Conservation Documentation and The Implications of Digitisation

Issue 7 Journal of Conservation and Museum Studies November 2001
CONSERVATION DOCUMENTATION AND THE IMPLICATIONS OF

DIGITISATION
Michelle Moore
MSc in Principles of Conservation, 2000
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY,
United Kingdom
ABSTRACT open up a world of information that was inaccessible

without them.
Conservation documentation can be defined as the What is not always recognised by the casual visitor
textual and visual records collected during the care to a museum, a cultural institution, or an archaeo-
and treatment of an object. It can include records of logical site is that objects change over time from the
the object’s condition, any treatment done to the ob- moment they are made until their disposal; this
ject, any observations or conclusions made by the change can be natural, such as metal corrosion which
conservator as well as details on the object’s past and alters surface colour and texture, or the change can be
present environment. The form of documentation is stimulated by the past use of the object by humans,
not universally agreed upon nor has it always been which yields either subtle wear marks or signs of
considered an important aspect of the conservation major alterations. The ability to recognise changes
profession. Good documentation tells the complete and interpret them accurately is important for they
story of an object thus far and should provide as themselves also contain information about our past.
much information as possible for the future re- Moreover, once an object enters a study collection it
searcher, curator, or conservator. might also undergo natural and/or deliberate changes.
The conservation profession will benefit from digit- These deliberate changes may come from work done
ising its documentation using software such as data- on the object to make it more recognisable for the
bases and hardware like digital cameras and scanners. observer, or more stable in its new environment, or
Digital technology will make conservation documen- to reveal additional information.
tation more easily accessible, cost/time efficient, and Conservators are trained to investigate objects us-
will increase consistency and accuracy of the recorded ing a variety of techniques that can answer many of
data, and reduce physical storage space requirements. the questions posed by the curator and/or archaeolo-
The major drawback to digitising conservation re- gist. Investigations are undertaken to ascertain if ob-
cords is maintaining access to the information for the jects are stable and what might affect their future sta-
future; the notorious pace of technological change has bility. It is also the conservator who is trained to be
serious implications for retrieving data from any ma- aware of changes to objects and rectify adverse
chine-readable medium. changes where necessary. Any information collected
through the course of this work should not, however,
INTRODUCTION be left to someone’s memory and therefore should be
recorded at the time of discovery in a form that will
As each new museum opens across the world, as be accessible for future research, consultation and
each new television program on archaeology and his- comparison The dilemma that archaeologists and
tory premiers, our interest in the past grows. People curators face is that detailed conservation information
are fascinated by history but they might not consider usually cannot be drawn from every object in a col-
how the information is gathered. Historians generally lection, as the resources available are often limited.
use written contemporary documents to reconstruct The process of documentation within our technol-
the past, but curators in museums and archaeologists ogy-driven world has changed dramatically due to the
rely more on objects to interpret how our ancestors introduction of computers into the workplace over the
lived. last thirty to forty years. The record-keeping of con-
The term ‘object’ can be defined as anything that is servation work can be positively changed if conserva-
made by humans and therefore has an intended use, tors fully embrace computers and digital technology.
whether it is symbolic or functional; for the purposes There are, nevertheless, many issues that must be
of this discussion it does not include other cultural taken into account before institutions and conserva-
property such as furniture that might be considered tion departments adopt new hardware and software;
objects. Curators and archaeologists seek to learn the way in which conservation information is docu-
about the manufacture, use, and ultimately disposal mented digitally should be carefully considered. In
of objects. The questions that can be asked of objects order to properly assess this issue, first the history of
from our past are seemingly endless and the answers conservation documentation and the data and tasks
© Michelle Moore 2000 1 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

that are recorded will be explored, followed by the 1935). A search of conservation literature has not
ethics that are involved in documentation; finally the turned up any such article. His paper, however,
technology that can be used by conservation profes- points to even earlier articles published in 1932 (La
sionals and the implications of its use will be ad- Conservation des Tableaux Contemporains, Mou-
dressed. seion, XX) and 1933 (Documents sur la Conservation
des Peintures, Les Dossiers de l’Office International
HISTORY OF CONSERVATION des Musées, No.2) which address the idea of how to
DOCUMENTATION report on the conservation of paintings.
1.1. What is conservation documentation 1.1.2. Early published journals

Conservation documentation can be defined in a va- By the mid-twentieth century, most museums had
riety of ways. In terms of remedial conservation, it is no standardised documentation procedures in their
the data collected during the entire course of treat- conservation departments nor any standing require-
ment in the conservation laboratory; preventive con- ments for any reporting to be done. In fact very few
servation documentation includes the data collected museums have consistent conservation records before
during the course of investigating an object’s or a the 1970s. Prior to this period it seems that docu-
collection’s stability in its environment. Conserva- mentation was sporadically done and when it was,
tion documentation can include recording the object’s the reports were sparse in terms of the data recorded.
condition, any treatment done to the object, any ob- Perhaps the best chance that an object had to be
servations or conclusions of the conservator as well completely documented was when the conservator
as any analytical work done. The data can be recorded planned to publish the work. In fact the editor of
in different ways such as written text and photo- Technical Studies commented on the need for more
graphs. But the form of documentation is not univer- consistent conservation documentation in 1934 at the
sally agreed upon nor has it always been considered beginning of a paper on the restoration of a specific
an important aspect of the profession. Good docu- painting. He stated that the author’s working record
mentation should provide a complete story of what was made only for the purposes of presenting it to
has happened to the object before it reached the insti- his museum and for publication; and his second
tution, while inside the institution, and while inside point was most striking for this early period, that
the conservation laboratory; it should provide as “until such records are consistently made and kept,
much information as possible for the future re- the care and treatment of paintings will have to be
searcher, curator, or conservator. carried on with a severe and quite unnecessary handi-
cap” (Ruhemann 1934).
1. 1. 1. First mention of documentation? Conservation work, therefore, in the early part of
It is difficult to determine when conservation this century was published within journals catering to
documentation was first conducted but there are early museum professionals. It was not until 1950 that the
descriptions of restoration conducted in the 16th cen- conservation profession had its own journal, Studies
tury but these are written by observers, not the restor- in Conservation, published by the International Insti-
ers themselves. The pioneers of modern conservation tute for Conservation giving conservation profession-
as we know it today, scientists like Rathgen, Scott als a specific forum for presenting their own work.
and Plenderleith do not mention the concept of
documentation in their work. In 1905 Rathgen was 1.2. What is documented
among the first to publish a paper detailing conserva- The process of conservation, both passive and ac-
tion work, The Preservation of Antiquities, but there tive, includes a wide variety of techniques, materials
is no mention of documentation within this paper. and treatments, all of which have changed and ex-
Similarly Scott’s report to the trustees of the British panded as research into conservation continues. As
Museum entitled The Cleaning and Restoration of documentation is aimed at recording information
Museum Exhibits (1926) does not note documenta- related to the object as well as the information re-
tion. In Plenderleith’s book published in 1934, coin- vealed by the object, there is a multitude of impor-
cidentally of the same title as Rathgen’s, there is also tant documentation categories. While documentation
an absence of this concept. The examples of specific is generally recognised throughout the conservation
objects’ treatment in these books may be considered profession, not all conservators know or agree on
the earliest documentation although they were in- what should be recorded. It has been left to the indi-
cluded merely to serve as illustrations. Another early vidual conservator or institution to decide, or for
source is the museum journal Technical Studies, professional bodies to provide guidelines which
which began in 1930 and it contains one of the earli- members are ethically required to follow. Each of the
est articles on documentation, “A Museum Record of following categories can be documented in a variety
the Condition of Paintings” (1935). This paper by of situations.
George Stout refers solely to the documentation of
painting conservation but he does refer to the fact that 1.2.1. Existing condition
a committee will be convened shortly to investigate The most important step in the conservation proc-
how to report on the conservation of objects (Stout ess is to document the existing condition of the ob-

ject; this is also the most frequently documented important to the archaeologist and/or curator who has
situation. The term “condition” refers to the state of brought the object to the conservation laboratory and
preservation of the object which is determined by a superficial identification may have already been
instability, damage and disfigurement (Miles 1990). made. It is up to the conservator to agree with the
Analysing the physical appearance of the object is the identification or to conduct more extensive tests in
key to what will happen while it is in the care of the order to assess the exact material composition and
conservator and therefore is crucial as a tool for deci- manufacturing technique. Included under this cate-
sion-making (Rickerby 1993). The physical appear- gory of data should be a description of material(s),
ance of the object will dictate what should be done to structure and method of fabrication by physical,
its physical environment and/or what should be done chemical and biological composition; and the type of
to the object to stabilise it. It also indicates whether analytical technique used to determine these data
any changes, obvious or subtle, have happened to the (IIC-AG 1968). The method of determination may be
object over time (Rose 1992); this presupposes that as simple as a magnifying glass or as sophisticated as
the conservator is aware of what the ideal original a scanning electron microscope, but it should always
appearance of the object was and can therefore com- be explicitly noted what type was used so there is no
pare the object before them to it or, if they are fortu- question as to how the identification was accom-
nate, to a previous condition report (Miles 1990). plished. Analytical techniques involving chemical
The condition before treatment or change to its envi- analysis are essential to document as they might in-
ronment should also be documented for comparison terfere with further analytical study of object includ-
purposes when the work has been completed. ing DNA sequencing or a dating method (Davis
The documentation of the pre-treatment condition 1994); if a researcher wishes to conduct these types of
should include any cracks, efflorescence or disfigure- investigations it is necessary to know what might
ment to the object (Buttler 1994); any sign of dam- interfere with their results.
age or wear, additions and losses, previous restora-
tion (Klim 1992); locations and extent of physical 1.2.4 Conservation methods used
defects, chemical alteration and its products (IIC-AG Every type of conservation work that a professional
1968); dimensional changes, colour change, insect does to an object involves a certain amount of risk of
damage, biodeterioration (Garrett 1989); to what ex- damage to the object; even proven methods may
tent, if any, the original surface is still present (Na- cause an unexpected reaction immediately or in the
tional Park Service 1990); and how the condition was future. The method of treatment is essential to docu-
determined i.e. what type of technique(s) were used, ment as it will affect the way in which any cause of
such as magnification (Miles 1987). The environment deterioration in the future is interpreted. Also, docu-
in which the object is housed normally should also menting methods of treatments allows the conserva-
be recorded in this report, including the temperature, tor to monitor and assess the effectiveness of the
relative humidity, light levels, pollution, location treatment in the future (Collins 1995). The remedial
within the institution, and packaging materials, if conservation techniques used in treating an object
any. If all of these criteria have been assessed then the must be documented completely, and any change to
conservator should be able to establish the cause of the environment, whether in the store or on display,
any deterioration to the object, that is, whether it is must also be acknowledged. Treatment techniques are
due to inherent instability of the object, the environ- a separate category of information from analytical
ment in which the object is kept, or to previous work techniques; the former includes methods of cleaning
done on the object including conservation or restoration. or stabilisation such as air abrasive cleaning or vac-
uum impregnation while the latter includes dating
1.2.2. Condition after treatment techniques and elemental analysis such as neutron
When treatment is completed, the condition of the activation analysis.
object should again be documented in order to com- Conservation methods may also include the addi-
pare to its pre-treatment condition; it is a form of tion or removal of material (te Marvelde 1999). Mate-
checking whether the object has actually improved rials that might be removed from an object, including
and most importantly whether it has now stabilised. corrosion products or past conservation/restoration
Therefore the same categories of information that treatments, can include information about past peri-
were addressed before treatment may once again be ods of use and care and therefore should be carefully
considered. documented and a sample kept of the material (te
Marvelde 1999). Reconstruction or restoration work
1.2.3. Material composition and technology should also be completely documented (Buttler
The analysis of the material composition of the ob- 1994). As mentioned in the previous section, all
ject as well as the technology used in creating it are methods used in treatment should be documented.
crucial to understanding the condition of the object.
Any work done on the object might be harmful if the 1.2.5. Materials used during treatment
material and manufacture are not properly assessed The types of materials that are used for conserva-
and documented, including potential decorations in tion treatment should be documented. This record
the form of fragile paint. This category, of course, is should not be limited to just the generic names of

those introduced into the object and that are intended The following reports would not necessarily be con-
to remain in the object such as adhesives and conducted in the sequence as presented below.
solidants. There are other materials an object is in
contact with that are not intended to remain with the 1.3.1. Pre-acquisition reports
object, such as electrolytic solutions and ultrasonic Before an object is purchased or a donation ac-
solutions, but these should also be documented. Any cepted by an institution, a condition report should be
contact with foreign materials might harm an object. drawn up as part of a pre-acquisition report. In this
Preventive conservation materials in the form of case attention will be paid to the description of the
mounts and packaging should also be documented. object in terms of its composition and fabrication in
An important aspect in documenting the materials order to assess whether the object is authentic (Buck
used during conservation treatment is to avoid using 1973). Also the institution should consider the con-
terminology that is colloquial and not specific to the dition of the object to examine whether it will need
material used. Proper brand names and a chemical extensive and costly conservation treatment prior to
breakdown of the material and its properties should being put into use. An institution might turn down
be given at least once during the course of documen- an object if it is in such poor condition that it will be
tation and while abbreviations may be used for the require costly conservation treatment.
sake of space and time efficiency, it should be en-
sured that only standardised, universal abbreviations 1.3.2. Archaeological excavation
are used (Horie 1990). There is no advantage in re- Documentation of the excavation of archaeological
cording a material if a future conservator or researcher objects is vital in establishing their proper care and
cannot identify the material. It is also important to conservation at the outset of their new ‘lives.’ The
include the manufacturer and/or supplier of the mate- type of soil and the environmental conditions of the
rial (American Institute for Conservation 1994) as objects in situ should be recorded along with the
each manufacturer may have a different chemical for- condition of the object as found. If this is done then
mula for a certain product which affects how that any potential problems can be foreseen and prepared
material performs and reacts to the object itself. for before the object is excavated or before the object
is packed for travel to the archaeological laboratory.
1.2.6. Administrative details Block-lifting procedures should be recorded along
This category of data is essential to the identifica- with any first-aid treatments that are applied during
tion of the object that is undergoing conservation excavation or immediately afterwards.
work and also contains information relating to the
conservation work. Administrative details that should 1.3.3. Condition report before/after treatment
be documented include: the date of when all the dif- Documentation should be done for every object that
ferent parts of the conservation treatment took place has been brought into the conservation laboratory
and the name of the conservator(s) (Grant 1994); the prior to having any treatment. At this time the exist-
accession number or other identifying numbers (Anon ing condition of the object should be recorded and if
1990); the amount of time that each part of the con- it has not been done at some previous time or if gaps
servation process took; other dates such as when it in knowledge seem to exist, the material composition
came into the laboratory, deadlines and the date of and technology used to manufacture the object should
completion of the conservation process (Corfield be documented. Additional documentation on the
1992); the owner and/or client for whom the work is condition of the object should take place after the
being conducted; its normal location including room completion of any conservation work. Observations
number and if necessary shelf number; and if, it is a and thoughts about any technological and art-
known work of art, then its title or name, the artist historical information that is uncovered in the course
who created it and the time period or exact date of examination should also be documented (Dollery
(Tonissen Mayberry 1988). 1996). In this report the environmental and storage
conditions in which the object is kept should also be
1.3. When should conservation documentation be recorded along with the recommended ideal condi-
collected tions (Collins 1995).
There are many opportunities for certain types of
conservation documentation to be reported. The types 1.3.4. Technical/analytical report
of documentation listed in section 1.2 are chosen Any time an object is subjected to technical or ana-
individually as appropriate to the situation that is lytical examination, the work should be documented
presented to the conservator at the time. The only (Garrett 1989). A description of the method should
time that all types of documentation would appear in be recorded to illustrate how the technique interacted
a report would be when the object is actually placed with the object. If a sample needs to be taken then
in a conservation laboratory for remedial treatment. It the exact location, composition and size of the mate-
is the sign of a well-organised institution with a rial to be removed must be documented. The sam-
good management plan and diligent collections care pling location should be limited to an obscure area if
that all of the following processes are implemented. possible and the size is dictated by the choice of pro-

cedure. A description of the conclusions of the ex- check should be conducted before it returns to its
amination should be included in the report. normal location on display or storage. Dates of depar-
ture and arrival at both institutions along with the
1.3.5. Treatment proposal appropriate names of personnel who were involved
A proposal for conservation treatment should be with the condition reports should be noted in the
drawn up after a condition report has been completed. loan report.
It is based both on the condition report and on what
the curator or archaeologist, acting as the client, de- 1.3.8. Pre-movement check
sires for the object as expressed in the request for An abbreviated condition check/report can be made
conservation. The proposal can detail the problems before any object is to be moved to another location
that the object has and how they might be corrected in the institution or to another institution. This con-
by specific conservation procedures; the expected dition report can highlight whether the object requires
results of the procedures should be noted as a justifi- special handling procedures or whether precautions
cation of the chosen methods (Orlofsky 1992). The must be taken in exposing the object to a different
date and the name of the conservator who proposed environment (Buck 1951). Any fragility noted which
the treatment should be recorded in the report; an would prevent it being moved safely must be re-
estimate of the time needed to complete treatment corded and a request for desired conservation work
and its cost can be given and the material resources should be sent if the object still requires movement.
that might be expended. The proposal is used to
show the client the option(s) for treatment and what 1.3.9. Condition survey
the result of the treatment will be (Maxson 1989); the For collections management purposes a condition
curator or archaeologist must then agree to the pro- survey is used to assess the condition of an entire
posed treatment or ask for changes based on what collection rather than an individual object (Keene
they have been presented. 1994). An abbreviated condition report should be
designed by the conservation department and used to
1.3.6. Treatment report record the condition of the collection. The survey is
Any type of conservation treatment that is done on not to be considered a detailed study of the condition
an object should be recorded in a detailed manner. of the objects but rather a superficial look at: how a
Materials used for fills, adhesives and consolidants collection is reacting to the environmental conditions
should be documented in a complete way as detailed that it is either stored or displayed in; if the packag-
in section 1.2.5 as well as any materials used during ing affects the objects; whether individual objects
conservation processes such as ultrasonic treatment need some form of conservation treatment; and what
and electrolysis. All conservation processes should be priority they should have in terms of attention from
completely documented no matter how insignificant. the conservation department. At the time of determin-
The date and sequence of the treatment should also be ing a priority level for the objects it is useful to
noted. Any moulding or casting of the object should compare their present condition to any reports on
also be recorded in this report (Buttler 1994). Any their past condition to assess whether they have been
mistakes or failures in a conservation treatment subjected to a slow deteriorating process or some
should also be noted in the treatment report as it will other factor.
be easier to deal with the mistake if it is known
rather than covered up (Dowman 1970), and may help 1.3.10. Insurance policies
explain future problems. For insurance purposes, a condition report that can
be used to estimate the value of the object (Orna
1.3.7. Loan reports 1982) and an up-to-date condition report should be
Whenever an object is to go on loan to another in- submitted whenever there is a change to the condition
stitution, whether for exhibition or for study, its of the object that might affect its monetary value.
condition should be documented prior to approval of Many professional conservators might balk at con-
the loan request (Marsh 1979). This condition check tributing to something which assigns a financial price
may indicate that the object is too fragile to travel to cultural property but it is an essential part of col-
without extensive stabilisation work or expensive lections management. If objects are damaged by fire
packaging and suitable shipping procedures. If the or flood, etc. the insurance can pay for the costs of
object is considered to be stable for travel the report conservation treatment to repair them.
should go with the object for comparison purposes.
One of the essential parts of the loan report is the 1.3.11. Security
recommended environmental conditions for the bor- Conservation documentation is essential for the
rowing institution. Prior to the object being returned protection of objects on archaeological sites or within
to the lending institution another condition report institutions. Objects that have been stolen from an
may be produced or the object may once again be institution or looted from an archaeological site are
compared to the original condition report sent with rarely recovered if there is no documentation in place
it, and any changes should be noted. Once the object to identify them categorically from other similar ob-
returns to the lending institution another condition jects (Thornes 1997). A condition report is ideal to

identify an object that may have been stolen or looted information and terminology are standardised
as it describes exactly the object’s appearance and its (Collins 1995). The check-list style form is very
material composition. Distinguishing features will structured and user friendly for two reasons: it is
have been noted in the condition report along with simple to retrieve information from it; and the pre-
unique signs of damage, defects or disfigurement printed lists are separated into different category
(Schmitt 1997). boxes on the page which prompts the user to record
certain information. This style, however, is not very
1.4. Documentation Methods flexible to any changes in routine work; the form also
There are as many ways to document conservation has to be extremely detailed in order for all possibili-
work as there are situations when data should be ties of deterioration and damage, for example, to be
documented. There is no universal agreement covered (Perry 1983). Each speciality within conser-
amongst conservators on what form is best suited for vation, such as paintings, paper or objects, docu-
documentation. There have been some attempts at ments unique types of damage. A multitude of forms
standardisation of documentation, most notably by would also need to be drawn up to cover the different
The Museum Documentation Association in Britain, situations in which conservation documentation
but it seems that conservators and institutions have should be recorded.
chosen to personalise the way in which they docu- A combination of the two styles seems to be the
ment their own work. There are two methods to best compromise but due to the ever changing nature
document conservation work, textual and visual of conservation with new treatments and new ideas
documentation, both of which can be in multiple entering the profession, designing an ideal form is an
formats and are usually used in conjunction. The ongoing process (Marsh 1979).
choice of methods in which work is documented is
up to the discretion of the conservator based on the 1.4.2. Visual documentation
object that they are working on. Another way of documenting the condition of an
object or its treatment is visually, and photography is
1.4.1. Textual documentation one of the most effective methods. There are many
There are two forms that written documentation can different ways in which to photograph an object; the
take when recording conservation work: a free-text, first step is to consider why the photograph is being
essay style of reporting or an abbreviated check-list taken. Photographs can be black-and-white, colour or
style. Both have their own advantages and disadvan- they can be processed as slides; they can encompass
tages and may be used in combination or alone. their entire object or they can show details. Different
A free-text, essay style form records the conserva- kinds of photography, such as raking light, infra-red,
tion work in either a sentence structure or a point reflected or ultraviolet light, can be used to convey or
form structure on an open page; the documentation reveal information invisible to the naked eye (Na-
reads as a narrative of how the object has been cared tional Park Service 1990). The intention of a photo-
for. This style is flexible as it allows the decision of graph can be: to illustrate the extent and location of
recording information to be left to the conservator but damage and/or deterioration; to show details of new
it is also time-consuming and labour-intensive or old information contained in the object; to indicate
(Wentz 1995) as there can be a lot of repetitive ac- the size of the entire object or the normal location of
tions in some treatments. The conservator must write the object; to portray how it is being treated during
out everything about the object by hand in a structure conservation work; to show the colouring of certain
that is understandable yet concise; one necessity for parts of the object or the entire object; and, amongst
useful and accessible documentation is for the hand- many others, to illustrate analytical or technical work
writing to be legible. Free-text style documentation or results.
seems to be easier to add subsequent treatments and Consideration must be given to lighting whenever
investigations as it is organised by date; however, it comparative photographs are taken as lighting will
is difficult to search for a specific item of informa- have a great effect on the results; the position of the
tion. Free-style forms allow for much more detailed light, the light source, filter, film and magnification
evaluation of the work being done to the object or its should all remain constant (Newton 1989). A colour
environment and allows for the observations, expla- scale and metric scale should always accompany a
nations and conclusions of the conservator to be re- photograph. If quick-processing film such as Polaroid
corded. This type of form is described as “the ideal is being used to document the condition and treat-
recording medium” for describing the object and its ment of an object, notes can be made directly onto
conservation “as graphically and as easily as possi- the photograph.
ble” (MDA Conservation Working Party 1977). Another type of visual documentation is an illustra-
The check-list style of documentation form has be- tion which is usually drawn in pencil alongside the
come more popular in use for several reasons. It is written description of the object’s condition, given a
simple to read as the form is pre-printed in type set scale, title, date and signed by the conservator. Illus-
and the conservator needs only to check off the in- trations can be used alone or to supplement photog-
formation that applies to the object; it is a quicker raphy but are generally used to clarify information
way of documenting information and ensures that the such as location and extent of damage detailed in the

condition or treatment report (Karsten 1995). Details manual retrieval system is that it is too time-
such as where, exactly, a type of chemical was ap- consuming to be feasible. With some laboratories
plied to the object or where and how long a given treating up to several thousand objects a year, a card
crack is, can be shown accurately using an illustration index soon becomes overwhelmingly large; the job of
which will usually record scaled measurements. The transferring information to the different subject card
illustration might show the entire object or a section indexes can also be overwhelming and the adminis-
of it and can be paired with general and detailed pho- trator of it may be prone to mistakes or omissions.
tographs. Illustrations are usually considered to be
useful for showing the pre-treatment condition of an 1.6. Conclusions
object rather than an after treatment condition mainly Conservation documentation emerged before the
because of the length of time that can be devoted to beginning of modern scientific conservation and has
an illustration; and many conservators will use a pho- evolved from a sporadic activity done generally for
tograph to document after-treatment condition rather publication or as a report for an institution. Record-
than an illustration. Illustrations, done properly, will ing conservation related investigations is a time-
take time but the effort will be appreciated. consuming undertaking given the amount of informa-
A third type of visual documentation is X- tion that needs to be documented. In order for con-
radiography which can be used to illustrate the inter- servation documentation to have any purpose it must
nal structure/condition of a complex object or to in- be done diligently and by a trained professional.
vestigate concretions. X-radiographs are able to ‘see There are many decisions to be made about what type
through’ the surface of certain types of materials and of report and information is appropriate to collect for
show what cannot be seen by the naked eye. A film a specific situation and in what form the data should
that is similar to photographic film is generally used be recorded. The conservator must decide how infor-
to record the image (Cronyn 1990) but digital X- mation such as condition and treatment procedures
radiography has now become commercially available. are going to be visually and textually documented.
X-radiographs should be labelled in the same format
as photographs and illustrations, but in addition the ETHICS
choice of voltage used and its source, the length of
exposure to the X-rays along with the type of film 2.1. Who documents conservation work
used should be documented (Cronyn 1990). Documentation of the conservation process is ex-
pected to be done by every professional, and it is
1.5. Retrieval Of Information dependent neither on what type of object is being
Using traditional paper records, the main methods treated nor on who is doing the treatment. Conserva-
of retrieving specific information from the documen- tors can be superficially divided into two groups
tation is by instituting a card index or a punch card which might affect how documentation is viewed;
system. Each of these systems involve the conserva- they can be either a private conservator who works for
tion information being listed in point-form on small or runs a private business or they can be a public
paper cards which are searched manually. Card index conservator, one who works for a public institution.
systems are compiled by first choosing the field of
information that the index will be sorted by; main 2.1.1. Private conservators
fields such as conservation laboratory numbers and It was not until the 20 th century that conservation
materials are the most common, but others such as became a true profession. It was first taught as a sub-
date of examination and client may be used. This ject in fine art and archaeology university courses by
system means that duplicates of each object conserva- the 1930s. The advent of modern professional con-
tion card will have to be made for the number of in- servation can be dated generally to the mid-twentieth
dices that object is related to. Punch card systems century and to the formation in 1950 of first major
only maintain one object card but that card is international group of conservators, the International
punched at the top so that a hole is immediately ap- Institution for Conservation (IIC). Prior to the 20th
parent to the searcher. The location of the hole along century, conservation was conducted by private indi-
the top of the card relates to the type of information viduals who were artists who specialised in the resto-
that has been chosen to be searchable. ration of the art form in which they were trained; this
There are many advantages and drawbacks to these practice dates back to at least the Renaissance. Public
manual retrieval systems which can be mainly solved institutions such as the British Museum and National
by the installation of a computer database. While a Gallery did not exist before the eighteenth century
card system is always available for searching, the therefore any artist who performed restoration work
person must be in the same room as the cards and it was commissioned, typically, by the wealthy owner
can be time-consuming to search through the card file of the work of art. Private conservators are still at
by hand. A searcher can only benefit from a manual work today; more often they are commissioned by
system if the required information is one of the fields private collectors or public institutions that have need
set up for retrieval. Lastly the conservation informa- of more specialised expertise.
tion can be written on archival-quality card stock and The dilemma of the private conservator is that often
permanent, fade-proof ink. The greatest criticism of a they are paid only when conducting work on the

commissioned object. Sometimes clients do not de- the available resources at museums, archaeological
sire details of the conservation work or will not pay sites and other institutions. In the past it was only
for the time it takes to complete the documentation. the curator and a few researchers who might come
Not every client, however, sees conservation docu- into contact with the objects but now there is an in-
mentation as needless and extraneous to the conserva- creased demand from the public to use the collections
tion work. This is an issue not normally discussed (Chenhall 1978). This means that the institutional
with respect to conservation documentation. One professionals, including conservators, have become
private conservator, however, has stated that many of increasingly aware of their responsibilities in collec-
his early clients were seen to toss the detailed docu- tions care. Institutions have had to raise their level of
mentation into the garbage on their way out of the care and management as their collections receive more
lab and so now he includes in his contracts a space attention from those who pay for them. The main
for the client to indicate if they require a report difference therefore between private and public con-
(Thompson 1998). He has now decided to charge for servators is their obligation to the public and its
this report so that his time and resources are not ramifications.
wasted. He further states that not one institution or
dealer has ever requested a report and very few private 2.1.3. Non-conservation professionals
clients ever have. Not all conservation activities are conducted by
The main reason why private clients, including trained conservators within an institution, public or
dealers, might not want to keep conservation docu- private. There are many other museum professionals
mentation relates solely to the financial value of their and non-professionals who can be found doing some
art work. If the dealer or client wishes to sell the art of the activities involved in conservation such as
work then they may believe that its value will de- conservation surveys and even treatments. Volun-
crease if it is known that evidence of the object’s teers, students, collections managers, registrars and
authenticity or integrity might be compromised. curators can be found doing work that conservators
Therefore a private collector or auction house would are trained to do. Often as part of other museum
not want any conservation work to become public training programs conservation is part of the curricu-
and might decline to have any proof of the alterations lum, usually in the form of preventive conservation
documented. A quick search of the Christie’s and although the students in the program may be trained
Sotheby’s Web sites finds few objects that have the to document damage and deterioration as well as the
terms “conservation,” “restoration,” or “reconstruc- causes behind it. Volunteers and students should
tion” mentioned amongst their descriptions. have been trained in basic procedures and their level
The decisions of the client should not stop the pri- of skills should dictate which conservation activities
vate conservator from keeping their own work book they can participate in.
of conservation treatment and observations during the
course of their work. It is normal for a conservator to 2.2. Underlying principles
keep a note book of their work in the laboratory and It is one thing to read the code of ethics and abide
this tradition may be continued whether a complete by the guidelines for proper conservation practice but
report is to be drawn up for the client or not. While in order for a conservator to conduct themselves ethi-
this workbook may be seen to fulfil the requirements cally at all times he/she must understand why the
of the profession, it does not take away from the fact ethics were put in place. Why must conservators
that the documentation might not be kept with the document all of their work? We know that objects
object so that it may be consulted at any point in the contain information about our past, that any work
future. There is less of an onus on the private conser- done to an object can change it and therefore the work
vator to keep all the documentation of an object for might change how the information appears to the
the foreseeable future when the object is no longer in researcher. Information might disappear or be hidden
their care or if a certain number of years have passed. by the changes to the object and it is this integrity of
the object that conservators are attempting to protect
2.1.2. Public conservators by documenting conservation activities.
Conservators who work in a public institution are
bound by the legal mandate of that institution which 2.2.1. Integrity
has implications on the conduct of their work. Public For the purposes of this discussion integrity can
institutions are often supported financially by some described as the nature of an object in the sense of its
level of the government, which in turn receives its physical remains, its function or use during its life-
revenue from the tax payers; therefore public institu- time and the meaning(s) that these convey. If an ob-
tions are responsible to its citizens. The professionals ject is changed so that it incorrectly represents what
working in the institution have a legal obligation to the object should have originally looked like, then its
take care of the collections to the best of their abili- integrity is compromised. Hence the information it
ties as well as having an onus to fulfil the require- conveys is equally compromised. This often happens
ments of their profession. with incorrect restorations and reconstructions. It
Public institutions are more than ever in the public seems that all codes of ethics agree that the integrity
eye as the public has developed a greater awareness of of the object should not be compromised and so they

recognise the basic premise that if the object’s integ- within the conservation profession. Conservation
rity is protected then so should the information about documentation is one of the main ethical principles
the past. Conservators are therefore instructed to re- stated in the guidelines of these bodies.
spect the integrity of the object they are treating and
consider whether their work will interfere with it. 2.3.1. International Council of Museums (ICOM)
This organisation is one that crosses national bor-
2.2.2. Maintaining context of documentation ders and as such it is to the Council’s code of ethics
In order to maintain the integrity of an object that conservators can turn if their nation does not
which undergoes conservation treatment, the docu- have its own professional code. The International
mentation created with it should be kept with the Council of Museums, however, is dedicated to the
object. If one is separated from the other, the signifi- entire workings within a museum; for this reason its
cance of both has disappeared. Researchers wishing to code must encompass a wide variety of activities
study a certain object will almost certainly want to therefore it does not contribute a large amount of
view the documentation of the object’s care as it guidance to conservation documentation. Under the
might be pertinent to their investigations. For a re- section entitled “Conservation and Restoration of
searcher to form a complete picture of the object all Collections,” conservation professionals are advised
of the documentation should be studied and it there- to be familiar with the ethical issues expressed in the
fore has to be accessible. There is no point to keeping codes of professional conservation bodies; in the next
data which will not be consulted; if documentation is section, “Documentation of Collections,” it is stated
not accessible then it might as well have not been that proper recording and documentation should be
written. Once an object has left a conservation labora- done in accordance with the “internal rules and con-
tory, if the object documentation does not go with it, ventions of the museum” (ICOM 1986). The code of
the connection between the object and the record is ethics does not explicitly addresses a standard for
lost. conservation documentation but rather leaves that for
the conservation professional bodies and the muse-
2.2.3. Long-term preservation of documentation ums in which they work.
Following on from the previous section, if a re-
searcher needs to view the documentation about an 2.3.2. American Institute for Conservation of His-
object then the record should be in a form that is toric and Artistic Works (AIC)
readable as well as being accessible (Webster 1990). This national conservation body has provided ex-
There are important long-term preservation issues that plicit guidelines on how conservation documentation
underlie the ethics of documentation and the codes of should be conducted starting with its first code of
ethics and guidelines for practice agree that the mate- practice, The Murray Pease Report, written in 1963.
rials chosen for the documentation of conservation The code of ethics states that the conservation profes-
activities should be archivally stable. All the different sional is obligated to “produce and maintain accurate,
forms of documentation, especially photography, complete, and permanent records of examination,
must be chosen for their durability and ability to be sampling, scientific investigation, and treatment”
preserved because it must be able to survive as long (AIC 1994). The code of practice states that appropri-
as the corresponding object. Archivally processed ate records should be made before any intervention,
black and white prints will last longer than colour that a treatment plan should be prepared, and that
slides (National Park Services 1990) and Kodachrome dated documentation during treatment should be re-
film is more stable than Ektachrome; the film should corded (AIC 1994).
be printed on fiber-based paper rather than resin-
coated paper (Sloan 1987). Hand-written textual de- 2.3.3. Australian Institute for the Conservation of
scriptions must use pens that will not fade nor run if Cultural Material (AICCM)
touched by water (Palacios 1990) and the paper must This national organisation states in its code of eth-
be acid-free. The documentation should be kept in an ics that the conservator should “strive to attain the
environment that is favourable to its long-term pres- highest standards in all aspects of conservation, in-
ervation and monitored to safeguard its data. cluding…documentation” (AICCM 1986). Its guid-
ance for practice states that appropriate records should
2.3. Codes of ethics and guidelines for practice be made: after a thorough examination of the object
Notwithstanding the practical reasons why we and before any conservation treatment is done; when
document conservation work there are also ethical a sample needs to be taken; for a treatment proposal;
reasons. Ethics can be defined as the moral principles prior to the removal of material; and when a restora-
and values that are established to guide our behav- tion or reconstruction is to be made (AICCM 1986).
iour. Since activities within the boundaries of con-
servation and museum work are not covered by laws, 2.3.4. United Kingdom Institute for Conservation
ethics are needed to guide the work of conservation (UKIC)
professionals. These ethics are put forward by na- This national body is divided into different sec-
tional and international bodies who concern them- tions which govern each speciality within the conser-
selves with maintaining integrity and standards vation profession in the United Kingdom. Most of

the sections such as furniture, ceramics and glass, and work on them, determining the resources needed for
metal are governed by a general code of ethics and the future and determining the resources already ex-
guidance for practice while the archaeology section pended during conservation (Miles 1988). Private
has its own code. In the archaeology section’s guid- conservators and institutions can use their documen-
ance for practice, documentation is required to record: tation to illustrate their skills and abilities in conser-
an object’s condition and history; the methods and vation; it can also justify the professional fees which
materials used; and all restorations (UKIC Archae- are charged, thereby permitting the client to see the
ology Section 1990). work involved in treating the object (Sloan 1987).
Documentation, especially the visual aspects, are
2.3.5. Canadian Association for Conservation useful to illustrate that work has been done to the
(CAC) object when no difference is apparent to the client; it
It is from Canada’s codes that the Australian Insti- will also be useful for insurance purposes if a client
tute for Conservation borrowed many of its ideas for claims that the object has been damaged as a result of
writing its own code of practice (AICCM 1986). the treatment. Most of these misunderstandings grow
Canada’s national code of ethics states that “the con- out of the fact that the client may not be as inti-
servator shall strive to attain the highest standards in mately familiar with the object as the conservator
all aspects of conservation including…documenta- comes to be.
tion” (CAC 2000). In Canada’s separate guidance for Documentation can be used to decide if an object
practice it is stated that the conservator is obligated should go on loan; if it is stable enough even to
to document all details of a cultural property’s con- transport to a different area of the institution; if the
servation including: initial examination; the creation institution should acquire an object; or if it is a
of a treatment proposal; treatment; removal of mate- treatment priority as indicated by the recommenda-
rial; and restoration and reconstruction (CAC 2000). tions of a condition survey. It can also be used to
claim ownership in case of theft. Examples of good
2.4. Uses of conservation documentation documentation can also help institutions secure fund-
There are many uses for documentation collected ing under schemes which require it as part of their
during conservation work beyond the obvious preser- application (Museum Documentation Association
vation of the information contained in an object. 1999).
Documentation is also a memory aid for the conser-
vator to remind him/her what has been done to the 2.4.2. Scientific or research uses
object and the ambient environmental conditions in Documentation is essential to developing new
which it is housed. More non-professionals and methods for treatment and new materials to use in
members of the public have begun to look at this treatment (te Marvelde 1999); conservators must
collection of data and so future unforeseen uses must know what has been done to objects and what has
be considered. Therefore the conservator must not been used and their success before they can develop
discard information because it is not useful today, in new treatments and apply new materials. The records
the event that it is needed in the future. The potential can be used to monitor and assess the effectiveness of
uses of documentation can be divided into two main past treatments and materials (Collins 1995) by peri-
categories: management or administrative use; and odic checks on the collection and comparison of the
scientific or research use. condition reported after treatment to the object’s ex-
isting condition. It is also therefore used to monitor
2.4.1. Management or administrative uses deterioration to evaluate the object’s environment.
Documentation can help assess the significance of Documentation is used to record the technical, his-
the collection and help formulate policy on future torical and scientific information that was uncovered
conservation planning by establishing priorities for by examination of the object and can therefore be
objects to be treated (Cunliffe 1994). Having a com- used by a researcher rather than studying the object
plete record of the care of an object in an institution itself. It can be used to indicate when the last time
is necessary, especially in a public institution, to the object received attention by a conservation profes-
demonstrate “accountability and compliance with sional and to determine if its condition dictates more
legislation and conventions” (Davis 1994). Documen- care.
tation on the object’s environment can be used to Education specialists in museums as well as teach-
plan future attempts at limiting continuing deteriora- ers use the collections to bring history to life for
tion (Hill Stoner 1990) or to determine the suitability school children as well as university students
of the routine of maintenance and care (Garrett 1989). (Hoffmann 1992). In order for these professionals to
The reports are used to determine whether any dam- find useful objects to illustrate what they would like
age has been done to an object while on loan or on to discuss, conservation documentation should be
display by illustrating the condition of the object used. Objects should not be exposed to excess han-
prior to going on loan or on display. dling that a search to find just the right object would
Documentation is used to manage the object by entail. Complete documentation can aid the conserva-
keeping track of its location in and around the con- tor in future conservation work by choosing treat-
servation department, by assigning conservators to ments that will not interfere with or be interfered by

previous treatments (Sloan 1987). Documentation can tables which are ‘related’ to each other by a common
be used to extract historical information about the shared field (Quigley 1998). Relational databases are
conservation profession by studying when certain the preferred choice for storing and managing infor-
materials or certain methods were used and on what mation as flat file database will not distinguish be-
materials. Conservators can use the information re- tween treatments conducted on two different occa-
corded on previous occasions to indicate which path sions (Keene 1996). Relational databases, while be-
the next course of treatment should take (French ing more complex with the number of different ta-
1988). bles, are more flexible and efficient; for example one
table can be used to document information about
2.5. Conclusions conservators in the department, when one conserva-
It is agreed by all national and international govern- tor’s name is filled in for a new object the rest of the
ing bodies involved in conservation that documenta- information about the conservator can be called up
tion of all activities is a practical duty and an ethical immediately without typing it in again (Keene 1996).
obligation. No professional practising conservator is A flat file database, however is easy to set up, under-
exempt from this whether they work privately or in a stand and maintain.
public institution. The conservator is obligated to Conservators have been using database management
keep permanent documentation of all conservation systems to document information since the late
procedures in order to protect the integrity of the ob- 1960s in the United Kingdom when the British Mu-
ject and must strive to ensure that the documentation seum instituted BMUSE on a small computer in the
stays with the object. Documentation should be made Research Laboratory for the storage and retrieval of
in a form that is archivally stable so that it will be information. The next prominent software database
accessible to researchers indefinitely. The multitude that was created was SELGEM at the Smithsonian
of uses of documentation for management, adminis- Institute in the late 1970s. Many institutions are now
trative, scientific or research uses ensures that docu- considering, if not having already created, their own
mentation will remain a necessary component of con- database management systems to use for conservation
servation practice and will become more important as documentation. Museums have embraced databases
more uses emerge. for collections management but conservation docu-
mentation is more complicated due to the number of
DIGITISATION OF CONSERVATION situations and forms that it can take.
DOCUMENTATION
3.1.2. Digital cameras
3.1. Technology used in conservation documenta- This new technology is proving to be very popular
tion as it is easy to use and allows more flexibility with
Digitisation, the process of converting data into a the end-product. Digital cameras do not use film but
digital format, is being embraced by the conservation rather a memory chip or floppy disk which stores the
world. Information is in a digital format when it is image in a digital format to be later downloaded onto
recorded, processed, and stored by computer-related a computer. Digital images can be viewed on the
media in binary code (as 0s and 1s). The two princi- camera before they are saved and therefore the conser-
ple methods of conservation documentation, textual vator can decide if the image actually shows what
and visual, are perfectly transferable to computers and they intended it to show. Once transferred to com-
computer-related software and hardware. Computers puter, with imaging software, such as Adobe Photo-
make it much easier to write and edit reports as well shop, the image can be manipulated. Digital cameras
as manage information contained in databases (Sayre allow the user to take black-and-white as well as col-
1986); image capture, storage and manipulation are our pictures but the imaging software allows the user
now possible as well. The three main technological to convert colour images into black-and-white. En-
tools which are currently being used are databases, largements can be made of the images with commen-
digital cameras and scanners. surate loss of image resolution (Agfa 2000). Images
can be cropped to take out the background or to show
3.1.1. Databases one specific area. The possibility of instant pictures
A database is a collection of organised, related infor condition reports and treatment reports, whether
formation; paper card systems that are used to ma- stored on computer or printed is practical. A photo-
nipulate, organise and retrieve information are data- graphic paper printer can also be purchased for use in
bases. The type of database that we are more familiar the conservation laboratory therefore making it possi-
with is the form that can be accessed and manipulated ble to have immediate pictures that can be photocop-
by computer software where the information is in a ied and written on or directly labelled. While the
digital format. initial costs can be high (between US$400-US$1000
There are two principle types of database, flat file for a reasonable higher quality camera and Adobe
and relational, that can be used for conservation Photo-shop, for example, can cost up to US$600),
documentation. All the data in a flat file database is the costs will be recovered as there is no more devel-
kept in one file in a single table (Keene 1996) while a oping costs or film costs, lost photographs or poor
relational database keeps its information in separate shots.

3.1.3. Scanners become increasingly commonplace; they both have

Scanners are used to transfer an existing paper im- similar properties. A compact disk is composed of a
age or document into a digital format after which the thin hard plate usually made from polycarbonate
scan be manipulated using an imaging software pro- which is a very stable thermoplastic (Bansa 1991).
gram. A conservation department can use a scanner if One side of the compact disk is used for storing in-
they want to transfer their existing photographic ar- formation in the form of pits or holes in the polycar-
chive onto the computer as well to continue to keep bonate; the pits form an extremely long spiral start-
their manual camera in use. The initial outlay of ing at the inner part of the plate and continuing to the
money for a scanner ranges from US$100 to over outer edge. The pits alternate with spaces and it is in
US$2000, although they are usually bundled with an these pits where the information is contained. The
image manipulation software program. It is up to the pits, although only 0.1µm in depth, are read by a
conservation department to decide which features are laser beam and cause reflection when the laser beam
needed for the department and that will determine hits them; there is no reflection when the laser beam
costs; additional features might include a 35mm slide hits the flat spaces (Bansa 1991). It is the difference
scanner (Wingard 1996). of energy between the reflection and non-reflection
that forms the binary code representing letters, pic-
3.2. Permanence of information tures and sounds (Bansa 1991). The side of the poly-
As much as paper and photographic documentation carbonate disk containing the information is covered
must be maintained for future research and consulta- by a layer of metal, usually aluminium, which aids
tion, so too must any documentation stored digitally. in forming a reflective surface; on top of this metal is
Any data kept in a digital format is machine-readable a clear layer of acrylic lacquer for protection from
only. It is not the digital information that will dete- scratches and dust (Kodak 2000).
riorate over time but rather the material on which the
information is stored. Presently, there are two princi- 3.2.3. Storage capacity and longevity
ple formats for storage: magnetic media and optical Long-term storage of magnetic tapes, whether in
media. the form of floppy disks, zip disks or hard disks, is
generally thought to be between fifty and one hun-
3.2.1. Magnetic media dred years as long as the proper storage conditions are
Magnetic media stores information in ferromagnetic used. As well as wear and tear, other factors such as
fields on a polyethylene film (Smith 1991). The keeping the tapes away from magnets and related
fields magnetise tiny particles of the surface of the machinery and reducing pollutants, food, moisture in
film to represent 0s and 1s, the basic binary code the area where magnetic tapes are held or used
used in computers to represent letters, numbers, pic- (Stielow 1992) will ensure that the data can be read
tures and sounds. Every 0 is represented by a magnet in the future. Floppy disks are small portable disks
pointing in a certain direction while every 1 is repre- and have a capacity of 1.44 megabytes (MB: one
sented by a magnet pointing in the opposite direc- million bytes) of information; zip disks are similar in
tion. To obtain information from the magnetic film, size to floppy disks but slightly thicker and can store
the computer uses a device to translate the magnetic up to 250MB of data. Hard disks are the internal
fields of the tiny magnets back into code. storage mechanisms that are contained inside com-
Floppy disks, hard disks, and zip disks are all puters; they can hold up to 60 gigabytes (GB: one
magnetic media. There is a substrate layer and a thin billion bytes).
binder layer; it is in the binder layer where the mag- Optical media, in the form of compact disks, have
netic particles are found while the substrate layer is been given the same longevity range as the magnetic
the base that provides support for the fragile binder media. Compact disks that are writeable and rewrite-
layer (Riss 1996). The base layer for floppy disks is able are now extremely popular as they offer a rela-
polyester while the binder layer is “a complex mix- tively tough and resistant medium that can be repeat-
ture of plastic, resin, magnetic particles, solvents, edly written over with no loss of resolution or data
wetting agents, plasticisers, anti-oxidants, lubricants, (Stielow 1992) and the rewriteable ability allows for
mineral powders, fungicides and sometimes conduc- changes and additions to the data. Compact disks are
tive particles” (Riss 1996). Many of these ingredients subject to scratches and so careful handling is impor-
are there for reasons other than storing information. tant. Their environment should be kept free of food,
The fungicides are present to prevent mould growth, drink, and pollutants. Storage capacity of the com-
the plasticisers are added to maintain flexibility of pact disk is around 600MB which is equivalent to
the tape while others are there to prevent or reduce 200,000 pages of text or 15,000 compressed images
friction, abrasion and static charge build-up (Riss at low resolution (Mackenzie 1993).
1996).
3.3. Hardware And Software Obsolescence
3.2.2. Optical media With the ability to re-copy digital information
The CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Mem- without loss of data, and as long as the medium is
ory) is the principle type of optical media used in stored in proper conditions, the only preservation
computers and recently writable compact disks have issue involved is the speed of change in technology.

Digital information can only be read through some of research documents (Hedstrom n.d.). But this way
type of machine and access to it is therefore depend- of preserving digital information is easier than migra-
ent on the preservation of the machine and function- tion as there is less of an onus on finding properly
ing software. The quick turn-over of technology and formatted new software; harvesting should only be
software and hardware obsolescence, however, means the method of choice if it is only the raw information
that it will be more difficult to maintain the machine and not the structure and software capabilities that is
and software to read the information. As new and important to be preserved.
better technologies emerge, computer experts will
embrace them and generally abandon the older soft- 3.4. Choosing and designing a database
ware programs and hardware; the manufacturers will There are certain decisions to be made by a conser-
inevitably cease to make replacement parts for older vator or an institution prior to choosing the form of
hardware and soon knowledge of the older software the database system. The first step is to examine the
programs will diminish. Maintaining an archive of current documentation practices by surveying the
obsolete software and hardware has been dismissed forms that are used for the various conservation ac-
by experts to be too expensive and not feasible (Hed- tivities and deciding, in consultation with the users
strom n.d.). The current standard period of techno- of the forms, whether the forms fulfil current and
logical obsolescence is in between two to five years future needs (Abt 1986). If the users request changes
which means that maintaining access to the data will to the forms then modifications should be made be-
be an ongoing responsibility (Garrett 1996). fore the software and hardware of the database are
The simple answer to preserving information on chosen. It should also be decided if the users will
computer-related media would be to simply ‘print it input their observations and work directly into the
out’ but there is a “loss of functionality” for some database or first take notes and then transfer the in-
kinds of information. The printed versions will no formation to the computer because this will affect
longer have active hypertext links or the ability to how the system is designed (Abt 1986). In a related
search a document by keyword (Kuny 1998); paper point, it must be decided if the computerised system
cannot represent a database or GIS (geographic infor- will completely replace the paper documentation or
mation system) or replicate the non-linear movement continue alongside. If paper documentation is contin-
through a web page (Bennett 1997). So a different ued, the designers must decide if it should be modi-
solution must be found. Professionals have agreed fied to make it easier to digitise in the future (Keene
that preservation of digital information depends on 1996).
copying it rather than attempting to preserve the me- An important question to resolve is how the object
dium. There are two main ways of copying the in- information will be kept in the database. Will all
formation: harvesting and migration. object information be stored digitally in one file or
will images and analytical work be kept separately on
3.3.1. Migration paper or digitally in another file? With the increasing
Migrating is defined as the transfer of information use of computers in analytical work it is easy to
intact to another medium (Ditzler 1994). Migration is transfer the information from computer to computer
the chosen method for copying information at the and import it into the database.
moment because its purpose is to preserve the integ- The next decision to make prior to choosing or de-
rity of the document/file/program by making an exact signing a software program is how the fields of in-
copy of it in the new generation of technology. This formation will be filled out within the computerised
means that not only is the data copied to a new me- report forms. Will the conservator be able to place an
dium but the structure of the information and the way unlimited amount of information within a field such
in which it is related, features such as retrieval abili- as dimensions or treatment materials or will there be
ties and report making, will also be transferred intact. limits on what can be filled in? There are many op-
But this can be a very difficult method as there is tions to consider such as: limiting the fields to a
limited experience in predicting when migration will certain amount of letters; using a coding system to
be necessary and the search for the perfect new me- save time in data entry and save space in the data-
dium to transfer the format of the information can be base; selecting from drop down lists of controlled
difficult (Hedstrom n.d.). vocabulary that the conservator should use for each
field; or allowing numbers to be used exclusively in
3.3.2. Harvesting certain fields.
The other way to copy digital information involves Decisions on storage will have to be considered be-
reformatting the information for use on a different fore a system is designed. Will the institution choose
medium (Ditzler 1994). Harvesting is done by refor- to save the information on the hard disk of a main
matting the information to a simple standard format. computer (hard disks are now capable of storing up to
This can result, however, in the loss of the structure 40 gigabytes of information for around US$1000), or
of the document and relationships in databases, com- will compact disks be chosen to store everything so
putation capabilities, and graphic displays, which is that the information is portable? Back-up methods
what migration attempts to prevent; removing the and security systems must be considered especially if
structure and relationships limits analytical potential the database system will be used on a network or if it

is decided to allow the database to be searchable over that take the users through the database slowly and
the internet or by external users; passwords might completely and this time should be used to have
have to be instituted. The retrieval requirements of trial-runs. The practical outcome of these training
the user will also have to be determined: will the user sessions would be to allow changes to be made to the
be able to update or edit records at a later time; will database if problems arise during training.
there be restrictions on the type of records that can be
retrieved; what fields will be used to search; and what 3.5.2. Terminology control
will be the process of searching, through a specified This is an issue that the conservation profession
report or a simple key word (Hopkins 1986)? has been discussing since at least the early 1980s and
There are many management questions which must the control of terminology is even more important
be answered as well. The format of printed reports when the discussion turns to computerised conserva-
must be designed to incorporate desired information tion documentation. The diversity of conservation
fields and layout (Abt 1986). If there is already a treatments, the materials involved with the objects
computerised collections database in the institution a and their treatments is equalled by the terms used to
decision should be made as to whether the databases describe them. Digitisation encourages the control of
will be connected in some way so that all the institu- terminology within the context of documentation; it
tions staff can access all available documentation on a can ensure consistency in the description of condition
given object (Corfield 1992). The future of conserva- and treatments which then makes it easier to search
tion activities for the next five, ten and twenty years and retrieve the required information in the database
must be estimated so that the type of hardware cho- (Wentz 1995). If different terminology is used to
sen to run the software will be able to expand as the describe the same condition it makes searching for all
amount of conservation documentation grows (Abt the objects that have that certain condition impossi-
1984). Another management issue is to consider how ble unless the searcher takes the time to think
the accuracy of the information will be maintained: through every kind of description for that condition
will there be an appointed administrator of the data- or consult every conservator to find what they are
base? (Keene 1996). The present computer capabili- using to describe that condition. It is much easier to
ties should be considered and a decision reached as to have a standardised terminology list that will be used
whether the new database will be designed with those by all and to have that list on hand for consultation
specifications in mind or to plan it around an ideal complete with a definition for each term. An ideal
computer system which will be purchased in the fu- situation would be for there to be a na-
ture (Quigley 1998). tional/international standardised terminology which
One last decision is to choose who will construct would make exchanging information and searching
the database to the desired specifications. It could be other institutions’ documentation more efficient (Cor-
designed in-house if there is a computer specialist in field 1983).
the institution; a commercial database package, such
as Microsoft Access, could be purchased and adapted; 3.6. Practical use
or a computer programmer could be consulted. Theoretically, digitisation of conservation docu-
mentation is an attractive proposition to an institu-
3.5. Education of users tion. The practicality of computers and its related
While computers are becoming more user-friendly, digital technology also encourages its adaptation.
this phrase is usually reserved for more simple pro-
grams. A database is not always the easiest type of 3.6.1. Accessibility
program to use and so there must be some time taken One of the greatest benefits from digitisation will
out to educate those who will be using it. This be the potential for the information to be more acces-
means that the actual and potential users of the data- sible. Archaeologists, who will be primarily inter-
base must be considered when scheduling a training ested in the physical information that is uncovered
session and making a user manual. during conservation, can have instant digital access to
the information by having the record e-mailed to
3.5.1. Computer training them or if they can search the database over the inter-
The best way to make users comfortable with the net or on a networked computer. The greatest com-
database is to have them involved from the begin- plaint by non-conservation professionals about
ning. Whether the database is going to be bought as a documentation is that the information is too detailed
commercial package and manipulated to fit the re- and specific to be of any use to them (Dollery 1996).
quirements of the documentation or whether it will Having transferred the documentation forms into a
be specially designed, the users should at the least be searchable format combined with the obviously dif-
kept advised of the plans. In the ideal situation, the ferent fields of data, should make it much easier for
users will be involved with the designing of the da- archaeologists, collection managers and education
tabase which will allow them to be familiar and com- specialists to extract the specific information in
fortable with it by the time it is ready to be used. which they are interested. If it is decided to archive
Sometimes this is not possible due to scheduling the visual and the textual documentation together
constraints and so training sessions should be set up (that is, in the same file/record) then complete access

to an objects conservation information is possible. laboratory, older records will need to be moved and
Future researchers and conservators will only have to stored elsewhere to make room for the more recent
“visit” one place, whether it is remotely via the inter- records. Some spaces can be found in other areas of
net or travelling to one computer station in one the institution and sometimes in other buildings.
building. This action changes the accessibility of the informa-
tion as well as affecting the potential preservation of
3.6.2. Efficient use of time it and the following questions arise: what type of
Although the first few weeks will have users hesi- space are the records in; is the storage climate con-
tant and slower in their use of the database system trolled and pest-free; and who is going to monitor the
and the new tools for documentation, in time practi- records if they are stored in another building.
cal use will increase the speed of documentation. Digitisation means that text and visual files (which
Information collected during conservation activities can be many megabytes in size) can be compressed
can be inputted directly into a portable computer that into a format that is readily saved to a single compact
can travel to all parts of the institution. As long as disk. Some images in an uncompressed format can be
the database system is not too large then the start-up over a gigabyte in size but in a compressed format
of the program and recall of information should be they can be as little as 15 kilobytes (a thousand
quick and easy. A digital camera will be more effi- bytes). There are other impacts of compression such
cient to use as the saved images can be previewed as loss of information which need to be considered
prior to the act of saving; traditional methods would before it is implemented. The physical storage space
have the conservator waiting for the photographs to involved with digitisation is tiny compared with
be processed to see if all the results were acceptable. paper documentation but the problem with storage of
Time will be saved in searching the archive to proc- machine-readable data is that the researcher cannot tell
ess enquiries; rather than hunting through the paper what is stored on it unless it is labelled. A specific,
archive to find specific information from a certain permanent method of labelling is important; the ac-
record only to discover that the information is in a tual compact disk or the floppy disk must be labelled
different laboratory or office. If all the data are digit- with its contents. Labels such as those used on audio
ised then it can be recalled within a few minutes on compact disks are acceptable as is etching into the
the computer. plastic cases of floppy and zip disks. A catalogue
should also be drawn up that indicates where the re-
3.6.3. Cost-effective cords are stored and then it should be stored perma-
The cost of hardware and software needed to im- nently and monitored so that it may be consulted; a
plement a new documentation system must not be digital catalogue may be kept on computer.
allowed to solely influence decisions. Some of the
prices quoted in section 3.1. only reflect the cost of 3.6.5. Consistency and accuracy of data
the technology at the time of writing and it is well- Spell-checkers, terminology control and an admin-
known that prices decrease at a rapid pace. At a point istrator can be part of a system to maintain consis-
in the future it will become more cost-effective to use tency in the way the records are filled out and check
the computerised system when all aspects of expenses the accuracy of the data. Consistency in the fields
are taken into account. The cost of paper for the that are used in each form can be controlled so that
forms, film for the camera, film developing and du- the users do not skip data fields or forget to fill them
plication can be added to working costs in time ex- in. The user should be prompted in some way to fill
pended filling out the forms and data retrieval. By in all the required fields. Spelling can be corrected
using computer and digital technology unless the automatically as the words as entered and the diction-
forms are printed out, costs will be reduced; unless ary can have any technical and scientific words added
the digital images are printed out costs will be re- to it. Terminology can be controlled by a list located
duced, the cost of film developing and duplication in the thesaurus or in another table in the database.
will disappear; working costs will be greatly reduced
using a computerised database for the input of data 3.6. Conclusions
and its retrieval. The decision to digitise conservation documenta-
tion is an important one for an institution to make
3.6.4. Storage space but it must be considered carefully. The technology
Another factor in determining efficiency, both in that can be exploited for documentation, mainly da-
terms of time and cost, is the amount of storage tabase software, digital cameras and scanners, is con-
space that will be used after digitisation is imple- stantly changing which causes problems of its own.
mented. The space needed to store paper documenta- The conservator must still consider preservation is-
tion, photographic and analytical records is enor- sues as a computer is not the answer in itself; while
mous; filing cabinets full of documentation are to be the information in a digital format is reproducible
found in every conservation laboratory, registrar’s without deterioration of that data, the medium on
office and analytical section. The paper trail that can which the data is stored is not indestructible. There
be created during all of the activities involved in con- are two main methods for transferring the information
servation is huge and once the space is full in the contained on magnetic or optical media onto new

media; harvesting and migration seem to be the only Databases are information management systems in
logical answers that computer professionals have to the form of software programs on computers, and are
preserve the information. The difference between the the technology most used by the conservation profes-
two methods is that migration preserves the structure sion. Databases allow conservation treatment forms,
of the file and its information while harvesting condition report forms and others to be set up on the
merely copies the information. screen to allow the normal required data to be filled
There are a multitude of questions about the design in directly into the computer. Each object can have
of a database that need to be answered before software its own file in which all of the information collected
and hardware can be purchased. Management issues during conservation activities can be kept; alternately
should be considered such as who the users currently the institution or conservation professional can decide
are and who potential future users will be and docu- to have each action, for example, as a separate file. It
mentation issues must also be considered including does not matter how the information is kept if a rela-
terminology control. Digitisation of conservation tional database is chosen because it connects each
documentation has the potential to revolutionise the record to each other by a common field. Databases
way in which conservation activities are reported, allow documentation to be stored in a form that will
accessed, stored and maintained. It is cost and time never degrade but it is the medium on which it is
efficient, storage space will diminish, and accuracy kept that will be of concern for future accessibility.
and consistency will be improved. Computer professionals have suggested two methods
of maintaining access to the information contained on
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS a computer or computer-related technology such as
FOR FUTURE RESEARCH compact disks. Migration and harvesting are the two
main ways of transferring the information stored in a
Comprehensive conservation documentation is a digital format but migration is perhaps the more ap-
detailed activity and as such requires training in con- pealing method for conservation professionals as it
servation and the understanding of technology, his- attempts to maintain the structure of the data. Search-
tory and administration to make it all work. Docu- ing abilities and queries for reports will not be lost if
mentation is ultimately a management issue, how- migration is properly applied.
ever, as the information must be maintained if it is to Other technological advances such as digital cam-
be of use in the future. The multitude of tasks within eras and scanners, storage devices such as compact
an institution or private business and the amount of disks and large capacity hard drives, are increasingly
information that should be recorded is potentially used. It is the benefits that these software and hard-
enormous; it can only be properly done if a manage- ware devices have over traditional paper documenta-
ment plan is in place to ensure that conservation pro- tion, photography and filing cabinets that encourages
fessionals have the opportunity during their working such use. The ability to reproduce photographs on
time to complete documentation. The conservator is demand from the computer or to transfer the docu-
ethically bound by codes of ethics and standards for mentation archive into a digital format are some of
practice established by international and national pro- the benefits of using the new technology. The advan-
fessional bodies to document conservation work to tages of digitisation should be embraced by conserva-
the best of their abilities. The institution, whether a tors and the initial costs of purchasing the equipment
private or a public one, must give the conservator the should not sway the decision.
time to do this as it is also bound by international Computer databases will be more efficient in terms
museum guidelines to follow conservation ethics. of time, money and space if designed and used prop-
Ultimately it is the information contained in the erly. They will ensure easier searching and retrieval
object and the information about the object that is to for the non-professional and professional alike, but
be preserved through documentation. Keeping records the users of the documentation must be trained so
of observations has evolved over the decades to be- that they are comfortable with the system or prob-
come extremely detailed and therefore time- lems will occur. Misconceptions on what information
consuming and it also leaves a huge paper trail. Con- fields should be filled in or how the fields should be
servation professionals have become more aware that filled in, inconsistent terminology and simple mis-
the work they do on objects have a great effect on takes can happen when there are multiple users of the
them, in terms of future treatments and stability as hardware and software. There must be a system in
well as research potential; with the increasingly com- place to prevent these problems from occurring
plexity of conservation more information must be whether it is in the form of an administrator or occa-
documented. When computers came into popular use, sional re-training sessions.
conservators realised the potential that the speed and The first area of future research should focus on
efficiency as well as smaller storage requirements terminology standardisation in the documentation of
would have on documentation. Early work in the late conservation. This is necessary to further modernise
1960s in the United Kingdom started the profession’s the profession and to allow the adoption of digitisa-
interest in computer applications and many institution. Energy should be expended in investigating the
tions across the world now embrace the technology compilation of a national or even an international
that can make their work more effective. dictionary of multi-lingual conservation terms. This

would make it easier for colleagues to understand [online]. Accessed July 30, 2000.
each other when multinational projects are undertaken http://aic.standford.edu/pubs/ethics.html#seven
or when specific research is undertaken at other insti- Australian Institute for Conservation of Cultural Ma-
tutions. The standardisation of documentation forms terial (AICCM). 1986. Code of Ethics for the
should also be researched, if only for certain conser- Practice of Conservation of Cultural Material in
vation activities such as loan reports. Another area of Australia [online]. Accessed July 30, 2000.
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whether it is a JPEG, GIF, TIF, etc. The merits of Bennett, J C. 1997. Studies on the Preservation of
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amount of data loss. A decision on a standard format jisc-npo50/bennett.html
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS of Geological Collections, 38-41. London: Arche-
type Publications Ltd.
I would first like to thank Clifford Cook and Ju- Canadian Association for Conservation (CAC). 2000.
dith Logan who contributed their opinions on this Code of Ethics and Guidance for Practice [online].
topic and helped shape my own. I would also like to Accessed July 30, 2000. http://www.cac-
thank the librarians at the Canadian Conservation accr.ca/ecodeth2.html
Institute where I conducted my research. Several of Chenhall, R. G. and Homulos, P. 1978. ‘Museum
my classmates in London deserve a huge thanks for data standard.’ Museum, 30(3/4), 205-212.
their help while I was in Canada, namely Chuping Collins, C. 1995. ‘Documentation in geological
Wang and Alexandra Jones. I also benefited from the specimen conservation.’ In: Collins, C. (ed) Care
helpful suggestions and guidance of Elizabeth Pye. I and Conservation of Palaeontological Material,
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port and encouragement meant so much to me during Corfield, M. 1992. ‘Conservation documentation.’
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London would not have been possible Cronyn, J M. 1990. The Elements of Archaeological
Conservation. London: Routledge.
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Issue 7 Journal of Conservation and Museum Studies November 2001

CONSERVATION DOCUMENTATION AND THE IMPLICATIONS OF

ABSTRACT open up a world of information that was inaccessible

© Michelle Moore 2000 1 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

1.1. What is conservation documentation 1.1.2. Early published journals

© Michelle Moore 2000 2 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 3 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 4 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 5 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 6 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 7 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 8 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 9 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 10 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 11 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

3.1.3. Scanners become increasingly commonplace; they both have

© Michelle Moore 2000 12 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 13 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 14 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 15 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 16 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 17 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 18 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

© Michelle Moore 2000 19 www.jcms.ucl.ac.uk

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