Definition: If 𝒗𝟏 , … .

, 𝒗𝒑 are ℝ𝑛 , then the set of all linear combinations of 𝒗𝟏 , … , 𝒗𝒑 is denoted by Span {𝒗𝟏 , … , 𝒗𝒑 } and is called the subset of ℝ𝑛
spanned (or generated) by 𝒗𝟏 , … , 𝒗𝒑 . That is, Span {𝒗𝟏 , … , 𝒗𝒑 } is the collection of all vectors that can be written in the form

𝑐1 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑐2 𝒗𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑝 𝒗𝒑

with 𝑐1 , … , 𝑐𝑝 scalars.

Asking whether a vector b is in Span {𝒗𝟏 , … , 𝒗𝒑 } amounts to asking whether the vector equation

𝑥1 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑥2 𝒗𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑝 𝒗𝒑 = 𝒃

has a solution, or, equivalently, asking whether the linear system with augmented matrix [𝒗𝟏 … 𝒗𝒑 𝒃] has a solution.

A Geometric Description of Span {v} and Span {u, v}

Let v be a nonzero vector in ℝ3 . Then the Span {v} is the set of all scalar multiples of v, which is the set of points on the line in ℝ3 through v and
0.
Power Transformers

Example 3.3: Per-unit impedance of a single-phase transformer

A single-phase two-winding transformer is rated 20 kVA, 480/120 volts, and 60 Hz. The equivalent leakage impedance of the transformer
referred to the 120-volt winding, denoted winding 2, and is 𝑍𝑒𝑞2 = 0.0525∠78.130 Ω. Using the transformer ratings as base values, determine
the per-unit leakage impedance referred to the winding 2 and referred to the winding 1.

Solution:

Primary Side Secondary Side

𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏 = 20 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏 = 20 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑉𝑏 = 480 𝑉 𝑉𝑏 = 120 𝑉
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏 20 × 1000 20000
𝐼𝑏 = = = 41.6667 𝐴 𝐼𝑏 = = 166.6667 𝐴
𝑉𝑏 480 120
𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏2 𝑉𝑏2 𝑉𝑏 120
𝑍𝑏 = = = = 𝑍𝑏 = = = 0.7199 Ω
𝐼𝑏 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏 𝑘𝑉𝐴 × 1000 𝐼𝑏 166.6667
𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏2 1202
𝑍𝑏 = = = 0.72 Ω
4802 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏 20000
= = 11.52 Ω 𝑍2 = 0.0525∠78.13°
20 × 1000
𝑁1 𝑉1 480
𝑎𝑡 = = = =4
𝑁2 𝑉2 120
 𝑍1 = 𝑎𝑡2 𝑍2 = 16 × 0.0525∠78.13° 𝑍2 0.0525∠78.13°
𝑍2 (𝑝𝑢) = =
= 0.84∠78.13° 𝑍𝑏 0.72
𝑍1 0.84∠78.13° = 0.0729∠78.13°
𝑍1 (𝑝𝑢) = = = 0.0729∠78.13°
𝑍𝑏 11.52 ∴ 𝑍1 (𝑝𝑢) = 𝑍2 (𝑝𝑢)

Example 3.4: Per-unit circuit of a three-zone single-phase network

Three zones of a single-phase circuit are identified in Figure 3.10 (a). The zones are connected by transformers 𝑇1 and 𝑇1 , whose ratings are also
shown. Using base values of 30 𝑘𝑉𝐴 and 240 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 in zone 1, draw the per-unit circuit and determine the per-unit impedances and the per-unit
source voltage. Then calculate the load current both in per-unit and in amperes. Transformer winding resistances and shunt admittance
branches are neglected.

Solution:

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3

𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙 = 30 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙 = 30 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙 = 30 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 = 240 𝑉 240 115
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 = 480 × = 480 𝑉 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 = × 480 = 120 𝑉
30 × 103 480 460
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 125 𝐴 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙 30000 1202
240 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 0.48 Ω
2
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 2402 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 480 30000
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = = 62.5 𝐴
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙 30000
30000
= 1.92Ω 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 250 𝐴
𝑉 240 120
Check: 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 125 =
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
 2 𝑉 120
1.92Ω 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 4802 Check: 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 = 250 =
𝑿𝒆𝒒𝑻𝟏 = 𝒋𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝒑. 𝒖. 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙 30000 0.48 Ω
𝑉𝑠 = 220∠0° = 7.68 Ω
𝟐𝟐𝟎 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 0.9 + 𝑗0.2 Ω
𝑽𝒔 (𝒑. 𝒖. ) = 480 𝟎. 𝟗 + 𝒋𝟎. 𝟐
𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘: 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 7.68Ω 𝒁 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝒑. 𝒖. ) =
62.5 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟔𝟕∠𝟎° 𝑋𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑗2 Ω = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 + 𝒋𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝟕
𝒋𝟐 Check:
𝑿𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 (𝒑. 𝒖. ) =
𝟕. 𝟔𝟖 30 1152
= 𝒋𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟒 𝑋𝑒𝑞𝑇2 = 𝑗0.10 × ×
20 1202
𝑋𝑒𝑞𝑇2 (𝑜𝑙𝑑) = 𝑗0.10 𝑝. 𝑢. = 𝑗0.1378 𝑝. 𝑢.
𝑿𝒆𝒒𝑻𝟐 (𝒏𝒆𝒘)
𝟑𝟎 𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟐
= 𝒋𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 × × =
𝟐𝟎 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟐
= 𝒋𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟖 𝒑. 𝒖.
0.9167∠0° = 𝐼𝐿 [1.875 + 𝑗(0.10 + 0.2604 + 0.1378 + 0.4167)] = 𝐼𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) × (1.875 + 𝑗0.9149)
= 𝐼𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) × 2.0863∠5.93°
0.1967∠0°
⇒ 𝐼𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = = 0.43939∠ − 26.93°
2.0863∠26.93°
𝐼𝐿 (𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠) = 0.43939∠ − 2.93° × 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 109.9∠ − 26.93°

Example 3.5: Per-unit and actual currents in balanced three-phase networks

A balanced Y-connected voltage source with 𝐸𝑎𝑏 = 480∠00 volts is applied to a balanced – Δ load with 𝑍Δ = 30∠400 Ω. The impedance
between the source and the load is 𝑍𝐿 = 1∠850 Ω for each phase. Calculate the per unit and actual current in phase 𝑎 of the line using
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 10 𝑘𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 480 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠.

Solution: First Method

𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 10 𝑘𝑉𝐴
10
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙 = = 3.3333 𝑘𝑉𝐴
3
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 480∠00 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
480
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
√3
 480 2
2 ( )
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 √3 4802
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = = = 23.04 Ω
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙 10 10000
3 × 1000

1 1
𝑍𝑌 = 𝑍Δ = × 30∠400 = 10∠400 Ω
3 3
𝑍𝐿 = 1∠850 Ω
𝐸𝑎𝑛 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 1∠ − 300
1∠850
𝑍𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = = 0.0434∠850
23.04
10∠400
𝑍𝑌 (𝑝. 𝑢) = = 0.4340∠400
23.04
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 1∠−300 = 𝐼𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) × 0.4659∠43.800
𝐼𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 2.147∠ − 73.800
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙 10 √3
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = × × 1000 = 12.03 𝐴
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 3 480
∴ 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) × 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 12.03 × 2.147∠ − 73.800 = 25.82∠ − 73.800 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

Second Method

THREE-PHASE

𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 10 𝑘𝑉𝐴 = 10,000 𝑉𝐴

𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 480∠00
2
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 4802
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = = 23.04 Ω
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 10000
 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = √3 × 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 × 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 =
√3 × 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿
10,000
= = 12.03 𝐴
√3 × 480
SINGLE-PHASE
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 10 10000
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙 = = 𝑘𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴
3 3 3
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 480∠00
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 = = = 277 𝑉
√3 √3
480 2
2 ( )
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 √3
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = = 23.04 Ω
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 10000
3
480
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1𝜙
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝑁 = = √3 = 12.03 𝐴
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 23.04

Example 3.7: Voltage calculations: balanced Star-Star and Delta-Star transformers

Three single-phase two-winding transformers, each rated 400 MVA, 13.8/199.2 kV, with leakage reactance 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 0.10 𝑝. 𝑢., are connected to
form a three-phase bank. Winding resistances and exciting current are neglected. The high-voltage windings are connected in Star. A three-
phase load operating under balance positive-sequence conditions on the high-voltage side absorbs 1000 MVA at 0.90 p.f. lagging, with 𝑉𝐴𝑁 =
199.2∠00 𝑘𝑉. Determine the voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑛 at the low-voltage bus if the low voltage windings are connected (a) in Star and (b) Delta.

Solution:

Example 3.8: Per-unit voltage drop and per-unit fault current for a balanced three-phase transformer
A 200 MVA, 345-kVΔ/34.5-kV Y substation transformer has an 8% leakage reactance. The transformer acts a connecting link between 345-kV
transmission and 34.5 kV distribution. Transformer winding resistances and exciting current are neglected. The high-voltage bus connected to
the transformer is assumed to be an ideal 345-kV positive-sequence source with negligible source impedance. Using transformer ratings as base
values, determine:

a. The per-unit magnitudes of transformer voltage drop and voltage at the low-voltage terminals when the rated transformer current at 0.8
p.f. lagging enters the high-voltage terminals.
b. The per-unit magnitude of the fault current when a three-phase-to-ground bolted short circuit occurs at the low-voltage terminals.

Solution:

a.

𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 200 𝑀𝑉𝐴

𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 345 𝑘𝑉
3452
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 595.125 Ω
200
200 × 103
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 579.71 𝐴
345
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 345×103
Check: 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = = 595.125 𝐴
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 579.71

𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 × 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = (1.0)(0.08) = 0.08 𝑝. 𝑢.

𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝐴𝑁 − (𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞 )𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

= 1.0∠00 − (𝑗0.08)(1.0∠ − 36.870 )

= 1.0 − (𝑗0.08)(0.8 − 𝑗0.6) = 0.952 − 𝑗0.064

= 0.954∠ − 3.850 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑉𝐴𝑁 1.0
b. 𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 𝑋𝑒𝑞
= 0.08 = 12.5 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
Kothari and Nagrath:

Zone 1 Transformer (T1) Zone 2 Transformer Zone 3

(T2)
Generator No.1: 30 MVA, 10.5 15 MVA (3-phase), Transmission Line: 20.5 15 MVA (3- Generator No.2: 15
kV, X”=1.6 ohms 33/11 kV, X = 15.2 ohms ohms per phase phase), MVA, 6.6 kV, X” = 1.2
Load A: 40 MW, 11 kV, 0.9 per phase on high tension 33/6.2 kV, X ohms;
lagging power factor side 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 30 𝑀𝑉𝐴 = 16 ohms
33 per phase Generator No. 3: 25
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 10.5 ×
Selecting 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 30 𝑀𝑉𝐴 11 on high MVA, 6.6 kV, X” = 0.56
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 10.5 𝑘𝑉 = 31.5 𝑘𝑉 tension side ohms
2
𝐾𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 10.52 31.52
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 30 30 Load B: 40 MW, 6.6 kV,
= 33.075 Ω 0.85 lagging power
= 3.675 Ω 15.2
Generator No.1 𝑋𝑇1 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = factor
1.6 33.075 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 30 𝑀𝑉𝐴
𝑋1 "(𝑝. 𝑢. ) = = 𝑗0.4354 = 𝑗0.4596 Ω 6.2
3.675 20.5 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 31.5 ×
Load A 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 33
𝑃 = 𝑀𝑉𝐴 cos 𝜃 33.075 = 5.9183 𝑘𝑉
= 𝑗0.6198 5.91832
𝑃 50 16
⇒ 𝑀𝑉𝐴 = = 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
cos 𝜃 0.9 𝑋𝑇2 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 30
33.075 = 1.1675 Ω
= 𝑀𝑉𝐴 = 𝑗0.4838
50 × 103 𝑋𝑇2 (𝑝. 𝑢. )
𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐴 = 6.2 2
√3 × 11 × 0.9 ( ) × 16
= 2.916 𝑘𝐴 = 33
11 1.1675
𝑍𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝐴) = = 𝑗0.4838
√3 × 2.916 1.2
= 2.1779 Ω 𝑋𝐺2 " (𝑝. 𝑢. ) =
2.1779 1.1675
𝑍𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝐴) (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = = 𝑗0.7164
3.675 0.56
= 𝑗0.5926∠25.840 𝑋𝐺3 " (𝑝. 𝑢. ) =
1.1675
Transformer 1 = 𝑗0.4797
 𝑎𝑡2 15.2 Load B:
𝑋𝑇1 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 𝑀𝑊 40
3.675 𝑀𝑉𝐴 = =
2
11 cos 𝜃 0.85
(33) × 15.2 40 × 103
= = 0.4956 𝐼𝐿𝐵 =
3.675 √3 × 6.6 × 0.85
= 4,116.58 𝐴
= 4.12 𝑘𝐴
6.6
𝑍𝐿𝐵 =
√3 × 4.12
= 0.9249∠31.790 Ω
0.9249
𝑍𝐿𝐵 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) =
1.1675
= 0.7922∠31.790
Choose a common three-phase MVA base of 30 and voltage base of 33 kV Line-to-Line on the transmission line. Assume that the
impedance diagram is meant for short circuit studies. Current drawn by static loads under short-circuit conditions can be neglected.
Solution:

Zone 1 Transformer (T1) Zone 2 Transformer Zone 3

(T2)
Generator No.1: 30 MVA, 10.5 15 MVA (3-phase), Transmission Line: 20.5 15 MVA (3- Generator No.2: 15
kV, X”=1.6 ohms 33/11 kV, X = 15.2 ohms ohms per phase phase), MVA, 6.6 kV, X” = 1.2
Load A: 40 MW, 11 kV, 0.9 per phase on high tension 33/6.2 kV, X ohms;
lagging power factor side 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 30 𝑀𝑉𝐴 = 16 ohms 15
𝑋" = 1.2 ×
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 33 𝑘𝑉 per phase 6.62
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 30 𝑀𝑉𝐴 332 on high = 𝑗0.4132
11 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 36.3 Ω tension side 1.2
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = × 33 = 11 𝑘𝑉 30 𝑋" (𝑝. 𝑢. ) =
33 15.2 1.2813
11 2 𝑋𝑇1 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = = 𝑗0.9365
36.3
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 4.0333 Ω = 𝑗0.4187 Generator No. 3: 25
30
1.6 20.5 MVA, 6.6 kV, X” = 0.56
𝑋𝐺1 " (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 𝑋𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = = 𝑗0.5647 ohms
4.0333 36.3
= 𝑗0.3967 25
𝑋" = 0.56 ×
Alternate Method: 16 6.62
𝑋𝑇2 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = = 𝑗0.3214
36.3
30 = 𝑗0.4408 0.56
𝑋𝐺1 " (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 𝑗1.6 × 𝑋"(𝑝. 𝑢) =
112 1.2813
= 𝑗0.3967 = 𝑗0.4371
𝑎𝑡2 (15.2) Load B: 40 MW, 6.6 kV,
𝑋𝑇1 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 0.85 lagging power
4.0333
= 𝑗0.4187 factor

𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 30 𝑀𝑉𝐴
6.2
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = × 33
33
= 6.2 𝑘𝑉
6.22
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 1.2813
30
 𝑋𝑇2 (𝑝. 𝑢. )
1
= (𝑎𝑡2 × 16)
1.2813
= 𝑗0.4408
𝑋𝐺2 "
30 6.62
= 𝑗0.4132 × ×
15 6.22
= 𝑗0.9365
𝑋𝐺3 "
30 6.62
= 𝑗0.3214 × ×
25 6.22
= 𝑗0.4371

Note:
The reactance data of generators and transformers in usually specified in pu (or percent values), based on equipment ratings rather than in
actual ohmic values; while the transmission line impedances may be given in actual values.

Zone 1 Transformation (T1) Zone 2 Transformation (T2) Zone 3

Generator No.1: 30 MVA, 15 MVA (3-phase), Transmission Line: 20.5 15 MVA (3-phase), 33/6.2 Generator No.2: 15 MVA,
10.5 kV, X”= 0.435 33/11 kV, X = 0.209 ohms per phase kV, X = 0.220 6.6 kV, X” = 0.413
Load A: 40 MW, 11 kV, 0.9 30 𝑋𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) 30
𝑋𝑇1 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 0.209 × 1 𝑋𝑇2 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 0.220 ×
lagging power factor 15 15 Generator No. 3: 25 MVA,
= 𝑗0.418 = 20.5 × 2 = 𝑗0.5647 = 𝑗0.440
33 6.6 kV, X” = 0.3214
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) 30
(𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑤 ) Load B: 40 MW, 6.6 kV,
= 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑) × 0.85 lagging power factor
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑜𝑙𝑑
2
𝑘𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑑
× 2 30
𝑘𝑉𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑍𝐺2 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 0.413 ×
𝑍𝐺1 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 0.435 15
6.62
10.52 ×
× 6.22
112 = 𝑗0.936
= 𝑗0.396
 30
𝑍𝐺3 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 0.3214 ×
25
6.62
×
6.22
= 𝑗0.437
Problem 4.1:

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3

𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 100 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 100 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 100 𝑀𝑉𝐴
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 11 𝑘𝑉 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 220 𝑘𝑉 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 66 𝑘𝑉
112 2202 662
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 1.21 Ω 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 484 Ω 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 43.56Ω
100 100 100
11 × 1000 𝑗150 100 × 103
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 5,248.64 𝐴 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = = 𝑗0.3099 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 874.77 𝐴
√3 × 1.21 484 √3 × 66
100 × 103 𝑋𝑇2 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 𝑗0.08 Load: 60 kV, 60 MW, 0.9 pf lagging
= = 5,248.64 𝐴
√3 × 11
𝑋𝑇1 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 𝑗0.10 𝑀𝑊 60
Total impedance (𝑍𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ) = 𝑀𝑉𝐴 = =
Now, 𝑉𝐺𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) × 𝑍𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 cos 𝜃 0.9
= 1.5186∠42.770 × 0.7333∠ − 25.840 = 𝑋𝑇1 + 𝑋𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑋𝑇2 + 𝑋𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑀𝑉𝐴 60 × 103
= 1.2397∠25.840 + 𝑗0.4899 𝐼𝐿 = =
= 0.8446∠16.930 √3 × 𝑘𝑉 √3 × 60 × 0.9
= 1.1157 + 𝑗0.5403 + 𝑗0.4899
= 641.50∠ − 25.840 𝐴
∴ 𝑉𝐺𝐿𝐿 = 1.1136 × 11 = 12.25 𝑘𝑉 = 12 𝑘𝑉 = 1.1157 + 𝑗1.0302
60 × 103
𝑍𝐿 = = 54 ∠25.840 Ω
√3 × 641.50
𝑗54
𝑍𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = = 1.2397∠25.840
43.56
641.50
𝐼𝐿 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = = 0.7333∠ − 25.840
874.77
Problem 4.2:

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3

Generator: 40 MVA, 25 kV, X” = 20% Y-Y Transformer: 40 MVA, 33/220 kV, X = 15% Motor: 50 MVA, 11 kV, X” = 30%
100 252 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 100 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒3𝜙 = 100 𝑀𝑉𝐴
(𝑝. )
𝑋𝐺 𝑢. = 𝑗0.20 × × = 𝑗0.2869
40 332 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 220 𝑘𝑉 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 11 𝑘𝑉
2202 100
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 484 Ω 𝑋𝑀 (𝑝. 𝑢) = 𝑗0.30 × = 𝑗0.60
100 50
100
𝑋𝑤𝑦𝑒−𝑤𝑦𝑒 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 𝑗0.15 × = 𝑗0.375
40
Xline = 50 ohms
50
𝑋𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = = 𝑗0.1033
484

Delta –Wye Transformer: 30 MVA, 220/11 kV,

X – 15%
100
𝑋𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎−𝑤𝑦𝑒 (𝑝. 𝑢. ) = 𝑗0.15 × = 𝑗0.5
30

PROBLEMS

SECTION 3.1
3.1. (a) An ideal single-phase two-winding transformer with turns ratio 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑁1 ∕ 𝑁2 is connected with a series impedance 𝑍2 across winding 2. If
one wants to replace 𝑍2 , with series impedance 𝑍1 across winding 1 and keep the terminal behavior of the two circuits to be identical, find
𝑍1 in terms of 𝑍2 .

Solution: 𝑍1 = 𝑎𝑡2 𝑍2

(b) Would the above result be true if instead of a series impedance there is a shunt impedance?

Solution:

(c) Can one refer a ladder network on the secondary (2) side to the primary (1) side simply by multiplying every impedance by 𝑎𝑡2 ?

3.2. An ideal transformer with 𝑁1 = 1000 and 𝑁2 = 250 is connected with ad impedance 𝑍22 across winding 2. If 𝑉1 = 100∠00 𝑉 and 𝐼1 = 5∠ −
300 𝐴, determine 𝑉2 , 𝐼2 , 𝑍2 , and the impedance 𝑍2 ′, which is the value of 𝑍2 referred to the primary side of the transformer.

Solution:
𝑁2 250
𝑉2 = × 𝑉1 = × 100∠00 = 25∠00 𝑉
𝑁1 1000
𝑁1 1000
𝐼2 = × 𝐼1 = =4𝐴
𝑁2 250
𝑉2 25∠00
𝑍2 = = = 5∠300 Ω
𝐼2 5∠ − 300
1 2
𝑍2′ = 𝑎𝑡2 𝑍2 = ( ) × 5∠300 = 0.3125∠300 Ω
4

3.3. Consider an ideal transformer with 𝑁1 = 3000 and 𝑁2 = 1000 turns. Let winding 1 be connected to a source whose voltage is 𝑒1 (𝑡) =
100(1 − |𝑡|) volts for −1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1 and 𝑒1 (𝑡) = 0 for |𝑡| > 1 second. A 2-farad capacitor is connected across winding 2. Sketch
𝑒1 (𝑡), 𝑒2 (𝑡), 𝑖1 (𝑡), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖2 (𝑡) versus time 𝑡.
Solution:

3.4. A single-phase 100-kVA, 2400/240-volt, 60-Hz distribution transformer is used as a step-down transformer. The load, which is connected to
the 240-volt secondary winding, absorbs 60 kVA at 0.8 power factor lagging and is at 230 volts. Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate the
following: (a) primary voltage, (b) primary and secondary currents, (c) load impedance referred to the primary winding, and (d) complex
power supplied to the primary winding.

Solution:
𝑁1 2400
𝑉2 = 230 𝑉, 𝑉1 = × 𝑉2 = × 230 = 2300 𝑉
𝑁2 240
60000 𝑁2
𝐼2 = = 326∠ − 36.870 𝐴, 𝐼1 = × 𝐼2 = 32.6∠ − 36.870
230 × 0.8 𝑁1
𝑉2 230
𝑍2 = = = 0.71∠36.870 Ω
𝐼2 326∠ − 36.870
𝑍2′ = 𝑎𝑡2 𝑍2 = 71∠36.870

𝑆 = 𝑉11 𝐼1∗ = 𝑉2 𝐼2∗ = 2300 × 32.6∠36.870 = 74.98∠36.70 𝑘𝑉𝐴 = 230 × 326∠36.870

3.5. A single-phase 100-kVA, 2400/240-volt, 60 –Hz distribution transformer is used as a step-down transformer. The load, which is connected to
the 240-volt secondary winding, absorbs 110 kVA under short-term overload conditions at an 0.8 power factor leading and at 230 volts.

Solution:
𝑁1 2400
𝑉2 = 230 𝑉, 𝑉1 = × 𝑉2 = × 230 = 2300 𝑉
𝑁2 240
110000
𝐼2 = = 598∠36.870 , 𝐼1 = 59.8∠36.70
230 × 0.8
𝑉2 230
𝑍2 = = = 0.39∠ − 36.870 Ω
𝐼2 598∠36.870
𝑍2′ = 39∠ − 36.870 Ω
 𝑆 = 𝑉1 𝐼1∗ = 𝑉2 𝐼2∗ = 2300 × 59.8∠ − 36.87 = 137.54∠ − 36.870 𝑘𝑉𝐴

3.6. For a conceptual single-phase phase-shifting transformer, the primary voltage leads the secondary voltage by 300 . A load connected to the
secondary winding absorbs 110 𝑘𝑉𝐴 at an 0.8 power factor leading and at a voltage 𝐸2 = 277∠00 volts. Determine (a) the primary voltage,
(b) primary and secondary currents, (c) load impedance referred to the primary winding, and (d) the complex power supplied to the primary
winding.
Solution:
110 × 103
𝐸2 = 277∠00 , 𝐸1 = 277∠300 𝑉, 𝐼2 = = 496∠ − 36.870 , 𝐼1 = 496∠ − 6.870
277 × 0.8
𝐸2 277∠00
𝑍2 = = = 0.56∠36.870
𝐼2 496∠ − 36.870
𝐸1 277∠300
𝑍1 = = = 0.56∠36.870
𝐼1 496∠ − 6.870
𝑆 = 𝐸1 𝐼1∗ = 𝐸2 𝐼2∗ = 137.392 ∠36.870 𝑘𝑉𝐴

3.7. Consider a source of source voltage𝑣(𝑡) = 10√2 sin(2𝑡) 𝑉, with an internal resistance1800Ω. A transformer that can be considered as ideal
is used to couple a 50 Ω resistive load to the source. (a) Determine the transformer primary-to-secondary turns ratio required to ensure
maximum power transfer by matching the load and source resistances. (b) Find the average power load, assuming maximum power transfer.

Solution:

2.5.2. A balanced three-phase load is connected to a 4.16-kV, three-phase, four-wire, grounded-wye dedicated distribution feeder. The load can
be modeled by an impedance of 𝑍𝐿 = (4.7 + 𝑗9) Ω ∕ phase, wye-connected. The impedance of the phase conductors is (0.3 + 𝑗9) Ω. Determine
the following by using phase A to neutral voltage as reference and assume positive phase sequene.

a) Line currents for phases A, B, and C.

𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 4.16 𝑘𝑉
4160
𝑉𝐿𝑁 = = 2.4∠ − 300
√3
𝑍𝐿 = 4.7 + 𝑗9 = 10.2∠62.430
 4160∠−300
𝐼𝐴𝑁 = = 235.5∠ − 92.430
√3 × 10.2∠62.430

Therefore,
𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 235.5∠ − 92.430
𝐼𝐵𝐶 = 235.5∠ − 212.430
𝐼𝐶𝐴 = 235.5∠27.570
Example 9