YUVRAJ BARARIA

Notes for Basics of Video Editing For B.Sc. Semester IV - Sections A, B, C & D

School of Cinema, AAFT Noida.

• Frame. A single picture produced by the camera

• Shot. A single run of the camera or the piece of film resulting from such a run.

• Scene. A dramatic unit that takes place in a continuous time period, in the same setting, and
involves the same characters.

• Sequence. A unit composed of several scenes, all linked together by their emotional and narrative
momentum.

• PAL (Phase Alternate Line)– Indian standard platform for television broadcasting

• NTSC (National Television Standards Committee) – Standards for broadcasting in USA & Japan

• ATSC (Advanced Television Standards Committee) – Used in both television and web-based
broadcasting platforms for across the world.

• SECAM - Sequential colour with memory – Standard for broadcasting for Russia, Europe and parts
of Africa.

• SMPTE Timecode - Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. Timecodes are added to
film, video or audio material, and have also been adapted to synchronize music. They provide a
time reference for editing, synchronization and identification. Timecode is a form of media
metadata.

1. Importance Of Video Editing -

The concern is to make the story as compelling as possible, holding attention of your audience as
much as possible.

2. Where and why there is a need to add a cut or transition?

To add dynamism to the story flow we add multiple cuts or switch to different camera angles of
the same action or subject.

3. Establishing The Location –

Making the audience/viewer feel the essence and the presence of the story as if the event is
happening right in front of them in real time.

4. Montage
A group of shots or images assembled in a particular way to establish the meaning /mood of the
story. Montages should usually made before every scene inside the whole story/episode.

5. Opening Sequence –
A teaser to the story with a voice over especially if you’re making a documentary. Usually not
more than a minute.
7. Ending Sequence –
A concluding end to the story with dynamic, interesting and most compelling visuals (Shots may
be repeated) not necessarily with a voice over which lands on the credit roll and sting of the
episode. Usually not more than a minute.

8. Continuity Editing
A system of cutting to maintain continuous and clear narrative action. Continuity editing relies
upon matching screen direction, position, and temporal relations from shot to shot. The film
supports the viewer's assumption that space and time are contiguous between successive shots.

9. Match Cut Editing

In a 'matched cut' a familiar relationship between the shots may make the change seem smooth:
– continuity of direction;
– completed action;
– a similar centre of attention in the frame;
– a one-step change of shot size (e.g. long to medium);
– a change of angle (conventionally at least 30 degrees).”

10. Inclined or Motivated Editing

Cut made just at the point where what has occurred makes the viewer immediately want to see
something which is not currently visible (causing us, for instance, to accept compression of time) .
. . . Editing and camera work appear to be determined by the action.

11. Eye-Line Cutting

The camera focuses first on a character who is looking at something usually intense rather than
casual look. The subsequent shot focuses on some action, object, person, etc. that is then assumed
to be the object of the character’s gaze may be used when character is looking for something or is
surprised by something

12. J-Cut
The cut point of the video wherein the video clip’s In-point comes after a brief delay
corresponding to it’s own audio. For e.g. while inserting a bite after a montage of clips, the bite’s
audio will be audible first rather than it’s linked video.

13. L-Cut - (Trailing Audio)

This is the cut point where the video ends with trailing music or ambience sounds (NOT the
subject’s audio if he/she is speaking).

14. Jump Cut - (Abrupt cut)

An elliptical cut that appears to be an interruption of a single shot. Either the figures seem to
change instantly against a constant background, or the background changes instantly while the
figures remain constant.

15. Choosing Music

o Choosing the right music track by identifying the genre of the story.
o The need to create a perception flow for the viewer sub-consciously to emphasize on the emotions and actions of the
scene.
o The music should be selected in a way that compliments the mood of the story and matches the pace of the story.
o Music should always be used like J-Cut and L-Cut and preferably your scene should end with a music track having a
crescendo beat rather than a long volume fade out.
16. Choosing Sound Effects – (Natural Sound Ambience/Wipes/Reaction/Audio
Transitions/Foley Sounds)
Adding sound effects to maximize the effect of the visual meaning and adding realism. Uses of
dynamic sound effects complied together to create video trailers/promos

17. Compositing – Treating or correcting visual footage with superimposing CGI or video
patches
Combination of elements from different sources into final product to produce an effect unavailable
from a single source like Green screen (Chroma/Ultra Key), Computer Generated Imagery (CGI) –
Text, Logos, Animations, Name & Designation Plates etc.,

18. Masking
Applying effects to specific and selected areas of a video. Can be used to color correct specific area
of a clip or mask out a particular area of a clip and also used to highlight specific parts of a video
clip or image.

19. Audio Levelling:

Leveling audio by adding volume keyframes on audio tracks. limiting audio output (audio
clipping) in accordance with the give broadcast standards. Audio Peak limit -6dB(decibels) is the
standard default used in most of the broadcast platforms.

20. Audio Match:

Applying and matching equalization and Treating your audio by removing noise, adding bass &
treble using filters like multi-band compressor and parametric equalizer or matching equalization
by using programs like or Adobe audition. This is used to match amplitude of multiple feeds of
audio clips

21. Audio Compressors:

Audio compression filters are mostly used to reduce dynamic range to a recorded or live feed of
any audio signal. Amplifying audio by adding bass & treble using filters like multi-band
compressor and parametric equalizer or matching equalization by using programs like or Adobe
audition. This is done by boosting the quieter signals and reducing the louder signals which
exceeds a specific defined range. The most common compressors are used is multi-band
compressor in Adobe Premiere/Audition and multi-compressor in Apple’s Final Cut Pro X.

Please Note: Audio Compressors (Audio Filters/Effects) and Audio Compression are completely
different. You may refer to basics of audio compressors via this link:
https://www.uaudio.com/blog/audio-compression-basics/

22. Audio Compression Formats:

Audio formats having compression codecs like MP3, AAC, AC-3, .WAV, .aiff etc. These codecs have a
unique set of algorithms, sample rates, bit rates, single channel, dual channel or multi channels
streams designed to produce customized quality output and file size which may by a prerequisite
to a particular broadcast platform.
Reference link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_audio_coding_formats
23. Sound Design:
Sound design commonly involves performing and editing of previously composed or recorded
audio, such as sound effects and dialogue for the purposes of the medium. A sound designer is one
who practices sound design. This is done by adding Foley sounds, sound effects, background music
score and adding emphasis on sounds or ambient noise required to induce or simulate a sense of
environment for the video/film.

24. Audio Noise Reduction: Simple(ANR)/Advanced(AANR)

The process of removing unwanted noise, hum or ambient sounds from a audio feed. ANR can be
achieved by applying 2 simple steps. First one is by adding any noise reduction filter and by
controlling the noise floor of the audio clip. Second one is by using an advanced mode which ANR
is achieved by controlling or attenuating specific frequencies recorded within the audio clip. AANR
can be done by using filters like adaptive noise reduction is adobe premiere pro or using auto
healing brush tool after enabling it’s spectral frequency display of a particular clip. It can also be
achieved by adding and tweaking 10-band/20-band graphic equalizer frequency control filters
which controls the low, mid & hi frequencies of a particular audio clip.

25. Audio Mixing/Mastering

Preparing the audio of the video/film for it’s final output after mixing all components of audio
including sound effects, narration, voice overs, music score, ambience and foley sounds to the
required prerequisites of a specific broadcasting platform or place of presentation.

26. Multi-Cam Editing

Synchronizing 2 or more video or audio feeds from camera or multimedia devices and creating a
switched video feed/video layer. Commonly used in both offline and online post-production for
Interviews, Synchronized Event Video feeds, Music videos, sports videos and online graphics
display feeds and live broadcasting etc.,

27. Colour/Luminance Correction:

White balancing footage and adjusting colors in specified level range using video scopes of YUV
Color Vectorscope, RGB Parade and Luminance Waveform.

28. Colour/Video Stabilization

Stabilizing shaky and jumpy video with uneven motion and flickering colours

29. Colour Matching

Matching color/exposure of shots or images placed in a sequence for the purpose of continuity.
Footage shot on multiple cameras or devices of the same event, video project or film or even a
sequence of images have to be matched with each other in order to maintain flow. This includes
removal of color jumps and luminance jumps.

30. Colour Grading

Adjusting color in a specific way by adjusting color parameters or adding colour grade LUTs(look
up table) or presets to achieve a desired mood for the scene being edited. The grades can also be
achieved using adjustment layers added on a set of clips or scenes and is a process that should be
done at the very end after completing color correction, video/color stabalisation and color
matching.
31. Exporting the Final Movie/Film/Video/Story
Exporting your finished project by identifying the settings of the broadcast platform by choosing
various frame size and setting it’s video compression by choosing the right video codec like .avi,
.mov, .MP4 etc.

32. Video Speed/Duration: Frame Sampling/ Frame Blending/ Optical Flow

These are the options selected as how the software interpolates fields/frames to process and
display playback speed changes applied to a clip. Smoother playback after speed change is applied
will only look smooth depending the on frame rate per second (fps) the clip was shot on. Wrong
process mode selected will result in generation of artifacts/smeared pixels.

33. 4 verticals of video post-production once the footage has been shot and collected.

Footage Ingest via SD Card, Tape, Media Player etc.,

Color Color/Video Color Matching Color Grading/Adding
Correction Stabilization Emotions using color
Audio Level Audio Match Audio Noise Audio Grading/Sound
Reduction Design
Final Movie Output

34. Fields in Video. Difference between 1080i and 1080p?

1080i Explained:
Interlaced video (also known as Interlaced scan) is a technique for doubling the perceived frame
rate of a video display without consuming extra bandwidth. The interlaced signal contains two
fields of a video frame captured at two different times. This enhances motion perception to the
viewer, and reduces flicker by taking advantage of the phi phenomenon.

This effectively doubles the time resolution (also called temporal resolution) as compared to non-
interlaced footage (for frame rates equal to field rates). Interlaced signals require a display that is
natively capable of showing the individual fields in a sequential order. CRT displays and ALiS
plasma displays are made for displaying interlaced signals.

Interlaced scan refers to one of two common methods for "painting" a video image on an
electronic display screen (the other being progressive scan) by scanning or displaying each line or
row of pixels. This technique uses two fields to create a frame. One field contains all odd-
numbered lines in the image; the other contains all even-numbered lines.

1080i (also known as Full HD or BT.709) is an abbreviation referring to a combination of frame

resolution and scan type, used in high-definition television (HDTV) and high-definition video. The
number "1080" refers to the number of horizontal lines on the screen. The "i" is an abbreviation
for "interlaced"; this indicates that only the odd lines, then the even lines of each frame (each
image called a video field) are drawn alternately, so that only half the number of actual image
frames are used to produce video. A related display resolution is 1080p, which also has 1080 lines
of resolution; the "p" refers to progressive scan, which indicates that the lines of resolution for
each frame are "drawn" in on the screen sequence.

The term assumes a widescreen aspect ratio of 16:9 (a rectangular TV that is wider than it is tall),
so the 1080 lines of vertical resolution implies 1920 columns of horizontal resolution, or 1920
pixels × 1080 lines. A 1920 pixels × 1080 lines screen has a total of 2.1 megapixels (2.1 million
pixels) and a temporal resolution of 50 or 60 interlaced fields per second.
 1080p Explained:
1080p (1920×1080 px; also known as Full HD or FHD and BT.709) is a set of HDTV high-definition
video modes characterized by 1,920 pixels displayed across the screen horizontally and 1,080
pixels down the screen vertically;[1] the p stands for progressive scan, i.e. non-interlaced. The
term usually assumes a widescreen aspect ratio of 16:9, implying a resolution of 2.1 megapixels. It
is often marketed as full HD, to contrast 1080p with 720p resolution screens.

1080p video signals are supported by ATSC standards in the United States and DVB standards in
Europe. Applications of the 1080p standard include television broadcasts, Blu-ray Discs,
smartphones, Internet content such as YouTube videos and Netflix TV shows and movies,
consumer-grade televisions and projectors, computer monitors and video game consoles. Small
camcorders, smartphones and digital cameras can capture still and moving images in 1080p
resolution.

35. Resolutions Explained:

The above image shows video resolution defined as per pixels and it’s aspect ratio.
 Examples of some 4K resolutions used in displays and media
Format Resolution Aspect Ratio Pixels
- 4096 × 3072 1.33∶1 (4∶3) 12,582,912
- 4096 × 2560 1.60∶1 (16∶10) 10,485,760
- 4096 × 2304 1.77∶1 (16∶9) 9,437,184
DCI 4K (full frame) 4096 × 2160 ≈1.90∶1 (256∶135) 8,847,360
DCI 4K (CinemaScope cropped) 4096 × 1716 ≈2.39∶1 (1024∶429) 7,020,544
DCI 4K (flat cropped) 3996 × 2160 1.85∶1 (≈37∶20) 8,631,360
WQUXGA 3840 × 2400 1.60∶1 (16∶10) 9,216,000
4K UHD 3840 × 2160 1.77∶1 (16∶9) 8,294,400
- 3840 × 1600 2.40∶1 (12∶5) 6,144,000
- 3840 × 1080 3.55∶1 (32∶9) 4,147,200

4K standards and terminology

The term "4K" is generic and refers to any resolution with a horizontal pixel count of
approximately 4,000. Several different 4K resolutions have been standardized by various
organizations.

Film Resolution Explained

Digital film standards
Standard Resolution DAR Pixels
Digital cinema 2× 2048 × 858 2.39:1 1,757,184
Digital cinema 2× 1998 × 1080 1.85:1 2,157,840
Academy 2× 1828 × 1332 1.37:1 2,434,896
Full Aperture Native 2× 2048 × 1556 1.32:1 3,186,688
Digital cinema 4× 4096 × 1714 2.39:1 7,020,544
Digital cinema 4× 3996 × 2160 1.85:1 8,631,360
Digital Cinema Initiatives 4× (native resolution) 4096 × 2160 1.90:1 8,847,360
Academy 4× 3656 × 2664 1.37:1 9,739,584
Full Aperture 4× 4096 × 3112 1.32:1 12,746,752
6K [23] 6144 × 3160 1.94:1 19,415,040
IMAX Digital [24] 5616 × 4096 1.37:1 23,003,136
Red Epic 617 28000 × 9334 3:1 261,352,000
36. The below distinguish SAR (aspect ratio of pixel dimensions), DAR (aspect ratio of displayed image
dimensions), and the corresponding PAR (aspect ratio of individual pixels).

Post-production digital working resolutions

Standard Resolution SAR DAR PAR Pixels
DV NTSC 720 × 480 3:2 4:3 10:11 345,600
D1 NTSC 720 × 486 40:27 4:3 9:10 349,920
DV PAL 720 × 576 5:4 4:3 12:11 414,720
D1 PAL 720 × 576 5:4 4:3 16:15 414,720
Panasonic DVCPRO HD 720p 960 × 720 4:3 16:9 4:3 691,200
Panasonic DVCPRO HD 1080, 59.94i 1280 × 1080 32:27 16:9 3:2 1,382,400
Panasonic DVCPRO HD 1080, 50i 1440 × 1080 4:3 16:9 3:2 1,555,200
HDV 1080i/1080p 1440 × 1080 4:3 16:9 4:3 1,555,200
Sony HDCAM (1080) 1440 × 1080 4:3 16:9 3:2 1,555,200
Sony HDCAM SR (1080) 1920 × 1080 16:9 16:9 1:1 2,073,600
Academy 2× 1828 × 1332 1.37:1 1.37:1 1:1 2,434,896
Full Aperture Native 2× 2048 × 1556 1.316 4:3 ~1:1 3,186,688
Academy 4× 3656 × 2664 1.37:1 1.37:1 1:1 9,739,584
Full Aperture 4× 4096 × 3112 1.316 4:3 ~1:1 12,746,752

37. Audio Sampling

Digital audio uses pulse-code modulation and digital signals for sound reproduction. This includes
analog-to-digital conversion (ADC), digital-to-analog conversion (DAC), storage, and transmission. In
effect, the system commonly referred to as digital is in fact a discrete-time, discrete-level analog of a
previous electrical analog. While modern systems can be quite subtle in their methods, the primary
usefulness of a digital system is the ability to store, retrieve and transmit signals without any loss of
quality.

Sampling rate

A commonly seen unit of sampling rate is Hz, which stands for Hertz and means "samples per second".
As an example, 48 kHz is 48,000 samples per second.

When it is necessary to capture audio covering the entire 20–20,000 Hz range of human hearing,[5] such
as when recording music or many types of acoustic events, audio waveforms are typically sampled at
44.1 kHz (CD), 48 kHz, 88.2 kHz, or 96 kHz.[6] The approximately double-rate requirement is a
consequence of the Nyquist theorem. Sampling rates higher than about 50 kHz to 60 kHz cannot supply
more usable information for human listeners. Early professional audio equipment manufacturers chose
sampling rates in the region of 40 to 50 kHz for this reason.

There has been an industry trend towards sampling rates well beyond the basic requirements: such as
96 kHz and even 192 kHz[7] Even though ultrasonic frequencies are inaudible to humans, recording and
mixing at higher sampling rates is effective in eliminating the distortion that can be caused by foldback
aliasing. Conversely, ultrasonic sounds may interact with and modulate the audible part of the frequency
spectrum (intermodulation distortion), degrading the fidelity.[8] One advantage of higher sampling rates
is that they can relax the low-pass filter design requirements for ADCs and DACs, but with modern
oversampling sigma-delta converters this advantage is less important.
 The Audio Engineering Society recommends 48 kHz sampling rate for most applications but gives
recognition to 44.1 kHz for Compact Disc (CD) and other consumer uses, 32 kHz for transmission-
related applications, and 96 kHz for higher bandwidth or relaxed anti-aliasing filtering.[9] Both Lavry
Engineering and J. Robert Stuart state that the ideal sampling rate would be about 60 kHz, but since this
is not a standard frequency, recommend 88.2 or 96 kHz for recording purposes. [10][11][12][13]

A more complete list of common audio sample rates is:

Sampling rate Use

Telephone and encrypted walkie-talkie, wireless intercom and wireless microphone
8,000 Hz transmission; adequate for human speech but without sibilance (ess sounds like eff
(/s/, /f/)).
One quarter the sampling rate of audio CDs; used for lower-quality PCM, MPEG audio
11,025 Hz
and for audio analysis of subwoofer bandpasses. [citation needed]
Wideband frequency extension over standard telephone narrowband 8,000 Hz. Used
16,000 Hz
in most modern VoIP and VVoIP communication products.[14]
One half the sampling rate of audio CDs; used for lower-quality PCM and MPEG audio
22,050 Hz and for audio analysis of low frequency energy. Suitable for digitizing early 20th
century audio formats such as 78s.[15]
miniDV digital video camcorder, video tapes with extra channels of audio (e.g.
DVCAM with four channels of audio), DAT (LP mode), Germany's Digitales
32,000 Hz Satellitenradio, NICAM digital audio, used alongside analogue television sound in
some countries. High-quality digital wireless microphones.[16] Suitable for digitizing
FM radio.[citation needed]
37,800 Hz CD-XA audio
Used by digital audio locked to NTSC color video signals (3 samples per line, 245 lines
44,056 Hz
per field, 59.94 fields per second = 29.97 frames per second).
Audio CD, also most commonly used with MPEG-1 audio (VCD, SVCD, MP3). Originally
chosen by Sony because it could be recorded on modified video equipment running at
either 25 frames per second (PAL) or 30 frame/s (using an NTSC monochrome video
44,100 Hz recorder) and cover the 20 kHz bandwidth thought necessary to match professional
analog recording equipment of the time. A PCM adaptor would fit digital audio
samples into the analog video channel of, for example, PAL video tapes using 3
samples per line, 588 lines per frame, 25 frames per second.
The standard audio sampling rate used by professional digital video equipment such
as tape recorders, video servers, vision mixers and so on. This rate was chosen
because it could reconstruct frequencies up to 22 kHz and work with 29.97 frames
per second NTSC video - as well as 25 frame/s, 30 frame/s and 24 frame/s systems.
With 29.97 frame/s systems it is necessary to handle 1601.6 audio samples per frame
48,000 Hz delivering an integer number of audio samples only every fifth video frame.[9] Also
used for sound with consumer video formats like DV, digital TV, DVD, and films. The
professional Serial Digital Interface (SDI) and High-definition Serial Digital Interface
(HD-SDI) used to connect broadcast television equipment together uses this audio
sampling frequency. Most professional audio gear uses 48 kHz sampling, including
mixing consoles, and digital recording devices.
50,000 Hz First commercial digital audio recorders from the late 70s from 3M and Soundstream.
50,400 Hz Sampling rate used by the Mitsubishi X-80 digital audio recorder.
64,000 Hz Uncommonly used, but supported by some hardware[17][18] and software.[19][20]
 Sampling rate used by some professional recording equipment when the destination
is CD (multiples of 44,100 Hz). Some pro audio gear uses (or is able to select)
88,200 Hz
88.2 kHz sampling, including mixers, EQs, compressors, reverb, crossovers and
recording devices.
DVD-Audio, some LPCM DVD tracks, BD-ROM (Blu-ray Disc) audio tracks, HD DVD
(High-Definition DVD) audio tracks. Some professional recording and production
96,000 Hz
equipment is able to select 96 kHz sampling. This sampling frequency is twice the
48 kHz standard commonly used with audio on professional equipment.
Sampling rate used by HDCD recorders and other professional applications for CD
176,400 Hz
production. Four times the frequency of 44.1 kHz.
DVD-Audio, some LPCM DVD tracks, BD-ROM (Blu-ray Disc) audio tracks, and HD
DVD (High-Definition DVD) audio tracks, High-Definition audio recording devices and
192,000 Hz
audio editing software. This sampling frequency is four times the 48 kHz standard
commonly used with audio on professional video equipment.
Digital eXtreme Definition, used for recording and editing Super Audio CDs, as 1-bit
352,800 Hz Direct Stream Digital (DSD) is not suited for editing. Eight times the frequency of
44.1 kHz.
SACD, 1-bit delta-sigma modulation process known as Direct Stream Digital, co-
2,822,400 Hz
developed by Sony and Philips.
Double-Rate DSD, 1-bit Direct Stream Digital at 2× the rate of the SACD. Used in some
5,644,800 Hz
professional DSD recorders.
Quad-Rate DSD, 1-bit Direct Stream Digital at 4× the rate of the SACD. Used in some
11,289,600 Hz
uncommon professional DSD recorders.
Octuple-Rate DSD, 1-bit Direct Stream Digital at 8× the rate of the SACD. Used in rare
22,579,200 Hz
experimental DSD recorders. Also known as DSD512.

Audio Bit Depth

Audio is typically recorded at 8-, 16-, and 24-bit depth, which yield a theoretical maximum signal-to-
quantization-noise ratio (SQNR) for a pure sine wave of, approximately, 49.93 dB, 98.09 dB and
122.17 dB.[21] CD quality audio uses 16-bit samples. Thermal noise limits the true number of bits that can
be used in quantization. Few analog systems have signal to noise ratios (SNR) exceeding 120 dB.
However, digital signal processing operations can have very high dynamic range, consequently it is
common to perform mixing and mastering operations at 32-bit precision and then convert to 16- or 24-
bit for distribution.

The above points apply as basic principles across all platforms irrespective of any Linear or Non-Linear
editing stations. Practical knowledge is essential to proceed for understanding of the terms and concepts
explained. The notes prepared in this file is crucial to proceed for further training of any editing software
required. I will be glad to help if needed.

Yuvraj Bararia
Assistant Professor – Video Editing
School of Cinema,
AAFT – Noida. U.P.
+91-8368797178
Yuvraj.bararia@gmail.com