Shan-Thai Terrane? This is a basic there is relatively extensive information that permits one to
problem for everyone concerned with Paleozoic infer that the original continuation on the north of the Shan-
paleogeography and Paleozoic biogeography. The question Thai Terrane was through parts of Nepal, southern Xizang
needs to be explored time interval by time interval. and into Kashmir. The information for the Silurian and
Devonian consists of both lithostratigraphic and faunal-
EARLY PALEOZOIC biogeographic data, which will now be reviewed.
The Silurian of the Shan-Thai Terrane overall, as well as its
For the Cambrian there is little information from the Shan- inferred continuation into Nepal and southern Xizang,
Thai Terrane itself except for the Late Cambrian of Tarutao overlies predominantly limestone units of Ordovician age,
overlain by a dark-colored, argillaceous, mostly Early
373
Silurian graptolitic unit, in turn overlain by limestones of above. In southern Xizang there are (Copper and Hou
later Silurian and earlier Lower Devonian age in turn Hong-fei, 1986) Pragian age, dark-colored, deep water beds
overlain by dark-colored, more argillaceous, with Nowakia acuaria and Monograptus yukonensis,
dacryoconariid-bearing Early Devonian strata overlain turn whereas well to the north in Xizang there are Early
by limestones of younger Devonian age. In an overall Devonian platform-type carbonate rocks, including
easterly direction it can be inferred that these Devonian dolomites.
rocks grade into deep water, possibly bathyal type, dark- Also notable is the rich Eifelian age, earlier Middle
colored, argillaceous beds and bedded cherts with Devonian brachiopod and coral fauna from Padaukpin in the
graptolites (Jaeger et al., 1968, 1969) and radiolarian faunas Shan States (Anderson et al., 1969), which is a lower part of
(Wonganan and Caridroit, 2005; Yao and Kuwahara, 1999). the Plateau Limestones of northern Myanmar that grade up
Dark-colored, Llandovery age mudstone, shale or into the Late Paleozoic. Also in this category is Gobbett’s
argillaceous limestone has yielded varied graptolites (Berry (1966) Kuala Lumpur region, Givetian age, later Middle
and Boucot, 1972; Wongwanich et al., 1990), chiefly of Devonian Stringocephalus occurrence. Late Devonian
Llandovery age but in a few places extending into the later fossils described to date from these limestones are almost
Silurian. Above the Llandovery age graptolite beds there entirely conodonts (Savage, 2002; Savage et al., 2006;
commonly are limestones of Silurian age with conodonts Savage et al., in press, 2007; Savage et al., in press, 2008).
and uncommon shelly faunas, that in turn are overlain by To the east in northern Thailand there are bedded cherts and
Early Devonian age limestones above which there are dark- dark shales that have yielded graptolites (Jaeger et al., 1968,
colored, fossiliferous mudstones with Nowakia acuaria and 1969) and radiolarian faunas (Wonganan and Caridroit,
other nowakiids (Boucot et al., 1999). Equivalents of this 2005) that may represent bathyal environments. Also to the
Llandovery age graptolitic unit also occur in Nepal in the east in western Yunnan (Wang Yu-jing et al., 2000; Yao and
Thakkola region to the north and west of Nilgiri where the Kuwahara, 1999) there are Late Devonian, Frasnian and
Dark Band Formation yielded Llandovery age graptolites Famennian radiolarian faunas in a cherty facies, i.e., similar
above an unfossiliferous sequence that includes quartzites to those in northern Thailand.
and limestones (Strachan et al., 1964). In the same area
Bordet et al. (1971) reported additional Llandovery age LATE PALEOZOIC
graptolites from dark-colored strata, with an overlying unit
yielding Nowakia acuaria, Nowakia sp., and Styliolina from The key information here is the well known arc of Early
dark-colored strata together with unidentified, presumably Permian pebbly mudstones, some with described marine,
Early Devonian graptolites (Bordet et al., 1971), whereas an cool water faunas, and diamictites extending from Sumatra
underlying unit with limestones yielded Ordovician north through western parts of Malaysia and Thailand, the
brachiopods including Aporthophyla, Orthambonites and Shan States of Myanmar and western Yunnan’s Baoshan
Oepikina which, unfortunately, are biogeographically Block, and thence west into southern Xizang, Nepal and
uninformative for our purposes. To the north of the Sikkim, the lesser Himalayan and Tethyan Himalayan
Nepalese occurrences, in southern Xizang Mu et al. (1986) occurrences, the Pakistan Salt Range, and finally into
noted the occurrence of Llandovery and Wenlock age Arabia. Useful references to this information is available
graptolites and shelly fossils in limestones and dark shales from Hambrey and Harland (1981),
of the Shiqipo Group
The relatively uncommon Late Silurian shelly fossils from BIOGEOGRAPHY
limestones include Boucot et al.’s (1966) brachiopods,
which are associated with corals, from the Kuala Lumpur Biogeographically this lengthy strip extending from
region of Malaysia, and Lee Chai Peng’s (2001) Sumatra to Kashmir offers many challenges, and more than
Scyphocrinus loboliths from the Langkawi Island region of a few complications whose explanations are difficult.
northwestern Malaysia, and the same taxon from the Shan Cambrian data are very few, but what little we know is
States and the Baoshan Terrane (see Berry and Boucot, consistent with Sino-Australian affinities. Shergold et al.
1972, for references). (1988) concluded that the Late Cambrian trilobites from
Fossils from the earlier Lower Devonian are uncommon. Langkawi and Tarutao Islands have Chinese affinities. Jell
There are some conodont occurrences as well as Fortey’s and Hughes (1997) and Hughes and Jell (1999) arrived at
(1989) roughly mid-Early Devonian trilobites from Satun the same conclusion regarding the biogeographic affinities
Province, southern Thailand. Above these earlier Lower of the Pakistan Salt Range, Kashmir, Lesser Himalayan and
Devonian strata there are widespread, dark-colored, Tethyan Himalayan Cambrian trilobites.
commonly argillaceous mudstones and limestones with For the Ordovician it is clear that the shelly faunas from the
abundant nowakiid dacryoconarids that are known from Shan-Thai Terrane are very similar to those of South China
northern Malaysia, through many localities in western (Fortey, 1997). Biogeographically the South China faunas
Thailand, to the Shan States, and then westerly from the have much in common with those known from Kazakhstan
Thakkola area of Nepal and southern Xizang mentioned
374
and Australia; one can almost talk about a Sino-Australian PALEOGEOGRAPHIC RELATIONS
Realm that includes Kazakhstan. Agematsu et al. (2007)
have recently described the conodonts from the limestones Paleogeographic relations of the Shan-Thai Terrane during
in southern Peninsular Thailand in some detail, but they are the Paleozoic may be inferred from a combination of
relatively cosmopolitan as is commonly the case with most lithofacies and biogeographic information of varying
conodonts. reliability. An overall picture suggests that there was a
The Silurian faunas are chiefly graptolitic. Unfortunately, source area, possibly northwestern Australia, for the Shan-
Silurian graptolites are relatively cosmopolitan. The very Thai Terrane itself, and a Proto-India source area for the
limited shelly fossil information is not of much help Himalayan Trend Paleozoic extending westerly as far as the
biogeographically. It clearly belongs to the North Silurian Salt Range in Pakistan. The varied stratigraphic sections are
Realm, i.e., warm water, as contrasted with the cool-cold consistent with shallower water Cambrian strata followed by
water, high southern latitude Malvinokaffric Realm faunas. somewhat deeper water Ordovician limestones, followed by
The Devonian faunas consist of a few pieces of information still deeper water graptolitic Early Silurian, possibly
from the Satun Province, southern Thailand Early Devonian, shallower water later Silurian and earliest Devonian, with
one piece of data from the Eifelian of the Shan States, and later Early Devonian deeper water conditions followed by
one piece from the Givetian of the Kuala Lumpur region. possibly somewhat shallower water later Devonian. To the
The Early Devonian data emphasizes a Rhenish-Bohemian present east there was probably very deep water, possibly
Region, Old World Realm affinity for the Satun Province bathyal conditions to account for the bedded cherts yielding
trilobite data (Fortey, 1989) and the same for the Eifelian radiolarians (see Sashida and Igo, 1999; Yao and Kuwahara,
data from the Shan States (Anderson et al., 1969). The late 1999: Wang Yu-jing et al., 2000) for the location of the
Middle Devonian, Givetian information from the Kuala localities)of Middle through Late Devonian age, with the
Lumpur area is not of much biogeographic utility because possibility that Jaeger et al.’s (1968, 1969) northern
Stringocephalus is a very cosmopolitan genus absent only in Thailand later Early Devonian dark-colored argillaceous,
the Eastern Americas Realm of Central and Eastern North graptolitic beds represent outer shelf if not bathyal
America, plus northern South America. Long and Burrett conditions. In all of this there is evidence overall that can
(1989) described some microvertebrates from Late be interpreted as indicating the presence of platform-type
Devonian limestone of southern Thailand that are most strata to the north along the Himalayan Trend, whereas for
similar to Chinese and Australian taxa, i.e., despite the fact the Shan-Thai Terrane there is a possibility of deeper water
that most Late Devonian marine invertebrates tend to be as one moves easterly. These broad generalizations are
relatively cosmopolitan these vertebrates suggest closer examined below.
relations with China and Australia even in the Late For the Cambrian of the Himalayan Trend it is clear
Devonian; this vertebrate information suggests that (Hughes and Jell, 1999) that the Cambrian of the Proto-
biogeographically the Early Devonian relation between the India block (see Mu et al., 1986, for definition of the term,
Shan-Thai Terrane and Europe-North Africa had terminated p. 34-35) extends from the Salt Range of Pakistan to include
before the Late Devonian, i.e., returned to the Ordovician the Lesser Himalaya and the Tethyan Himalaya to the north
situation of close relations with South China. Present in India, including parts of Kashmir, Spiti and Ladakh. The
knowledge of later Devonian radiolarians suggests that they trilobite faunas are strictly Chinese biogeographically.
tend to be cosmopolitan. Lithologically and faunally they extend from the more
The similarity of the earlier Devonian biogeographic data to nearshore siliciclastics of the Salt Range to the far more
Europe and North Africa, the Rhenish-Bohemian Region is offshore limestones of the Tethyan Himalayas with agnostid
in marked contrast to the Ordovician information indicating faunas (outer shelf to shelf margin types), the Lesser
strong Chinese affinities for the Thai shelly Ordovician. Himalayas being intermediate lithofacially and faunally.
This anomaly might be owing to some change in surface The Tarutao and Langkawi Late Cambrian are relatively
current circulation patterns existing between Europe and nearshore marine siliciclastics, providing little information
North Africa on the one hand and Southern Asia on the about whether Cambrian conditions became deeper water to
other hand, but our ignorance of the paleogeographic detail the east or not as one might predict. The siliciclastic source
needed to evaluate such a possibility prevents making a area for the Himalayan Trend rocks is to the south in Proto-
strong conclusion. India or even as far south as the presently surviving parts of
For the Late Paleozoic, the earlier Permian in particular, the the Indian Shield., whereas for the Tarutao and Langkawi
overall Gondwanan Realm affinities of the shelly faunas Late Cambrian one can infer a source area to the present
known from Sumatra to Arabia make it clear that we deal west that paleogeographically is consistent with present day
with a single biogeographic unit. northwestern Australia. This type of reconstruction is
consistent with a Gondwanan continent that included
Peninsular India, Proto-India and Australia on the east.
Turning to the Ordovician there is evidence that there was a
broad carbonate shelf in the Himalayan Trend region
375
present in Nepal (Bordet et al., 1971), including Mount Middle Devonian fossils at Padaukpin in the Shan States
Jolmo Lungma (Everest) itself on the border with China, (Anderson et al., 1969) and the late Middle Devonian,
and Kashmir (Cowper Reed, 1912) with an age range of Givetian Stringocephalus in the Kuala Lumpur region
probable Late Arenig-Llanvirn to Caradoc. In the Shan- (Gobbett, 1966). The Late Devonian of the Shan-Thai
Thai Terrane there is a wide belt of limestones from Terrane is represented by limestones lacking megafossils for
northwestern Malaysia, as on Langkawi Island and nearby the most part although yielding abundant conodonts
Tarutao, Thailand, extending northerly close to and (Savage, 2002; Savage et al., 2006; Savage et al., 2007, in
overlapping the Thai-Myanmar boundary into the Shan press; Savage et al., 2008, in press), while interpreted in a
States. Ages within the Ordovician extend from the Early to more easterly direction there are Early Devonian graptolites
the Late Ordovician. Hirnantian age siliciclastics are known in a dark-colored siliciclastic unit (Jaeger et al., 1968, 1969)
from both southern Thailand and the Shan States, although and Middle and Late Devonian bedded cherts with
not yet recognized within the Himalayan Trend. To the east radiolarians (Sashido and Igo, 1999, and Wonganan and
in Thailand there is a major facies change from limestones Caridroit, 2005), with similar Late Devonian radiolarian
on the west to siliciclastics easterly in possibly deeper water cherts present in western Yunnan (Yao and Kuwahara,
environments. 1999; Wang Yu-jing et al., 2000).
For the Silurian within the Shan-Thai Terrane from north to
south as far south as northwestern Malaysia there are ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
dominantly dark-colored argillaceous strata yielding
Llandovery age graptolites. Overlying the argillaceous, I am grateful to Dr. Thanis Wongwanich, Bangkok for
graptolite-bearing beds there are limestones that have varied advice about questions of Thai geology, and to Dr.
yielded very few fossils, except for Late Silurian Norman Savage, Eugene, Oregon for advice concerning his
brachiopods and corals from the Kuala Lumpur area work on Thai Devonian conodonts.
(Boucot et al., 1966) and latest Silurian Scyphocrinus from
the Langkawi region (Lee Chai Peng, 2001), as well as from REFERENCES
the Shan States and western Yunnan’s Baoshan Block. The
Himalayan Trend is thus far poor in Silurian fossils except Agematsu, S., Sashida, K., Salyapongse, S., and Sardsud, A., 2007.
for Llandovery age graptolites from dark-colored Ordovician conodonts from the Satun Area, southern
argillaceous beds in the Thakkola region of Nepal on the Peninsular Thailand. Journal of Paleontology 81, 19-37.
flanks of Nilgiri (Bordet et al., 1971; Strachan et al., 1964) Anderson, M.M., Boucot, A.J., and Johnson, J.G., 1969. Eifelian
and in Kashmir from siliceous limestones (Cowper Reed, brachiopods from Padaukpin, Northern Shan States, Burma.
1912) with Pentamerus “oblongus” and other shelly fossils. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Geology
Kashmir lacks the dark-colored, graptolitic Silurian 18, 105-163.
widespread in the Shan-Thai Terrane and near Nilgiri, Berry, W.B.N., and Boucot, A.J., 1972. Correlation of the
Southeast Asian and Near Easern Silurian rocks. Geological
which may indicate a nearer shoreline position when one Society of America Special Paper 137, 65 pp.
also takes account of the siliceous and shelly nature of the Bordet, P., Colchen, M., Krummenacher, D., Le Fort, P.,
strata as contrasted with the graptolitic, argillaceous beds. Mouterde, R., and Remy, M., 1971. I. Descriptions des séries,
The Shan-Thai Terrane Devonian includes a widespread leurs charactéristiques lithologiques et pétrographiques. 2.
basal, dark-colored, argillaceous unit with nowakiid L’Ordovicien, 3. Le Silurien et la Dévonien, p. 88-98.
dacryoconariids, underlain in southern Thailand by a Boucot, A.J., 2002. Some thoughts about the Shan-Thai Terrane.
limestone with Early Devonian trilobites (Fortey, 1989). In In the Symposoium on Geology of Thailand, Department of
the same section as Fortey’s trilobite-bearing limestone Mineral Resources, Bangkok, p. 4-13.
there is an overlying nowakiid bearing argillaceous unit Boucot, A.J., Cocks, L.R.M., and Racheboeuf, P.R., 1999. Early
Devonian brachiopods from Satun Province, Southern
yielding mid Early Devonian brachiopods (Boucot et al., Thailand. Journal of Paleontology 73, p. 850-859.
1999) as well as the deep water trilobite Plagiolaria. Burrett Boucot, A.J., Johnson, J.G., and Jones, C.R., 1966. Silurian
et al. (1986) described a similar tentaculitid-rich unit from brachiopods from Malaya. Journal of Paleontology 40, 1027-
northwestern Thailand that is overlain by a limestone unit 1031.
yielding conodonts. A similar dark-colored argillaceous Burrett, C.F., Carey, S.P., and Wongwanich, T., 1986. A Siluro-
limestone is present in the Thakkola region of Nepal near Devonian carbonate sequence in northern Thailand. Journal
Nilgiri complete with Nowakia acuaria and unidentifiable of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences 1, 215-220.
graptolites. Kashmir has not provided any Devonian fossils, Cocks, L.R.M., and Zhan Ren-Bin, 1998. Caradoc brachiopods
with the position of the Devonian taken by the Muth from the Shan States, Burma (Myanmar). Bulletin of the
Natural History Museum (Geology) 54, 109-130.
Quartzite that lacks body fossils and may be a shoreline Copper, P., and Hou Hong-Fei, 1986. The Early Devonian atrypoid
region unit too far removed from the fully marine brachiopod Tibetagtrypa n. ge. From Xizang (Tibet, China).
environment. Above the Early Devonian regionally in the Journal of Paleontology 60, 286-292.
Shan-Thai Terrane there are limestones commonly lacking
in shelly megafossils. Exceptional are the Eifelian, early
376
Cowper Reed, F.R., 1912. Ordovician and Silurian fossils from the Sashido, K., and Igo, H., 1999. Occurrence and tectonic
Central Himalayas. Palaeontologica Indica, Series XV, vol. significance of Paleozoic and Mesozoic Radiolaria in
VII, Memoir No. 2, 168 pp. Thailand and Malaysia. In Gondwana Dispersion and Asian
Fortey, R.A., 1989. An Early Devonian trilobite fauna from Accretion, I. Metcalfe, ed., Balkema, 175-196.
Thailand. Alcheringa 13, 257-267. Savage, N.M., 2002. the Upper Devonian Frasnian-Famennian
Fortey, R.A., 1997. An Upper Ordovician trilobite fauna from global extinction event. Proceedings of the Symposium on
Thailand. Palaeontology 40, 397-449. Geology of Thailand, 2002, Bangkok, Thailand, 24-28.
Gobbett, D.J., 1966. The brachiopod genus Stringocephalus from Savage, N.M., Lutat, P., and Sardsud, A., 2008, in press.
Malaya. Journal of Paleontology 40, 1345-1348. Famennian (Upper Devonian) conodonts from northern
Hambrey, M.J., and Harland, W.B., eds., 1981. Earth’s pre- Thailand and their global significance. Journal of
Pleistocene glacial record. Cambridge University Press, 1004 Paleontology, 2008, 16 pp.
pp. Savage, N.M., Sardsud, A., and Buggisch, W., 2006. Late
Hughes, N.C., and Jell, P.A., 1999. Biostratigraphy and Devonian conodonts and the global Frasnian-Famennian
biogeography of Himalayan Cambrian trilobites. Geological extinction event, Thong Pha Phum, western Thailand.
Society of America Special Paper 328, 109-116. Palaeoworld 15, 171-184.
Jaeger, H., Nakinbodee, V., Mahakapong, V., Braun, E. von, Hess, Savage, N.M., Sarsud, A., and Lutat, P., 2007, in press. Famennian
A., Koch, K.E., and Stein, V., 1968. Graptolites of the Lower (Upper Devonian) conodonts from Mae Sariang, northwestern
Devonian from Thailand (preliminary results). Neues Thailand. Proceedings of the GeoThai 2007 Conference,
Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatsheft, 728- Bangkok, Thailand.
730. Shergold, J., Burrett, C., Akerman, T., and Stait, B., 1988. Late
Jaeger, H., Stein, V., Wolfart, R., and Stoppel, D., 1969. fauna Cambrian trilobites from Tarutao Island, Thailand. New
(Graptolithen, Brachiopoden) der unterdevonischen Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources Memoir 44,
Schwarzschiefer Nord-Thailands. Neues Jahrbuch für 303-320.
Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen 133, 171-190. Strachan, I., Bodenhausen, J.W.A., Booy, T. de, and Egeler, C.G.,
Jell, P.A., and Hughes, N.C., 1997. Himalayan Cambrian 1964. Graptolites in the “Tibetan Zone” of the Nepalese
Trilobites. Special Papers in Palaeontology No. 58, The Himalayas (central West Nepal). Wettenschappelijke
Palaeontological Association, 113 pp. Mededelingen, 380-382.
Lee Chai Peng, 2001. Occurrences of Scyphocrinus loboliths in the Wang Yu-jing, Fang Zong-jie, Yang Qun, Zhou Zhi-cheng, Cheng
Upper Silurian Upper Setul Limestone of Pulau Langgun, Yan-nian, Duan Yan-Xue and Xiao Yin-wen, 2000. Middle-
Langkawi, Kedah and Guar Sanei, Berseri, Perlis. Geological Late Devonian strata of cherty facies and radiolarian faunas
Society of Malaysia Annual Geological Conference 2001, 99- from West Yunnan. Acta Micropalaeontologica Sinica 17,
104. 235-254.
Long, J., and Burrett, C., 1989. Fish from the Upper Devonian of Wonganan, N., and Caridroit, M., 2005. Middle and Upper
the Shan-Thai terrane indicate proximity to east Gondwana Devonian radiolarian faunas from Chiang Dao area, Chiang
and south China terranes. Geology 17, 811-813. Mai province, northern Thailand. Micropaleontology 51, 39-
Mu En-zhi, Boucot, A.J., Chen Xu, and Rong Jia-yu, 1986. 57.
Correlation of the Silurian Rocks of China. Geological Wongwanich, T., Burrett, C.F., Tansathien, W., and Chaodumrong,
Society of America Special Paper 202, 80 pp. P., 1990. Lower to Mid Palaeozoic stratigraphy of mainland
Satun Province, southern Thailand. Journal of Southeast
Asian Earth Sciences 4, 1-9.
Yao, A., and Kuwahara, K., 1999. Biotic and Geological
Development of the Paleo-Tethys in China, 17-42.
377
GEOLOGY AND MINERALIZATION OF THE CHATREE EPITHERMAL

AU-AG DEPOSIT, PHETCHABUN PROVINCE, CENTRAL THAILAND
Ron JAMES 1 and Grace V. CUMMING 2
1
General Manager Exploration, Akara Mining Limited, 156/9 – 10, Dongkui, Chondan, Phetchabun 67190, Thailand
2
Consulting Geologist for Akara Mining Limited (Exploration), CODES ARC Centre for Excellence in Ore
Deposits, University of Tasmania, 7001 Hobart, Australia
ABSTRACT
The Chatree low to intermediate sulphidation style epithermal gold-silver deposit, central Thailand, comprises multiple
vein systems that span 7.5 km. Current mineral resources estimate that this system has approximately 5 million ounces of
contained Au, making it the largest hard-rock Au resource in Thailand. Au and Ag are hosted in multiple hydrothermal
alteration assemblages, occurring as veins and breccias. The bulk of the ore is found in quartz-carbonate (chlorite-
adularia) replacements, veins and breccias. Chlorite (-pyrite)-rich veins cut more adularia-rich variants to the quartz-
carbonate veins. Sphalerite, galena and electrum are commonly found in the earlier, chlorite-rich assemblages.
Alteration zones surrounding these veins and breccias include pervasive chalcedony and silica alteration and are
considered a precursor to mineralisation. Quartz-carbonate veins are intimately associated with sericite-illite-quartz-
pyrite and illite-smectite alteration zones, and later chlorite-(epidote-calcite-pyrite) and adularia-quartz-sericite-pyrite
assemblages. Geologic mapping and field observations reported here show that ore-bearing veins and alteration
assemblages are influenced by host rock lithologies.
The host succession to the Chatree deposit includes a gently folded 350 m thick package of polymictic and monomictic
andesitic breccias; calc-alkaline andesite flows with isolated dacite dome complexes; monomictic and polymictic
rhyolitic breccias and fine epiclastic sedimentary rocks. Quartz and lithic-rich fiamme breccias occur in the upper part
of the succession. Mineralisation is contained within the finer grained, silicified volcaniclastic and epiclastic facies
which contain intervals of rhyolitic breccia. The tectonic setting of the succession based from non-mobile trace elements
shows that the majority of these facies were sourced from a continental arc type environment.
Across the vein field, alteration assemblages are zoned from chlorite ± epidote-calcite-pyrite (propylitic) to intermediate
argillic alteration assemblages in the south and silica, chlorite ± epidote - calcite - pyrite (propylitic) and sericite-illite-
quartz-pyrite (phyllic) alteration in the north. Spatial variations in mineralogy and alteration intensity corresponds to
finer-grained (<1/16mm to 2 mm) volcaniclastics in the north (A and Q Prospects) and coarse-grained chlorite-alerted
volcaniclastic rocks (namely monomictic and polymictic andesitic breccias) in the southern areas (C-H, J, D Pits).
A variety of chronologic techniques constrain the absolute timing of hydrothermal alteration to regional magmatism.
Mineralization has been constrained as Early Triassic (250.9 ± 0.8 Ma) based on the analysis of adularia from coarse-
grained quartz-sulphide (chalcopyrite – pyrite – sphalerite) veins by laser ablation Ar-Ar methods. The host volcanic
succession has been dated with Laser Ablation ICP-MS U-Pb zircon techniques to reveal an age of 250 ± 6 Ma. The
succession and mineralisation is cross-cut by a 244 ± 7 Ma xenolithic andesite dyke (dated using ICP-MS U-Pb zircon
techniques). A granodiorite south of the mine is anomalous in copper and is shown to have intruded during the Middle
Triassic (with a Re – Os age of 244 ± 1 Ma). The age dates show that gold deposition and associated hydrothermal
alteration is related to regional magmatism rather than the 244 ± 1 Ma granodiorite to the south of the deposit. Such
findings, if correct imply district-scale zonation in observed alteration assemblages and the temporal evolution of the
hydrothermal system.
Keywords: epithermal Au-Ag, central Thailand, sulphidation, Chatree
INTRODUCTION contents (<300ppm of copper, zinc, and lead). Veins

display crustiform to colloform vein textures, typical of
The Chatree epithermal Au-Ag deposit occurs in the Loei- low-sulphidation conditions, but the deposit has very
Phetchabun volcanic belt (Fig. 1) associated with a minor adularia alteration. Gold – silver ratios vary
volcanic centre (Fig. 2) which spans approximately 7.5 by between deposits and are in the range of 5 to 20:1. The
2.5km and consists of 7 defined prospect areas and 7 mineral resource contains 1.6 g/t of Au and 13 g/t of Ag,
operating mine areas (Fig. 3). Studies of the sulphides and together with the previously mined ore totals 4.5
mineral assemblages have classified the deposit as low million ounces of gold. Chatree is an unusual epithermal
sulphidation epithermal (Heald et. al., 1987) as sulphides deposit due to the association of Au with chlorite bearing
contents are generally less than 3%, with low base metal veins, and the lack of any widespread adularia alteration.
378
The objective of this study is to develop a model to better HISTORY OF DISCOVERY
understand the hydrothermal system which formed the
deposit. The model will be developed by a comprehensive Folk-lore describes colluvial and alluvial gold workings
analysis of the stratigraphy, geochemistry, geochronology, by Japanese worker during World War II in areas to the
structure and vein and alteration paragenesis. The east and south of the present day Chatree mine (Diemar
volcanic facies and their emplacement processes are and Diemar, 1999) yet systematic exploration did not
discussed to constrain the volcanic processes which occur until 1987 after the Thailand Government allowed
formed the host lithogies. The geochemistry of the host foreign enterprises to survey for gold.
succession will be examined to constrain the tectonic The Thai Goldfields Limited team, a wholly owned
setting of the magmatism, the timing of mineralization subsidiary of Epoch Mining NL explored along the Loei-
and the host succession is determined using U-Pb and Ar- Phetchabun belt for porphyry copper and related
Ar geochronology. The structure, position and nature of epithermal gold mineralization from 1987 to 1993.
mineralization in the stratigraphy will be documented Exploration methods involved mapping, panning, soil
together with the alteration and vein paragenesis to sampling, trenching, auger drilling and diamond core
determine the processes which controlled the drilling. The team first noted gold at Khao Mo (now A Pit
hydrothermal system. Finally, this study will review the at Chatree) in 1988 (Diemar and Diemar, 1999), in
stable isotope data for the deposit to determine the source outcropping epithermal colloform banded quartz veins
of the sulfur and the temperature of the fluids during an exploration program to prioritize all Thai
Goldfields Limited targets (Diemar and Diemar, 1999).
REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING During 1991 and 1992 the Thailand Department of
Mineral Resources (DMR) also prospected for gold in the
The Chatree epithermal gold deposit is located in the Late Chatree district by conducting soil sampling and
Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic north-south trending Loei- electromagnetic conductivity surveys (De Little, 2005). In
Phetchabun Fold Belt (Jungyasuk and Kositanont, 1992; 1992 Kingsgate Limited (Ltd.) acquired Thai Goldfields
Chasuri, 2002, Fig. 1) This fold belt was formed during Ltd. from Epoch Mining NL and formed the wholly
and prior to the closure of Tethys (Meltcalfe, 2006) and owned Akara Mining Ltd. which then conducted grid-
modified during the extension of SE Asia during the based auger laterite geochemical surveys in 1996, leading
collision of India and Eurasia (Barr and McDonald, 1991) to the discovery of ore in C, D, H and J vein zones which
The Loei-Phetchabun Volcanic belt is thought to have are presently being mined.
originated during the northward subduction of a large
ocean basin (Paleo-Thethys) beneath the Indochina GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Terrane during the Late Permian and Triassic (Intasopa,
1992; Metcalfe, 1996). The closure of this ocean basin is The Chatree deposit is located on the eastern edge of the
thought to have been responsible for the northwards drift Tertiary Chao Phraya Basin, 280km north of Bangkok
of the Shan Thai terrane and eventual collision with (Fig. 1). The district-scale geology (shown in Fig. 2) is
Indochina (Metcalfe, 2006). dominated by thick Carboniferous to Early Permian
Both the Shan-Thai and Indo-china Terranes are thought sedimentary sequences composed of conglomerate,
to be allochthonous Gondwana cratonic fragments sandstone, shale and limestone (DMR, 1994, Fontaine et
(Bunopas and Vella 1983; Hutchinson, 1989; Bunopas al., 2005). New U-Pb zircon geochronology on rhyolites
1991). Both the Shan-Thai and the Indochina Terrane and granites interbedded and intruding into these
contain Early to Late Paleozoic clastic sedimentary rocks, sequences indicate the presence of a Carboniferous
platform carbonates and deep water clastic sedimentary magmatic event in the area. These Carboniferous
rocks. The Indochina terranes these have been overlain by sequences are the dominant rock types in the south-east
Triassic volcanics and intruded by Triassic granites. In the area of Chatree district area (Fig. 2) and may also form
Shan Thai terrane the Paleozoic rocks are intruded by the basement beneath the Late Permian to Triassic rocks
Triassic and Cretaceous granites which were, in turn, at Chatree.
strongly metamorphosed in the Tertiary (Dunning et al. The Chatree deposit is hosted in Late Permian to Triassic
1995). All of these rocks are .overlain by sedimentary intermediate to felsic volcaniclastic rocks (Jungysuk and
units of the Triassic-Jurassic Khorat Group. The timing Koshitanont, 1992, Diemar and Diemar, 1999) which
and nature of collision between these two terranes is form coherent andesitic and rhyolitic centers that
contentious with different studies postulating alternative interfinger and overlie fine-grained volcaniclastics and
subduction geometries and timing for collision (e.g. epiclastic siltstone, mudstone and fossiliferous limestone
Bunopas, 1981; Helmcke, 1986; Chaodumrong, 1992). (Jungysuk and Koshitanont, 1992, Crossing, 2006).
Cenozoic uplift and rotation has caused extensional zones Alteration in the region is associated with these volcanic
from the Gulf of Thailand to the South China Sea (Harder, centers and major NE-SW fault systems (Corbett, 2006;
1991), and the effect is preserved as N-S and NW-SE 2005; Crossing, 2006; Hill, 2005).
trending normal fault zones and NNE-SSW strike-slip The Triassic rocks are gently folded (with dips less than
faults (Diemar and Diemar, 1999). Both of which intersect 45º) and are intersected by NE-SW trending faults (Fig. 2
the Chatree deposit. and Fig. 4). Granodiorite intrusions are associated with
these faults, and mostly post-date mineralization in the
379
area (Crossing, 2006). Approximately 80% of the area
surrounding the deposit is overlain by thick laterite and
unconsolidated sediments.
STRATIGRAPHY OF THE CHATREE

VOLCANIC COMPLEX
Mineralisation at Chatree is strongly influenced by the
host lithologies. Understanding the stratigraphy and
volcanic facies architecture of the deposit is critical to
understanding the position of mineralisation and
developing an ore deposit model.
The Chatree host succession can be divided into four main
units that are cross-cut by basaltic to dioritic dykes. The
stratigraphic units are described below, from
stratigraphically highest to lowest:
Figure 3 Map of Thailand showing the location and position

of open cut Pits and prospects at the Chatree deposit. The vein
zones trend NNW-SSE and NE-SW conforming to regional
structural trends. Mined areas are termed D, C, H and H -
South, P, S, Mars, and A are currently being mined
by open Pit methods.
Unit 1 Lithic rich fiamme breccia with interbedded fine-

grained fiamme rich sandstone and siltstone with thin
layers of accretionary lapilli-rich siltstone and Polymictic
mud matrix breccia. This unit un-conformably overlies the
lower units.
Unit 2 Fine grained epiclastic and minor sedimentary
facies including laminated siltstone, mudstone and
carbonaceous to calcareous (fossiliferous) siltstone;
quartz-rich fiamme breccia, polymictic and monomictic
rhyolitic breccia facies
Unit 3 Polymictic andesitic breccia, polymictic andesitic
basaltic breccia which is partly inter-bedded and overlain
by volcaniclastic sandstones, laminated carbonaceous
mudstones and minor calcareous siltstone. This unit also
includes thin isolated intervals of monomictic andesitic
breccia, plagioclase phyric andesite. The hornblende
phyric andesite
Unit 4 This unit is the lowest intersected stratigraphic
unit. It contains monomictic andesitic breccia, plagioclase
Figure 1 Map of Thailand, showing the location of the phyric andesite and hornblende phyric andesite and minor
Chatree deposit in which Thailand’s Loei-Phetchabun
polymictic andesitic breccia with isolated small bodies of
Volcanic belt is bound by the Nan and Loei Suture zones. The
volcanic belt represents the remnant oceanic and continental
coherent dacite and rhyolite with associated thin zones of
arc complexes that developed prior and associated with the monomictic dacitic and rhyolitic breccia. Andesite, dacite
suturing of the Shan-Thai and Indochina Terranes and basalt dykes cross-cut the whole succession.
(modified from Chausiri, 2000).
380
Figure 2 Generalized geology map of the Chatree district (modified after Crossing, 2006; updated to include the observations of
Cumming et al, 2005) showing the location of Chatree (yellow star) which is positioned on a north-south trending
axial plane of a gently folded anticline, intersected by NE-SW, N-S, NNW-SSE striking faults.
STRUCTURE OF THE CHATREE mineralization faults have been noted in other

DEPOSIT hydrothermal deposits such as the Mount Blitzen volcanic
center in the Tuscarora district (Castor et al., 2003).
The precious metal veins in the Chatree district are related Faulting at Chatree is likely to be partially related to rock
to faults and host rock competency. Mineralized zones competency in the host succession, as faults splay outside
either follow steep E-dipping, NE to NW striking faults or of the brittle coherent plagioclase-phyric andesite (Unit 4)
occur at the intersection of faults (Corbett, 2006). and breccia in the lower part of the succession. Post-
Some of these faults, such as a large NW striking fault mineralized faulting has re-activated earlier north-west
which occurs in the A, Q and D Pits and the eastern part and south-east striking faults and produced minor north-
of K Prospect, have moderate NE dips and dextral south striking extensional faults (Corbett, 2005 and Hill,
displacements (Corbett, 2005 and Hill, 2004). Others, 2004).
such as the NE-striking, NW-dipping fault in the southern
part of H Pit, J Prospect and P Prospects also shows
dextral fault movement (Corbett, 2005 and Hill, 2004).
Although much of the faulting is thought to have occurred
after mineralisation, it is probable that some faults existed
prior to, or during, mineralization. Pre and syn-
381
Figure 4 Geological Map and cross sections of the Chatree mine and prospect areas showing NW – SE and NE – SW fault
structures intersecting the region, an abundance of coherent Plagioclase phyric andesite and Polymictic andesitic breccia
in the southern areas and Fine epiclastic and volcaniclastic sedimentary facies in the northern area.
Fiamme Breccia is widespread, capping the upper part of the succession
VEIN MINERALOGY AND TEXTURES, narrow zones in the lower coherent flows and coarse
VEIN PARAGENESIS AND ALTERATION volcaniclastic rocks, and spreading outward into the finer
volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks and rhyolite breccia. The
Extensive core logging and paragenetic studies at Chatree association of fine to coarse-grained chlorite with the ore
have shown that the mineralized veins can be classified forming vein stages is an unusual feature of the Chatree
into six types. These are as follows: deposit when compared with typical epithermal deposits
1) silica replacement veins world-wide. Chlorite occurs with carbonate, chalcedony
2) grey silica breccia and veins/veinlets and as dark green coarse-grained patches and/or layers
3) quartz ± carbonate ± chlorite - pyrite ± sphalerite associated with pyrite. Gold, silver and electrum are
± chalcopyrite ± galena-electrum breccia and associated with pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena and
veins/veinlets boulangerite. Pyrite is the most abundant sulphides
4) quartz-carbonate-adularia (K-feldspar?)-chlorite- mineral in mineralized vein stages 3 and 4 and occurs as
epidote colloform and massive aggregates associated with
5) quartz ± carbonate veins sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena boulangerite, electrum and
6) quartz-carbonate-zeolite veins microcrystalline quartz. Sulfide and base metal mineral
Mineralisation occurs as poorly to moderately banded, contents (sphalerite, chalcopyrite and galena) are higher at
crustiform and massive, stockwork veins and the southern areas of the Chatree deposit (namely S, C, H,
disseminated ore (Fig. 5 A, B). Locally, the Au-Ag ore H-south and P Pits) and increase in abundance with depth.
texture is stratigraphically controlled, extending from
382
Figure 5 Photographs of drill core and hand samples of A. Laminated volcanic siltstone with pervasive silica replacement, B.
Plagioclase phyric andesite clasts in grey silica matrix, C. Sulfide-rich layer and patchy sulphidess in quartz ± carbonate ± chlorite
vein, D. Well banded quartz, carbonate, chlorite and chalcedony vein with (dark) sulphides layers, E. Moderately banded quartz ±
carbonate ± chlorite ± sulphides vein, showing moderately distinct dark green chlorite bands, F. Banded quartz ± carbonate ±
chlorite ± sulphides vein showing white – cream quartz-carbonate bands and dark chlorite layers. Adularia (pink) is stained yellow
in the upper part of the sample, G. Well banded quartz - chalcedony banded vein with thin sulphides layers,
H. Base metal rich quartz-carbonate vein, coarse-grained sphalerite-galena-chalcopyrite band (left)
and fine disseminated chalcopyrite, I. Coarse-grained pyrite and marcasite.
VEIN AND MINERAL PARAGENESIS breccia zones in C Pit (Fig.5, D). Vein Stage 3 is the
major gold-bearing stage and consists of quartz ±
On the basis of cross-cutting relationships, a chronology carbonate ± chlorite - pyrite ± sphalerite ± chalcopyrite ±
of the 6 different types of veins has been established (Fig. galena-electrum breccia and veins/veinlets. This stage is
6). The first 2 of these vein stages occurs before the characterized by weakly banded (Fig.5 E) crustiform,
introduction of gold into the system. Stage 1 is colloform textures and moderate to well-banded textures
characterized by silica replacement and occurs as both (Figs.5 A, F) ranges from quartz-rich, carbonate-rich to
veins and pervasive alteration. It is recognized at A, A- chlorite-rich and as quartz-sulphides veins, quartz-
east and Q-Prospects where fine-grained volcano carbonate-sulphides and quartz-carbonate-chlorite-
sedimentary rocks predominate (shown in Fig.5, C, D) sulphides veins. Gold mostly forms as electrum and is
and to a lesser extent the coarser volcaniclastic rocks (e.g., closely associated with pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and
polymictic andesitic breccia monomictic andesitic breccia, galena. Electrum also occurs as free grains interstitially
and fiamme breccia). In thin section microcrystalline infilling in calcite and/or quartz (Fig. 7, A). Electrum
quartz is shown to replace the original mineral inclusions in pyrite are common (Fig. 7, B) and less
assemblages. Pre- mineralized (Stage 2) grey silica prominent in sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite. Chlorite
breccia and veins occur in most Pits and prospects and are is a common gangue mineral of this stage and usually
distinctive where the vein/alteration from Stage 1 is forms as fine to coarse-grained and a coarse-grained
absent (such C, H, S Pits and K-west prospect). It is component in colloform-banded veins and infills open-
characterized by grey to dark grey microcrystalline quartz space. Chalcedony is also common in Stage 3 particularly
and minor pyrite and is the matrix to hydrothermal 3-5 m at A and A-east Prospect and is usually associated with
variably banded quartz. Gold and sulphides (pyrite,
383
sphalerite, chalcopyrite and galena) are associated with with euhedral crystalline quartz, calcite and chlorite in
microcrystalline quartz and chlorite, and to some extent interior of the veins (Fig.5, G).
Figure 6 Paragenetic sequence and alteration facies for the Chatree deposit
Figure. 7 Photomicrograph of Stage 3 mineralisation showing A. Close associated of pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and
chalcopyrite surrounded by quartz, B. Free electrum.
384
The post-mineralized vein assemblages are Stages 4 to 6. ALTERATION
Stage 4 is composed of quartz-carbonate-adularia-(K-
feldspar?)-chlorite-epidote veins. These veins are Alteration assemblages at Chatree are
characterized by spectacular pink-orange adularia along 1) silica
the margins to the veins, white to creamy carbonate, pale 2) sericite-illite-quartz-pyrite, chlorite-(epidote)-
grey to white quartz and rare chlorite and epidote with calcite-pyrite, montmorillonite-interlayered illite-smectite
sulphides patches and layers. Quartz ranges from 3) K-feldspar-quartz-sericite-pyrite.
microcrystalline to euhedral with comb textures and the Pervasive silica is the earliest alteration phase and occurs
carbonate is coarse-grained creamy calcite. Sulfides in stratigraphic Unit 2 (Fig. 7 A, B) specifically in the
consist of pyrite and rare chalcopyrite. Stage 5 quartz ± fine-grained volcano-sedimentary facies, rhyolite and
carbonate veins are colloform and crustiform banded and dacite breccia and quartz-rich fiamme breccia. The most
occur throughout the deposit. They consist of quartz highly silicified zones have replaced both clasts and
(chalcedony) and/or carbonate with few sulphides matrix in the rhyolitic and dacitic breccias. Higher gold
minerals. Mineralized zones that have been cross-cut by grades correlate well with these silicified zones, a similar
this vein stage have significantly lower gold grades. It is feature is observed in the Pani Volcanic Complex,
thought that this stage quickly followed the gold bearing Indonesia (documented by Kavalieris et. Al., 1990).
stage and diluted the ore grade (specifically in C and H Silicification is less widespread below and above Unit 2.
Pit). Stage 6 (zeolite-quartz-carbonate-veins) occur in the Some 1-5 m wide cross-cutting silicified zones are
faults and fractures of cross cutting (post mineralized) associated with isolated rhyolite and dacite bodies
dykes and contain distinctive pink to red zeolites, quartz, observed in the lower Units (in C and H Pits
carbonate and minor epidote and chlorite.
Figure 7 Pervasive alteration at Chatree A., Chalcedony, and chlorite C. and alteration associated with
specific vein assemblages (B, D and E).
Patchy silicification occurs in the lower portion (1-5 m) of haloes (with variable thickness) on the margins of these
the lithic rich fiamme breccia in Unit 1. These patchy veins (Fig. 7, B, D).
zones are characterized by microcrystalline quartz and More intense (propylitic) chlorite-epidote-calcite-pyrite (±
chalcedony (Fig. 7, A). Silicification was probably epidote) alteration occurs lower down in the succession
ongoing during the growth of vein stages 1-4, but may (in Units 4 and 3) and is related to the post-mineralized
pre-date later quartz – carbonate veining (vein stage 5). quartz-carbonate-adularia ± chlorite veins.
Observations clearly show that silicification and alteration K-feldspar-quartz-sericite-pyrite (intermediate argillic
is related to rock type, and is more commonly associated alteration) has been identified by Kromkhun (2005) at H-
with rhyolitic and dacitic breccias, quartz rich fiamme west, H Pit and isolated zones in Q Prospect. It is
breccia and the finer associated sedimentary facies) characterized by the presence of montmorillonite and
Sericite-illite (illite-smectite)-quartz-pyrite alteration (Fig. interlayered illite-smectite and occurs at the margin of the
7, C) has been related to gold-bearing mineralisation gold bearing vein stage and is thought to be related. This
(Stage 3) and occurs in the lower stratigraphic units alteration stage occurs as a 1 -3 m thick halo around the
particularly in volcaniclastic and coherent rocks. This margins of 1-2 m thick gold bearing veins in H Pit and as
alteration is directly related to quartz ± carbonate ± a replacement phase of phenocrysts in the plagioclase
chlorite ± adularia-electrum veins/veinlets and occurs as phyric andesite and clasts in the volcaniclastic facies. It is
385
characterized by a high proportion of disseminated pyrite Timing of hydrothermal activity
(10 to 20 % volume). A zone of supergene argillic Timing on mineralisation is constrained to prior to the
alteration was recognized by Krompkhun (2005) in the Middle Triassic by the U-Pb zircon age of dykes which
hanging wall of H Pit. cross-cut mineralisation. The two dykes dated are a
xenolith-rich dyke from D Pit (238 ± 6 Ma) and a
STABLE ISOTOPE STUDIES hornblende-phyric diorite dyke from H Pit (244 ± 7 Ma)
Epithermal gold-silver mineralisation has been directly
Sulfur, carbon and oxygen isotopes have been analysed dated to the latest Permian or earliest Triassic (250.9 ± 0.8
from A Prospect and C, H and D Pits by Dedenczuk Ma) using laser Ar-Ar method on adularia from a gold-
(1998), Greener (1999), and Krompkhun (2005) and bearing quartz ± carbonate ± chlorite ± adularia - pyrite ±
Salam (2006). The main conclusions based from these sphalerite ± galena ± chalcopyrite - electrum vein from C
studies showed that pyrite was sourced from (reduced) Pit.
H2S- dominant fluids (Greener,1999) with sulfur isotope Mineralisation was probably associated with magmatic
values becoming lighter at depth and heavier at higher fluids related to an earlier magmatic event. However,
levels (Krompkhun, 2005) in H Pit. Dedenczuk (1998) although the laser Ar-Ar age is very close to the U-Pb
observed zoned pyrite with depleted cores and enriched zircon age on the andesitic volcanics from Unit 4., there is
rims, suggesting that pyrite nucleated during a period of no direct evidence to suggest that the ore forming fluids
boiling. were formed by the same magmatism which formed the
Analysis by Krompkhun (2005) of oxygen δ18O host sequence. Two scenarios are possible for ore genesis:
compositions in the gold bearing vein stages has shown either fluids were released during the intrusion of rhyolite
that oxygen isotope values range from 8.1 to 15.7 ‰, and dacite dome complexes (in Unit 2) or related eruption
unpublished δ18O analysis by Salam (2006) appears to products (rhyolite breccia, dacite breccia and quartz rich
support this. The two highest oxygen isotope values, 12.7 fiamme breccia) or the fluids were generated by an
and 15.7 ‰ are recorded associated with the post - unrelated event.
mineralized granodiorite (N Prospect) in the south. There
is a possibility that low oxygen isotope values are MODEL FOR ORE DEPOSITION
spatially more or less confined to the centre of the major
ore zones located along H and D structures and values Two scenarios for ore deposition have been devised using
increase outwards from the centre of the main ore zones to the data outlined in this study (shown in Fig. 8). In
the margin of the Pits. However, at present most of the scenario 1 gold mineralisation is thought to be related to
data is focused on the ore zones and to fully confirm this an unconstrained magmatic source within the district and
trend more oxygen isotopes will need to be determined the position/location and geometry of the ore is controlled
outside the main mineralized zone. by structures and host rock competency. Ore bearing
At Q, A, A-east and northern part of K-east Prospects, the fluids have exploited fractures and faults in the succession
oxygen isotope composition ranges from 9.5 to 11.9 ‰ (N and the highest gold grades occur associated with the finer
= 16) with low values being generally occurring lower in grained sedimentary facies and rhyolite breccias (in the
the succession. The oxygen isotope values tend to show northern area of the deposit) in Unit 2 and lower in
low values at deeper levels in all areas. Oxygen isotope stratigraphic Unit 4 at the margin between the monomictic
values in the gold-bearing vein stage tend to show lower andesitic breccia and coherent andesite facies. In this
values than the late post-mineralized vein stages. scenario, the silicification in Unit 2 could be genetically
To fully evaluate oxygen isotope data and distinguish linked to the same magmatic events that formed the
between meteoric and magmatic sources of oxygen, rhyolite dome and breccia. Silica-rich fluids circulating in
precise temperature measurements are required. This is Unit 2 during the intrusion and extrusion of the small
due to the temperature dependence of the oxygen isotope isolated rhyolite dome complexes may have hardened the
partitioning coefficient between quartz and fluids (Zheng rocks and prepared them for the development of brittle
1993). Typically oxygen isotope studies rely on fluid conduits and ore deposition during later circulation of
inclusion homogenization temperatures to obtain precise magmatic and meteoric fluids. In this hypothesis, the
temperature of quartz formation. At Chatree fluid hydrothermal system overprints the host succession and is
inclusions are rare and, when present, they are generally not associated with the magmatism which formed the host
too small for precise temperature determination. However, succession. The lack of mineralized ore in certain parts of
based on temperatures consistent with the assemblages at the succession is due to competency contrasts with the
Chatree (250° to 300°) (Greener 1999) a mixed meteoric lithic-rich fiamme breccia, the polymictic andesitic
and magmatic source is likely for the oxygen in the breccias and the lower plagioclase-phyric andesite being
Chatree veins. an unfavourable host for mineralisation.
The oxygen isotopic values and zonation could be In scenario 2 (in Fig. 9) we speculate that mineralisation
explained by channeling magmatic fluids with low oxygen was related to the same magmatic event which formed the
isotope values along fault zones and which subsequently upper part of the host succession (namely the lithic-rich
mix with meteoric water. This could produce oxygen fiamme breccia). Both hydrothermal activity and
isotope values increase outwards from the centre of the volcanism ceased after the emplacement of a large volume
main ore zones to the margin of the Pits. of pyroclastic material (Unit 1).
386
Figure 8 Two scenarios for gold deposition at Chatree. Scenario # 1 shows that mineralization occurred later than the
emplacement of the host volcanic facies and was related to an unrelated magmatic source. Scenario #2 illustrated that
mineralization is related to magmatism associated with the same magmatic source to the upper lithic rich fiamme breccia,
is ongoing during the emplacement of the unit and ceases when volcanism ceases. It should be noted however,
that the source of mineralization may be related to any one of the volcanic centres in the area
and not necessarily related to the upper Lithic rich fiamme breccia.
More precise dating of the succession (with a lower error epithermal deposit is located (Simmons et al, 1992;
margin) would help to provide the foundation for a more Simpson et al, 2001and Mauk and Hall, 2004).
accurate model for ore deposition at Chatree. Currently A comparison of Chatree with other low-intermediate
with an error margin of ± 6 Ma and with the entire host sulphidation deposits is shown in Table 12. The host
succession relying on a single date, we cannot preclude volcanic rocks to the Chatree deposit display similar
that the volcanism of the host is the source of the fluids. tectonic setting (with regards to geochemical
Both scenarios are compatible with a subduction-related characteristics) to the Cerro Vanguardia epithermal
tectonic setting for the host succession similar to other deposit in Argentina, Pajingo in Northern Australia,
epithermal deposit worldwide. Possible analogues include Comaguey, Cuba, Golden Cross, New Zealand and the
the Nicauragua and the Eastern Trans Mexican Volcanic Hishikari deposit, Japan. Of these deposits Pajingo’s host
Belt (Besch and Verma et al., 1995), the Kyushu arc in rocks are older than Chatree, the remainder of the deposits
Japan closely associated with the Hishikari low mentioned forming in younger rocks to Chatree. However,
sulphidation epithermal deposit (Izawa et al., 1993; the mineral assemblages are most comparable to the
Sanematsu et al., 2006; Faure and Matsuhisa, 2002) and Pajingo deposit and Cerro Vanguardia due to the presence
the north island of New Zealand where the Golden cross of illite-quartz and chlorite in the alteration assemblages
or to Pajingo and Hishikari due to the similarities in the
387
vein assemblages (quartz-adularia-electrum and are particularly thanked for discussing various aspects of
colloform-crustiform vein textures). the Chatree deposit geology and for providing logistical
support during core logging. We also acknowledge the
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION work of John Crossing, Greg Corbett, Roland Hill, Jeffrey
Hedenquist and Richard Sillitoe whose previous work has
The Chatree epithermal deposit is hosted in a succession assisted in clarifying many aspects of the deposit and
of dominantly calc-alkaline andesite flows and associated regional geology. Jocelyn McPhie, Ross Large and
autobreccia, polymictic breccias, fine sedimentary facies Anthony Harris from the CODES ARC Centre for
with rhyolite and dacite breccias and quartz phyric Excellence in Ore Deposits have provided an enormous
fiamme breccia. The whole succession is capped by lithic- amount of support during the final stages of the study.
rich fiamme breccia and has been emplaced in a Phil Robinson is acknowledged for conducting the
subaqueous environment, related to continental arc geochemical analysis and Sue Golding from the
magmatism. A detailed analysis of the stratigraphy and University of Queensland is thanked for the Ar/Ar dating
volcanic architecture indicates that the earliest volcanic and Holly Stein from the Colorado state university is
eruptions were subaqueous and effusive and evolved to acknowledged for the Re-Os dates. John Fawcett is
mixed effusive and explosive eruption styles as magma acknowledged for providing editorial support.
compositions changed from intermediate (andesitic) to
silicic (dacitic to rhyolitic) compositions. REFERENCES
Chatree is intersected by NW-SE and NE-SW striking
sub-vertical dipping faults and mineralization is Baker,T., Mustard, R.,Brown, V., Pearson, N., Stanley,C.R.,
structurally and stratigraphically controlled. Analysis of Radford,N.W., Butler, I., 2006, Textural and chemical
the paragenetic sequence has showed six vein zonation of pyrite at Pajingo: a potential vector to
assemblages, the ore bearing veins are 3) quartz ± epithermal gold veins, Geochemistry: Exploration,
Environment, Analysis, v. 6, p. 283-293
carbonate ± chlorite - pyrite ± sphalerite ± chalcopyrite ± Bar, S. M., and Macdonald A. S., 1987, Nan River Suture Zone,
galena-electrum breccia and veins. Pervasive silica is northern Thailand: Geodesy, v. 15, p. 970 – 910.
associated with higher gold grades in the northern part of Besch, T., Verma, S. P., Kramm, H., Negendank, J. F. W.,
the succession and was probably ongoing during the Tobschall, H.J., and Emmermann, R., 1995, Assimulation
growth of vein stages 1-4, but probably pre-dates later of silicic crustal material by volcanics of the easternmost
quartz – carbonate veining (vein stage 5) and is related to extension of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic belt: Evidence
rock type, and more specifically the felsic rocks. from Sr and Nd isotopes, Geofis International, v. 34, p.
Silicification is considered to be the ground preparation 263-282
for later mineralisation events (Salam, 2007). Sericite- Bunopas, S., and Vella P., 1983, Tectonic and geologic
evolution of Thailand. Proceedings to the workshop on the
illite (illite-smectite)-quartz-pyrite alteration occurs at the Stratigraphic Correlation of Thailand and Malaysia,
margins of gold-bearing to quartz ± carbonate ± chlorite ± Geological Society for Thailand, Bangkok Geological
adularia-sulphides – electrum veins/veinlets. Propylitic society, Malaysia, Kuala Lumpar, p. 307 – 322
chlorite-epidote-calcite-pyrite (± epidote) alteration Bunopas, S., 1991, The Late Triassic collision and stratigraphic
occurs lower down in the succession and related to quartz- belts of Shan-Thai and Indochina microcontinents in
carbonate-adularia±chlorite veins. K-feldspar-quartz- Thailand: Proceedings of papers presented at the 1st
sericite-pyrite (intermediate argillic alteration) has been International Symposium of IGCP Project 321, Gondwana;
identified at H-west, H pit and isolated zones in Q Dispersal and accretion of Asia, Kunming, China, p?.
Chaodumrong, P., 1992, Stratigraphy, sedimentology and
Prospect. Intermediate argillic alteration occurs in the
tectonic setting of the Lampang Group, central North
lower part of the lithic rich fiamme breccia at the hanging Thailand, (unpublished) PhD. thesis, University of
wall at H Pit. Tasmania, p. 230.
Age dating shows that the granodiorite (to the south of the Chausiri, P., Daorerk V., Archibald D., Hiscala K. I., Ampaiwan
mine) and the dykes which cross-cut the succession at T., 2002, Geotectonic Evolution of Thailand: A new
Chatree are a similar age (Early to Middle Triassic), and Synthesis, Journal of the Geological Society of Thailand, p.
postdate the development of epithermal gold-silver 1-20.
mineralisation which occurred in the Late Permian to Castor, S. B., Boden, D. R., Henry, C. D., Cline, J. S., Hofstra,
Earliest Triassic (250.9 ± 0.8 Ma). Mineralisation could A. F., McIntosh, W. C., Tosdal, R. M., Wooden, J. P.,
be related to the same felsic magmatism that formed the 2003, The Tuscarora Au-Ag District: Eocene Volcanic-
Hosted Epithermal Deposits in the Carlin Gold Region,
top of the host succession or to an unrelated and as yet Nevada, ECOMOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 98; p. 339-366
unconstrained magmatic event. Crossing, J., 2006, Additional Geological Mapping Of The
Chatree Regional Thailand, Company report, p 7-43.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Corbett, G., 2006, Unpublished report; Comments on the
controls to gold mineralization at Chatree, p. 1-15.
This study was commissioned by Ron James, General Corbett, 2005, Unpublished report; Comments on the controls to
Manager Exploration for Akara Mining Limited; gold mineralization at Chatree, p 2-27.
Kingsgate Consolidated NL. Akara Mining exploration Cumming, G. V., 2004, An assessment of the volcanic facies at
the Chatree mine and other selected areas in the Loei –
geologists Saranya Nuanla-ong, Surachat Mutsamai, Mike
Phetchabun Volcanic belt, B.Sc. (Hons) Thesis
Garman and Chamrat Sangsrichan, Taksorn Tuksawasu, (unpublished), Centre for Ore Deposit Research, School of
388
Earth Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia, evolution of Mainland S.E. Asia, Geological Society
p. 1-95. Malaysia Publications: Bulletin 19
Cumming, G. V., Allen, S., McPhie J., Khin Zaw, 2006, Hill, R., 2004, Interpretation of regional structural setting from
Polymictic andesitic lithic breccias from central Thailand: ground resistivity data, Chatree mine area, Thailand,
evidence for the collapse of a volcanic edifice, In: Unpublished report prepared for Kingsgate Consolidated
Geochronology, Metallogenesis and deposit styles of the NL, p. 1-53.
Loei foldbelt in Thailand and Laos PDR, ARC Linkage Heald, P., Foley, N. K., Hatba, D. O., 1987, Comparative
Project report, Centre for Ore deposit research, p. 43-45. Anatomy of Volcaic-Hosted Epithermal Deposits: Acid-
Davies, B., 2004, Investigation of the Geological Setting of Sulfate and Adularia-Sericite Types, ECONOMIC
Mineralization at the Chatree deposit, Unpublished report GEOLOGY, v. 82, p 1-26
prepared for Kingsgate Consolidated NL, p. 1-74. Hoffman, A. W., 1997, Mantle geochemistry: the message from
Dedenczuk, D., 1998, Epithermal Gold mineralization Khao Sai, oceanic volcanism, Nature v. 385, p. 219 – 229
Central Thailand, Unpublished B. Science (Hons) Thesis, Hudson, D. M., 2003, Epithermal alteration in the Comstock
Hobart, University of Tasmania, p.1-50. district, Nevada, ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 89, p 367 -
De Ronde, C. E. J., and Blattner, P., 1988, Hydrothermal 385
alteration, stable isotopes, and fluid inclusions of the Hutchinson, C. S., 1989, Geologic evolution of Southeast Asia,
Golden Cross epithermal gold-silver deposit, Waihi, New Oxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics, No 13,
Zealand, ECONOMIC GEOLOGY., v. 83, p. 895-917. Oxford University press, p. 368
Diemar, M. G., and Diemar, V. G., 1999, Geoloogy of the Izawa, E., Kurihara, M., and Itaya, T., 1993, K-Ar ages and the
Chartee Epithermal Gold deposit, Thailand, Pacific Rim initial Ar isotopic ratio of adularia-quartz veins from the
Conference 1999, Indonesia 10 -13 October, Proceedings, Hishikari gold deposit, Japan, in Shikazano, N., Naito, K.,
p227 – 231. and Izawa, E., eds., High Grade Epithermal Gold
De Little, J. V., 2005, Geological setting, nature of Mineralization, the Hishikari Deposit: Resource Geology
mineralization, and fluid characteristics of Wang Yai Special Issue 14, pp. 63–69.
prospects, central Thailand, (Hons) Thesis (unpublished), James, R., 2006, Kingsgates Exploration in Thailnand,
Centre for Ore Deposit Research, School of Earth Sciences, Unpublished report prepared for Kingsgate Consolidated
University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia, p. 5-108. NL, p. 1-4.
Dunning, G. R., Macdonald, A. S., and Barr, S. M., 1995, Zircon Jongyasuk, N., and Koshitanont, S., 1992, Volcanic rocks and
and monazite U---Pb dating of the Doi Inthanon core associated mineralization in Thailand. In: Pianchaoen C.,
complex, northern Thailand: implications for extension (Ed) Potential for future development; Bangkok p. 522 –
within the Indosinian Orogen: Tectonophysics, v. 251, p. 537
197-213. Kano, K., Yamamoto, T., Ono K., 1996, Subaqueous eruption
Faure, K., Matsuhisa, Y., Metsugi, H., Mizota, C., and Hayashi, and emplacement of the Shinjimi Pumice, Shinjima
S., 2002, The Hishikari Au-Ag epithermal deposit, Japan: (Moeshima) Island, Kagoshima Bay, SW Japan, Journal of
Oxgygen and hydrogen isotope evidence in determining the Volcanology and Geothermal Research v. 71, p. 187-206.
source of the Paleohydrothermal fluids, ECONOMIC Kavalieris, I., Walshe, J. L., Halley, S., Harrold, B. P., 1990,
GEOLOGY, v.97, p. 481-498. Dome-Related Gold Mineralisation in the Pani Volcanic
Fiske, R. S., and Matsueda, T., 1964, Submarine equivalents of Complex, North Sulawesi, Indonesia: A Study of Geologic
ash flows in the Tokiwa Formation Japan: American Relations, Fluid Inclusions, and Chlorite Compositions,
Journal of Science, v. 262, p. 76 – 106. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 85, p. 1208-1225
Gemmell, B., Simmons, S., Sharpe, S., McPhie, J., Wurst, A., Kesler, S. E., Hall, C. M., 2004, Age of the Camagüey Gold-
Herrmann, W., Scott, R., Booth, J., Young, B., Cater, G., Silver District, Cuba: Tectonic Evolution and Preservation
Blake, M., 2006, Geology, geochemistry and exploration of Epithermal Mineralization in Volcanic Arcs, v. 99, p.
implications of hydrothermal alteration associated with 869-886.
epithermal Au-Ag deposits, extended abstract from the Krompkhun, K., 2005, Geological setting, mineralogy,
Australian Earth Science Convention alteration, and nature of ore fluid of the H zone, the Chatree
Greener, S., 1999, Wall rock alteration and Vein Mineralogy of deposit, Thailand. Unpublished MSc Thesis, Hobart,
a Low Sulfidation Epithermal deposit, Thailand, University of Tasmania, p.1-160.
Unpublished B.Science (Hons) Thesis, Hobart, University Mauk, J.L., Hall, C.M., 2004, 40Ar/39Ar ages of adularia from
of Tasmania the Golden Cross, Neavesville, and Komata epithermal
Guido, D., Cerro Vanguardia Mine; Company report for deposits, Hauraki Goldfield, New Zealand, New Zealand
Kingsgate Consolidated NL, p.1-7 Journal of Geology & Geophysics, Vol. 47, p. 227–231
Hall, C. M., Kesler, S. E., Russell, N., Piñero, E., Sánchez, R., McPhie, J., Doyle, M. and Allen, R.L., 1993, Volcanic Textures:
Pérez, C., Moreira, J. R., Borges, M., 2004, Age and a guide to the interpretation of textures in volcanic rocks,
Tectonic Setting of the Camagüey Volcanic-Intrusive Arc, p.189
Cuba: Late Cretaceous Extension and Uplift in the Western McPhie, J., Allen, L., 2003, Submarine, silicic, syn - eruptive
Greater Antilles, The Journal of Geology, v. 112, p. 521– pyroclastic Units in the Mount Read Volcanics, Western
542 Tasmania: Influence of Vent Setting and Proximity on
Harder, S., 1991, Extensional tectonics in the Gulf of Thailand Lithofacies Characteristics, Explosive Subaqueous
and South China Sea, proceedings of the 7th Regional Volcanism, White D.L., Smellie J.L., Clague D.A., (Eds.),
Conference on Geology, Mineral Resources in Southeast v.140, p.587-596.
Asia (GEOSEA VII) Bangkok, v. 47 p.47. Metcalf, I., 1986, Late Paleozoic Paleogeography of Southeast
Hedenquist, J. W., 2000, Exploration for epithermal gold Asia, Palaentological and Palaeogeographic constraints.
deposits, Reviews in ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, Gold in Geological Society of London Special publication 37, p.
2000; p. 245 – 277 101-118.
Helmcke, D., 1986, On the geology of the Phetchabun Fold-Belt Metcalfe, I., 2006, Paleozoic and Mesozoic tectonic evolution
(Central Thailand) - implications on the geodynamic and palaeogeography of East Asian crustal fragments: The
389
Korean Peninsula in context: Gondwana Research, v. 9, p. Shinjo, R., Woodhead, J.D., Hergt, J.M., 2000, Geochemical
24-46. variation within the northern Ryuku Arc: magma source
Miyashiro, A., 1974, Volcanic rock series in island arcs and compositions and geodynamic implications, Contributions
active continental margins: American Journal of Science, v. to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 140:3, p. 263-282
274, p. 321-355 Sigurdsson, H., Houghton, B., McNutt, S. R., Rymer, H., Stix,
Pansze, A. J., 1975, Geology and ore deposits of the silver city J., 2000, Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, San diago, Academic
De Lamar-Flint region, Owyhee Country, Idaho: Idaho Bur. press
Mines Geology Pamph. 161, p. 79 Silitoe R. and Hedenquist J., 2003, Linkages between
Parks, J. and Robertson, L.D.M., 2003 Pajingo Epithermal Gold volcanotectonic settings, ore-fluid compositions, and
Deposits, NE Queensland, In: Cooperative Research Centre epithermal precious-metal deposits, ECONOMIC
for Landscapes, Environments and Mineral Exploration GEOLOGY, Special Publication 10, p. 315-343.
Report, p. 1-4 Simmons, S. F., and Browne, R. L., 2000, Hydrothermal
Pearce, J. A., 1996. A user’s guide to basalt discrimination minerals and precious metals in the Broadlands - Ohaaki
diagrams. In: Trace element geochemistry of volcanic geothermal system: implications for understanding low
rocks: Applications for massive sulphides exploration. sulphidation epithermal environments, ECONOMIC
Geol. Assoc. Canada Short Course notes 12, 79 – 113 GEOLOGY v. 95, p. 971 – 999.
Pearce J. A., Hawkesworth, C. J., Norry M. J., 1983, Role of the Simpson, M. P., Mauk, J. L., 2001, Hydrothermal Alteration and
sub – continental lithosphere in magma genesis at active Hydrologic Evolution of the Golden Cross Epithermal Au-
continental margins in: Hawkesworth C. J., and Norry M. J. Ag Deposit, New Zealand, ECONOMIC GEOLOGY; v.
(Eds), TITLE??p. 230 – 249. 96, no. 4; p. 773-796.
Perkins, C., 1993. Isotopic Dating of Precious and Base Metal Stewart, A.L., McPhie, J., 2006, Facies architecture and Late
Deposits and their Host Rocks in Eastern Australia. Final Pliocene – Pleistocene evolution of a felsic volcanic island,
Report, AMIRA Project, p. 334 Milos, Greece, Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 68, p.703-726.
Plumlee, G. S., and Witchousevoux, P. H., 1994, Mineralogy, Sun, S. S., McDonough, W.F, 1989, Chemical and isotopic
paragensesis and mineral zoning of the Bulldog Mountain systematics of oceanic basalts: implications for mantle
Vein System, Creede District, Colorado, ECONOMIC composition and processes. In: AD Saunders and MJ Norry
GEOLOGY, v. 89, p.1883 – 1905. (eds.)Magmatism in the Ocean Basin. Geological Society
Renato, E. B., Jaireth, S., Morrison, G. W., 1995; The anatomy special publication ; No.42, p. 313-345.
of a Carboniferous epithermal ore shoot at Pajingo, Warren, I., Zuluaga, J.I., Robbins, C.H., Wulftange, W.H.,
Queensland; setting, zoning, alteration, and fluid Simmon, S.F., In Press, Geology and Geochemistry of
conditions, ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 90, p. 1776-1798. Epithermal Au-Ag Mineralization in the El Peñón District,
Rollinson, H. R., 1993, Using Geochemical Data: Evaluation, Northern Chile, ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Presentation, Winchester, J. A., and Floyd, P. A., 1976, Geochemic magma
Interpretation, Longman, p. 352 type discrimination; application to altered and
Rosana, M. and Matsueda, H., 2002, Cikidang Hydrothermal metamorphosed basic igneous rocks, Earth and Planetary
gold deposit in Western Java, Indonesia, Resource Geology Science Letters, v. 28, p. 459 – 469.
v. 52, p. 341 – 352. Zheng, Y., 1993, Calculation of oxygen isotope and
Salam, A., 2006, A Geological, Geochemical and Metallogenic hydrothermal isotope studies to problems of hydrothermal
study of the Northern Chatree area, Phetchabun province, alteration and ore deposition, ECONOMIC GEOLOGY., v.
Loei fold Belt, Central Thailand – progress report, In: 69, p. 843-883.
Geochronology, Metallogenesis and Deposit Styles of Loei
Foldbelt in Thailand and Laos PDR, CODES: ARC
Linkage Project, unpublished volume, CODES Centre for
Excellence in Ore deposit Research, University of
Tasmania
Sanematsu, K., Watanabe, K., Duncan, R. A., Izawa, E., 2006,
The history of vein formation determined by 40Ar/39Ar
dating of adularia in the Hoesien-1 vein at the Hishikari
epithermal gold deposit, Japan, ECONOMIC GEOLOGY,
v. 101; no. 3; p. 685-698.
Sharpe, R. 2002. Low sulphidation epithermal veins of the Cerro
Vanguardia district, Patagonia, Argentina: integration of
stratigraphic, alteration and geochemical constraints to
define exploration vectors and discriminate high and low
grade veins. ARC-AMIRA P588 Final Report 2, pp 5.1-
5.19.
Sharpe, R., Riveros, C. and Scavuzzo, V. 2002. Stratigraphy of
the Chon Aike Formation ignimbrite sequence at Cerro
Vanguardia Au-Ag epithermal vein district. In Actas del
XV Congreso Geológico Argentino CD-ROM, Cabaleri N.,
Cingolani, C.A., Linares, E., López de Luchi, M.G., Ostera,
H.A. and Panarello, H.O., (eds,) Article232, 6pp.
Sherlock, M.G., Cox, D.P., and Huber, D.F., 1996, Known
mineral deposits and occurrences in Nevada, in Singer,
D.A., ed., An analysis of Nevada’s metal–bearing mineral
resources: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology Open–
File, Report 96–2, Chapter 10, p. 10.1–10.38
390
WEB MAP SERVICES ON GEOLOGIC RESOURCES OF THAILAND

Sompob WONGSOMSAK
ABSTRACT
Geologic resources presented in the publication are restricted to domain of geology, mineral resources and geohazards
that are currently the responsibility of Department of Mineral Resources. Since 2004, DMR has continuously developed
IT applications on these aforementioned geologic resources by which are stored in geodatabase. Besides, national
fundamental geographic datasets (FGDS) also include in the geodatabase. Applications play three roles in privilege
management, data entry and data services. The first 2 applications are implemented for internal users while the rest is
open for public.
Information of all responsible datasets such as geology, mineral resources, earthquake, active faults, landslide, sinkhole,
shoreline erosion, fossil and geophysics are intended to open for public via web map services (WMS). Geohazard
warning systems with SMS message also attach on this WMS. Currently, some services and information are online and
ready-to-use such as earthquake and landslide warning systems. Besides an effective data management policy, the
achievement of the services is directly a function on the responsibility and cooperation of data owner.
Keyword: web map services, geologic resources, geology, mineral resources, geohazards, warning system
INTRODUCTION 2. Software. This part concentrates on the operation and

capability of servers, especially the map server. There are
Mineral Resources Information Center has officially been 2 main categories of software namely, operating system
established due to the public administrative reorganization and application. Both commercial and open-source
in 2002. “Developing information systems on geologic operating systems are implemented depend on an
and mineral resources to be a national data center and to individual functionality of the servers. Special selection is
enhance competency services” is vision of the center to devoted for map server by which the Microsoft 2003
energize spirits of operation for national advantage. Server is deployed. Commercial software of database and
Investment on IT infrastructure and consolidation of all GIS applications are invested with a number of licenses.
available GIS datasets are urgently required for the first 5 These are:
years plan, 2003-2007. The center trusts on the ability and - SQL Server 2000 is served to manipulate
capability on the geodatabase concept, therefore, the ESRI database both spatial and non-spatial within the server.
packages are chosen to manipulate all datasets. Web- - ArcGIS 9.x with 3 floated licenses is installed
based applications are designed to implement on the to manage the GIS datasets in the geodatabase.
geodatabase either data entry or services. This technology - ArcIMS is served to deliver dynamic maps and
is named “web map service (WMS)” that provides GIS data via the Internet.
interactive map information of selected dataset to users. - ArcSDE is served to manipulate and facilitate
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND spatial data in the server for other applications.
- ColdFusion is applied for creating and
INFRASTRUCTURE improving the web applications.
3. Infrastructure. This part concentrates to
1. Hardware. This part is focused on servers only since communication and connectivity among clients and
they are a heart of the DMR knowledge and information. servers. Networking within the DMR campus is a star
High-end and sophisticated PC-base architecture is architecture (Figure 1) by which fiber optics of 1 GB
selected of which the HP is a common brand. Two parts transmission rate are lined as backbone for each building.
of servers are divided, DMZ zone and server zone (Fig. The coaxial lead lines of 100 Mbps transmission rate are
1). The DMZ zone is a group of dissemination and diversified from hubs for every story of the building.
communication servers through the Internet. The zone Meanwhile, communication between DMR and outside
consists of 3 main bodies; web Internet, web mail and via the Internet is done by 3 Mbps transmission rate.
web applications on GIS. Meanwhile, PC-based servers
that are assigned for DNS, network management,
database, web intranet, anti-virus and internal mail
security are in the server zone.
391
Figure 1. Showing schematic diagram of DMR network.
DEVELOPMENT HISTORIES geohazard, geologic resources management, mineral

analysis and detection, and geotecnics.
Besides investments on those aforementioned, DMR has The URL for the first 2 modules is
deployed web-based applications facilitating the data http://webgis.dmr.go.th/dmr (Fig. 2) while the rest is
entry to the server by owners and the data retrieval by http://webgis.dmr.go.th/dmr_gis (Fig. 3). However, these
users. Three continuous phases are documented as: the reference locations are currently abandoned.
first, second and third. 2. The second phase. This phase, starting in the 2005’s
1. The first phase. This phase started in the fiscal year, aimed to enhance ability on data entry and
2003’s fiscal year accompanying with investments of services, particularly the geohazard events. The
hardware, software and network. Application application has been accelerated due to tsunami suffering
development is one part of the whole project proposal on the 27th December 2004. Many changes have been
taking about 15%. Three modules of the application have taken place to highlight responsible activities in this
been designed consisting of the privilege module, data category that are earthquake, landslide, shoreline erosion,
entry module and services modules. sinkhole and surface crack. Moreover, internal data
The privilege module set as function for right clearinghouse has also been established where metadata
management of users in appropriate database. Staffs of the tool and extract tool are integrated in the data extract
center have been assigned as administrator. Currently, application.
there are more than a hundred users getting right for their The earthquake warning system is a borderless and
own database. timeless application. The conceptual design (Figure 4) is
The data entry module, in most cases, is served for intended to utilize earthquake information from major
inserting attributes to a specific spatial feature. Generally, disaster contributors that are USGS, GEOFON, EMSC
most of prevailing spatial features have been imported to and KJC for early warning management. The SMS
the geodatabase via ArcGIS while all lookup tables were warning messages will automatically and immediately
loaded via SQL server 2003. Some detailed information send to authority staffs of Geohazard Operating Center
requires updating via this module. The administrator (GOC) at DMR for further collaboration with National
manipulates the updated features while owners or Hazard Center when signs of intensity occur in the
assigned users do attributes via the web application. Four precaution zone.
categories of databases have been setup in this module According to the Cabinet Approval in 2003, forthcoming
consisting of geology, mineral resources, mineral landslide warning networks have been worked out to
management, and geohazard. Besides, one MIS release hazard in risk provinces, potentially 51 provinces.
application on mineral analysis and detection also Currently networks are setup in 15 provinces and have
includes. already integrated on the WMS. The system is designed to
The services module has been designed on the basis of get actual rainfall report from network. Commander(s) at
W3C standard for web map services (WMS) that is used the GOC will immediately send SMS warning message to
for public inquiry on the prevailing geodatabase. There all members in that area whenever the rain meets the
are 7 categories of information setup in the service that maximum limit (Fig. 5).
are geology, mineral resources, environmental geology,
392
a USGS
EMSC
KJC
GEOFON
Earthquake information
in the precaution area
(5º S-25º N and 90-130º E )
In-bound 2.5 Richter

On-land, out-bound 4.5 Richter
Sea 6.5 Richter
Alert
b SMS
Messaging
Figure 4 Showing conceptual model for implementation of the

earthquake warning system on the WMS.
Actual rainfall report
Alert SMS
precaution
member of landslide
warning network
Figure 2 Showing (a) the first page of the data entry and user-
management, (b) the user-management form and (c) rock-unit
database in the geology data-entry page.
Figure 5 Showing conceptual model for implementation of the
landslide warning system on the WMS.
a The data extraction is another application that is

developed in this phase. The service is only for internal
users and functionally looks similar to data clearinghouse.
Metadata search is integrated to facilitate users finding out
suitable online data in the geodatabase. “Extract” tool is a
tool that is used to clip a selected dataset listing in the
application. Whether a whole or a part of the dataset,
users can easily define location and download from web.
This application is supposed to encourage all internal
users to be familiar with the geodatabase structure and
increase population in GIS community.
b Three new reference locations have been assigned to
replace the former ones that are
http://webgis.dmr.go.th/dmr2 (Fig. 6) for data entry and
user management, http://webgis.dmr.go.th /dmr2_gis for
data services (Fig. 7) and http://webgis/geo_dev for data
extraction (Fig. 8).
Figure 3 Showing (a) the first page of the data services and
(b) general scenario of WMS presenting map and information.
393
a
Figure 6. Showing (a) the first page of a new data entry and (b)
landslide database in the geohazard data-entry page.
Figure 8 Showing (a) the extraction application for internal
users and (b) metadata search in the clearinghouse.
3. The third phase. This phase, starting in 2007’s fiscal

year, aims to develop decision-making tool on mineral
a resources for policy makers and also to serve better and
up-to-date information for public. Many programs and
data are hidden behind the development. Online resources
and value estimation representing in 3D fence diagram of
the potash drilling holes can, therefore, easily display.
Besides these basic mineral resources information,
physiographic information such as topographic map,
LANSAT and orthophoto imageries are also prepared for
services. This application will possibly finish and ready to
use in early of next year (2008).
Hidden 1:250,000 DEM is the elevation source that serves
b for reserve evaluation of selected resources. Therefore,
decision makers can retrieve the on time resource-value
due to regularly update of the market price from web.
Themes on mineral area, mineral potential area and
mining lease area are included for the resources referred
here. Users can visualize the 3D stratigraphy and mineral
succession of potash in both 2 basins. Selected horizon
can also figure out for reserve estimation and value.
Outputs of this phase will finish and utilize online in the
December of this year. The reference locations will also
migrate to http://webgis.dmr.go.th/dmr3 for data entry and
http://webgis.dmr.go.th /dmr3_gis for data service.
Figure 7 Showing (a) the first page of a new data services and
(b) scenario of WMS presenting map and information of
earthquake events in the . APPLICATION WORKFLOWS
This section intends to figure workflows of all
applications.
1. User-management workflow. The workflow (Fig. 9)
is a front-end of the application. The privilege is
subdivided into 2 according to schematic types of users,
394
internal and external users. Each division annually revises application besides query via data services. Meanwhile
a list of internal users prior submit to the system the guest is limited only for inquiry on data services.
administrators. The administrators will insert new users or 2. Data entry workflow. The workflow is only for
update prevailing users or delete the existing depend on internal users who are assigned to edit, update and verify
that list. User name, initial password, user group and of attributes related to specific spatial features. Normally,
privilege are functioned for user login database. All the the spatial features are directly imported or appended to
internal users can enter all 3 applications, data entry, data geodatabase via ArcGIS while all attributes are appended
services and data extraction. via application forms. Two types of workflow (Fig. 10)
The external users are divided into register and guest. that are transaction and non-transaction are defined due to
Users can decide what they want to be at the front page of the working scheme of each division. The first one needs
the data services. The register user can read all attribute authorized persons or supervisors to verify the entry data
entries of all thematic databases via the data entry prior to store in the geodatabase while the other is not.
Insert Users
Administrator(s) Update Groups Register External users
Delete
Privileg
Submission Login Guest
List of
internal users Data Extraction Data Entry Data Services
Read/ write privilege

Read only privilege
Figure 9 Showing schematic workflows of all applications.
Authorized users Re-entry Verify
Temporal
Entry Submit Supervisors
Databases
Eject
Non-transaction mode
Thematic
Approve Transaction entry mode
Databases
Figure 10 Showing schematic workflows of transaction and non-transaction mode.
395
Authorized users of each division have to verify privilege launch. The services show a basic page of map feature for
of a specific database before entering the application. further procedure. There are 2 choices to meet
Forms related to each database are sequentially appeared requirements. One is a searching form that needs some
for data entry. Data are immediately stored in the database keywords or words corresponding to attributes in the
after saving the entry. This is the most common workflow database. Another is layer-maps that require marks over
of non-transaction. the radio and square buttons in order to display and
The other is a bit more complicated due to the verification activate for query. Users have to use “geology indentify”
in transaction process. Data are saved to temporal tables tool to make query on the active layer-map. Both kinds of
instead of the permanent ones in the database after the request are sent to server where ArcSDE and SQL Server,
key-in. The transaction process starts after the entry staffs then, retrieve correspondent information back to users.
have selected authorized person(s) submitting data for The server return value both specified map and
verification. The verification person(s) are immediately information form of theme.
got verification message when enter to the application. A 4. Data extraction workflow. This workflow (Fig. 12) is
responsible action is taken by sending back the data with applicable only for internal users. The application
note for correction to the entering staffs or accepting the provides online data to users via either the ‘extract tool’
entry to store in the database. Loop between the entry on WMS or the ‘download tool’ on metadata search. The
process and the verification process will continue until all extract tool is capable when users have active and visible
mistakes have been completely corrected and stored in the one desired layer on the WMS. Either the whole or a part
database. of dataset is able to download. The rest, users find the
3. Data services workflow. The workflow (Fig. 11) online data via the metadata search using keywords or
applies to all users either internal or registered external metadata categories from the metadata clearinghouse.
users. User name, password and desired database are, This supports only the whole dataset download. All
therefore, required to verify the privilege. These are downloaded data are in zip format that can be easily
except for guest because of a lower right in accessibility. transmitted to clients.
Then, the web map services of the selected database will
Requirements
Keywords
Query
Thematic
Users Choose Search Thematic
Target
Databases
Return Yes No
Display
Figure 11 Showing schematic workflow of data services.
Metadata Online Data

in Choose
Search
Clearinghouse
Authorized users Active/ Visible

Thematic
Databases
Define location
Download
Extract tool Metadata search Download

Figure 12 Showing schematic workflow of extraction services.
396
RESTRICTIONS ESRI (Thailand), 2005, A report on Database Design for
the geology and mineral resources entities,
Some restrictions have to mention in order to release conducting under the Geologic Resources Database
pressure in user-mind. They require a span of time to Establishment Project for Water-shade Management
maintenance and prolong the lived application. Firm owned by DMR., Bangkok, Thailand, 200 p. (in
cooperation among users, particularly data owners, and Thai)
developers is preferred. These restrictions are: ESRI (Thailand), 2005, A report on Data Dictionary for
1. Bugs in the applications, both the entry and services, the geology and mineral resources databases,
are not completely eliminated. Users who work or use the conducting under the Geologic Resources Database
applications should, therefore, remind this restriction. Establishment Project for Water-shade Management
User comments and reports are important for owned by DMR., Bangkok, Thailand, 63 p. (in Thai)
improvement throughout the lifetime. Beyond that, the ESRI (Thailand), 2005, User manual for Privilege
department has to create motivation attracting the Management System, conducting under the Geologic
professionalism of IT staffs. Resources Database Establishment Project for Water-
2. Numerous vacant data and information exist in nearly shade Management owned by DMR., Bangkok,
all databases. Responsibility of all data owners is a key Thailand, 20 p. (in Thai)
factor to depress this restriction since the project scheme ESRI (Thailand), 2005, User Manual for data entry and
does not cover task on data entry. Upon this restriction, editing on Mineral Resources System, conducting
data policy must be formulated to encourage and under the Geologic Resources Database
acknowledge all data owners who are completely Establishment Project for Water-shade Management
participated in the completion of databases. owned by DMR., Bangkok, Thailand, 238 p. (in
3. Currently, the applications serve only for Thai citizen Thai)
who are own the native language in the databases and ESRI (Thailand), 2005, User Manual for data entry on
logistically the implementing project. Bilingual Mineral Resources Analysis System, conducting
information have, in fact, already stored in the database. under the Geologic Resources Database
Supporting budget is required to accomplish the English Establishment Project for Water-shade Management
version. Donate budget for assistance and collaboration owned by DMR., Bangkok, Thailand, 109 p. (in
from aboard should subsidizes to this limitation in order Thai)
to completing the borderless connectivity. ESRI (Thailand), 2005, User Manual for data query on the
geology and mineral resources databases, conducting
SUMMARY under the Geologic Resources Database
Establishment Project for Water-shade Management
The Mineral Resources Information Center has been owned by DMR., Bangkok, Thailand, 176 p. (in
established to hold duties on data dissemination, sharing Thai)
and exchange either internal or external. Infrastructures ESRI (Thailand), 2006, System Report and Maintenance
are invested to strengthen communication and Planning Report for the geology and geohazards
transmission of online services. Databases on geology, entities, conducting under the Development Project
mineral resources, geohazards and related disciplines are on Services System in Geologic Resources owned by
constructed to enhance efficiency on systematic DMR., Bangkok, Thailand, 14 p. (in Thai)
approaches and missions. Many web-based applications ESRI (Thailand), 2006, User Manual for Privilege
whether MIS or GIS are developed to build up database Management System, conducting under the
transaction and services. Development Project on Services System in Geologic
The center realizes the facts that rapidly increase on Resources owned by DMR., Bangkok, Thailand, 21
demand of online services, especially GIS information, is p. (in Thai)
leverage from rapidly growth of technology. Selectively, ESRI (Thailand), 2006, User Manual for data entry and
WMS is pioneer to launch the services though it serves editing on Mineral Resources System, conducting
information only in map format. In order to meet the under the Development Project on Services System in
optimum benefit of online services, the web feature Geologic Resources owned by DMR., Bangkok,
services (WFS) and web coverage services (WCS) will Thailand, 348 p. (in Thai)
proceed in the near future. Besides the financial and ESRI (Thailand), 2006, User Manual for data entry and
technical supports, these developments will fruitful editing on Geohazards System, conducting under the
whenever the data policy and right respect are really Development Project on Services System in Geologic
managed throughout the department. Resources owned by DMR., Bangkok, Thailand, 395
p. (in Thai)
ESRI (Thailand), 2006, User Manual for data entry on
REFERENCES Mineral Resources Analysis System, conducting
under the Development Project on Services System in
ESRI (Thailand), 2005, Application Report on Data Flow, Geologic Resources owned by DMR., Bangkok,
conducting under the Geologic Resources Database Thailand, 116 p. (in Thai)
Establishment Project for Water-shade Management
owned by DMR., Bangkok, Thailand, 237 p. (in Thai)
397
ESRI (Thailand), 2006, User Manual for data query on ESRI (Thailand), 2007, Application Report on Data
Geologic Resources and Geohazards, conducting Dictionary for the geology and geohazards entities,
under the Development Project on Services System in conducting under the Development Project on
Geologic Resources owned by DMR., Bangkok, Services System in Geologic Resources owned by
Thailand, 294 p. (in Thai) DMR., Bangkok, Thailand, 109 p. (in Thai)
ESRI (Thailand), 2007, Application Report on Database ESRI (Thailand), 2007, User Manual for Spatial
Design for the geology and geohazards entities, Extraction System, conducting under the
conducting under the Development Project on Development Project on Services System in Geologic
Services System in Geologic Resources owned by Resources owned by DMR., Bangkok, Thailand, 42
DMR., Bangkok, Thailand, 455 p. (in Thai) p. (in Thai)
398
Geology of Thailand: Towards Sustainable
Development
d S ffi i
ASPECT OF OIL SHALE IN THAILAND

Damrong Khummongkol, Apiradee Suwannathong
School of Technology, Shinawatra University, Shinawatra Tower III, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
ABSTRACT
In Thailand, energy demand is increasing. With the price of crude oil at US$ 90.83 per barrel on October 30, 2007, other
fuel sources are required. Oil shale becomes one of them. The largest oil shale resource in Thailand is found in the
northern region in Mae Sot basin, Tak province. Using the USGS Circ 891 method, the measured reserve is
approximately 925.38 million tons of oil shale and 182.86 million of shale oil. The quality of the Mae Sot oil shale in
general is poor to medium. The average of oil yield is about 5 wt % or 12 gallons/ton. The heating value is 700- 4,000
cal/g. With the present technology, the oil extracted from the shale can be economically competitive with the crude oil.
Keywords: Mae Sot Basin, Quality of Mae Sot Oil Shale, Reserve, Oil shale Development.
INTRODUCTION consists of 2 sub-basins: Northern sub-basin and Southern

sub-basin. The Southern sub-basin covers 250 square
Thailand is an imported petroleum country. The crude oil kilometers. The axis of both sub-basins are in NW-SE
price has continued to increase throughout the world since direction. Both sub-basin are separated in Ban Wang
1994 to 2007. The crude oil price did not fluctuate much Kaew.
until 2003 when there was a dramatical increase of crude
oil price from US$30 per barrel to US$90.83 per barrel on STRATIGRAPHY OF MAE SOT OIL
October 30, 2007 (William, 2007). Moreover, the crude SHALE
oil becomes economically non-viable caused by the
depletion and scarceness of the petroleum supply. As a Oil shale deposits in intermontane Tertiary basin
consequence, alternative fuel sources must be found. consisted shale, marlstone, sandstone, conglomerate
In Thailand, the government is looking for alternative fuel sandstone and limestone. The environmental deposit can
sources to produce oil or oil-substitute fuel. Oil shale is be classified into 2 types: Fluviatile environment, and
one of the most interesting alternative sources for Lacustrine environment (Surapol Tanomsap, 1983). The
producing oil because of its large reservation. The total stratigraphy of Mae Sot Basin consists of 3 formation
reservation of oil shale is approximately 18.668 billion from lower part to upper formation including Mae Ramart
tons which can be used to produce around 810 million formation, Mae Pa formation and Mae Sot formation,
tons of shale oil (Department of Mineral Fuel, 2007; respectively.
Surapol Tanomsap, 1983). From seismic interpretation, the stratigraphy can be
Oil shale deposits are widespread in many regions, divided into 6 units: namely, Unit A, B, C, D and E
covering 11 provinces. Almost all are distributed (Department of Mineral Resources [DMR], 1997) (Figure
especially in Northern provinces of Thailand such as Mae 2). The oil shale thick bed with medium to high grade of
Hong Son, Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Lamphun, Lampang, oil shale can be found in only 2 units, Unit A and Unit C.
Kumpang Petch, Uttaradit, and Tak. The rest are The environmental deposit of both units is Lacustrine
distributed in Southern province of Surat Thani, North- environment. The Unit A has the first priority to be
Eastern province of Petchabun and Central province of explored because it is composed of shale interbedded with
Petchaburi (Figure 1). The largest oil shale source is thick bed oil shale. There are 4-5 layers of oil shale in this
located in Mae Sot basin, Tak province (Surapol unit. Moreover, quality of oil shale in this unit is good
Tanomsap, 1983). grade and it is widely exposed. The thickness of this unit
is approximately about 200 – 800 meters. The Unit C is
LOCATION OF MAE SOT BASIN another target for oil shale exploration because the oil
shale is graded medium to medium grade (DMR, 1997).
Mae Sot basin is located at Mae Sot district and Mae The thickness of this unit is approximately 250 meters.
Ramart district in Tak. Mae Sot basin covers By drilling holes, it is found that the depth of oil shale
approximately 600 square kilometers with 55 kilometers layer in the northern sub-basin is shallower than the oil
in length and 15 kilometers in width (DMR, 1997). About shale layer in southern sub-basin. Moreover, the thickness
67 % of Mae Sot basin is in Thailand and the rest is in of oil shale layer in the northern sub-basin is thicker and
Myanmar. Mae Sot basin lies on NW-SE direction and more continuous than the southern one. The distribution
399
of oil shale area in the northern sub-basin is more than in the composition of kerogen of Mae Sot oil shale is called
the southern sub-basin. Moreover, the potential yield of Exinite, Type Alginite B. Alginite B is an the important
oil in the northern sub-basin is also higher than the source of hydrocarbon (Alan C.Cook, 1981). It is
southern sub-basin. In the northern area within condition originated from plankton or bentonic algea. Besides
of 7.35 gallons per ton oil yield cutoff, the average of oil Alginite B, Alginite A and other organic matter such as
yield in the northern area is about 14.04 gallons per ton. Resitnite, Sporinite and Humic are also founded in
The stripping ratio is about 9.46. The oil shale thickness kerogen. A few Virtinite (Huminite) can be founded in
varies quite high from 3 to 29 meters. The average oil organic matter. Therefore, it is classified into Lamosite
shale thickness is approximate 11 meters (DMR 1997). Group (Hutton et al, 1980) and is similar to the Green
River Formation in USA and in Rundle source in
QUALITY OF MAE SOT OIL SHALE Australia. It indicates the similar depositional
environment.
The organic matter of Mae Sot oil shale source is
composed of kerogen. From the study of organic matter,
Figure 1 Oil shale sources in Thailand
400
A
MS0640
Figure 2 Stratigraphy from seismic interpretation (DMR 1997).
Kerogen in oil shale can be converted to oil through the The compositions of oil shale by proximate analysis
thermo chemical process of pyrolysis. When kerogen in method and other method are shown in Table 3. The
oil shale is heated, chemical bonds within the individual quantity of moisture is low to high, 0.9 – 7.6 %; the
organic molecules are broken, forming smaller molecules. volatile matter is 24.6 – 96.5 %; spent shale is quite high,
Quality of Mae Sot oil shale varies from low grade to high 61.10 – 93.80 %, and sulfur is low, 0.6 – 1.3 %. Ash is
grade. It is classified into 4 grades depending on the oil quite high, 55.90 – 78.00 %, compared to 22.96% ash in
content (T.A Hendricksen, 1975). There are (1) Low- Australian oil shale and 22.68 % in Californian oil shale.
grade oil shale, (2) Middle-grade oil shale, (3) Good- The amount of ash is comparable to the amount of ash in
grade oil shale, and (4) High-grade oil shale. The oil Utah, 66.12% and Colorado, 66.60%. Moreover, C:H
contents of each grade of Mae Sot oil shale are shown in ratio is high compared with C : H ratio of oil shale in
Table 1 (Thanomsap. S., and Sitahirun, S., 1992). Australia (8.11), Colorado (6.8) , and California (8.8). The
The quality of oil shale in Mea Sot is low to medium oil yield of oil shale in Australia, Colorado and California
(Department of Mineral Resources). Oil yield of Mae Sot are 10.8, 63.5 and 51.8 gallon / ton, respectively as shown
shale oil varies from 1- 26% by weight or about 2.5 – 65 in Table 4.
gallons per ton. The compositions of kerogen from the The major compositions of inorganic matter are silica and
Fischer Assay test consist of many elements as shown in carbonate mineral. The silicate minerals include quartz,
Table 2. potassium feldspar, clay mineral, etc. The major carbonate
From 10,000 samples from 101 drilling holes covering minerals are calcite and dolomite. Consequently, the
Mae Sot Basin (60 drilling holes in Northern area, 23 compositions of ash are silica (SiO2), calcium oxide
drilling holes in Middle area, and 18 drilling holes in (CaO), alumina (Al2O3) and other inorganic matters as
Southern area), it indicates that 80 percent of Mae Sot oil shown in Table 5 (DMF, 2007). It also consists of element
shale has oil content of 12 gallon per ton or 5 % by weight of manganese, phosphate, and sulfide.
(DMF, 2007).
Table 1 Quality of Mae Sot oil shale (T.A. Hendricken1975).
Oil yield
Grade of oil shale
gallons/ton % by weight
Low-grade oil shale 10 4
Middle-grade oil shale 27 10
Good-grade oil shale 36 14
High-grade oil shale 62 24
401
Table 2 Elemental of Kerogen, wt. % (DMR,1997).
First Test Second Test Average

C 84.47 84.84 84.66
H 11.10 11.30 11.20
N 1.00 1.01 1.00
S 0.59 0.68 0.64
O 2.84 2.17 2.50
Table 3 Proximate Analysis of Mae Sot oil shale.
Properties Wt%
Moisture 0.9 – 7.6 %
Volatile 24.6 – 96.5 %
Heat capacity 700 - 4,000 cal/g
Sulfur 0.60 – 1.3 %
Spent shale 66– 94 %
Ash 56– 70.00 %
Gravity 1.60 – 2.10
Table 4 General Properties of Oil Shale of Some Countries.
Oil yield
Source of oil shale C:H ratio H:C ratio S Ash
gallon/ton
Australia 8.14 0.12 0.43 22.96 10.8
USA
Utah 7.9 0.13 0.28 66.12 16.8
Nevada 7.21 0.14 1.08 46.21 86.8
California 8.8 0.11 2.12 22.68 51.8
Colorado 6.8 0.14 1.78 66.60 63.5
Thailand 7.5 0.11 0.68 - 12.22
Source: Ralph H. McKee and Ralph T. Goodwin, 1923
Table 5 Properties of Ash.
Ash Analysis Wt%
SiO2 38
Al2O3 13
Fe2O3 5
CaO 23
MgO 7
Others 14
RESERVE OF MAE SOT OIL SHALE measured reserved is estimated to be about 952.38 million
tons with the radius of 200 meters and the demonstrated
The reserve of oil shale is estimated by USGS reserve is approximately 3,925.41 million tons with the
Cir 891 method. There are Circle Area around 166 Drill radius of 400 meters. (DMR, 1997) (Table 5).
Holes with radii; between 200 and 400 meters. The
402
Table 5 Reserve of Mae Sot oil shale estimated by USGS Cir 891 method.
Reserve of Oil shale Oil Yield

Mae Sot oil shale Million tons Million Gallons Million Barrel
Measured 952.38 7,680.13 182.86
Demonstrated 3925.41 26787.18 637.79
ECONOMIC OF SHALE OIL CONCLUSIONS

The economic incentive for producing oil shale has long The measured reserve of Mae Sot Basin is approximately
been tied to the price of crude oil. The crude oil price is at 952.38 million tons and oil yield is 182.85 million barrels.
US$90.38 per barrel on November 7, 2007 (William, The Quality of oil shale varies from low grade to high
2007). In1974, the production cost of oil shale grade because of high heterogeneous texture.
development by Union B retort was US $ 40. Oil shale can be one of the alternative fuels sources The
However, the RAND corporation analyzed that a surface extracted oil may be used as fuel for power generation for
retorting complex (comprising a mine, retorting plant, power plant. Moreover, it has to further study to find the
upgrading plant, supporting utilities, and spent shale Best Available Technique (BAT) (Jyri Soone, Hella
reclamation) is unlikely to be profitable in the United Riisalt et.al, 2006), to reduce energy consumption, solid
States until crude oil prices range between US$70 to residue from the process and pollutant emissions can be
US$95 per barrel (Bartis, James T., 2005). Once reduced. The shale oil will then be more promising.
commercial plants are in operation and experience- based
learning takes place, costs are expected to decline in 12 REFERENCES
years to US$35 – US$48 per barrel. After production of
1,000 million barrels, costs are estimated to decline Ralph H. McKee and Ralph T. Goodwin, 1923. The
further to US$30 – US$40 per barrel (Tiikma, Laine, Organic Matter in Oil Shales’, Columbia University.
2002). Royal Dutch Shell has announce that its in-situ Hendrickson, T.A., 1977, Synthetic Fuels Data Handbook
extraction technology in Colorado could be competitive at Cook, A.C., and Cherwood, N. R., 1981, Classification of
prices over US$30 per barrel, while other technologies at Oil Shale, Centres de recherches Exploration-
full-scale production assert profitability at oil prices even Production Elf-Alf-Aquitane,5, pp.353-381
lower than US$20 per barrel (Leah Krauss, 2006). To อาจ ชะนะ และ รัก หรรษาเวก.1975. รายงานการสํารวจหินน้ํามัน บริเวณบานหวย
increase the efficiency of oil shale retorting, several co- กะโหลก ต. แมปะ อ.แมสอด จ.ตาก., กรมทรัพยากรธรณี
pyrolysis process have been proposed and tested.
ศุภฤกษ สิตะหิรัญ และ สุรพล ถนอมทรัพย.1990. หินน้ํามันและการพัฒนา, กรม
CURRENT SITUATION ทรัพยากรธรณี
Thanomsap. S., and Sitahirun, S., 1992, The Mae Sot Oil
The oil shale has been explored after it has been delayed Shale, Proceeding of National Conference on :
for a long time due to the unfavorable economic. In the Geologic Resources of Thailand, Bangkok, Thailand
present time, the Government are reconsidered the oil Department of Mineral Resources, 1997, Evaluation for
shale development. There is cooperation among Development and Utilization of Oil shale, Mae Sot
Government agencies including Department of Mineral Basin, Tak Province
Resources, Department of Mineral Fuel and Electricity Jyri Soone, Hella Riisalt et.al, 2006, Environmentaally
Generating Authority of Thailand, to conduct a possibility Sustainable Use of Energy and Chemical Potential of
study on the use of Mae Sot oil shale as fuel for power Oil Shale, “Recent Trends Oil Shale”, 7-9 November
generation. 2006, Amman, Jordan
Jialin QIAN and Jianqiu WANG, 2006, World Oil Shale
Retorting Technologies, “Recent Trends Oil Shale”,
7-9 November 2006, Amman, Jordan
403

12696 ตัวเล่ม PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

12696 ตัวเล่ม PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

12696 ตัวเล่ม PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GEOTHAI’2007

Proceedings of the International Conference on

21-22 November 2007

Correspondence: Lertsin Raksaskulwong

Cover designed by: Kitti Khaowiset

Publications by Department of Mineral Resources,

Publications of the Department of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources and

It is recommended that reference should be quoted in the following form:

(Mr. Apichai Chvajarernpun)

GEOTHAI’2007 International Conference on “Geology of Thailand: Towards

In this proceedings, 59 full manuscripts and 19 abstracts covering various categories in

A Preliminary Work on the Establishment of the Seismological Observation Network 10-16

Additional Well Preserved Vertebrae of Phuwiangosaurus Sirindhornae from 17

Application of Electrical Imaging to Delineate Sinkhole at Ban Tung Nang Kaew, 18

Application of Resistivity Survey to Investigate Sinkhole and Karst Features in 19-24

Arsenic Distribution in Ratchaburi Province: an Experimental Geochemical 25-29

Australasian Cometary Impact, 0.8Ma Catastroloess Buried Alive Miocene, 30-43

Communcative Planning: Stakeholder Networks as a Resource in Risk Management 45

Use of Soda-Lime-Silica Waste Glass as an Alternative Flux in Tradition Ceramics 46-53

Diversity of Cenozoic Mammals in Thailand: Paleoenvironment and Age Updated 73-79

Geophysical Investigation of Hot Spring Sites in Kanchanaburi with Reference to 104-108

Heat Treatment of Sapphires from Ilakaka-Sakaraha, Madagascar 110-116

Hydrochemical Balance of Brines in the Northeastern Thailand 117-124

Landslide Investigation and Hazard Mapping in Phuket Province 151-155

Mineral Identification of Dickite, Pyrophyllite, and Associated Clay Minerals in 187-193

Mineral Resources Development in Lao PDR 194-198

Aquifer Identification and Groundwater Use in Chiang Mai Basin 202

New Tertiary Tectonics Model in Thailand 215

Permian Limestones of Surat Thani Province, Peninsular Thailand 221-228

Permian Lithostratigraphy of the Shan-Thai Terrane in Thailand: Reservoir of the 229-236

Petrography and Geochemistry of the Chanthaburi-Trat Basalt, Thailand 242-250

Petroleum Potential in Northern Andaman Sea, Thailand 251

Potash-Evaporite Deposits in Thailand 252-262

Practical Identification of Rare Gem-Quality Taaffeite and Musgravite 263-265

Processing of Rayong Mixed Feldspars for Ceramics 267-271

Resistivity Surveys of Ranong – Khlong Marui Faults 297

Shale Gas Development Opportunity in Thailand 301

Spectroscopic Investigation of Bellataire and Iljin HPHT Treated Diamonds 304-312

Stratigraphy and Tectonic Evolution of Thailand 319-321

Sustainable Perspectives for Thailand Gold Resources 326-330

The Holostei Fish Record (Actinopterygii) from Thailand 344-348

The Mesozoic Fossil Record of Sharks in Thailand 349-354

The Origin of Hotsprings in Ranong Province, Southern Thailand 355-357

Triassic Trackways from Thailand 362-363

Two-Dimensional Resistivity Inversion 364-366

U-Pb Zircon Ages and Geochemical Characteristics of Lampang-Phrae Granites; 367-372

Geology and Mineralization of the Chatree Epithermal Au-Ag Deposit, 378-390

Web Map Services on Geologic Resources of Thailand 391-398

Aspect of Oil Shale in Thailand 399-403

A DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF LATE MIOCENE MAMMALIAN

INTRODUCTION for this locality (Saegusa et al., 2000, Kunimatsu et al.,

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The lithostratigraphic succession was constructed based on

The fossilized bones are crystalline apatite in which dark

REFERENCES season of February 1999. Asian Paleoprimatology, 1: 115-

A PRELIMINARY WORK ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE

SEISMOLOGICAL OBSERVATION NETWORK BY DMR

IN MAJOR ACTIVE FAULTS OF THAILAND

INTRODUCTION 2007). It is thought that occurrence of micro-earthquakes is

Vault GPS Antenna