Kepler's Laws

Johannes Kepler, working with data painstakingly collected by Tycho

Brahe without the aid of a telescope, developed three laws which
described the motion of the planets across the sky.

1. The Law of Orbits: All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the
sun at one focus.

2. The Law of Areas: A line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps
out equal areas in equal times.

3. The Law of Periods: The square of the period of any planet is

proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit.

Kepler's laws were derived for orbits around the sun, but they apply to
satellite orbits as well.
 The Law of Orbits
All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one
focus.

This is one of Kepler's laws. The elliptical shape of the orbit is a result
of the inverse square force of gravity. The eccentricity of the ellipse is
greatly exaggerated here.
 The Law of Areas
A line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out equal
areas in equal times.

This is one of Kepler’s laws. This empirical law discovered by Kepler

arises from conservation of angular momentum. When the planet is
closer to the sun, it moves faster, sweeping through a longer path in a
given time.
 The Law of Periods
The square of the period of any planet is proportional to the
cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit.

This is one
of Kepler's
laws.This law
arises from
the law of
gravitation.
Newton first
formulated the
law of
gravitation from
Kepler's 3rd
law.

Kepler's Law of Periods in the above form is an approximation that

serves well for the orbits of the planets because the Sun's mass is so
dominant. But more precisely the law should be written
In this more rigorous form it is useful for calculation of the orbital
period of moons or other binary orbits like those of binary stars.
The UNIVERSAL Gravitation Equation
But Newton's law of universal gravitation extends gravity
beyond earth. Newton's law of universal gravitation is about
the universality of gravity. Newton's place in the Gravity Hall
of Fame is not due to his discovery of gravity, but rather due to
his discovery that gravitation is universal. ALL objects attract
each other with a force of gravitational attraction. Gravity is
universal. This force of gravitational attraction is directly
dependent upon the masses of both objects and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance that separates their
centers. Newton's conclusion about the magnitude of
gravitational forces is summarized symbolically as

Since the gravitational force is directly proportional to the mass

of both interacting objects, more massive objects will attract
each other with a greater gravitational force. So as the mass of
either object increases, the force of gravitational attraction
between them also increases. If the mass of one of the objects
is doubled, then the force of gravity between them is doubled.
If the mass of one of the objects is tripled, then the force of
gravity between them is tripled. If the mass of both of the
objects is doubled, then the force of gravity between them is
quadrupled; and so on.
Since gravitational force is inversely proportional to the square
of the separation distance between the two interacting objects,
more separation distance will result in weaker gravitational
forces. So as two objects are separated from each other, the
force of gravitational attraction between them also decreases.
If the separation distance between two objects is doubled
(increased by a factor of 2), then the force of gravitational
attraction is decreased by a factor of 4 (2 raised to the second
power). If the separation distance between any two objects is
tripled (increased by a factor of 3), then the force of
gravitational attraction is decreased by a factor of 9 (3 raised to
the second power).
Another means of representing the proportionalities is to
express the relationships in the form of an equation using a
constant of proportionality. This equation is shown below.

The constant of proportionality (G) in the above equation is

known as the universal gravitation constant. The precise
value of G was determined experimentally by Henry Cavendish
in the century after Newton's death. (This experiment will be
discussed later in Lesson 3.) The value of G is found to be
G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2
The units on G may seem rather odd; nonetheless they are
sensible. When the units on G are substituted into the equation
above and multiplied by m1• m2 units and divided by d2 units,
the result will be Newtons - the unit of force.
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY ABOVE &
BELOW THE EARTH’S SURFACE

In this article, you will learn about the acceleration of an object placed
in a field of gravity, at a height h above the surface of the Earth.

Let us consider the figure shown above. Here, we can see a point
mass m is positioned at a height h above the surface of the earth. The
radius of the earth is denoted by Re. Here, the distance of the object
from the centre of the earth is (Re + h). Let us say, the magnitude of
the force on the point mass m is denoted by F.
So,
F = \frac{GM_{e}m}{(R_{e}+h)^{2}}
Where, G is the universal gas constant which is equal to 6.67×10^-11.
Me is the mass of the earth, m is the mass of the object, Re is the
radius of the earth and h is the height at which the object is
positioned.
Now, the acceleration due to gravitational force experienced by the
object can be given as F/m.
So,
g = \frac{F}{m}=\frac{GM_{e}}{(R_{e}+h)^{2}}
As we know that the expression for acceleration due to gravity for an
object at the surface of the earth is given by \frac{GM_e}{R_{e}^2} ,
we can say that, for an object placed at a height h,
the acceleration due to gravity is less as compared to that placed on
the surface.

Below the Surface of the Earth

Let us consider the figure shown above. Here, we can see a point
mass m is positioned at a depth d below the surface of the Earth. The
distance of the object from the centre of the Earth is given by (Re-d)
and the magnitude of the gravitational force acting on the object is
F(d).
So,
F(d)=\frac{GM_{s}m}{(R_{e}-d)^{2}}
Here, the object can be assumed to be present at the concentric sphere
of radius (Re-d).Hence, the mass of the earth contributing to the
gravitational force is the mass of the inner concentric sphere.
The equivalent relation between the masses can be given as
\frac{M_{s}}{M_{e}}=\frac{(R_{e}-d)^{2}}{R_{e}^{3}}
Putting the value of Ms in the equation for gravitational force, we get
F(d)=\frac{GM_{e}m(R_{e}-d)^{2}}{R_{e}^{3}}
The acceleration due to gravity of point mass m at the given depth of
d from the earth surface is given by
g(d)=\frac{GM_{e}(R_{e}-d)}{R_{e}^{3}} =
\frac{GM_{3}}{R_{e}^{2}} \times \frac{R_{e}-d}{R_{e}} =
\frac{GM_{e}}{R_{e}^{2}} \times 1 – \frac{d}{R_{e}}
As we know that the expression for acceleration due to gravity for an
object at the surface of the earth is given by
\small \frac{GM_e}{R_{e}^2} , we can say that, for an object placed
at a height h, the acceleration due to gravity is less as compared to
that placed on the surface.
Gravitational Potential Energy
Definition: Gravitational Potential Energy ( PEg ) is given by:
PEg = mgy, (3)
where m is the mass of an object, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and y is the
distance the object is above some reference level.

The term ``energy'' is motivated by the fact that potential energy and kinetic energy
are different aspects of the same thing (mechanical energy).

For Example: When an object is dropped from rest at some height above the
earth's surface, it starts with some PEg but no KE. As the object falls towards the
Earth, it loses PEg and gains KE. Just before the object hits the ground, it has lost
all of its initial PEg but gained an equal amount of KE.

Proof: Find the work done by the force of gravity when an object falls from rest at
position yi to yf = 0 . We have W = Fs , F = |m | = mg and s = (yi - yf) = yi . This
gives, W = mgyi .

Combining with Eq.(5.2) gives 1/2m(vf2 - 0) = mgyi or PEi = KEf .

Potential Energy Stored in a Spring
Definition: The spring constant, k , is a measure of the stiffness of a
spring (large k stiff spring, small k soft spring).

To compress a spring by a distance x we must apply a force F ext = k

x . By Newton's 3rd law, if we hold a spring in a compressed
position, the spring exerts a force Fs = - k x . This is called a linear
restoring force because the force is always in the opposite direction
from the displacement.

Note:

 The sign of Fs shows that the spring resists attempts to compress

or stretch it; therefore Fs is a restoring force.

For Example: In Figure (5.2a) x = xf - xi = - 5 which

gives Fs = - k(- 5) = 5k . This force is positive and therefore
directed to the right. This means that the spring resists the
compression. In Figure (5.2b) x = xf - xi = 3 which gives Fs = -
3k . The negative sign indicates that the force is to the left and
that the spring resists the stretching.

Figure: a) Compressed spring b) Stretched spring

 The farther we compress or stretch the spring, the greater the

restoring force.
  We usually define xi = 0 and xf = x which gives Fs = - kx . This
is called Hooke's law.

To find the potential energy stored in a compressed (or stretched)

spring, we calculate the work to compress (or stretch) the spring: the
force to compress a spring varies from F ext = F0 = 0 (at xi = 0 ),
to F ext = Fx = kx (at xf = x ). Since force increases linearly with x , the
average force that must be applied is

= (F0 + Fx) = kx

The work done by is W = x= kx 2. This work is stored in

the spring as potential energy:
(4)
PEs = kx 2.
Note:

 PEs = 0 when x = 0 (at equilibrium).

 PEs always > 0 when the spring is not in equilibrium.
 PEs is the same if x = xf (same PEs for equal expansion or
compression).
Escape Speed

Escape speed is the minimum speed with which a mass should be

projected from the Earth’s surface in order to escape Earth’s
gravitation field.

Vescape=2gRE−−−−−√Vescape=2gRE
, where

 V is escape speed,
 g is gravitational field strength,
 R is radius of the Earth.

Derivation of Escape Speed From Earth

We know that:

Total Energy at infinity=0Total Energy at infinity=0

Hence,

Kinetic energy + Potential energy12mv2+(–

(GMm)R)12mv2v2=0=0=GMmR=2GMRKinetic energy + Potential
energy=012mv2+(–(GMm)R)=012mv2=GMmRv2=2GMR
where v is the velocity of the object
m is the mass of the object
M is the mass of Earth
R is the radius of the Earth
G is the universal gravitation constant

From Gravitational Field Strength, we know that g=GMR2g=GMR2.

Substitute this into the equation above, we will have:
 v2=2gRv2=2gR

In the context of this derivation, we have:

Vescape=2gRE−−−−−√Vescape=2gRE
ENERGY OF AN ORBITING SATELLITE

The satellites orbit around a central massive body in either a circular

or elliptical manner. A satellite orbiting about the earth moves in a
circular motion at a constant speed and at fixed height by moving
with a tangential velocity that allows it to fall at the same rate at
which the earth curves. The force of gravity acts in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the satellite throughout the
trajectory.
As per the work-energy theorem, the initial total mechanical energy of
the system plus the work done by any external force is equal to the
final total mechanical energy.
Mathematically, KEi + PEi + Wext = KEf + PEf
For satellites, the force of gravity is the only external force and since
gravity is considered as a conservative force, the term Wext is zero.
The equation can be simplified as KEi + PEi = KEf + PEf
In other words, the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy
of the system is constant, while energy gets transformed between
the kinetic energy and the potential energy.

Analysis for circular orbits

In circular motion about the Earth, a satellite remains at a fixed
distance from the surface of the Earth at all the time. Since the
tangential velocity is a function of the radius of the orbit, the velocity
remains constant and so does the kinetic energy. Also, since the
potential energy is dependent on the height of the object, which too
remains constant in this case, thus, the potential energy too remains
the constant throughout. So, the total mechanical energy i.e. KE + PE
remains constant.
Analysis for elliptical orbits
The total mechanical energy of a satellite in elliptical motion also
remains constant, like the case of circular motion but unlike the
circular motion, the energy of a satellite in elliptical motion changes
forms. As we know the tangential velocity of a body orbiting around
the Earth varies inversely with the square root of the radius of its
orbit, the kinetic energy also decreases with the increase in the radius
and is inversely proportional to the radius of the orbit. Similarly, the
potential energy increases with the increase in the height of the object
and thus it increases with the increase in the radius of the orbit.

The motion of a satellite around the Earth is considered to be circular.

In this section, we will derive the expression for the kinetic energy,
potential energy and the total mechanical energy of an object orbiting
in a circular path around the Earth.
For a satellite orbiting the earth, the tangential velocity can be given
as

Where M is the mass of the earth, R is the radius of the earth, h is the
height from the surface of the earth where is an object is kept.
So, the kinetic energy of the satellite (mass m) in a circular orbit with
speed v can be written as

AS per our assumption, the gravitational potential energy at infinity is

considered to be zero, so, the potential energy at distance (R +h) from
the centre of the earth can be written as

The kinetic energy here is positive whereas the potential energy is

negative. However, in magnitude, the kinetic energy is half the
potential energy, so the total energy E is
The total energy of a circularly orbiting satellite is thus negative, with
the potential energy being negative but twice is the magnitude of the
positive kinetic energy.
 Weightlessness
PHYSICS
WRITTEN BY:
 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
See Article History

Weightlessness, condition experienced while in free-fall, in which the

effect of gravity is canceled by the inertial (e.g., centrifugal) force resulting
from orbital flight. The term zero gravity is often used to describe such a
condition. Excluding spaceflight, true weightlessness can be experienced
only briefly, as in an airplane following a ballistic (i.e., parabolic) path.

Crews of spacecraft are subject to the problems of weightlessness. It was

learned from early Soviet and U.S. manned missions that there is a
reduction in heart and respiration rates and a progressive loss of body
weight and bone calcium during flights of relatively short duration. A
reversal of most of these effects occurs, however, upon return to Earth. On
later missions of extended duration, such as those involving the
U.S. Skylab and Soviet Salyut space stations, extensive biomedical studies
were undertaken. Their findings showed that periodic physical exercise with
properly designed apparatus is imperative for the maintenance of health
and that it takes the human body approximately 40 days to adjust to a zero-
gravity environment. In such an environment, bodily fluids are redistributed,
with less in the lower extremities and more in the upper body; height
increases; body mass usually, but not always, decreases with a loss of
muscular tissue; the veins and arteries of the legs become weaker; and
anemia occurs, accompanied by a significant reduction in blood count. A
feeling of weakness and the loss of a sense of balance are experienced
upon return to Earth. Recovery from all these effects is relatively rapid and
is nearly complete after only a week or so. A serious cause for concern,
however, is the loss of bone calcium that increases with the length of a
mission and shows no sign of cessation. The possibility of irreparable
deterioration on future space missions of long duration points to a need for
artificial gravity. The use of centrifugal force in a suitably designed rotating
space vehicle is an obvious way of simulating gravity.
Besides studying the effects of prolonged weightlessness on muscle
tension, blood circulation, and vestibular functions, scientists have
investigated their impact on cell metabolism, circadian rhythms, spiderweb
formation, and root growth and orientation in plants. Experiments have also
been conducted to determine the influence of gravity and the effects of its
absence in physical, chemical, and metallurgical processes. The mixing of
alloys and chemical reagents without the stratification that occurs on Earth,
the mixing of gases and metals to produce foam metals of unusual
properties, and the formation of large perfect crystals illustrate a few of the
possibilities of zero-gravity technology.
BIBYOGRAPHY
Websites
 https://simple.wikipedia.org
 Hyperphysics-phy-ast.gst.edu/hbase
 www.physicsclassroom.com
 https://byjus.com
 theory.uwinning.ca
 https://www.miniphysics.com

Books
 ncert textbook of class9
 ncert textbook of class11
THANK
YOU

BY-SNEHIL
LAWS OF
GRAVITATION
BY-SNEHIL
 INDEX
S.No Topic

1. Introduction of gravitation
2. Kepler’s laws
3. Universal law of gravitation
4. Acceleration due to gravity
5. Gravitational potential energy
6. Escape speed
7. Energy of an orbiting satellite
8. Weightlessness
INTRODDUCTION

Gravity, or gravitation, is a natural phenomenon by which all

things with mass or energy—including planets, stars, galaxies,
and even light[1]—are brought toward (or gravitate toward) one
another. On Earth, gravity gives weight to physical objects, and
the Moon's gravity causes the ocean tides. The gravitational
attraction of the original gaseous matter present in
the Universe caused it to begin coalescing, forming stars – and
for the stars to group together into galaxies – so gravity is
responsible for many of the large scale structures in the
Universe. Gravity has an infinite range, although its effects
become increasingly weaker on farther objects.
Gravity is most accurately described by the general theory of
relativity (proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915) which describes
gravity not as a force, but as a consequence of the curvature of
spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass. The
most extreme example of this curvature of spacetime is a black
hole, from which nothing—not even light—can escape once
past the black hole's event horizon.[2] However, for most
applications, gravity is well approximated by Newton's law of
universal gravitation, which describes gravity as a force which
causes any two bodies to be attracted to each other, with the
force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental forces of
physics, approximately 1038 times weaker than the strong force,
1036 times weaker than the electromagnetic force and
1029 times weaker than the weak force. As a consequence, it
has no significant influence at the level of subatomic
particles.[3] In contrast, it is the dominant force at
the macroscopic scale, and is the cause of the formation,
shape and trajectory (orbit) of astronomical bodies. For
example, gravity causes the Earth and the other planets to orbit
the Sun, it also causes the Moon to orbit the Earth, and causes
the formation of tides, the formation and evolution of the Solar
System, stars and galaxies.
The earliest instance of gravity in the Universe, possibly in the
form of quantum gravity, supergravity or a gravitational
singularity, along with ordinary space and time, developed
during the Planck epoch (up to 10−43 seconds after the birth of
the Universe), possibly from a primeval state, such as a false
vacuum, quantum vacuum or virtual particle, in a currently
unknown manner.[4] Attempts to develop a theory of gravity
consistent with quantum mechanics, a quantum gravity theory,
which would allow gravity to be united in a common
mathematical framework (a theory of everything) with the other
three forces of physics, are a current area of research.