BELLOTINDOS, Joshua Jones M.

Western Mindanao State University

College of Science and Mathematics
Graduate School
(1st Semester, AY 2018-2019)

SCI ED 200 (History of Science)

MIDTERM EXAMINATION

PART I
1. Discuss the science philosophies which the following philosophers had advocated and the
points in which they agreed on.
a. Thomas Kuhn
b. Karl Popper
ANSWER: According to Kuhn’s Theory, a scientific theory is born through the general consensus
of a community of practitioners. This consensus, or paradigm, evolves from previous scientific
data. A theory is successful as soon as a considerable number of researchers adhere to the
paradigm. By contrast, Popper believes that the success of a scientific theory lies in its
refutability. Therefore, Kuhn’s and Popper’s views of science seem to be opposed: Kuhn argues
that a theory is scientific when it becomes paradigmatic and attracts a considerable number of
scientists in its sphere, while Popper believes that a theory cannot be scientific if it is impossible
to contradict it. Kuhn’s theory of paradigm shift also implies that a certain valuable scientific
theory can be refuted by future generations of analysis and research. Popper emphasizes the
minds of geniuses like Einstein, who bring innovation in a certain field through intuition and
creativity. The conclusions that Kuhn and Popper reach are ultimately similar: both philosophers
believe that scientific revolutions are essential realities of scientific research. For Popper, the
genuine test of a theory is not one that would look for general agreement but one that verifies it
sustainability. The scientists should attempt to prove the theory false in order to verify its
validity. Similarly, for Kuhn there is agreement within the field of “normal science” with respect
to the problem-solutions, and not to the specific rules used to achieve these solutions. Scientific
revolutions are sometimes so great that it can be said that with the advent of a paradigm shift,
the world itself changes. However, as Kuhn sustains, the world does not actually change every
time a paradigm shift occurs, although it can be said that the world does become a different
place for the ones who perceive it from the point of view of a different paradigm. For Popper, a
good theory is one that can also be refuted. Both philosophers emphasize scientific revolution as
an essential aspect for the progress of science. Popper also believes that a good theory prohibits
certain events in the empirical world, even though the theory is not complete. For both Kuhn
and Popper therefore, a scientific theory is only valid when it prohibits certain phenomena but
also allows for further development of the initial frame.

2. How does history play its role in the teaching of science?

ANSWER: History plays a vital role in teaching science. Learning the how a theory or a law
came to be will give us and our students a bigger and clearer picture of why things are
happening this way. It will also allow us and our students to trace the changes and be able to
understand and answer hows and the whys that we’ve been asking ourselves. And who knows
by teaching the history of a particular matter, our science-oriented students will engage in the
continuous search for truth through analyzing the background on that particular matter.

3. Explain the nature of science as described by modern philosophies of science.

ANSWER:
4. Trace the historical development of the following theories:
(Include a discussion on the conflicting ideas on the following of these theories.)
a. Atomic Theory from Democritus to Schrodinger
ANSWER:
1. Democritus
He proposed that if you keep cutting a material in half forever, eventually
you would end up with an “uncuttable” particle. He called these particles
“atomos,” meaning “indivisible” in Greek.

1|Page
 2. John Dalton
His theory claimed that elements are composed of extremely small
particles called atoms. He said that atoms of one element are different
from the atoms of all other elements.
3. JJ Thomson
Thomson conducted an experiment using a cathode-ray tube to show that
there are small particles inside an atom. He proposed a model of an atom
called “plum-pudding” model, in which negative particles are scattered
throughout soft blobs of positively charged material.
CONFLICTING IDEAS:
Thomson, through his experiment, was able to identify an
error in Democritus’ and Dalton’s atomic theory. Atoms can still be
divided into smaller parts.
4. Ernest Rutherford
Rutherford is famous for his gold foil experiment. It allowed him to define
that atoms are mostly empty space, and the electrons travel in random
paths around the nucleus. He proposed that the nucleus is the tiny,
extremely dense, positively charged region in the center of an atom.
5. Niels Bohr
He suggested that electrons travel around the nucleus in definite paths.
These paths are the “energy levels.” He proposed that electrons cannot
travel between paths, but they can jump from one path to another. This
happens when an electron receives a lot of energy making it excited and
causing it to jump to another energy level.
6. Erwin Schrodinger
He explored the idea of whether or not the movement of electrons in an
atom could be explained better as wave than as a particle.

b. Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

ANSWER:
1. Plato
He saw variations in plant and animal populations as imperfect
representations of ideal forms. Only the perfect forms of organisms were
real.
2. Aristotle
He theorized that all living forms could be arranged on a scale of
increasing complexity, “scala naturae.” He said that species are fixed,
permanent and do not evolve.
3. Carolus Linnaeus
A Swedish physician and botanist, and the Father of Taxonomy. He
believed that species were permanent creations. Even wanted to organize
the “scale of nature”
4. Georges Cuvier
The Founder of Paleontology, opposed the concept on evolution.
5. Judeo-Christian Culture
Saw the adaptation of the organisms to their environment as evidence
that the creator had designed each and every species for a particular
purpose.
6. Jean Baptiste Lamarck
He published a theory of evolution in 1809. He said that individuals can
evolve and believed that evolution responded to an organisms “felt
needs.” Also believed that modifications acquired during a lifetime can be
passed on to offspring.
7. Charles Darwin and his Voyage
He got a position as a Naturalist during the voyage. He collected plant
and animal specimens. He developed his theory of natural selection after
the voyage. He then published his Origin of Species and published his
book on evolution. These are his five major theories of evolution:

2|Page
 (1) Species can evolve, (2) All organisms’ descent from common ancestors,
(3) Evolution takes time, (4) There is multiplication of species, and (5)
Natural Selection.
CONFLICTING IDEA:
Aristotle’s idea that species do not evolve contradicts the
ideas of Jean Baptiste and Darwin’s. Species can evolve.

5. Discuss how science education in the Philippines progressed through the decades. Identify
specific changes.
ANSWER:
1940s
-No science offered in grade 1 to 4 of elementary level
-30 minutes allotted for science and arithmetic in intermediate levels (grade 5 & 6)
-Physics and Chemistry were optional
-classroom instruction emphasized on activities dealt with observation, experimentation,
critical thinking, planning and participating in experiments.
1950s
-emphasis was given to the economics side of life, to improving community living, and
acquisition of essential skills.
-the Philippine government made teaching of science compulsory in all elementary and
secondary schools.
-National Committee for Science Education (NCSE) recommended steps that would upgrade
the teaching of science.
1960s
-a group of biological educators at the University of the Philippines organized themselves
into a team to adapt the Biological Science Curriculum Study: to introduce to the students
the living world and sought to provide biological information as may be necessary and useful
as they live their lives.
-the Philippine Association of Science Teachers (PAST) held a conference to review the status
of science teaching in the Philippines. The second convention focused on improving the
teaching of science through developing the skills of inquiry and creative thinking.
1970s
1980s

6. Suggest reforms in education at the level you are teaching which you think will help address
existing problems and inadequacies. Identify some of these problems and inadequacies.
ANSWER: A common problem for public schools in far-flung area is inadequate laboratory
equipment and infrastructures. A well-designed science curriculum is worthless due to these
problems. Even having a perfect science curriculum means nothing because you can’t
execute properly due to these inadequacies. We can discount the laboratory because we can
do experiments inside the room. But how can the students do the experiment when they
don’t have laboratory apparatuses? So, if I were to suggest, it would be best not only to
focus on the design of the curriculum but also on the materials that is very essential in the
execution or successful implementation of the curriculum.

PART II
1. Write your thoughts and opinions regarding new development in science (choose one
among the articles)
ANSWER: (Artificial Womb) The development of the artificial womb is a great breakthrough
that will save millions of lives (baby) and millions more (parents). I think people who will oppose
to this invention are all hypocrites. Is there something more important than saving life without
causing harm to others? Although, I welcome the use of this technology, I cannot fully
recommend the use of it because I haven’t seen how it’s done.

2. What has been the main concerns of the various recent breakthroughs in science?
ANSWER: Most, if not all, of the various recent breakthroughs in science are facing major
ethical concerns. The apprehension on these breakthroughs by the community outweighs the

3|Page
advantages that these breakthroughs are presenting. I personally think that the absence of a
scientific viewpoint in an individual causes these breakthroughs not to progress. In conclusion,
there should be a thorough science education reform that would develop a science-oriented
individual that is open to changes or advancements and would analyze these advancements for
the greater good.

3. On the “Artificial Womb”

a. How does this medical technology work to be advantageous to human life?
ANSWER: An estimated 15 million babies are born too early every year. That is
more than 1 in 10 babies. Approximately 1 million children die each year due to
complications of preterm birth. Many survivors face a lifetime of disability,
including learning disabilities and visual and hearing problems. The invention of
the artificial womb will greatly help these premature babies to survive. It will
allow the continuous growth and development of the baby until it is ready to face
the outside world. Above all, not only the baby’s life is saved but also the parents’
lives would be saved from depression which might lead to a suicide attempt.

b. In your own evaluation, what could be some drawbacks from utilizing this
technology?
ANSWER: We couldn’t discount the fact that this breakthrough faces a major
ethical concern because most of the people, especially religious ones, still believe
in the natural way of giving birth. But in my own evaluation, the greater
drawback from utilizing this technology would be the process itself. The transfer
of the baby to the artificial womb poses a greater concern than the ethical side of
this matter. The exposure of the premature baby to air when transferring it to the
artificial womb is very risky because we know that the premature baby or even a
normal baby is still very vulnerable to viruses, and who knows what else could
happen during the transfer. Although, I welcome the utilization of this
technology, I cannot fully recommend the use of it because I haven’t even
witnessed how it is done.

4|Page